Comparison of the separation techniques.
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3314",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Advances in the Biology, Therapy and Management of Melanoma",title:"Recent Advances in the Biology, Therapy and Management of Melanoma",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The book Recent Advances in the Biology, Therapy and Management of Melanoma brings up-to-date information regarding a number of aspects which culminate in illuminating potential targets in the fight against melanoma. 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\r\n\tRural health is an important part of the overall health system of a country due to the fact that in many cases population mostly resides in the rural area then in the urban. Comparatively rural population experiences unlimited barriers to healthcare services versus their counterpart urban residents. Thus, basic healthcare services and timely access to the healthcare system would decide on the health outcomes of the community.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will underpin important progress being carried out in different countries about human resources and infrastructure needed, and about timely access to primary healthcare services. The book will also highlight and discuss importance of early detection of diseases and their prevention, and its impact on life expectancy in rural population. The readers will also gain knowledge regarding barriers to healthcare services and adverse factors that lead to affect overall health. There is also special focus given to mother and child health and the way forward to improve quality of life in rural population.
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The subject I am speaking about is the Lagrangian Formulation (LF) of Fluid Dynamics, in particular its theoretical, brutally analytical application to the case of fluids with dissipation.
The reasons due to which treating Fluid Dynamics via LF is not “so popular” are that it involves equations of motion which are very complicated (apparently, “uselessly complicated”), and that squeezing practical results out of it seems to be desperately hard. Moreover, performing measurements from the “Lagrangian point of view” is not common, and requires to leave a probe be transported by the flow: it is often easier to realize a station instead, so to put everything in the other way we know to describe fluids, the “Eulerian point of view”.
The Eulerian Formulation (EF), also indicated as local formulation because it treats the bulk properties of a fluid as properties of the space itself, appears to be much more popular than its “first brother” the LF. The EF is “more popular” because its equations of motion appear much simpler, and because their implementation on a calculator that moves its imagination on a 1D, 2D or 3D grid sounds much easier (still, the celebrated Navier-Stokes Equation, its key statement, is one of the most controversial in the community as far as “the knowledge of all its possible solutions” is concerned).
It is really complicated to find textbooks in which non-ideal fluids are described in the LF, and this is because if for dissipation free fluids the LF may sound cumbersome, when it comes to dissipation complications grow even harder.
The two formulations quoted have specific applications, and the point is that traditionally the applications at best represented in EF have been prevailing. As we are going to point out rigorously few lines below, the LF is following the material flow, while EF is best describing what is seen by an observer as she sits at a point
Different kinds of motion can be optimally studied in each different one of the two formalisms, depending on the actual nature of the motion at hand. In particular, material regions of fluid showing a highly correlated motion, namely coherent structures with all their particles “going together” (see Figure 1), are best described by following them as they move throughout the space: for this kind of modes the LF may have great value.
Clouds in the sky indicate a local steep gradient of refraction index of the air, due to the presence of water. As a cloud appears like a “body”, i.e. a complex of matter moving together coherently, its motion, or the motion of the region of air containing it, may be best represented in the Lagrangian Formalism. Unfortunately, the non-linear essence of those coherent structures (as also vortices, or current sheets in plasmas) has always been a serious difficulty to study them analytically.
Instead, those perturbations that are travelling across the fluid without any real matter transfer, i.e. mechanical waves, are well studied as a classical field theory, in the EF (see Figure 2).
Some mechanical waves propagating along the surface of a fluid. The description of such modes of the continuum is traditionally (and better) done in the Eulerian Formalism, where the physical quantities locally describing the motion of a fluid are conceived as local space properties, i.e. classical fields. In waves, indeed, matter does not propagate itself, and prevalently linear terms appear in the equations of motion. Picture by “hamad M”, on Flickr, at the webpage https://www.flickr.com/photos/meshal/.
As the scientific literature witnesses, while an entire zoology of waves, both linear and non-linear, has been developed for fluids and plasmas, quite much less has been done for coherent structures (Chang 1999), and this is accompanied by the much larger diffusion EF studies than LF ones.
In the courses of dynamics of continua taught at the university, fluid systems are first described in the LF, or at least from the Lagrangian viewpoint (Rai Choudhuri, 1998); then, as soon as “serious equations” appear, the use of the EF prevails, because of the aforementioned difficulties. However, the fact that the language of the LF is chosen to initiate students to dynamics of continua is not an oddity, rather it reflects how this framework portrays continuous systems more understandably for people having been dealing with discrete systems up to that moment.
