*Recommendation for 2*109 spermatozoa per dose
Overview of the cut-off values for porcine semen quality in artificial insemination
\r\n\r\n
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Artificial insemination (AI) of swine is widely practiced in countries with intensive pig production. In Western Europe, more than 90% of the sows have been bred by AI for more than two decades (Gerrits et al., 2005; Vyt, 2007). When compared with natural mating, AI is a very useful tool to introduce superior genes into sow herds, with a minimal risk of disease (Maes et al., 2008). The outcome of AI largely depends on the semen quality and the insemination procedure. In practice, fresh diluted semen for intracervical insemination is mostly used in pigs. Semen is obtained from boars on farms or from specialised AI-centres. The latter offer a diversity of breeds and genetic lines and distribute ready-to-use semen doses of constant quality to different sow herds.
\n\t\t\tThree important aspects should be considered. Firstly, only semen from healthy boars should be used, as diseased boars may ejaculate semen that is contaminated with pathogens. The semen from commercial AI-centres is shipped to a large number of sow farms. Contaminated semen could therefore lead to a rapid transmission of pathogens and to disease outbreaks in many different sow herds. Strict regulations and guidelines to prevent disease spreading are therefore implemented on porcine AI-centres. The second important aspect is the fertilizing capacity of the produced semen doses. The fertilizing potential of a semen dose is inherently linked to the quality of the spermatozoa itself (Tsakmakidis et al., 2010). Examination of the ejaculates is therefore necessary. A third important aspect of AI-centres is the semen processing procedure (Waberski et al., 2008). This is not only important to guarantee a low microbial presence but even more to obtain high quality sperm, namely viable spermatozoa in ready-to-use semen doses that can be used for several days. The dilution procedure and semen handling, the properties of the extender and the micro-environment for the sperm cells influence the survival and longevity of the spermatozoa.
\n\t\t\tThe present chapter will review and critically discuss the different steps during the entire AI procedure in pigs, starting from the semen collection, dilution and processing, methods and technologies used to assess the semen quality, the storage conditions and the characteristics of the semen extenders that are required to maintain semen quality. A last part will focus on the different AI strategies.
\n\t\tAlthough automated semen collection systems have been developed (Barrabes Aneas et al., 2008), semen is mostly collected by the gloved hand technique from a boar trained to mount a dummy sow. Dummy sows should be solid in construction without sharp edges, and located in a quiet designated semen collection room with a non-slippery floor. A pre-warmed (38 °C) collection container is used. The top of the container is covered with cheesecloth to filter out gel portion of the semen. The end of the penis is grabbed firmly with a gloved hand and the collection process is initiated with firm pressure to the spiral end of penis with the hand so that the penis cannot rotate. This process imitates the pressure applied by the corkscrew shape of the sow’s vagina. Polyvinyl gloves can be used, not latex gloves as these are toxic for the semen (Ko et al., 1989). The first part of the ejaculate (pre-sperm) should be discarded. It is clear, watery fluid and does not contain sperm (~25 ml), but it may have a high bacterial count. The sperm-rich fraction should be collected (40-100 ml). It is very chalky in appearance and contains 80-90% of all sperm cells in the ejaculate. Once the sperm-rich fraction is complete, the remainder of the ejaculate is again more clear, watery fluid, and should not be collected (70-300 ml). After collection, the filter with gel should be discarded, and the collection container should be placed in warm water. The semen should be extended within 15 min. after collection. The ejaculation lasts up to 5 to 8 min, but may continue up to 15 min. About 100 to 300 ml of semen is collected. Semen collection from boars in AI-centres is performed approximately 2 times per week (Vyt et al., 2007).
\n\t\t\tThe extension process should be done in a warm room with clean and sterile equipment. The extender is added to the semen, and cold shock should be avoided by diminishing the temperature gradually. A normal ejaculate usually contains enough sperm to inseminate 15 to 25 sows using conventional AI. Each dose should contain 2-3 billion spermatozoa in 80-100 ml.
\n\t\tThe number of spermatozoa in a semen dose is important for the fertilization process. On the other hand, AI-centres tend to dilute the ejaculates as much as possible to maximize semen dose production. Variation in the number of spermatozoa in an ejaculate has been described between different pig breeds
Visual evaluation of the opacity of the ejaculate gives a rough idea on the sperm concentration. However, this method is crude and very subjective and therefore not suitable for AI-centres with large semen production.
\n\t\t\t\tDifferent glass chambers are described to count cells in a known volume. Haemocytometers, such as the Neubauer, Thoma and Bürker chamber are reusable glass chambers with fixed volume used for counting immobilized spermatozoa in a grit. Other reusable glass chambers as the Mackler chamber are used for assessing concentration as well as motility (Tomlinson et al., 2001). Disposable chambers (MicrocellR, LejaR) are commonly used in Computer Assisted Semen Analysis (CASA) since their small depth limits movement in the third dimension (Z-axis) when the sperm path is analysed (Verstegen et al., 2002). Haemocytometers are considered as the standard method for determining sperm concentration and have a lower coefficient of variation than disposable chambers (Christensen et al., 2005; Tomlinson et al., 2001). The concentration determined by the haemotocytometer however, was generally higher than the concentration determined using other chambers, especially with increasing concentration. Makler chambers were described as having higher standard deviations and more inconsistent results compared with the haemocytometer (Christensen et al., 2005; Tomlinson et al., 2001). Disposable chambers on the other hand, although they are also used for counting live cells, were reported to be more consistent and accurate (Mahmoud et al., 1997). The accuracy of different counting chambers is also dependent on the manner in which the chamber is filled. Thin, capillary-filled, disposable chambers are generally found to underestimate sperm concentration due to the Segre-Silberberg effect (Kuster, 2005). However, the variations between chambers when analysing sperm concentration seems to be technician and laboratory dependent (Christensen et al., 2005).
\n\t\t\t\tPhotometers (single wavelength) or spectrophotometers (multiple wavelengths) measure the optical density,
Several studies use fluorescent dyes that stain intact or damaged spermatozoa differently, and measure the distribution of dyes in the sperm cell population by a flow cytometer (Christensen et al., 2004; Ericsson et al., 1993). In that way, viability as determined by the percentage of intact cells as well as the concentration of spermatozoa in an ejaculate can be determined by using fluorescent microspheres. Since this technology can discriminate interference from gel particles, it has a low coefficient of variation (3.3%) (Christensen et al., 2004). However, the high costs and the dependence on qualified personnel make flow cytometry not the most suitable method for use in practice.
\n\t\t\t\tCoulter counters, determining the number of particles within a known volume, can be used to assess spermatozoa concentration but discrimination of other particles with comparable size within the sample is difficult, resulting in a lower accuracy (Woelders, 1991). Other systems,
The concern to obtain a correct estimate of sperm concentration led to a discussion on the accuracy of the different systems. Maes et al. (2010) did not find major differences between two types of colorimeters, the Bürker counting chamber, and the Hamilton Thorne Analyzer (Ceros 12.1) using two Leja chambers. Every system has its advantages and limitations. They concluded that in commercial porcine AI-centres, economic considerations such as purchase prices, labour, and high sample throughput are also important in the choice for one method or the other.
