\r\n\tComputational fluid dynamics is composed of turbulence and modeling, turbulent heat transfer, fluid-solid interaction, chemical reactions and combustion, the finite volume method for unsteady flows, sports engineering problem and simulations - Aerodynamics, fluid dynamics, biomechanics, blood flow.
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His research interest lies in computational fluid dynamics, experimental heat transfer enhancement, solar energy, renewable energy, etc.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"233630",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvanjan",middleName:null,surname:"Bhattacharyya",slug:"suvanjan-bhattacharyya",fullName:"Suvanjan Bhattacharyya",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233630/images/system/233630.png",biography:"Dr. Suvanjan Bhattacharyya is currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering of BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus, India. Dr. Bhattacharyya completed his post-doctoral research at the Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering, University of Pretoria, South Africa. Dr. Bhattacharyya completed his Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India and with the collaboration of Duesseldorf University of Applied Sciences, Germany. He received his Master’s degree from the Indian Institute of Engineering, Science and Technology, India (Formerly known as Bengal Engineering and Science University), on Heat-Power Engineering.\nHis research interest lies in computational fluid dynamics in fluid flow and heat transfer, specializing on laminar, turbulent, transition, steady, unsteady separated flows and convective heat transfer, experimental heat transfer enhancement, solar energy and renewable energy. He is the author and co-author of 107 papers in high ranked journals and prestigious conference proceedings. He has bagged the best paper award in a number of international conferences as well. 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1. Introduction
The world we live in is chemical. Everything what surrounds us is composed of natural or synthetic chemical compounds. Some of them are very durable, some of them are less stable. But all of them are subjected to interactions with the environment what adversely affects the structural performance, including reliability over time. The deterioration process concerns all materials, not only metals but also plastics, glass, concrete, wood, leather and paper. The cracking, swelling, crazing, discoloration, phase separation or delimitation of plastics is caused by UV-light, heat, moisture or biological activity, that is, by physical, chemical or biological reactions [1, 2]. Corrosion of glass is due to reactions with atmospheric pollutants such as SO2 or CO2 as well as hydroxyl ions attack on siloxane bonds what leads to extraction of silica [3, 4]. Corrosion of concrete materials is also a very important economic problem. The maintenance costs of concrete microbial corrosion (CMC) of sewer pipelines in Hamburg (Germany) in 1970s reached up to €25 million whereas in Los Angeles (USA), the sewer pipe of 208 km in a total length of 1900 km had been damaged by CMC, and the rehabilitation costs were as high as $400 million [5]. Wood may also cleave or decompose what is related to its chemical structure based on cellulose, lignin and hemicelluloses. In natural environment, wood is rapidly colonized by microorganism and insects and the process of decomposition begins [6, 7, 8]. Deterioration of wood materials is a serious problem especially for historic wood pieces and monuments [9, 10, 11].
The deterioration of different kind of materials is defined as corrosion by American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM International), that is, “the chemical or electrochemical reaction between a material, usually a metal, and its environment that produces a deterioration of the material and its properties” [12]. However, the most undesirable and noticeable is corrosion of metals which is defined by ISO (International Organization for Standardization) as “physicochemical interaction between a metal and its environment that results in changes in the properties of the metal, and which may lead to significant impairment of the function of the metal, the environment, or the technical system, of which these form a part” [13]. Total costs of corrosion include “the design and construction or manufacturing, the cost of corrosion-related maintenance, repair and rehabilitation, and the cost of depreciation or replacement of structures that have become unusable as a result of corrosion” [14] and is estimated to be US$2.5 trillion what corresponds to 3.4% of the global GDP (2013). The use of current corrosion control practice and procedures, including organic corrosion inhibitors, would allow to save 15–35% costs of corrosion [14]. The cost of corrosion varies depending on branch of industry and usually it is the highest in transportation and chemical industry. In China in 2014, direct corrosion cost in transportation was 268.72 billion RMB that constitutes 23.97% of total corrosion costs [15].
Corrosion is an ubiquitous phenomena and there is no way to completely stop it. Some new solutions can only slow this process. However, the environmental pollution, global warming and climate change are the direct cause for increasing corrosion costs. Only the increase of global temperature by 2°C causes an increase of corrosion rates by up to 15% [16].
2. Mechanism of corrosion
Corrosion is mainly induced by chemical and electrochemical processes. Chemical corrosion takes place in dry gases and nonconductive liquids where there is no current/electron flow. The main effect of chemical corrosion is an oxide layer as a result of oxidation in the air [17]. Electrochemical corrosion takes place in solution, between metallic materials and electrolytes due to different potentials on the surface of the corroded metal and due to redox reactions. One part of the metal is anode where metal oxidizes and becomes ion.
M→Mn++neE1
The another part is cathode, where depolarization takes place, mainly reduction of oxygen and hydrogen cation [15, 16].