Continua described in the LF appear as very straightforward generalizations of systems formed by material points, and their behaviour sounds much more understandable at first glance keeping in mind that the discrete system dynamics looks like. This property of the LF has not a “didactic” value only, but rather can render highly transparent physical relationships between various scales of the theory, the interaction among which is the essence of dissipation. This is, in extremely few words, why I have chosen to treat this subject in the present Chapter.
In this Chapter a special care is devoted to examining how the results about dissipation, usually presented in the Eulerian framework, appear in the LF. Processes involved in dissipation are the ones keeping trace of the granular nature of matter, and a very natural way of seeing this is to describe the fluid in the Lagrangian Formulation. Actually, the postulates of the LF must be criticized right in vision of the granularity of matter, as reported in § 6. For the moment being, let’s just consider the LF as non-in-conflict with matter granularity.
In § 2 the fundamental tools of the LF are proposed, together with the physical sense of the idea of fluid parcel, and the relationship of this with the particles of matters forming the continuum. In this § the fluid geometry, kinematics and mass conservation are sketched.
The application of the LF tools to fluids without dissipation is then given in § 3: in the absence of friction the fluid is treated as a Hamiltonian system, and here the dynamics appears in LF as inherited from that of point particles. The parcel variables of the LF are regarded as a centre-of-mass versus relative variables decomposition of the discrete analytical mechanics. As an aside of this interpretation, § 4 is used to clarify the differential algebraic properties of the entropy of the fluid encoding the degrees of freedom of the microscopic particles forming the parcel.
The granular nature of matter will enter in dynamics only in § 5, where dissipative fluids are treated in the LF: the dissipative terms completing the ideal equations of motion found in the Hamiltonian limit are written, and the Poisson algebra describing the non-dissipative fluid is completed with the introduction of a metric bracket, giving rise to the metriplectic algebra for dissipative fluid in LF.
Conclusions given in § 6 do concern the concept of parcel, and of postulates given in § 2, with respect to turbulence and matter granularity; then, applications and possible developments of the LF are traced.
The LF describes a fluid by representing its motion as the evolution, throughout space, of the physical domain occupied by its matter (Bennett, 2006).
At a certain time
What is done in the LF is to imagine the fluid domain subdivided into “an infinite” number of “infinitesimal” portions, referred to as parcels that are still formed by a thermodynamic number of particles. The size of the parcel is chosen so that the bulk macroscopic quantities with which the fluid is described (velocity, mass density, tension…) are constant within it, but a sufficient number of elementary particles of the fluid is included, so that no extreme fluctuations (i.e. no sub-fluid effects as those described in Materassi et al. (2012)) can be appreciated. Parcels sized in this way are indicated as macroscopic infinitesimal, indeed, all the extensive quantities pertaining to the parcel (mass, energy, momentum) will be indicated with differentials.
At the initial time, this subdivision is snapshot stating that we have one parcel, of volume
parcel identity conservation: parcels move without mixing their matter with each other. They can be deformed, stretched, their volume does change during the evolution of the fluid, but they do not exchange matter, they do not fragment, they do not crumble into smaller entities;
the connectedness and smoothness of
being
Of course, it is necessary to remind that this LF can be improved, on the side of treatment of irregular motions, by adding noise terms to its otherwise deterministic and
The transformation from the initial configuration of the fluid D0 into the one assumed at the generic timeD(t). The parcel, initially located at the position a→ assumes positionζ→a→(t), while its initial infinitesimal volume d3a is transformed into the evolved d3ζa→(t) (note the use of ζ→(a→,t) instead of ζ→a→(t) in the text).
The two requirements stated before are translated into a conceptually very simple statement, in practice giving rise to complicated equations: the evolution map D0↦D(t) is represented by a diffeomorphism at every timet. In this way, each neighbourhood of every point
The geometry and kinematic of the fluid are all contained in the diffeomorphism
(see Figure 3). Even if (2) underlines how the vectors
The velocity of the
Another geometrical-kinematical object to be defined in LF is the Jacobian matrix of the diffeomorphism a→↦ζ→(a→,t), indicated as
The determinant of the Jacobian is indicated as:
Clearly,
The use of
and since the relationship between
The relationships (6) and (7) are all that is needed, in the LF, to let the mass conservation be adequately represented (those relationships are turned into the continuity equation of the EF).
Once the position of the parcel in
Let’s hence suppose that the
In the foregoing formula one supposes that all the particles have the same mass, so that a mere arithmetical average of their positions can be taken to define the centre-of-mass. In order to complete the set of centre-of-mass variables, let’s consider there also will be a parcel momentum density
that is defined more rigorously in § 3, equation (18) (in (9)
By considering the definitions (8) and (9), out of the
The set of microscopic particles forming the
The parcel of position ζ→ and the N particles forming it, with position relative-to-the-parcel-centre-of-mass indicated with r→I. The centre-of-mass of the parcel is the point G, of position ζ→ in the space.