\n\t\t\t\tThe microscopic appearance of spermatozoa can give information on morphological abnormalities, cell membrane integrity and the acrosome. These are three important parameters that contribute to the fertilizing capacity of the sperm cells. Morphological abnormalities give an indication of aberrations in the spermatogenesis. Some malformations compromise the function of the cells and cannot be compensated for, therefore leading to culling of the boar. Abnormal shape of the head which carries the genetic material or abnormalities of the mitochondrial sheet which is important for the function of the flagella, are therefore called primary abnormalities. Remainders of cytoplasm, proximal or distal droplets, and small tail abnormalities are called secondary abnormalities and can be compensated for by the semen dose (Donadeu, 2004). Additionally, morphological anomalies (
Morphology can be assessed by staining techniques that do not require highly qualified personnel (Shipley, 1999). Normal morphology is correlated with fertility (Alm et al., 2006; Xu. et al., 1998), and should therefore be performed routinely in porcine AI-centres. Criteria for the maximum percentage of primary and secondary abnormalities in commercial porcine AI-centres were determined as 10% and 20%, respectively (Shipley, 1999). The percentage of spermatozoa with normal morphology should be at least 70% (Shipley, 1999). An overview of the criteria for use of porcine semen in artificial insemination is shown in Table 1.
\n\t\t\t\tSemen parameter | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequirement (%) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | Kuster and Althouse, 1999 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMartin-Rillo et al., 1996* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tShipley, 1999 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBritt et al., 1999 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Motility | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t"/ 70 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t60-100 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t"/ 70 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t"/60 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Abnormal morphology | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t< 20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | < 20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t |
Normal acrosomes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | <10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t |
Cytoplasmic droplets | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t< 15 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | < 15 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t |
Proximal droplets | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | 0-20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | <20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Distal droplets | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | 0-30 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t |
Coiled tails | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | <5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t |
Primary abnormalities | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | <10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Secondary abnormalities | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | <20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
*Recommendation for 2*109 spermatozoa per dose
Overview of the cut-off values for porcine semen quality in artificial insemination
Although several stains can be used, staining spermatozoa of farm animals for morphological examination is usually combined with membrane integrity assessment using a dye that is excluded by live cells, such as eosin (Figure 1). Therefore, besides being helpful for assessing sperm morphology, the eosin-nigrosin stain can be used to discriminate between live and damaged cells. This staining technique is widely used and is considered a simple and reliable technique that is easy to applyand its outcome correlates with fertility (Tsakmakidis et al., 2010).
\n\t\t\t\tNext to visual morphology assessment, automated CASA-systems were developed to obtain more objective information (Rijsselaere et al., 2005; Verstegen et al., 2002). Automated Sperm Morphology Analysis systems (ASMA) are able to locate the head of the spermatozoa and compare its morphology to internal standards. A disadvantage is the lengthy analysis which is required for each sample, and which is partly dependent on the contrast of the cells from the background necessary for the system to recognise the cell. The prolonged analysis time undoes the advantage of an objective measurement and renders the method not suitable for use in commercial AI-centres at the moment.
\n\t\t\t\tSeveral fluorescent dyes can also be used to assess cell membrane integrity and can be combined with flow cytometric analysis (Althouse and Hopkins, 1995; Woelders, 1991). The need for qualified personnel and a fluorescence microscope excludes the use of the latter stains from commercial AI-centres, although attempts have been made to incorporate this technology in the most recent generation of CASA-instruments. Next to staining methods, membrane integrity can also be evaluated by testing the osmotic resistance of the cells (Donadeu, 2004). The osmotic resistance of the porcine sperm cells was correlated with fertility results (Pérez-Llano et al., 2001). More advanced methods measure cell volume by detecting voltage changes when cells pass a capillary pore in a CASY 1 cell counter (Petrunkina al., 2004). Osmotic reactivity is a sensitive detection method of changes in plasma membrane, either in damaged cells or in capacitating cells.
\n\t\t\t\tSince the acrosome is important for the penetration of the oocyte, its integrity is considered vital for an optimal fertilising capacity. The acrosome integrity can be evaluated on the basis of its microscopic appearance, either by phase contrast evaluation of glutaraldehyde fixed spermatozoa or by various staining methods (de Andrade et al., 2007; Woelders, 1991).
\n\t\t\t\tSperm morphology: spermatozoa with normal morphology, abnormal (narrow) head (primary defect) and proximal droplet (secondary defect) (arrows)
Motility of spermatozoa has always been considered a primary requirement to fertilize eggs. Although the spermatozoa are brought to the fertilization site mainly by uterine contractions (Langendijk et al., 2002), sperm motility is required for penetration of the zona pellucida. Motility is known to be an important characteristic in predicting the fertilizing potential of an ejaculate (Gadea, 2005). Therefore, several methods have been used for motility assessment.
\n\t\t\t\tThe simplest way to evaluate sperm motility is by estimating the number of motile spermatozoa under a light microscope or using phase contrast microscopy. This method is subjective since it depends on the interpretation by an individual (Vyt et al., 2004b). It is however a cheap method and facilitates a high sample throughput which makes it popular in commercial AI-centres.
\n\t\t\t\tUsing digital image analysis, sperm cell tracks are analysed in different components (Rijsselaere et al., 2003; Verstegen al., 2002; Vyt et al., 2004b). CASA has major advantages: the method is objective, independent of the interpretation of the technician and gives detailed information on the sperm movement. This way, different motility patterns can be observed,
The SQA systems convert variations in optical density into electrical signals to determine sperm concentration and motility. These electronic signals are analyzed by the SQA software algorithms and translated into sperm quality parameters. The effectiveness of different SQA systems for sperm analysis has been studied both in humans and animals, and different algorithms are needed for each species. A previous version of the SQA namely the SQA-IIC was consistent and suitable for the estimation of boar semen quality. There was a good correlation between the sperm motility index (SMI) obtained by SQA-IIC and several CASA parameters, especially with the percentage of motile sperm and with straight line velocity (VSL). However, the SQA-IIC is based on an old technology meant for human sperm analysis and the SMI values are based on overall information of the quality of the sperm, and do not discriminate between concentration, morphology and motility parameters. Recently, the SQA-Vp was introduced as an SQA device specifically designed for boars in which the sperm movement can be visualized on a screen and motility is given as percentage of motile sperm (López et al., 2011).
\n\t\t\t\t\tIn pigs, a motility score of 60% motile cells, independent of the method of assessment, is required to be considered as a fertile ejaculate (Donadeu, 2004). Above 60% motile spermatozoa, no differences in farrowing rate and litter size were recorded (Donadeu, 2004). Apart from morphology, several attempts were made to correlate motility with fertility outcome. When using adequate numbers of spermatozoa per insemination dose (3*109), correlation with fertility outcome was hard to establish (Gadea al., 2004). At lower semen dose, motility was well-correlated with fertility parameters. In most studies involving pigs, the predictive effect of motility was evaluated using visual motility assessment. To increase the discriminating power of the motility estimation, objective motility assessment by CASA-measurements (Holt et al., 1997; Vyt et al., 2008) or motility of spermatozoa subjected to a percoll gradient (Popwell and Flowers, 2004) were used. These studies found motility to be positively correlated with fertility, especially with litter size.