O2+4H++4e→2H2OE2
2H++2e→H2↑E3
A scheme of electrochemical corrosion is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Scheme of electrochemical corrosion.
Another type of corrosion is biocorrosion, commonly called microbial-induced corrosion (MIC) and is defined as deterioration of metallic material caused by consortia of microorganisms [20]. Microbes form a biofilm on the metal surface which is very good environment for their growth [21]. Biofilms are multicellular communities of bacteria encased in an extracellular matrix of exopolysaccharide, protein and sometime extracellular nucleic acids [22]. Biofilms are very hard to eradicated from any environment. They are resistant to most antimicrobial agents [23]. Sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) and sulfur-oxidizing bacteria which form biofilm to large extend are the main reason of the biocorrosion [21].
Another term associated with material’s degradation is erosion which means “a progressive loss of original material from a solid surface due to mechanical interaction between the surface and a fluid, a multicomponent fluid or impinging liquid or solid particles” [24]. A process involving conjoint corrosion and erosion is named corrosion-erosion [24].
3. Monitoring of corrosion
To estimate real corrosion damage, many direct and indirect physicochemical analytical methods are used [25]. The most basic method is visual inspection [15, 23]. However, many non-intrusive methods are commonly applied, like ultrasonic [27], potential measurements, radiography, eddy current, magnetic particle inspection [28] and acoustic emission [29]. Ultrasonic allows to control thickness by using sonic waves with high frequency (1–6 MHz). The method can be used for liquids and solids but not for gases [28]. The equipment is calibrated on two thicknesses and by collecting data of material sound velocity, the thickness is calculated. The method can be used in-service and also allows to measure pipe with high temperature and over coatings [27]. The advantage of this method is a possibility to access the material only from one side. The surface of material has to be prepared carefully to have a good contact with the equipment [18, 19]. Acoustic emission measures acoustic sound waves which are emitted due to deformation in the monitored material. The sensors are very sensitive microphones. The sound waves are produced from mechanical stress (pressure or temperature changes) so the technique does not need excitation or human intervention [30]. This technique is a source of large amount of data which requires elaborate filtering and analysis [29]. Potential measurements to control corrosion can be done with a voltmeter with high internal resistance. To get results, the equipment has to be connected to a reference electrode (usually Ag/AgCl electrode). Another method, radiography, uses ability of gamma radiation to penetrate the investigated material. When the beam passes through the material, some energy is absorbed in the material. The thicker the material, the larger amount of the absorbed energy. As a result, a photographic film is obtained where dark color is associated with high intensity of the transmitted beam and light is associated to low intensity. The gamma radiation can penetrate up to 5 cm of the metal with acceptable signal of attenuation [29]. The method is commonly used to control of the permanence of the weld [28]. Radiography is also used for corrosion pits monitoring. Limitation of the methods is a fact that the material has to be available from both sides [18]. Eddy current is a technique used for monitoring of cracking and pitting corrosion of metallic materials. The method depends on the eddy current produced in the surface of the metallic material. The method is restricted to a small layer in the surface of the metal [28]. Magnetic particle inspection method is applied only to ferromagnetic materials and is based on the fact that the surface distortion imparts to a magnetic field. The tested material can be magnetized by several methods like flow an electrical current through material or using electromagnets [28]. Another possibility to control corrosion is to measure indirect changes such as hydrogen evolution which is a product of cathodic reaction. Hydrogen monitoring is applicable to oil and petrochemical industries. The monitoring is based on techniques such as hydrogen pressure or vacuum probe, electrochemical hydrogen patch probe and hydrogen fuel cell probe [29]. Water chemistry analyses can provide interesting information to corrosion monitoring program such as measurement of pH, conductivity or dissolved oxygen [29].
Corrosion monitoring methods like weight loss measurements, linear polarization measurements or electrical sensor utilizing electrical resistance are also used in the field. However, the measurements are indirect which make it difficult to estimate real corrosion damage [25]. All used methods have to be standardized. Examples of extensive collections are the NACE (National Association of Corrosion Engineers) standards and the ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) standards [18].
4. Laboratory methods for corrosion study
The most widespread methods for laboratory corrosion study as well to calculate a corrosion rate (CR) are gravimetric and electrochemical (potentiometry and impedance spectroscopy) techniques, whereas scanning electron microscope (SEM), atomic force microscope (AFM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM) are used to show morphology of surface. The gravimetric method, that is, the weight loss measurements, is one of the simplest methods to carry out. A sample of tested metal, previously carefully degreased and polished is weighed and immersed in an electrolyte solution for specified time (t). After that time, the sample is taken out, sluiced, degreased and weighted. The average weight loss (ΔW) is calculated by following equation:
ΔW=W1–W2E4
where W1 and W2 is samples weight before and after immersion in electrolyte solution for t time, respectively [31]. ΔW is represented in grams. Based on obtained results, corrosion rate can be estimated as
CR=K∗ΔW/A∗t∗dE5
where K is a constant (8.76 × 104) which allows to represent CR in mm/year; A is the surface of the metal sample (cm2); t is the immersion time (hours); d is the density of the metal (g/cm3) [31].