The “statistical buzz” of those
All in all, we have established that the fluid geometry, kinematics and mass geometry may be represented in parcel variables through the parcel variables
The dynamics of the fields
While external potential forces are exquisitely pertaining the collective position
In this § the dissipation free limit will be studied, excluding for the moment the friction between nearby parcels, treated in § 5.
As elegantly suggested by Goldstein (2002), when dissipation is ruled out a mechanical system is expected to undergo an Action Principle, and this will be the case for the field theory of parcel variables. In order to write down the mechanical action of the fluid in LF, a resume is done of the forms of energy attributed to the parcel.
The parcel has a collective motion throughout the space, conferring it an amount of kinetic energy
where
The parcel possesses also the internal thermodynamic energy of the particles forming it, that we have already mentioned before and that here we indicate as:
When equations (11), (12) and (13) are put all together, one may attribute an infinitesimal Lagrangian to the
so that the Lagrangian of the whole system is simply the
The mechanical action for the fluid in LF is the aforementioned functional integrated in time along the interval
In Padhye (1998), those expressions are used to find the Euler-Lagrange equations for the natural motions of the system, that read:
In (17) the term
The second differential equation in (17) deserves some more explanation.
Varying the action
The constancy of
Once the Lagrangian dynamics is defined through (14) and (15) it is possible to turn it into a Hamiltonian canonical framework through the Legendre transformation of
First of all, a rigorous definition of the kinetic momentum
By calculating the functional derivative indicated in (18), the result (9) is obtained. Then, the calculation of the Hamiltonian functional of the ideal fluid in LF is straightforward:
The Hamilton Equations of motion of the system have a canonical form
with the same definition for the symbol
Equations (20) may be put in the form of a Poisson algebra, by defining the Poisson bracket
then, the dynamics of any physical variable of the system is assigned as
In particular, if the Poisson brackets
An important observation should be done on the definition of
i.e. any quantity C[s] depending only on the mass-specific entropy density is in involution with any quantity at all. Quantities which are in involution “with anything” are referred to as Casimir invariants: in the Poisson algebra
is the most important one of them, as it will be stressed in § 5.
When an algebra
When Casimir invariants appear it is generally because a Poisson algebra
Assume to have in the set
This sub-algebra
It may happen that, while
The map from the Lagrangian quantities in
The “original algebra”
Even if the picture is rather clear, from a logical point of view, making
In the absence of dissipation, the “decoupling” of the mass-specific entropy density
When dissipation is not present, the microscopic degrees of freedom animating the particles within the parcel are as frozen, and their world participates to the motion of the nearby parcels only through the compression-dilatation effect recorded by the term
the energy transfer from the macroscopic degrees of freedom
the same interaction will impede the “conservative motion” of the parcel centre-of-mass
All in all, both the centre-of-mass motion of the parcel and its entropy will be influenced by the presence of dissipation.
The equations of motion of fluids in the LF in the presence of dissipative terms are not such a widespread subject to be treated, let me address the reader to the book by Bennett “Lagrangian Fluid Dynamics”, where the equation of motion of a viscous incompressible fluid is obtained in parcel variables (Bennett, 2006).
Looking at the equations (20), one way of finding out how to modify them in order to introduce dissipation is to examine the corresponding equations in EF (the dissipative Navier-Stokes equations, see for instance Rai Choudhuri (1998)) and then work on how the various quantities change when they undergo the inverse map
The relationship between
The equation of motion for the momentum
It is possible to show that, provided the stress tensor of the fluid appears in the EF as reported in Materassi et al. (2012), it is possible to write the equation of motion for
In (27) the tensor
The coefficients
The derivative indicated as
being the matrix
The last equation in (20) must be modified in order to include the dissipative terms in the entropy evolution.
In particular, in order to understand which terms should be included, it is of some use to consider that the entropy variation always corresponds, within quasi-equilibrium processes (Zemansky & Dittman, 1996), to the ratio between the heat transferred and the temperature at which this transfer takes place. Then, one has just to think about which are the processes transferring heat to the parcel.