\n\t\t\t\tSperm examination techniques requiring specialized knowledge and expensive equipment are not frequently used in commercial AI-centres. They are however used for research on porcine sperm. DNA fragmentation tests can be used to identify subfertile boars, but the study results are contradictory (Waberski et al., 2011; Boe Hansen et al., 2008). Some metabolic responses of sperm like resistance to oxidative stress (López et al., 2010) and
Frozen storage of boar semen still yields inferior fertility due to the loss of membrane integrity during freezing and thawing. Consequently, freshly diluted semen (liquid semen) is widely used for AI on the day of collection or in the following days. For storage of liquid boar semen, two factors are very important: the temperature of collection and storage, and the composition of the storage medium (Johnson et al., 2000).
\n\t\t\tA different composition of the phospholipids in the membrane of boar spermatozoa compared to bull spermatozoa, a low cholesterol/phospholipid ratio and an asymmetrical distribution of cholesterol within the membrane render boar spermatozoa very susceptible to cold temperatures resulting in increased permeability and loss of controlled membrane processes (De Leeuw et al., 1990). Hence, rapid cooling of ejaculates to 15 °C or cooling below 15 °C results in loss of viability or cold shock (Johnson et al., 2000). To avoid this cold shock, prediluted ejaculates are better left at temperatures above 15 °C for several hours to induce cold resistance. In practice, semen is collected in isolated cans to avoid contact with colder surfaces and subsequent dilution is done in a manner in which temperature is diminished gradually. Two different protocols are normally used for this purpose:
\n\t\t\t\tOne step dilution with either preheated diluter (~33 °C) or diluter at room temperature or
a two steps dilution with first a 1:1 dilution with preheated diluter (~33 °C), followed by a second dilution in either a preheated diluter or a diluter kept at room temperature (Waberski, 2009).
After the final dilution, filling of commercial doses is done and the semen is allowed to cool down gradually to 17 °C. When semen doses are to be transported, special precautions are taken to avoid temperature fluctuations (Green and Watson, 2002). Further storage of diluted semen is done at 17 °C, at which temperature semen metabolism is reduced (Althouse et al., 1998), a condition necessary to extend storage time.
\n\t\t\tThe storage media for liquid boar semen aim to prolong sperm survival, to provide energy to the cells, to buffer the pH of the suspension and to avoid the growth of bacteria (Vyt et al., 2004a). Therefore, porcine semen extenders contain ions to maintain the osmotic pressure of the medium, glucose as energy source, buffering systems to stabilize the pH of the extender and EDTA and antibiotics to prevent bacterial overgrowth (Johnson et al., 2000). The presence of glucose as the only energy source and the low oxygen content in the recipient in which diluted semen is stored stimulates the glycolytic metabolism. Consequently, the intracellular pH of spermatozoa is lowered which reduces their motility and enables them to survive several days at ambient temperature (Henning et al., 2009). Glucose also contributes largely to the osmotic equilibrium. The ions in the media for liquid boar semen are merely sodium bicarbonate and sodium citrate and are simultaneously used as buffer. In BTS extender, also KCl is added to prevent the potassium loss from inside the cells, and subsequent loss of motility due to Na-K pump inefficacy. Porcine spermatozoa are rather tolerant to minor changes in osmolality of the extender (Johnson et al., 2000). Iso-osmotic and slightly hyper-osmotic media are preferred for optimal preservation of fertilizing capacity (Weitze, 1990). Incubation in media below 250 mOsm and above 300 mOsm rendered irreversible damage to the membranes and subsequent loss of motility.
\n\t\t\t\tEDTA is added for its chelating properties. When Ca-ions are captured, the initiation of capacitation is inhibited (Watson, 1995). As a consequence, the fertilizing capacity of the spermatozoa is preserved. Depending on the composition of the extender, semen can be stored for 2 to 3 days in short-term extenders and up to five days or longer in long-term extenders (Johnson et al., 2000). Long-term extenders differ from short-term extenders mainly by the use of complex buffering systems (HEPES, Tris), mostly in addition to the bicarbonate buffering system, and by the presence of Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA). The latter has a positive influence on sperm survival due to the absorption of metabolic bacterial products from the extender. Cysteine is used as a membrane stabilizer (Johnson et al., 2000) inhibiting capacitation.
\n\t\t\t\tTo prevent bacterial proliferation during storage, antibiotics are added to the extender. Bacteria originate mostly from the prepuce, thus depending on the semen collection technique, from semen manipulation or from the water used in the extender preparation (Althouse and Lu, 2005). Depending on the species, bacteria have deleterious effects on semen quality, namely depressed motility, cell death and agglutination (Althouse al., 2000), either by direct effect on the spermatozoa or by acidifying the environment. European legislation prescribes an antibiotic combination equivalent to 500 IU/ml penicillin, 500 IU/ml streptomycin, 150 mg/ml lincomycin and 300 mg/ml spectinomycin, for having a broad antibacterial spectrum and activity towards leptospira. In practice most commercial extenders use aminoglycosides, especially gentamycin (Althouse and Lu, 2005; Vyt et al., 2007). However, bacterial contamination should be first minimized by good hygiene and general sanitation by personnel (Althouse, 2008).
\n\t\t\t\tThe extender-concentrates are diluted in distilled or de-ionized water. Next to the bacterial quality of the water, the electrolyte content, especially the absence of calcium ions, is an important characteristic for the water used to make the extender.
\n\t\t\t\tThe comparison of different semen extenders has been subject of two kinds of studies: studies comparing different extenders
\n\t\t\t\t\t
As mentioned above, porcine spermatozoa are particularly sensible to low temperatures and to rapid cooling due to the specific composition of the cell membrane (De Leeuw al., 1990). Cold shock can be solved technically by inducing cold resistance, namely incubating sperm at ambient temperature for several hours (Watson, 1995), by contact with seminal plasma that has a protective effect on spermatozoa (Centurion et al., 2006), together with controlled freezing protocols. The variation in freezability of individual boar’s semen is however more difficult to solve.
\n\t\t\t\tSemen extenders for frozen boar semen are completely different from extenders for liquid semen. The presence of egg-yolk, containing low density lipoproteins and cholesterol, has a protective effect on sperm membrane during cooling (Bathgate et al., 2006). Cryoprotectants, especially glycerol are added in low concentration to the medium in order to diminish membrane damage by freezing. Additionally, sugars and synthetic detergents are added, the latter having a modifying effect on the egg yolk inducing a better membrane stability of the cell membrane (Johnson et al., 2000). Thawing of the semen dose has been another point of concern. Thawing has to be fast in order to maintain sperm motility and acrosome integrity afterwards. Both processes
The fertility results with frozen semen have improved: cervical insemination results in a 75% farrowing rate and a litter size of 9.6 (Roca et al., 2003). Nevertheless, freezing and thawing are time consuming processes, restricting the use of frozen semen for specific indications, such as long transport times and conservation of valuable genetic material.
\n\t\t\tThe management of AI is very important to determine the success of the procedure and the reproductive performance of the sows. Estrus control, timing and number of inseminations, the technique of AI, semen storage on farm and the use of new AI technologies, all require a specialized knowledge of pig reproductive physiology. The following measures could be taken to optimize the efficiency of AI on pig herds.