On the other hand, open circuit potential (OCP), named also corrosion potential (Ecorr), linear polarization resistance (LPR) and potentiodynamic measurements (Tafel slopes) are included in potentiometric methods [32]. The measurements are conducted in standard, three electrode system such as reference (saturated calomel electrode), auxiliary (platinum electrode) and working (sample of the tested metal).
Electrodes are immersed in the electrolyte solution. After reaching an equilibrium, OCP (Ecorr), which is a difference in potential of microcells of the metal, is registered. At that potential, oxidation and reduction reactions occur which allows to estimate if the metal is resistant to corrosion in tested environment. The higher value of Ecorr, the higher corrosion resistance of the metal [33]. Graphical representation of results of the potentiodynamic measurements are Tafel slopes: graphs of applied potential (E, V) versus registered current density (i, A/cm2) (Figure 2) [34].
Figure 2.
Tafel slopes.
The graph of applied potential versus registered current density is a straight line but that behavior is not observed for measured current (black lines). Due to that, corrosion current density (icorr) is estimated by extrapolation of straight part of the measured current (green lines). The value of corrosion current density is equal for anodic and cathodic reactions, that is, the parameter has a direct influence on the corrosion rate [34].
The value of icorr can also be estimated by measuring linear polarization resistance which is a quick testing technique for this method the material is polarized. The material’s resistance (Rp) is found by taking the slope of the potential versus current and the corrosion current density is calculated by using Stern-Geary Equation [35]:
icorr=βaβc/2.303βa+βc/RpE6
where βa, βc are slopes of anodic and cathodic of Tafel slopes, respectively [34].
Knowing the icorr value, corrosion rate can be estimated:
CR=icorr∗Eq∗10∗3.15∗107/F∗dE7
where Eq is the equivalent mass of metal exposed to corrosion (g); F is the Faraday constant (96,500 C); d is the density of metal (g/cm3) and 10×3.15×107 is the conversion factor used to obtain the result in mm/year [36].
Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy is also carried out in the standard three electrode system. After reaching equilibrium, impulse with known potential and frequency is applied. It disturbs balance of the electrochemical system. A measured quantity is impedance of the working electrode, Z (Ω), which is described by two types of impedance: real, Re(Z) and imaginary, Im(Z). The results are presented as Nyquist diagrams: a curve in Re(Z)-Im(Z) system [34]. Analysis of obtained data consists in describing the studied system with an equivalent electrical circuit. When the processes are related to charge transfer between metal and electrolyte, then the equivalent circuit consists in: solution resistance (Rs), charge transfer resistance (Rct) and double layer capacitance (Cdl) formed at the metal:solution interface. An example of the Nyquist diagram and the equivalent circuit is presented in Figure 3.
Figure 3.
Nyquist diagram and equivalent circuit.
In practice, instead of double layer capacitance, constant phase element (CPE) is used. Thanks to that, a fact that the system is not ideal capacitor to be considered. CPE is converted to Cdl by following equation [37]:
Cdl=CPE∗Rct1/n/RctE8
Where n is a chase shift which represents degree of imperfection [38].
Corrosion rate is calculated from the equation:
CR=icorr∗Eq∗10∗3.15∗107/F∗dE9
Corrosion current density is calculated from Stern-Geary equation [36].
Surface morphology of the metal is examined by using microscope techniques, SEM, AFM or TEM. It allows to observe all surface defects/damage done by corrosion [39]. Very often confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM) is used to choose the right area of the surface for further SEM/AFM/TEM examinations [37]. The mentioned methods are the most popular but there are also other possibilities to estimate corrosive damage such as analytical methods, volumetric, radiography or magnetic-powder testing. Analytical methods are based on the determination of the metal ions content in environment and qualitative and quantitative analysis of corrosion products by using mass spectrometry, absorption atomic spectrometry or spectrophotometry [31, 37]. Volumetric method measures volume of evolving gas in the corrosive reaction. Radiography is based on phenomenon of radiation absorption by materials. Radiographic images are compared with the image of undamaged sample [41]. Magnetic-powder testing consists in irregularity of distribution of the magnetic field in material’s defects. Tested sample has to be magnetized and then magnetic particles are applied and assemble in damage. Magnetic-powder testing is applied only for ferromagnetic materials [34].