Two sources of heat must be considered: there is a contribution given by the work dissipated through viscosity along the surface of the parcel, that should correspond to the force terms
The temperature at which these heat transfers take place is the temperature of the
In Bennett (2006) and in Materassi (2014) both the heat transfer terms have been obtained from the corresponding terms in the EF equations (as these are reported, e.g., in Morrison (1984) and Materassi & Tassi (2012 a)) through the inverse map
In (30) all the quantities are local fields, i.e. Eulerian variables in
After some relatively easy, but lengthy, algebra on (30), one ends up with the following equation of motion of the mass-specific entropy density:
We are now in the position to provide the reader with the system of equations generalizing (20) in the case of viscous fluids:
In general, equations as (32) are extremely complicated to treat because of the very non-linear way in which the unknown functions, i.e. the fields
The viscous fluid is an example of dissipative system that, if it is isolated (i.e., without energetic supply from the environment), will relax to an asymptotically stable field configuration. Correspondingly, the total entropy of the isolated system (24) will grow up to a certain maximum value allowable
The algebrization of the viscous fluid dynamics in LF will follow the same route proposed in Fish (2005) and references therein (see, in particular, Morrison (1984)), or in Materassi & Tassi (2012 b): the inspiration comes from the fact that, in the vicinity of the equilibrium, it is possible to represent the convergence of the system to the asymptotically stable point as a metric system (Morrison, 2009).
A metric system is a dynamical system of variables
It is possible, then, to define a symmetric Leibniz bracket (Guha, 2007) for two any observables
so that the dynamics of the metric system is prescribed as:
It is possible to see that the asymptotically stable configuration will be a stationary point for
The smooth function
Since the metric system appears to be a good tool to describe the convergence to an asymptotically stable equilibrium, in order to let the fluid be described by a bracket algebra of observables that allows for relaxation, next to the Poisson bracket (21), one introduces a metric bracket (f,g), i.e.:
If the choice of the metric bracket is clever enough, i.e. provided the requirement
is satisfied, then the dissipative part of dynamics may be entrusted to this new algebraic object, with the choice of the total entropy
(this
The full dynamics may be obtained by putting together the non-dissipative symplectic part (I. 22) and the dissipative metric part (39), so to give rise to a properly algebrized dissipative system relaxing to some asymptotic equilibrium, namely a metriplectic system (Morrison, 1984; Guha, 2007):
The Poisson bracket
It is possible to check that the application of the prescription (40) to the dynamical variables
The former Poisson algebra of the observables of a fluid in the LF, the set
In order for the metriplectic bracket
is necessary. It is possible to see that, when the prescription
is applied to the dynamical variables
In this Chapter we have described the dynamics of viscous fluids in the formalism descending from the Lagrangian viewpoint, according to which the motion of the fluid parcels is followed along their evolution, just like it is done in discrete dynamics with the motion of point particles.
The “something different” that parcels have with respect to point particles is their internal structure, which is a “gas” (a fluid, truly) of microscopic particles, all in all described by their mass density, roughly
The particle ensemble may influence the parcel’s motion both in a “conservative” and in a “dissipative” way.
On the one hand, particles may undergo “adiabatic interactions”, hitting each other conserving their kinetic energy, and propagating, to the nearby particles, pressure: this is the effect of those motions of particles exerting forces, but not exchanging heat, i.e. not degrading the “ordered” energy of the macroscopic scales at which the parcel variables
These adiabatic interactions give rise to the pressure terms in (17) and (20), that still remain equations of motion of a dissipation-free system.
An ensemble of particles is however able to exchange heat too, i.e. transform the energy of macroscopic scales to micro-scale energy. This happens due to friction forces, that are representing in an effective way a huge amount of microscopic collisions in which particles literally drain kinetic energy from
Two approaches are presented here to treat the dissipative phenomena of a viscous, thermally conducting fluid: writing the partial derivative equations of motion (32) in LF; or constructing the metriplectic algebra (42), through which the viscous, thermally conducting fluid is regarded as an isolated system with dissipation that has a way to relax to asymptotically stable equilibria.
In both approaches we have tried to stress the role of the entropy functional (24), that is fully enhanced in the metriplectic algebra (Materassi, 2014).
Let us conclude briefly by stressing again the limits of the LF as described here, i.e. via parcel variables. The fundamental requirements of parcel formulation in § 2, on which all the LF is based, render it possible to describe the evolution of fluid matter only in “rather regular” motions: no sub-fluid scale mixing, no evaporation, no droplet formation, no noisy micro-scale turbulence. Just the deformation of a body that can be regarded as an elastic rubber space-filling cloud, much more a shape shifting smooth Barbapapa rather than the water of a fountain dropping and fragmenting in pointy wavelets.