\n\t\t\tCorrect timing of insemination requires careful detection of oestrus at regular intervals. Boar stimuli are important in promoting follicular development and expression of oestrus behaviour (Langendijk et al., 2006). Additionally, a high level of boar stimuli increases the frequency of uterine contractions, indicating a supportive role for passive sperm transport through the long uterine horns at the time of insemination. This effect can only be partially mimicked by a robot teaser boar which emits olfactory, acoustic and visual boar cues (Gerritsen al., 2005). Increase of oxytocin concentrations in peripheral blood plasma occurs in immediate response to boar presence and lasts for approximately 10 min (Langendijk et al., 2003). Therefore, exposure of sows to a boar during both back pressure testing and insemination is crucial.
\n\t\t\tMany studies have investigated time-relationships between oestrus, ovulation, insemination and fertilization using ultrasound testing. The key observation is that ovulation occurs at the beginning of the last third of oestrus regardless of the overall duration of oestrus. Precise prediction of the time of spontaneous ovulation in individual pigs has not yet been achieved. However, prediction of oestrus duration by observing the onset of oestrus after weaning has found broad acceptance in AI practice for calculation of the expected time of ovulation (Weitze et al., 1994). AI should be timed as close as possible to ovulation, preferably within 12 to 24 h before ovulation. The benefit of ultrasound testing of ovarian morphology for pig fertility management has been shown in practice (de Jong et al., 2009). Determination of the time of ovulation in relation to oestrus behaviour and AI management in representative numbers of sows on consecutive days has a great potential to provide short cuts in AI timing and to develop farm-specific strategies for improvement of AI management.
\n\t\t\tThe development of techniques to inseminate with low numbers of spermatozoa in a small volume has increased insemination efficiency. This is particularly interesting when using spermatozoa of high value that are impaired, e.g. by freezing and thawing or sex-sorting. Post-cervical or intrauterine insemination with several devices has been developed to traverse the cervix and deposit sperm in the uterine body or posterior horn of multiparous sows. Compared to standard transcervical AI, post-cervical AI allows a threefold reduction in the numbers of spermatozoa to be inseminated, whereas deep intrauterine AI allows a 5 to 20 fold reduction (Vazquez et al., 2008). The use of post-cervical insemination varies among and within countries. Limits may arise from the use in sows only, skills needed for catheter handling, and the possibility of damaging cervical or uterine tissue. Semen encapsulation in a barium alginate membrane has been demonstrated to allow a single insemination (Vigo et al., 2009). Laparoscopy offers the possibility of inseminating a very low number of spermatozoa (i.e. 0.3 x 106) into the oviduct in anaesthetized pigs. However, the risk of polyspermic fertilization is substantial. Due to surgical intervention, its use is not appropriate in practice.
\n\t\t\tAI of swine is widely practiced and is a very useful tool to introduce superior genes into sow herds, with minimal risk for disease transmission. In practice, fresh diluted semen (3 billion spermatozoa in 80-100 ml) is mostly used for intracervical insemination.The success of AI is largely determined by the semen quality and the insemination procedure. Different parameters and techniques can be used to assess semen quality. Although more advanced technologies offer more accurate information, in commercial AI centres, semen quality is assessed based predominantly on concentration, morphology and motility using simple, cheap and practically easy-to-perform techniques. Critical issues for AI involve oestrus detection in the sow, timing of insemination and applying strict hygiene measures. Future developments will focus on new technologies to better assess semen quality in practice, to preserve semen for a longer time and to inseminate sows successfully using a lower number of spermatozoa using new AI techniques.
\n\t\tDue to industrialization and improved living standards, global energy consumption is on the rise. Simultaneous population growth and per capita energy demand led to increased fossil fuel production and consumption accounting for about 80% of world energy consumption, while nuclear, biomass, and hydroelectric energy accounting for the remaining 20%. This trend of fossil fuel use as the largest portion of the growing global energy mix results in a steady increase in CO2, NO2 and SO2 emissions, leading to environmental threats. Therefore, seeking sustainable solutions is urgent. Biomass is defined as biological and carbon-containing material derived from living or recently living organisms. Biomass is one of the biggest sources of energy and is a renewable, possibly efficient, and an attractive alternative to fossil fuels. Biomass when compared to fossil fuels contains much less carbon, more oxygen, and less heat in the range of 12–16 MJ/kg [1]. Its average net greenhouse gas emissions are lower than fossil fuels, an environmental advantage that may be a key driver for biomass and waste energy extraction. Biomass is the predominant source of energy in many developing countries, but in some industrialized ones it also plays an important role. Biomass-based options for energy production are widely researched and developed to replace fossil fuels in heat and electricity production, chemicals formation, agriculture, moving towards sustainability, regional economic and social development in order to alleviate the emission of greenhouse gas [2].
Through biochemical, chemical, and thermochemical conversion techniques, the chemical energy that is contained in biomass is converted to heat, electricity or fuel. Biochemical and chemical methods can only convert selected biomass to biogas, biodiesel, etc., while most biomass materials can be thermochemically converted. Thermochemical biomass conversion is one of the most energy-efficient, flexible, and high-energy yield methods for extraction of energy from biomass and organic waste, and therefore one of the most promising pathways with many environmental benefits. This thermal treatment can be divided into different processes depending on the supply of oxygen: (1) combustion; direct biomass burning using excess oxygen, (2) gasification; biomass burning with a limited oxygen supply, and (3) pyrolysis; biomass burning without oxygen [3], where gasification is the most efficient energy extraction process [4, 5].
Given its economic and environmental benefits, gasification has attracted worldwide attention. Many agricultural and industrial waste streams that are currently problematic can be used sustainably through gasification. Industrial waste (e.g., from the food and pulp and wood industries), municipal waste (e.g., household waste), or agricultural waste (e.g., gardening and animal manure) [6] and energy products can be all converted into a mixture of non-combustible gas in a gasifier (producer gas) via gasification. Gasification is the conversion of solid carbon to a gas under a limited oxygen supply at high temperatures (400–1000°C [7]). Producer gas is a mixture of CO, H2, CH4, slight amounts of other light hydrocarbons, steam, CO2, N2, in addition to impurities like char, ash, tar, and oil particles. The producer gas can simply be stored and combusted at a later time to produce heat and/or steam. The producer gas can also produce electricity when used in gas turbines or to power and engine-generator combo. Syngas is the purified producer gas that can be used as fuel or as feedstock to produce higher value fuel or chemicals [8].
Although the main feedstock for gasification can be any hydrocarbons; the acceptable range of feedstock properties is practically very narrow for most existing real world gasifiers. This is a major disadvantage compared to incineration. The reaction chemistry and fluid-dynamics within gasifiers tend to be highly sensitive to changes in the composition of raw materials, their reactivity, density, particle size, moisture, and ash content. The beneficial output in combustion plants is power and possibly heat, while the output in gasification can also be chemicals, liquid fuels or hydrogen in addition to power and heat. Due to the presence of acid gases, tar particles, and other impurities that exist in the gas produced by the gasifier, the producer gas should be treated properly for optimal production of chemicals, liquid or hydrogen fuels and internally-fired cycles (internal combustion engines, gas turbines) [8].