5. Corrosion protection methods
There are five primary methods of corrosion control: (I) material selection, (II) design, (III) cathodic protection, (IV) coatings and (V) inhibitors. The simplest method for controlling the corrosion is the selection of the structural materials that change composition, change microstructure stress and eliminate tensile stress [39, 40]. Another method is an application of rational design principles which can eliminate many corrosion problems and reduce the time and costs associated with corrosion maintenance and repair [39, 40]. Cathodic protection is an electrical method to reduce corrosion rate of metallic structures in electrolytes such as soil or water [42]. To achieve the protection, the impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP) system and the sacrificial anodes cathodic protection (SACP) system are used [44]. Corrosion control by anodic protection is known from the literature [43] but currently it is rarely used due to high restrictions.
Coatings, that is, the isolation of the metal from the corrosive environment is one of the most significant method of protection against corrosion. Coatings could be metallic (tin-plated steel and galvanized steel) or non-metallic (organic or inorganic). The most important are organic coatings, polymers made from epoxides, polyurethanes, polyesters, melamine formaldehyde resins, polyacrylates and phenolic polymers [42, 43].
Recently, many new protective coatings have been developed; they could be based on graphene [47], hybrid based on graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide [22, 45, 46], polypyrrole [50], polyaniline/polyvinyl chloride blended [51], nano-hybrid epoxy coatings [52], bio-based polymers [53] or inorganic: siloxane based sol-gel coatings [54], silica-titaniahybrid [55] and iron aluminide coating [56]. Some of them can be used to form the superhydrophobicity surface [48, 49, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 61]. The coatings can also contain anticorrosive pigments, for example, lanthanum molybdate [62] or sodium phosphomolybdate [63], or anticorrosive coating additives like multiwalled carbon nanotubes [64]. To get the best protection against corrosion as well the optimal economy coatings and cathodic protection can be complementary used [44]. Corrosion inhibitors are special group of substances or their mixtures that prevent or minimize the corrosion. Inhibitors are adsorbed on the surface of the metal and form a protective thin film [39, 62].
The consumption of corrosion inhibitors reached nearly $1.1 billion in USA in 1998 and is forecasted to increase to $2.5 billion in 2017 [66].
Inorganic corrosion inhibitors, besides the oldest one, that is, molybdate anion, belong to calcium nitrite, rare earth metals salts, zinc phosphate, chromates and lanthanide compounds. However, the most numerous class of corrosion inhibitors are organic once [67]. Many of them are surfactants with hydrophilic and hydrophobic molecular moieties [68]. The corrosion inhibitors can be introduced as protective coating [69], bio-based lubricants [67, 68] and smart coatings that are released by the action of specific stimulus (e.g. change of pH, ionic strength or the change of electrode potential) [42, 60, 69, 70, 71, 72].
6. Organic corrosion inhibitors
Organic corrosion inhibitors are widely used in industry because of their effectiveness at wide range of temperatures, compatibility with protected materials, good solubility and relatively low toxicity [78, 79] This is a very important issue for researchers which is confirmed by an increasing number of papers (Figure 4). These compounds act as cathodic and anodic inhibitors. Cathodic corrosion inhibitors move the corrosion potential toward lower values and inhibit or delay the reactions occurring at the cathode (oxygen reduction and hydrogen evolution). In contrast, anode corrosion inhibitors react with the metal cation to form an insoluble hydroxide, block the active sites on the metal surface and move the corrosion potential in the direction of positive values, which prevents further oxidation (dissolution) of the metal thus reducing the rate of corrosion. It is very important to use the right amount of an anode inhibitor, because insufficient concentration to cover all the active sites can lead to localized corrosion which is difficult to detect. Mixed inhibitors provide the highest protection because they affect both cathodic and anodic reactions.
Figure 4.
Number of published papers about organic corrosion inhibitors versus year of publication.
The mechanism of action of organic corrosion inhibitors is based on the adsorption on the surface to form protective film which displace water from the metal surface and protect it against deteriorating. This process is not either purely physical or purely chemical adsorption. Adsorption is influenced by the chemical structure of organic inhibitors, nature and surface charge, the distribution of charge in the molecule and type of aggressive media (pH and/or electrode potential). The physical adsorption is based on electrostatic interaction between the charged metal surface and charged inhibitor molecule. Chemical adsorption is connected with the donor-acceptor interactions between free electron pairs and vacant, low energy d-orbital of metal (Figure 5).
Figure 5.
Schematic diagram representing the adsorption mechanism of Shiff bases on mild steel surface [82].
Effective organic corrosion inhibitors should contain heteroatoms (nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur and phosphorus) with lone electron pairs and moiety with π-electrons (aromatic rings and multiple bonds) that can interact with free orbital d metal, favoring the adsorption process [73].