Shipping has a vital role in developing human society over the years, at which the shipping activities have linked the widely separated parts of the world through commercial relationships. In fact, the shipping industry is still developing from time to time with rapid industrial and digital economy growth. In Canada, the shipping industry has been established since 1840 and now undergone significant technological advances, where the size of ships that carry containers for international use continues to increase [1]. Even in Malaysia, the government has launched an initiative, namely, Malaysia Shipping Master Plan, that ensures the shipping industry is focused on developing itself and has a guide for future development. This initiative takes place from 2017 until 2022 with a “Revitalizing Shipping for a Stronger Economy” theme [2].
\nGenerally, there are three main classifications for the global cargo shipping industry, which are:
Wet bulk: Transportation of crude oil and other petroleum products
Dry bulk: Shipment of bulk goods
Liners: Small shipments of general commercial goods
Each of wet bulk, dry bulk, and liner shipping needs their specialized vessels, which are tankers, bulkers, and container ships, respectively [3].
\nFirstly, for wet bulk shipping, approximately a quarter of the goods transported by sea is dominated by crude oil [4]. The oils are transported from its production point to the purchasers by the wet bulk shipping or known as tankers. Majority of the crude oil is moved from the most significant oil-producing region, which is the Middle East, to the dominant importers like the European Union, Japan and the United States of America. Other than that, North America imports oil from the Caribbean and West America meanwhile West and North Africa export their oils to Europe [4].
\nNext, the largest group out of these three classifications is dry bulk shipping, where more than 50% of all loaded goods are handled by the bulkers, while 30 and 16% are for tankers and containers, respectively [5]. There is a vast range of solid cargoes transported by containers. Generally, there are five primary crucial bulk goods, which are coal, grain, iron ore, bauxite, and phosphates, in which iron ore and coal are the two goods that are transported the most [4]. Meanwhile, chemical packages and steel products are the example of the shipped minor bulk goods [6]. The main routes for iron ore transportation are from Australia and Brazil to Japan as well as from Brazil to Western Europe. While for coal, which is commonly used as steam coal in power stations to generate electricity, the leading exporters are from South Africa, Australia, Colombia, the East and West Coast of the United States, as well as Indonesia. Moreover, Australia, South Africa, Colombia, and the East Coast of the United States export their coal to Western Europe, whereas Japan receives the coal from the West Coast of the United States, Australia, and South Africa [4].
\nLiner shipping, also known as container shipping, provides services by transporting goods in containers with scheduled sailings. The variety of goods transported by liner shipping are packed in a smaller unit. One of the contributors to the continuation and development of liner shipping is the increment of the digital economy. According to Ref. [7], companies that produce and process raw materials, commodities, and manufacturing goods are the previous world’s fastest-growing and biggest corporations. However, currently, Internet-related service and technology-based manufacturers, such as Alibaba, Amazon, Apple, and Microsoft, have become the world’s most valuable and most prominent companies, where e-commerce, online communication and cashless Business to Business (B2B) and Business to Consumer (B2C) transactions are practiced [7]. This development has contributed more to the growth of the shipping industry, where it is considered as a catalyst for economic development by facilitating world trade, due to the cheaper mode of transportation.
\nHowever, aside from on-the-ground activities such as lubricants, refineries, and petrochemical industries, it is undeniable that shipping activities have contributed to marine pollution, especially in this twentieth century where carriage of the cargoes by the ships is increasing. According to [8], millions of tons of oily wastes and waste oils are generated as the by-products of the ships, every year. One of the contributors to water pollution by the operating marine vessels is the discharging of oily bilge water. Typically for marine vessels, the oily wastes and waste oil that come from various sources accumulate in the bilge space, which is the lowest part of the vessel.
\nRoutinely, the accumulated oily bilge water must be discharged out of the bilge spaces to maintain the stability of the vessel, hence eliminating the possibility of the ship to be in the conditions that can cause a hazard to it [9]. The wastes discharged can eventually cause water pollution, which leads to many negative impacts on the human, environment, and marine populations. Oily bilge water may poison marine organisms because it might cover plants and tiny animals when it floated on the surface of the water and is carried into the shoreline, causing life cycles of the plant and the respiration of the animals be interfered [10].
\nHence, many governments and international industries are working on the marine pollution issue, mainly originated from the shipping industry, such as the Marine Environmental Protection Committee (MEPC), the International Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Ships (MARPOL), and the Department of Environment (DOE), Malaysia. In order to solve the problem, oily wastewater separator is essential and needs to be installed and operated effectively to prevent the pollution as well as to ensure that the water discharged overboard is within legal limits.