Biomass conversion efficiency varies based on the gasifier itself, purpose of use, type of treated material, its particle shape and size, and the gas flow. The process of gasification which occurs in gasifiers can be divided into five groups: (1) the calorific heat of the producer gas is high when it is between 10 to 40 MJ/Nm3; it is medium if it is between 5 to 10 MJ/Nm3; and it is low when below 5 MJ/Nm3; (2) nature of gasification agents (air, O2, steam, H2); (3) the direction in which consuming material and gasifying agents move (updraft, downdraft; cross draft or fluidized bed); (4) operating pressure (atmospheric or high pressures of up to 6 MPa); (5) type of feedstock (municipal solid waste (MSW), industrial waste, biomass/wood). There are only a few processes that do not fall into these categories, namely molten iron bath gasification, in situ gasification (underground gasification), plasma gasification or hydrogasification and rotary kiln gasification [8, 9].
Combustion has been a viable method for waste management with drawbacks such as harmful process residues and hazardous emissions. Gasification has come up to tackle these issues and improve energy efficiency. Gasification reduces corrosion and emission by preserving alkali and heavy metals (excluding Hg and Cd), sulfur and chlorine in the process residues, greatly inhibiting dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and chlorinated dibenzofluorans (PCDFs) formation and decrease the formation of thermal nitrogen oxides (NOx) owing to lower temperatures and reducing conditions [10]. Slag gasification can destruct dangerous compounds, however, S and Cl species such as H2S and HCl might remain present in the producer gas. When producer gas volume is small, lower dimensioned gas cleanups is needed. This can save the cost of investment while using O2 raises both the costs and the producer gas calorific value. Producer gas can be used in different applications energetically or as raw material which has a higher efficiency [9, 11]. Some of the potential benefits of gasification versus combustion and their corresponding potential drawbacks are summarized in Figure 1, using reference [12] with the permission of Elsevier.
Comparison of waste gasification and combustion.
PCDD/Fs are a group of unwanted by-products and pollutants coming from thermal and combustion processes. The toxicological and chemical properties of compounds of this sort depend on the number and position of the chlorine atoms that are bound to the two aromatic rings [13]. PCDDs and PCDFs are composed of 75 and 135 homologs, respectively. Specific isomers of PCDD/F have been recognized for their toxicological properties that have serious carcinogens [14]. They are highly toxic and cause severe bronchitis, asthma, and strangulation of the lungs in humans. Agricultural lands and livestock in the vicinity of incinerators can also be affected by dioxin that infects meat, dairy products, and so on. Consuming these products may destroy the human immune system, thyroid function, hormone dysfunction, and causes cancer. It has negative health condition in infants because of dioxin exposure through breast milk and uterine exposure. Scientists have conducted numerous experimental studies on experimental animals (rats and mice) to investigate the effects of dioxin contamination that lead to carcinogenicity, liver toxicity, and immune toxicity. 2,3,7,8,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), considered to be very toxic and assigned a toxic equivalence factor (TEF) value of 1 [10, 15, 16], and commonly used as a test substance in toxicity tests. In immunotoxicity experiments, 2,3,7,8-TCDD caused thyroid atrophy, cellular and humoral immune abnormalities, constrained host resistance to viral infections, and inhibited antibody formation [17].
In 1977, the release of PCDD/F from incineration processes was first observed. Since then, researchers have evaluated emission of this compound by a series of thermal processes that include integrated combustion and gasification [16]. The main reason for the negative environmental reputation of waste incineration is the emission of PCDD/F and other pollutants during the process [18], especially for MSW incineration [19, 20, 21]. After PCDD/F enters the atmosphere, they are exposed to chemical, physical, and biological changes and eventually contaminate soil, body and sediment [22].
The purpose of this chapter is to shed more light on PCDD/F formation and their sources in combustion. The main objective is to review the PCDD/F formation in gasification as there is no review on formation and emission of dioxins from processes based on gasification know-hows. This chapter highlights the likelihood of reducing the emission of PCDD/Fs to well below regulatory limits or even detection limits, by using gasification technology. We have done a thorough study of all the accessible articles came into existence over the last 30 years in literature to be able to frame this review which is really felt missing in the field.
In the 1950s and 1960s, incinerating organic waste from chemical plants and releasing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere became common practice. Its extension to incineration of solid waste, especially MSW, increased during the 1960s and 1970s and enabled these processes to recover the energy generated by waste incineration, reduce the waste by 80–90% of volume, and consequently decrease the areas required for landfilling. Nonetheless, the release of very toxic organic compounds from waste incineration, recognized as dioxins, was not known back then [23]. Actually, the toxic effects of PCDD/F were not materialized until around the end of 1980s. Due to maximum enforcement of available control technology regulations, the release of “toxic equivalent” dioxin (TEQ) from US power plants was lessened by three orders of magnitude to less than 12 g of TEQ per year by 1987 [24]. It has been widely acknowledged that combustion processes lead to the formation or emission of by-products such as NOx, SOx, HCl, TOC, CO, HF, and CO2 into the atmosphere. Moreover, small quantities of toxic substances such as metals and PCDD/F are released into the atmosphere [23]. Figure 2 shows the structure of PCDD/Fs [25].
Molecular structure of polychlorinated dibenzo- p-dioxins (a) and dibenzofurans (b). Reprinted from [
The formation and emission of dioxin - group of chlorinated poly-nuclear aromatic compounds - from waste combustion is of prodigious public concern. Dioxin is released in small quantities from combustion sources mainly in the process of municipal waste incineration, which is one of the most important sources of PCDD/Fs formation in the environment. Therefore, dioxin control measurement from combustion sources has become vital and the mechanisms of dioxin formation have been comprehensively investigated because of its carcinogenic and mutagenic effects.
PCDD/Fs can be formed when reaction of hydrocarbons and chlorine takes place in vicinity of O2 and metals like Cu at high temperatures of 200 to 800°C. There are many theories regarding the mechanism of dioxin formation. PCDD/F formation proceed via: (1) homogeneous (gas phase) reactions at high temperatures (500 to 800°C), and the main mechanism of the reaction process is via chlorination precursors like chlorophenol (CP) and chlorobenzene (CB) in the gas phase. This high-temperature homogeneous path is known as “precursor route” in which a smaller subset of PCDD/Fs is formed in the gas phase. (2) heterogeneous (surface-catalyzed) reactions at lower temperatures (200 to 400°C) in the post-combustion zone [21, 26]. This low temperature heterogeneous path is called the “de novo route” (for the PCDD/Fs subset of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and chlorine in the cooling flue gas). In the heterogeneous mechanism, the formed PCDD/Fs may also come from CPs or CBs or from carbon in fly ash. The catalytic effect of fly ash or soot is the main factor in the latter case, and this is a well-known example of a de novo process. It is said that the two pathways of dioxin formation occur simultaneously and independently. It is still debated whether the carbon in the heterogeneous PCDD/F mainly comes from gas precursors or from carbon in fly ash [25, 27]. Dickson et al. [28] disclosed that under similar conditions, the rate of PCDD/Fs precursor formation is 72–99000 times higher than the rate of carbon formation in fly ash. Luijk et al. [29] thought that the formation of PCDD/Fs from precursors was about 3,000 times faster than the de novo process of activated carbon. The precursors were found to be the major source of PCDD/Fs formation by Tuppurainen et al. [30]. Figure 3 is a stylized illustration of the mechanisms by which PCDD/F is formed in combustion systems. The surface shows a particle of ash, and the arrows depict both the reaction and absorption processes. Thick arrows indicate the relative importance of pathways in the formation of PCDD/F.