The standard adsorption free energy (ΔG°ads) gives information about type of adsorption. Values up to −20 kJ/mol are connected with the electrostatic interaction (physical adsorption). More negative values, below −40 kJ/mol, correspond to chemisorption process. Negative values mean that both processes are spontaneous. Also the standard enthalpy of adsorption provides valuable information about the mechanism of corrosion inhibition. An endothermic adsorption process (ΔH°ads > 0) is attributed to chemisorptions, whereas an exothermic adsorption (ΔH°ads < 0) is connected to physical or physical/chemical adsorption process [26]. Presence of the heteroatoms with lone pair of electrons like nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur or phosphor as well π-electrons of multiple bonds or aromatic rings enhance adsorption phenomena [74]. Chemisorption involves transfer or sharing of unbounded electrons between the inhibitor molecule and the metal surface [75]. The order of corrosion inhibition is the reverse order of the electronegativity of these atoms
P>S>N>OE10
In acid environment, heteroatoms are protonated that additionally promotes the interactions between the inhibitor and the surface. The adsorption of organic corrosion inhibitors onto the surface of a corroding metal may be regarded as a substitution process between the organic compound, especially aliphatic chain in aqueous phase and water molecules adsorbed on the metal surface:
Orgsol+xH2Oads↔Orgads+xH2OsolE11
where Org (sol) and Org (ads) are, respectively, the organic species dissolved in the aqueous solution and adsorbed onto the metallic surface; H2O (ads) and H2O (sol) is the water molecule adsorbed onto the metallic surface and that in the bulk solution; x is the size ratio representing the number of water molecules replaced by one organic adsorbate.
The aliphatic chain has an influence on the corrosion protection due to the repulsion of nonpolar hydrophobic part of inhibitor and polar medium. The hydrophobic chains form a protective layer at the metal/water interface. The size and molecular weight of organic inhibitor also have an impact on the efficiency of inhibition [76]. Larger the molecule, greater is the inhibition efficiency:
R3N>R2NH>RNH2E12
where R is a hydrocarbon chain.
Concentration of corrosion inhibitors has an important impact on the inhibitor efficiency. The corrosion rate decreases with increasing concentration of inhibitors because the adsorption of the inhibitor also increases.
6.1. Structures of organic corrosion inhibitors
The large number of organic corrosion inhibitors can be divided for some clusters with specific elements, like (Figure 6):
Data about material, kind of inhibitor and inhibition efficiency.
Polymers have also a high anti-corrosion efficacy. This involves the ability to interact with many, so that surface adsorption is stronger in comparison with monomers. Polymers can be a protective coating, but they can also be used as corrosion inhibitors. For example, deoxyribonucleic acid is a biopolymer with high inhibition efficiency against steel reinforcement [94]. Similarly, natural polymer, chitosan, is used as corrosion inhibitor of copper in hydrochloric acid [95].
7. Quaternary ammonium salts as corrosion inhibitors
Due to the presence of positively charged nitrogen atom and the amphiphilic structure, quaternary ammonium salts are the center of interest for using them as highly effective corrosion inhibitors [96, 97, 98, 99, 100]. A special attention is devoted to new generation of quaternary ammonium salts—gemini surfactants. These compounds contain two hydrophilic head groups and two hydrophobic tails connected by a spacer at the head groups or closed to them. The spacer can have different structure; it can be rigid or flexible. It can also be hydrophobic or hydrophilic. The neutral charge of the molecule is retained by the presence of organic or inorganic anions. The gemini alkylammonium salts possess a very low critical micelle concentrations (cmc), which is up to hundred times lower than cmc’s of corresponding monomeric surfactants. Gemini surfactants also have a larger molecular area in comparison to monomeric analogs which cause them to act more efficiently as corrosion inhibitors [80, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110]. Dimeric surfactant 1,4-tetramethylene-bis(N-dodecyl-N,N-dimethylammonium bromide) (12-4-12) is more efficient in decreasing corrosion rate of carbon steel in 1 M HCl than its monomeric analogue N-dodecyl-N,N,N-trimethylammonium bromide (DTAB). The relationships of concentration and corrosion rate for both surfactants are presented in Figure 7.
Figure 7.
Relationship between corrosion rate of carbon steel and concentrations of surfactants.
Resistance of the carbon steel in a system-containing dimeric surfactant is much higher in comparison to blank solution (1 M HCl) or to solution-containing monomeric surfactant (Table 2). It means that metal is less susceptible to corrosion [111].
Concentration of surfactant (mM)
R (Ωcm2)
Blank
—
43
DTAB
0.05
159
12-4-12
0.001
364
Table 2.
Resistance of the carbon steel immersed in solution without and with cationic inhibitors.
Inhibition efficiency (IE%) is affected not only by number of positively charged nitrogen atoms but also depends on the length of alkyl chain. Longer the alkyl chain higher is the inhibition efficiency [97, 105] (Table 3).
Table 3.
Inhibition efficiency of dimeric surfactants for aluminum in 1 M HCl; concentration of surfactants: 1 mM [112].