\nThe lowest compartment of the vessels and directly above the keel is known as bilge, where water that drains off from various sources is captured. The water might be originated from rain, interior spillage, rough seas, or minor leakage in other main parts of the vessel. Depending on a few factors such as ship size, design of engine room, and components’ age, the amount of accumulated bilge water onboard varies from one to another. In order to maintain the stability of the vessel and to avoid conditions that can cause hazard (such as vessel’s propulsion systems and ancillary machinery damage and fire hazard) due to too much of bilge waste accumulation, it is crucial to remove the bilge water into a holding tank, periodically [9]. There are two options to manage the bilge water, which are whether installing bilge separator to treat it onboard or holding it in a tank on the vessel before discharging it to the shore’s treatment facility. Somehow, treating it onboard has an advantage where a smaller volume of oily bilge water has to be stored in the vessel. Meanwhile, the treated wastewater can be removed according to the related regulations and standards.
\nThe composition of bilge water depends on the design and function of the ship. The wastewater is commonly comprised of water, oily fluids, cleaning fluids, lubricant, and grease as well as other wastes that originated from piping, engines, and other operational and mechanical sources in the vessel’s machinery spaces [9] as well as urine and chemicals. Other than that, extra waste streams in massive vessels contain sludge, waste oil, and oily water mixtures. Sludge is formed from the continuous fuel purification to remove contaminants in order to enhance low-quality fuels as well as to avoid ship’s engines and highly machined components from being damaged.
\nThe regulation stipulated by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) highlighted on the oil content of the bilge water discharged to the sea. The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78) has set the maximum limit of 15 mg/L for the oil content in the wastewater to be discharged to the sea. According to the US EPA (2008), passenger ships produce the highest amount of bilge water with huge difference as compared to the other types of ships. This is due to their more complex constructions and support for crowds of passengers [9].
\nTypically, the small volumes of treated bilge water are released above the water line and instantly diluted in the sea water. Hence, the obvious effects of oil spill is most likely not going to occur. However, a long-term effect might happen to the marine living organisms around the shipping lanes. The negative consequences that will take place may be due to the excessive concentration of biodegradable compounds, including oil, as well as continuous increment of nondegradable compound concentration such as metals [11].
\nOther than that, surfactant is one of the significant chemicals contained in the bilge water. The mixtures of oil and surfactants may cause higher toxicity since the oil and surfactants alone are toxic themselves. This may be due to the synergistic effects or the crude oil that has been dissolved, causing it to be consumable for the exposed organisms [12, 13, 14, 15].
\nTypically, OWS is made up of three segments, which are separator unit, filter unit, and oil content monitor and control unit. The separator and filter units are included as treatment units, where many designs and different principles are applied. The gravity and centrifugal separators are commonly used as the first stage of the treatment, followed by other separation techniques, which is called as polishing treatment. The examples of the polishing unit are flotation, coagulation and flocculation, filtration, biological treatment, as well as absorption and adsorption [16]. Normal techniques, such as gravitational and centrifugation, are used for oily wastewater that has two distinct phases; meanwhile, addition of chemical or biological de-emulsification is required for separation of emulsified oily bilge water [17].
\nTypically, oily bilge water treatment onboard starts with a gravitational method in order to remove heavy fractions and lighter fractions based on density difference. In this method, coalescing materials made of oleophilic polymer in the form of loose-packed media or parallel plate are used to attract the oil droplets to adhere to the plate [16]. Examples of oleophilic polymer used as the coalescing plate separators are polyethylene, fiberglass, and nylon [18].
\nThe free-moving dispersed oil droplets continue to adhere to the plate or media until it can break from the coalescing material and float up to the surface of the tank. The presence of the oil detected by the sensors then automatically triggers the OWS to remove the collected oil to a waste oil tank. However, this method can only be effective when the phase of the oil and water is separated distinctively [19]. In other words, in some instances, the gravitational method is not suitable since the bilge water typically consists of emulsified oil formed due to the chemical emulsifiers (solvents and cleaning agents) as well as mechanical means such as ship’s motion and transfer system pump [16]. Figure 1 shows the gravitational separator process.
\nGravitational separator [20].
As can be seen from the figure above, as the oily bilge water flows through the parallel plate, oil globules are formed and float up to the surface to form oil layer. Oil skimmer is used to skim off the oil layer. Then, oil discharge valve and purge water valve are opened, where the oil is removed from the unit by the purge water.