The pathway for formation of PCDD/F is illustrated in this diagram. Reprinted from [
The emission of PCDD/Fs is directly related to the amount of carbon used. Along with CP, CBs, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and residual carbon, there are also key elements that influence the formation of PCDD/Fs including residence time, precursors, combustion temperature, PCDD and chlorine in the feed, feed processing, supplemental fuel and oxygen availability [31, 32].
Dioxin formation happens in a temperature range of 200 to 800°C with a maximum reaction rate reached between 350 to 400°C [33]. Data from the literature show that the rate is very slow in the range of 200 to 250°C. Under optimum combustion conditions (such as adequate oxygen, mixing, and airflow), virtually all organic compounds including PCDD/F are destroyed above 800°C. However, PCDD/F is formable at high temperatures, but under less optimum conditions like insufficient oxygen [34]. Dioxin formation correlates well with access to organic precursors, CO, unburned carbon or combustion products (even soot particles), metal salts and hydrogen chloride/chlorine. Dioxins are formed during the cooling cycles of the flue gas in combustion systems. This formation process goes via one of the two mechanisms mentioned above [21, 35]. The main mechanism of dioxin formation in combustion systems appears to be de novo synthesis where morphology of the carbon from deteriorated graphical configuration is critical for dioxin formation. Therefore, such carbon morphologies have been investigated. It was found that the soot particles from gas phase combustion reactions including deteriorated graphical configurations are a potential source of de novo dioxins synthesis.
The formation of PCDD/F in combustion processes can be described in a two-step route: (1) formation of carbon: carbon particles comprised of deteriorated graphical configurations in the combustion region. (2) oxidation of carbon: the carbon particles that have not been properly burnt can still be oxidized in low temperatures after combustion. PCDD/Fs are by-products of oxidative degradation of the graphical structure of carbon particles. There are several steps and chemical reactions involved in these routes. Here are at least three known steps for carbon formation: nucleation, agglomeration and particle growth. Here are four steps involved in carbon oxidation: oxidant adsorption, complex intermediate formation with metal ion catalysts, interaction with graphitic carbon structure, and product desorption. The nature of these chemical reactions is complex and heterogeneous [21].
Since the reactants for the formation of PCDD/Fs are inadequate during combustion, the combustion conditions are likely to have a major influence on the formation of PCDD/F. There are some conditions in the combustion process that can cause a favorable formation of PCDD/F. These conditions are: low combustion temperature, poor turbulence in the combustion chamber, short residence time in the combustion zone, low O2 content resulting in deficient combustion, sluggish flue gas cooling process in the critical temperature range [23]. Moreover, existence of metals (Cu, Fe, Pb and Zn) [35] in fly ash catalytically increase formation of PCDD/F. Also in presence of these metals, PCDD/F can react with chloride and unburned carbon and contribute to the so-called de novo synthesis of PCDD/F [35, 36, 37].
Chlorine content in raw materials is one reason for PCDD/Fs formation during combustion [21, 38]. When combusting wood, for example, presence of phenol, lignin or carbon and chlorine particles can contribute to emission of PCDD/Fs [39]. Since the concentration of chlorine in uncoated natural wood is low [40], the combustion of this feedstock yields a much lower emission rate of PCDD/Fs compared to when combusting straw, coal, and sewage sludge [41]. Contrarily, during combustion of wood, PCDD/Fs compounds can remain on the surface and thus be removed by fly ash particles. Thus, primary and secondary emission control measurements are vital to effectively mitigate this part of the PCDD/FS emission in the flue gas. Some example of these control measurements are: usage of high quality wood fuel, optimizing combustion conditions, and try to precipitate the fly ash at low temperatures (less than 200°C) [42].
There is a review on dioxin emission from wood combustion by Lavric et al. [19] emphasizing on the fact that the combustion conditions and fuel properties are the most dominant considerations on the dioxin release rate. They concluded that using flue gas cleaning systems when combusting non-contaminated natural wood, lowers the level of dioxin emission below the legitimate levels. The minimum concentration of dioxin in greenhouse gas emissions prescribed by most current European legislation is 0.1 ng m3 expressed in I-TEQ units [43].
The formation of harmful chemicals, especially PCDD/Fs, is the most serious problem. It is important to reduce the formation of polychlorinated compounds and increase their capture due to their environmental emissions. Although there is an increasing trend of well-designed gasifiers with a broad range of raw materials that are essentially used in gasifiers, not all materials should necessarily be gasified in a given setup. Processed plastic, rubber, and tanned leather [44] as well as various animal biomasses (such as food waste) and sewage sludge [45] contain large amounts of chlorine.
Solid waste segment is commonly treated at incinerators. Energy generation via waste incineration has become an effective way of managing combustible waste, because it reduces the volume and mass of waste. Nevertheless, perilous emissions and detrimental process residues are among the drawbacks of incineration. Incineration causes fly and bottom ashes, and thus release leachable toxic heavy metals, PCDD/Fs, and volatile organic compounds. Therefore, it is possible to replace incinerators with gasifiers. Incinerators emit PCDD/Fs and their concentration often exceeds the legal limit, which calls for a different technology for waste treatment. Gasification processes usually emit PCDD/Fs within acceptable limits as determined by national and international organizations [35]. The amount of pollutants in producer gas can be lower than that of the flue gas of an incinerator [46], and it is because of partial oxidation of waste with limited oxygen supply [47]. Gasification benefits from numerous advantages in comparison of traditional waste combustion. It occurs in a low oxygen environment (where the equivalence ratio varies between 0.25 to 0.50) which limits the formation of PCDD/Fs and large amounts of SOx and NOx [48]. Gasification reduces the emission of acidic gases due to higher temperatures and reduction conditions [49]. However, small amounts of PCDD/Fs can result from deficient destruction of the PCDD/Fs present in the waste itself or from the existence of organic chlorinated compounds in the reactor [50, 51].
It is evident that the mechanisms of dioxin formation and its related amounts to producer gas correlate well with tar formation, and is therefore a relatively comparable parameter for all gasifiers in which tar is partly converted to producer gas [52]. Zwart et al. scrutinized the formation of dioxin from refuse derived fuel (RDF), sewage sludge, and untreated wood pellets gasification in an extensive range of temperatures. The outcome revealed that the level of dioxins was very different in terms of gasification temperature and feedstock quality (chlorine content). Their conclusion was that high amounts of chlorine in the feedstock cause dioxin formation, especially at temperatures below 800°C. At temperatures above 800°C, dioxins levels are drastically reduced, along with corresponding tar levels. At temperatures above 850°C, the PCDD/Fs concentration in the producer gas was within the range of 0.5 ng TEQ/Nm3 for clean wood pellets and sewage sludge. However, PCDD/Fs concentrations became lower in higher temperatures for RDF, it was still above the allowed limit [52].