The same correlation is observed in the spacer length. Longer the spacer, higher is the inhibition efficacy. For gemini surfactant ((C12H25)3N+-s-N+(C12H25)3) with two methylene groups as spacer (s) inhibition efficiency is 89% whereas IE is 93% for six methylene units at concentration 5 mM [109].
Additional heteroatoms or π electrons also favor adsorption onto the metal surface [113]. The order of the effective action increases with decreasing the electronegativity of the heteroatom: O < N < S < P [114]. Replacement of isopropyl group to hydroxyethyl or benzyl group leads to the increase of the inhibition efficiency from 95 to 96 or 97%, respectively (Table 4) [115]. Oxygen is a source of two unbonded electron pairs whereas benzene ring is a source of three pairs of π electrons, which can interact with free d orbitals of the metal.
Table 4.
Influence of the presence of heteroatoms and π electrons on inhibition efficiency of steel in 1 M HCl.
Increasing the number of heteroatoms also affects the inhibition efficiency (Figure 8) where 12–6-12 is 1,6-hexamethylene-bis(N-dodecyl-N,N-dimethylammonium) dibromide; G6-MOH-12 is (1,6-hexamethylene-bis(N-dodecyl-N-hydroxyethyl-N-methylammonium) dibromide; 12-MOH-O-MOH-12 is 3-oxa-1,5-pentamethylene-bis(N-dodecyl-N-hydroxy-ethyl-N-methyl-ammonium) dichloride [116].
Figure 8.
Structure of the gemini surfactants and Nyquist plots for stainless steel in 3 M HCl in the presence and absence of the synthesized inhibitors (naturally aerated, 7 days of immersion).
The plots in Figure 8 present a semicircular shape with a diameter corresponding to the corrosion resistance (large diameter and higher resistance). The stainless steel impedance response in the blank solution (black) shows a smaller diameter compared to the diameters of the plots for both gemini surfactants, the latter indicating higher resistance, that is, lower corrosion rate. The diameter is the biggest for surfactants functionalized with three oxygen atoms (12-MOH-O-MOH-12) [116]. Some of gemini surfactants, which are already commercially used, are a part of special compositions which are based on synergistic effect in order to lower the concentrations used [30, 110, 111, 112]. Some gemini surfactants are a part of patent about multifunctional corrosion inhibitors for iron alloys (tanks transporting oil and liquid fuel) which are subjected to acidic pollution, sulfur compounds, water, oxygen as well as calcium and magnesium cations [120]. Another patent is about using gemini surfactants as corrosion inhibitors of metallic materials which are used for gas and oil extraction [121]. The inhibitors contain heteroatoms and π electrons, their efficiency is higher than 90%. One inhibitor’s structure is presented in Figure 9 [120].
Figure 9.
Structure of one commercially used inhibitor.
One of the interesting organic corrosion inhibitors are ionic liquids (ILs) as potentially green chemicals. Amidation of chitosan subsequently quaternized with oleic acid and p-toluene sulfonic acid gave new ionic liquid. The corrosion inhibition of the prepared polymeric ionic liquid on steel in acidic medium was investigated by using different electrochemical techniques [122].
8. Biocorrosion
Microbially induced corrosion (MIC) is one of the fundamental problems in marine industry, pulp and paper industry, natural gas transmission, industrial water transmission, metalworking and chemical process industries. This kind of corrosion is also called as biocorrosion, bacterial corrosion, microbial corrosion is deterioration of metal or non-metal materials as a result of the metabolic activity of microorganisms [116, 117]. Biocorosion is mostly a result of the interaction of mechanical, physical, chemical and/or biological factors. Wind, water, particles of dust, pollution atmosphere and water, and, in the case of stone materials, action light and temperature changes cause damage to materials, allowing penetration moisture and colonization of microorganisms on their surface. This leads to the uprising biofilm, a biologically active layer of various types of microorganisms as well as mucus being the product of their metabolic activity. Biofilm creates very good environment for growing microorganism, and increase rate of corrosion even to 10,000 times. The key to avoid this problem is understanding the dynamics of microbes [118, 119].
8.1. Microorganism and environment
Prerequisites for microbial-induced corrosion are the presence of microorganisms. If the corrosion is influenced by their activity, further requirements are (a) an energy source, (b) a carbon source, (c) an electron donator and (d) water. The kinetics of biocorrosion is strongly influenced by the concentration of oxygen, presence of salts, pH value, redox potential and conductivity. The living bacteria produce extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) and form biofilms on the metal surface. Biofilms are characterized by strong heterogeneity [120, 121]. Biofilm consists of bacterial cells and extracellular polymeric substances (mixture of polysaccharides, proteins, nucleic acids and fats) which facilitate the attachment of bacterial cells to the surface. The biofilm also includes inorganic sludge from water and/or corrosion products [122, 123]. The most common methods to observe biocorrosion effects are scanning electron microscope (SEM) and confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM) [128] as well as X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy [124, 125, 126] and time of flight-secondary ion mass spectroscopy (ToF-SIMS) [129].