\nCentrifugal separators are the alternative option for the gravity separators. The same principle is applied, in which the oil is separated based on the different density of oil and water as well as coalescence of the oil droplets. Somehow, the centrifugal acceleration causes the gravity to increase more, and the coagulation and flocculation processes are enhanced in order to separate the emulsified oil. This type of separator has many advantages as compared to gravity OWS. Since it can separate more oil from the bilge water, including emulsified oil, less oil content is loaded to the next treatment step, which is usually called a polishing unit. Thus, the polisher’s service life might last long, reducing the cost of maintenance and repair. Centrifugal separators are also more compact and require smaller bilge water holding tanks [16]. However, high capital cost is needed for the centrifuges, and regular maintenance must be done since large horsepower motors are used during the process.
\n\nFigure 2 shows an example of manufactured separator (PureBilge by Alfa Laval).
\nPatented Alfa Laval XLrator [21].
In the inlet stream of the unit, the bilge water is accelerated by the XLrator with less shearing and foaming in order to prevent the oil drops from separating and further emulsion formation. Then, it flows into the separator, in which coalescence occurs due to high centrifugal force. Flocculation of small oil drops takes place and flocculants is added to promote bigger flocs for easier separation [21].
\nSeparation of oil by flotation occurs due to the difference in density of oil and water, where water is denser than oil, forming a scum layer on top of the water. Floatation technique can be divided into many different techniques, including electroflotation, froth flotation [22], and dissolved air flotation (DAF). Electroflotation separates oil from water through electrochemical reactions by electrolysis, where tiny bubbles produced from electrolysis will cause the pollutants to float to the water body surface [23]. In froth flotation, the separation takes place when the oil adheres onto the fine bubbles generated when air is introduced into the system. Surfactant is added to adsorb the air or water interface of the bubbles of air with the head groups (hydrophilic) in the water and the tail groups (hydrophobic) in the air. Hence, when the bubbles rise through the solution, the oil will concentrate on the bubble surfaces and foam is formed [24].
\nMeanwhile, dissolved air flotation (DAF) introduces micro gas bubbles into the flotation chamber that has been formed when water is saturated with gas under pressure [25]. The oil droplet will spread around the gas, and conglomerate will continue to rise to the surface of the solution. The advantages of flotation treatment are the following: less investment needed, low energy consumption, and easy to maintain [26]. However, the statement contradicts with Yu et al. [27] who stated that flotation requires high energy consumption and has repairing and maintenance problem as well as issue in manufacturing of the device.
\nAccording to Yu et al. [27], coagulation process is a robust oil–water separation technology because it is able to separate dissolved and emulsified oil; hence, it is vastly applied in the latest oily wastewater treatment method [28]. In the coagulation process, coagulant, a chemical substance, is added to the wastewater to destabilize the charge of colloidal particles in the solution [29] which is too tiny for gravitational settling. When the particles are destabilized, larger flocs are formed making it easier to settle and then are skimmed off to the clarifier or sludge thickener.
\nAnyhow, many experiments might be needed if the coagulation method is going to be used in treating oily wastewater. This is because of the complexity of oily wastewater, making it hard to choose the most suitable coagulants for effective separation of oil and water to take place [27]. In a study done by Zeng et al. [30], oil removal efficiency is improved up to 99% when aggregation of poly-zinc silicate (PZSS) with anionic polyacrylamide (A-PAM) is used as the coagulating and flocculating chemicals. Somehow, higher costs are needed, and it could cause water bodies’ secondary pollution and difficulties to the next process [27].
\nSome bilge water treatment units include biological treatment, which is called as a bioreactor. In this method, microorganisms are used to eliminate or reduce the organic and inorganic compounds before the treated wastewater being discharged to the sea or to a collection system [29]. The microorganisms convert the dissolved and particulate carbonaceous organic matter, including oil, in the bilge water into simple end products through the oxidation process. The equation below is representing the aerobic biological oxidation of organic matter [29].
\nAs can be seen from Eq. 1 above, the oxidation process needs oxygen (O2) and nutrients, which are nitrate (NH3) and phosphate (PO4\n3−), in order to convert the organic matter to carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). Other than that, the new cells generated are referring to the biomass produced after the oxidation of organic matter takes place.
\nThere are two principals of biological processes used to treat wastewater, which are suspended growth and attached growth, or also known as biofilm, processes. Suspended growth process maintains the microorganisms in liquid suspension by proper mixing methods. Meanwhile, attached growth attach the microorganisms to an inert packing material, where the wastewater will flow past the biofilm to remove the organic materials [29]. For OWS onboard, biofilm is used, in which the bacteria are attached to a synthetic support media. In this bioreactor, aerators are installed under the media to supply oxygen to the bacteria for bacterial growth as well as for oxidation of the organic contaminants to take place. Other than that, a clarifier is needed in order to remove the biomass formed at the end of the processes [16].