Assessing the environmental impacts of gasification know-how is vital to ensure the practicality of the process. An occasional misconception that gasification plants are only minor variations of incinerators is the cause of gasification processes to still face environmental community resistance. One important distinction is that gasification can be an intermediary process for the production of producer gas in a broad range of applications. Utilizing syngas to generate on-site electrical and thermal energy is the most dominant process in gasification, however, the production of chemicals and fuel may be the ideal goal for the near future. Gasification contributes to air pollution control and make it less complex and costly compared to that needed for incineration. Although cleaning exhaust gases from non-combustion thermochemical conversion processes could be simpler than that of incineration, proper design and emission control systems are critical to satisfy health and safety requirements. Products of gasifiers must be controlled before discharging into the air as they can comprise several air pollutants. These include particles, hydrocarbons, CO, tars, N2, SOx, and small amounts of PCDD/Fs.
Lonati et al. [53] evaluated the risk of human carcinogenicity owing to the release of PCDD/Fs and Cd from a waste gasification plant using a probabilistic method. Probability density functions were used to define emission rates and risk model parameters of pollutants via Monte Carlo simulations. This gave a probability distribution estimation with involvement of epistemic uncertainty and aleatory variability. The results showed that Cd emissions are much higher than PCDD/Fs despite their higher toxicity. PCDD/Fs concentrations were well below the current permissible limit of 0.1 ngTEQ m3. They indicated that 95% of carcinogenic risk is due to Cd exposure.
To control greenhouse gas emissions from gasification processes different strategies can be adapted, depending on plant configuration, the requirements of specific energy conversion equipment or reactors and catalysts for downstream fuel synthesis. In any case, there is the advantage that it can be possible to control the air pollution of the reactor and the exhaust gas output in numerous cases using a combined method [9]. Coal filters were the first dioxin-reducing technologies, which were installed in the backend of an air pollution control system in many wastes to energy plants, in the late 1980s.
Filters also helped to absorb other organic compounds and mercury, but their bulky volume and probability of ignition were their pitfalls. For the sake of safety, inorganic sorbents such as zeolites were used for monitoring and inertisation of CO [54]. It was also found in the 1980s that oxidative catalysts have high degradation potential for dioxins [55]. Those catalysts were initially operational at 300 to 350°C, and then they were further developed to reach higher destruction efficiency of 99% at temperatures of about 230°C [56].
The high operating temperature (> 1000°C) along with oxygen deficiency eliminates any PCDD/Fs that may be present in the raw material and eradicates potential formation of PCDD/Fs. Thus, operating the gasification process at high temperature or maximizing the conversion of hydrocarbons that are being produced in pyrolysis are possible approaches to reduce the formation of dioxins [57]. For example, high-temperature gasification lowers dioxin formation when high-chlorine content fuels are used [57]. Another effective and easily applicable measure is the rapid cooling of the syngas by a water immersion that inhibits the synthesis of PCDD/Fs [58]. The capture of PCDD/Fs by a special multi-step absorption filter is the most effective method of removing dioxins from the residual burst stage and/or the gas or cooling effluent, regardless of technology used. Volatile organic compounds such as PCDD/F and other organics are effectively eliminated in the gaseous and liquid phases due to the high temperature reactor and shock cooling [35, 59].
As an example, Andersson et al. who got inspired by Griffin’s theory [60] were successful to lower the concentration of dioxins [61]. They increased the concentration of SO2 in the flue gas and adjusted the Cl/S ratio in a way that lowered the concentration of dioxin to around 0.1 ng(TE)/m3 in the raw gas. As another example, Pařízek et al. applied the REMEDIA technology in a MSW incinerator, and they varied the operational temperature from 180–260°C. They saw that the degradation efficiency can be extended to 99–97% while dioxin emission can be lowered below 0.1 ng. (TEQ)/m3 [62]. REMEDIA technology benefits from catalytic substrates that are overlaid on a two-layer polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) membraned material to filter and eliminate PCDD/F.
Off-gas cleaning system is vital for both incineration and gasification processes in thermal waste treatment plants, as it keeps the amount of pollutants being released into the environment lower than that legislated. PCDD/F can be cleaned using DeNOx/DeDiox technologies such as sodium bicarbonate or PCDD/F removal using catalytic filtration or adsorption materials such as activated carbon [63].
On the basis of applied applications it has been found that the method of dioxin removal by catalytic filtration REMEDIA [64] is highly effective. A GORE-TEX is a special fabric filter bags usually used in catalytic filtration by which particles of solid fly ash are well separated via instantaneous removal of dioxins in flue gases. The filtration efficiency of the gas can be elevated to around 96.6% due to a PTFE-type membrane used in the external filtration layer. This refined gas is then driven inward the internal filtration layer comprised of catalytically active compounds that can eliminate dioxins further to reach 98.8% efficiency. The external filtration layer is periodically revived with the help of a usual pulse jet cleaning system. In the gasification process, catalytic filtration is usually placed immediately after a mechanical cleaning of the flue gases [65].
The Japanese government enforced the guideline of dioxin emission via Waste Management and General Purification Act (WMGPA) in 1997. After this WMGPA enforcement, the industrial sector was obliged to install catalytic reactors and bag filters in the new facilities. Following this enforcement, not only the adjusted values for the combustion temperature, the cooling temperature of the exhaust gas from the furnace, and the CO concentration in the exhaust gas from the stack were satisfactory at almost all facilities, but also the concentration of dioxin, acidic gases, and NOx in the discharged gases was significantly lower than those made before 1997 [66].
One proficient approach to remove Dioxin is to combine its catalytic degradation with selective reduction of NOx according to the following stoichiometric equations [67]:
In order to selectively reduce NOx, ammonia can be injected prior to the catalytic reactor. Simultaneous removal of NOx and dioxins (DeNOx/DeDiox) can be carried out in a catalytic reactor at 200 to 300°C [56]. Although the NOx and dioxins removal via this method is a highly efficient process, catalyst poisoning is one of the main detriments. In addition to mechanical and chemical cleaning, the reactor in this setup needs to be installed after dust removal from flue gases (Figure 4). This means that re-heating of the flue gases to 200–300°C is required [68].
Scheme of DeNOx/DeDiox technology [
Parizek et al. [69] analyzed the economical balance of catalytic filtration versus DeNOx/DeDiox technology. They used a computer-based system for simulation calculations making solution more approachable. The annual economic balance of the operation of the catalytic filtration REMEDIA is composed of: cost of the filtration bags (for this study the guaranteed lifespan and real lifespan of the filtration tube was 4 and 8 years, respectively), energy cost of the fan drive, cost required to spray the flue gases before entering the filter. Also the annual economic balance of the operation of DeNOx/DeDiox technology is composed of: catalyst costs (a 4-yar life-time operation was considered), energy costs of the fan drive, and cost for heating of flue gases. Results showed that the operating cost of the DeNOx/DeDiox technology rises due to the reheating of flue gases to the required temperature of the reaction and the cost was linked with the increased pressure drop. Catalytic filtration does not require heating of flue gases and the cost of the filtration bags falls due to their real lifespan.