Bacteria involved in corrosion can be divided into following groups:
Sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) are anaerobic microorganisms that can obtain energy by oxidizing organic compounds or molecular hydrogen (H2) while reducing sulfate (SO42−) to hydrogen sulfide (H2S). In a sense, these organisms “breathe” sulfate rather than oxygen in a form of anaerobic respiration [20, 21]. Sea water is a primary source of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) (Figure 10).
Figure 10.
Mechanism of action SRB.
Metal-reducing bacteria (MRB) affects the corrosion of iron and its alloys by dissolving the passive film on the surface of the metal or by transformation of the sediment to a less stable reduced form that does not inhibit corrosion process. Included in this group are the bacteria of Pseudomonas and Shewanella have the ability to reduce iron oxide and manganese oxides whereby the speed reduction depends on the type of sediment [130, 133].
Metal-depositing bacteria (MDB)—Siderocapsa, Gallionella, Leptothrix, Sphaerotilus, Crenothrix and Clonothrix are involved in the biotransformation of iron oxide and manganese. Iron-depositing bacteria (e.g. Gallionella and Leptothrix) gain energy by oxidizing Fe (II) ions (dissolved or bound in sediments) to Fe (III). All these types of bacteria have the ability to oxidize Mn (II) to Mn (IV) with the precipitation of manganese dioxide that occurs in the rapid filter beds. Filamentous bacteria are associated with the formation of pitting corrosion [21].
Hydrogen sulfide-producing bacteria (SPB) are bacteria producing a large amount of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) during the development of biofilm (e.g. Clostridium, Flavobacterium and Desulfovibrio) their role in the corrosion process consists in covering the metal surface with a EPS layer facilitating the attachment and multiplication of others bacteria [21].
Acid-producing bacteria (APB) are bacteria that secrete inorganic and organic acids as products by-pass metabolism while simple organic acids (acetic, formic and lactic) are metabolites of bacteria heterotrophic [21].
8.2. Biocorrosion inhibitors
Methods to significantly slow have concern on inhibition of the growth of microorganisms and modification of the environment in which the corrosion process takes place. The basic steps to prevent and control biocorrosion are (i) cleaning procedures; (ii) microbiocides; (iii) coatings and (iv) cathodic protection [65].
Obviously it is not easy to stop process of growing bacteria with one compounds. Because these kind of species should have antimicrobial activity and also should be corrosion inhibitors. Example of that kind of multifunctional compounds are gemini surfactants [127, 128]. Biocidal activities of the synthesized surfactants were achieved by dropping the redox potential and confirmed preventing sulfide production in the reactor’s bulk phase. This means that all sulfidogenic bacteria are active in the reactor’s bulk phase and on the metal surface. Labena et al. describe potential biocorrosion inhibitors that contain quaternary ammonium atom (Figure 11) [135].
Figure 11.
Structure of potential biocorrosion inhibitors.
Quite new approach is using surface modification technologies such as short anti-biofilm peptides applying by immobilization method [136] also using small lipopeptides [137]. Using of coatings based on on silicone and epoxy resins are also method to protection against biocorrosion.
9. Designing organic corrosion inhibitors
Quantum chemical methods are useful for designing new, effective organic corrosion inhibitors as they relate electron structure of the compounds to their reactivity. Every year density functional theory (DFT) is more often applied for predicting a theoretical ability to inhibit corrosion process according to some quantum chemical parameters: energy of the highest occupied molecular orbital (EHOMO), energy of the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (ELUMO), gap energy (ΔE), chemical hardness (η), softness (σ), ionization potential (IP) and electron affinity (EA), electronegativity (χ) and fraction of electron transferred (ΔN) [94, 99, 131, 138]. The energy of the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) is associated with the ability of a molecule to donate electrons to the free d orbital of a metal. Compounds with higher EHOMO are more capable of donating electrons. The energy of the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) is related to the ability to accept electrons from the metal. Lower values indicate higher tendency of accepting electrons. Moreover, positive values are connected with chemisorption, whereas negative values with physisorption [94, 132]. Another important parameter is energy gap:
ΔE=ELUMO–EHOMOE13
The lower ΔE, the more reactive molecule, is related to better adsorption of inhibitor’s molecules onto the metal surface [133, 134]. The dipole moment (μ) is also an important parameter which gives information about polarity in a bond. Corrosion inhibition efficiency increases with increasing the value of μ, due to the stronger dipole-dipole interactions with the metal surface which results in stronger adsorption and efficient corrosion inhibition [140]. Chemical hardness (η) and softness (σ) provide information about the resistance of a molecule to charge transfer and about the capacity of a molecule to receive electrons. They are calculated according to the equations:
η=−1/2EHOMO−ELUMOE14
σ=1/ηE15
The higher σ value suggests softer nature of the molecule and greater tendency to donate electrons to the metal [101]. Energy of HOMO and LUMO orbitals can be used for calculating ionization potential (IP) and electron affinity (EA) by the following equations:
IP=−EHOMOE16
EA=−ELUMOE17
The calculated values are used for estimating the electronegativity (χ) [141]:
χ=IP+EA/2E18
High value of χ suggests strong ability to attract electrons from the metal which leads to greater interactions and higher corrosion protection. The last parameter which is calculated is the fraction of electron transferred (ΔN):
ΔN=χFe–χinh/2ηFe–ηinhE19
where χFe equals 7 eV and ηFe = 0 [101]. If ΔN > 0, electrons are transferred from the molecule to the metal and if ΔN < 0, from the metal to the molecule. For all tested gemini surfactants, the values of the fraction of electron transferred are negative indicating transfer from the metal to the molecules. Some quantum parameters for gemini surfactants and corrosion inhibition efficiency (IE%) of carbon steel are presented in Table 5 [139].