\nBiological treatment, with flexible operation, simple maintenance and management, as well as stable effluent quality [26], is indeed a suitable method since no waste oil is produced by the process [16]. Small oil droplets of emulsified oil, which are hardly removed by physical and chemical treatment, can be degraded easily by the bacteria [31]. However, CO2 will be produced from the process, resulting in increment in greenhouse gases. Even though the operating cost is low, the capital cost needed is high and skillful personnel to be in charge is required to ensure the treatment functioned well.
\nBasically, there are three stages involved in the process [32]. The first stage is heavy phase separation, where separated oils and solids are removed. In the second stage, the bacteria are used to convert the emulsified oil into non-harmful end products. This stage is known as emulsified oil degradation stage. Then, the third stage contains clarifier in order to remove the remaining solids and water.
\nPhysicochemical sorption involved in absorption and adsorption processes can eventually separate the oil from the bilge water. Absorption occurs when two discrete physical states of substances are fused together. Meanwhile, in adsorption, molecules adhere onto the surface of different phase [16]. Both absorption and adsorption involved absorbent sorption media and adsorbent, respectively. The oil is separated by pumping the bilge water through these media until their maximum sorption capacity is achieved, which then the oil is removed. Certain used media are possible to be regenerated onboard; meanwhile, some are regenerated or disposed of onshore. Somehow, the regenerated media is replaced once it is exhausted, where it can no longer absorb or adsorb the oil molecules. Having a few advantages which include low capital and operating cost as well as compact treatment unit, these two sorption techniques are suitable for vessels with less than 400 gross tonnages [16]. Table 1 summarizes the comparison of the oil–water separation techniques.
\nTechniques | \nAdvantages | \nDisadvantages | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|
Gravitational | \nEffective for discrete phases of oil and water | \nNot effective to separate emulsified oils from water | \n[16, 19] | \n
Centrifugation | \n\n
| \n\n
| \n[16] | \n
Flotation | \n\n
| \n\n
| \n[26, 27] | \n
Coagulation and flocculation | \n\n
| \n\n
| \n[16, 27, 28, 33] | \n
Biological | \n\n
| \n\n
| \n[16, 27] | \n
Absorption and adsorption | \n\n
| \n\n
| \n[16] | \n
Comparison of the separation techniques.
Currently, many types of OWS for bilge from different manufacturers are available in the market. The separators consist of a number of separator units that use different separation techniques. Table 2 shows examples of companies that produced commercially available bilge water separators.
\nNo. | \nManufacturers | \nName of the products | \nSeparation techniques applied | \n
---|---|---|---|
1 | \nAlfa Laval | \nPureBilge | \nCentrifugation | \n
2 | \nEnSolve Biosystems, Inc. | \nPetroLiminator OWS | \nBiological | \n
3 | \nVillage Marine Tec. | \nVillage Marine Tec. Oily Water Separator (VMT OWS) | \nAdsorption | \n
4 | \nSeparator Spares & Equipment, LLC. | \nULTRA-SEP Bilge Water Separator | \nUltrafiltration (membrane) | \n
5 | \nCompass Water Solutions | \nCRP-SEP | \n\n
| \n
ULTRA-SEP | \n\n
| \n||
VG-SEP | \n\n
| \n||
6 | \nRecovery Energy, Inc. | \nBOSS Oily Water Separators | \n\n
| \n
Examples of commercially available bilge water separator.
Different techniques are available and being used in the oil–water separation techniques for bilge water treatment. Typically, more than one unit of separators is needed to meet the minimum allowable discharge limit value set by the regulatory bodies. Gravitational and centrifugal methods are said to be the first technique before undergoing further polishing separation. Polishing treatment unit caters smaller droplet of oil, or emulsified oil, which cannot be treated by gravitational and centrifugal methods. To conclude, oily bilge water can be treated with proper separation techniques so that the treated bilge water discharged to the sea comply with the limit and marine pollution can be minimized and prevented. Any other treatment techniques can as well be tested and introduced to enhance the oil–water separation process in treating bilge water.
\nThe authors would like to acknowledge the Centre for Biofuel and Biochemical Research (CBBR) and Chemical Engineering Department, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS for the support.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\\n\\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\\n\\nDr Alex Lazinica
\\n\\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"Our business values are based on those any scientist applies to their research. We have created a culture of respect and collaboration within a relaxed, friendly and progressive atmosphere, while maintaining academic rigour.
\n\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\n\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\n\nSara Uhac, COO
\n\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\n\nDr Alex Lazinica
\n\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
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