In an upcoming article [70] we will publish and extensive review of experimental measurements and evidence of PCDD/F emissions from gasifiers of various types and sizes, varying operating conditions and feedstocks.
The main findings are:
Although PCDD/F emissions from gasification are in general lower than those from incinerators without modern emission control of the same feedstock it is not correct to assume that PCDD/F emission from a gasifier will
The two main factors that can widely and reliably reduce PCCD/F emissions to very low levels in gasification are
peak operating temperature (> 1000°C) in the combustion and cracking zone together with oxygen deprivation
rapid cooling of syngas by for example a water quench which prevents de novo synthesis
high amounts of chlorine in the feedstock cause dioxin formation, especially at temperatures below 800°C. At temperatures above 800°C, dioxins levels are drastically reduced.
The main purpose of this chapter is to assist researchers in making primed decisions when adopting waste management policies and conducting relevant research and environmental impact studies. There is a need to establish more information on PCCD/F formation in gasification by experimentation of different feedstock when using different operational parameters and removal technologies; in order to be able to choose an appropriate PCCD/F mitigation method when gasifying different waste streams.
Dioxin formation and emission from the incineration of waste have been reduced in Europe and North America by either decommissioning plants or otherwise installing of air pollution control systems [71, 72, 73]. However, given the severity of the health impacts and continued unknowns (like emissions during start-up, shut-down and other peak events) the topic continues to be of great public concern both in Europe and North America [73, 74, 75] and the developing world [73, 76, 77]. Gasification can offer a substitute approach for waste treatment and energy generation that may indeed more consistently achieve lower toxic PCDD/F emission levels compared to combustion.
All combustion processes can result in formation of PCDD/F at temperature range of 200 to 600°C in case organic carbon, oxygen, and chlorine become accessible. The formation of dioxins is effectively reduced due to the high temperature reactor (in special cases >1000°C) and shock cooling of gases combined, with an absence of available oxygen.
Financial support was provided by the Rannís Technology Development Fund (project 175326-0611), the Icelandic Research Fund (grant 196458-051), and the Northern Periphery and Arctic program (project H-CHP 176).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
PCDDs | Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins |
PCDFs | Polychlorinated dibenzofurans |
TCDD | 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin |
PCBs | Polychlorinated biphenyls |
TEF | Toxic equivalence factor |
TEQ | Toxic equivalent |
CPs | Chlorophenols |
CBs | Chlorobenzenes |
PAHs | Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons |
SOx | Sulfur oxides |
NOx | Nitrogen oxides |
DeNOx/DeDiox | Removal of nitrogen oxides and dioxins |
RDF | Refuse derived fuel |
MSW | Municipal solid waste |
WEEE | Waste electrical and electronic equipment |
PVC | Polyvinyl chloride |
BR | Cogasified biofermenting residue |
iGCLC | In-situ gasification chemical looping |
GEK | Gasifier’s experimenter’s kit |
LHV | Low heating value (MJ/m3) |
HHV | High heating value (MJ/m3) |
Ove Odredbe i uvjeti ističu pravila i regulacije u svezi korištenja IntechOpenove stranice www.intechopen.com i svih poddomena u vlasništvu IntechOpena, tvrtke sa sjedištem u 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
',metaTitle:"Odredbe i uvjeti",metaDescription:"Ove Odredbe i uvjeti ističu pravila i regulacije u svezi korištenja IntechOpenove stranice www.intechopen.com i svih poddomena u vlasništvu IntechOpena, tvrtke sa sjedištem u 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/cro-terms-and-conditions",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Pristupom na stranicu www.intechopen.com slažete se s ovim odredbama, sa svim primjenjivim zakonskim odredbama, te se slažete s poštovanjem svih lokalnih zakona. Korištenje i/ili pristup ovoj stranici temelji se na potpunom prihvaćanju ovih odredbi. Svi materijali na ovoj stranici zaštićeni su primjenjivim zakonima o autorskim pravima i žigu.
\\n\\nSljedeća terminologija odnosi se na Odredbe i uvjete, te na sve naše ugovore:
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\n\nSljedeća terminologija odnosi se na Odredbe i uvjete, te na sve naše ugovore:
\n\nKlijent, stranka, vi, vaš odnosi se na vas, osobu koja pristupa ovoj stranici i prihvaća IntechOpenove Odredbe i uvjete;
\n\nKompanija, tvrtka, mi, naše odnosi se na tvrtku IntechOpen;
\n\nStranke, strane odnosi se na klijenta i na nas, ili samo na klijenta ili nas.
\n\nSve odredbe koje se odnose na ponudu, prihvat ili razmatranje plaćanja, a za koja mi pružamo asistenciju klijentu, bilo na ugovoreni ili fiksni način, a s ciljem da se ostvare potrebe i želje klijenta u svezi s našim uslugama, su podložne zakonskim odredbama Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva.
\n\nOsim ako nije suprotno navedeno, IntechOpen i/ili svi davatelji licence vlasnici su intelektualnog vlasništva nad svim materijalima na www.intechopen.com. Sva prava intelektualnog vlasništva su pridržana. Stranice sa www.intechopen.com možete gledati, preuzimati, dijeliti, dijeliti poveznice i printati za osobnu uporabu, a temeljem pravila sadržanih u ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\n\nMi koristimo kolačiće. Korištenjem IntechOpenove stranice slažete se s korištenjem kolačića u skladu s IntechOpenovom Politikom privatnosti. Većina modernih, interaktivnih stranica koristi kolačiće kako bi omogućila ponovno pronalaženje korisničkih detalja kod svakog posjeta. Na našoj stranici kolačići se uglavnom koriste kako bi omogućili funkcionalnost i olakšali posjetiteljima korištenje stranice.
\n\nIntechOpen ili njegovi suradnici niti u jednom slučaju neće biti odgovorni za štete (štete uključuju gubitak podataka ili profita, druge poslovne prekide, te sve ostale štete) koje nastanu zbog korištenja materijala na IntechOpenovoj stranici ili nemogućnosti da se iste koriste, čak i ako je IntechOpen ili njegov predstavnik o takvoj šteti obaviješten pismenim ili usmenim putem. Neke jurisdikcije ne dozvoljavaju ograničenja garancija ili ograničenja obveza za posljedične ili slučajne štete pa se u tom slučaju ova ograničenja možda ne odnose na vas.
\n\nMaterijali koji se pojavljuju na IntechOpenovoj stranici mogu sadržavati manje greške, tipfelere ili fotografske greške. IntechOpen može napraviti promjene na bilo kojem materijalu koji se nalazi na stranici u bilo koje vrijeme.
\n\nIntechOpen nije formalno povezan niti s jednom vanjskom stranicom čije poveznice vode na www.intechopen.com, osim ako to nije izravno navedeno. Iz tog razloga IntechOpen nije odgovoran za sadržaj koji se pojavljuje na takvim stranicama. Poveznica na IntechOpenovu stranicu ne implicira povezanost sa IntechOpenom. Korištenje takvih poveznica isključiva je odgovornost korisnika.
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. 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