Table 5.
Electron parameters and IE% for the gemini surfactants.
According to the presented results, elongating the alkyl chain (R) leads to increasing corrosion inhibition efficiency from 79.86 to 81.32%. Based on the electron parameters, all values of ELUMO are negative, which are associated with physisorption. The lowest value of ELUMO and the highest value of EHOMO were noticed for a surfactant with octyl group, as well as the lowest ΔE and the highest dipole moment. The electron parameters suggest the compound with octyl group should be the most efficient inhibitor of the tested group. This observation is in agreement with experimental results (IE%). The values of ΔN which are higher than 0 indicate that electrons are transferred from inhibitor to free d orbital of the metal.
10. Summary
Organic corrosion inhibitors with heteroatoms and π-electron moieties are very efficient compounds to fight corrosion. The reviewed literature data clearly indicate that a new way to inhibit deterioration processes can be multifunctional gemini surfactants. Gemini alkylammonium surfactants with the highest corrosion inhibition efficacy can be synthesized according to prediction by theoretical calculations structures. These organic corrosion inhibitors can be also immobilized and used as biocorrosion inhibitors.
Acknowledgments
The work has been supported by the National Centre of Research and Development (Poland TANGO1/266340/NCBR/2015).
\n',keywords:"organic corrosion inhibitors, biocorrosion, sulfate-reducing bacteria gemini surfactants, corrosion tests",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/58695.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/58695.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58695",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58695",totalDownloads:3139,totalViews:4086,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:13,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"August 28th 2017",dateReviewed:"December 6th 2017",datePrePublished:"December 20th 2017",datePublished:"April 4th 2018",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Organic corrosion inhibitors are one of the five ways, besides material selection, design, cathodic protection and coatings, to protect materials against corrosion. Corrosion is an ubiquitous phenomena that deteriorates all materials, metals, plastics, glass and concrete. The costs of corrosion are tremendous and amounts to 4.0% of gross domestic product (GDP) in USA. The similar losses of GDP are noted in all countries around the world. At this point of time, there is no way to completely stop the corrosion processes. Some new solutions can only slow this process. Organic corrosion inhibitors are widely used in industry because of their effectiveness at wide range of temperatures, compatibility with protected materials, good solubility in water, low costs and relatively low toxicity. Organic corrosion inhibitors adsorb on the surface to form protective film which displace water and protect it against deteriorating. Effective organic corrosion inhibitors contain nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur and phosphorus with lone electron pairs as well can contain structural moieties with π-electrons that interact with metal favoring the adsorption process. This review presents mechanisms and monitoring of corrosion, laboratory methods for corrosion study, relationship between structure and efficacy of corrosion inhibitions, theoretical approach to design new inhibitors and some aspects of biocorrosion.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/58695",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/58695",book:{slug:"corrosion-inhibitors-principles-and-recent-applications"},signatures:"Bogumił Eugeniusz Brycki, Iwona H. Kowalczyk, Adrianna Szulc,\nOlga Kaczerewska and Marta Pakiet",authors:[{id:"197271",title:"Prof.",name:"Bogumil E.",middleName:null,surname:"Brycki",fullName:"Bogumil E. Brycki",slug:"bogumil-e.-brycki",email:"brycki@amu.edu.pl",position:null,institution:{name:"Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"207547",title:"Dr.",name:"Iwona",middleName:null,surname:"Kowalczyk",fullName:"Iwona Kowalczyk",slug:"iwona-kowalczyk",email:"iwkow@amu.edu.pl",position:null,institution:null},{id:"207548",title:"Dr.",name:"Adrianna",middleName:null,surname:"Szulc",fullName:"Adrianna Szulc",slug:"adrianna-szulc",email:"adrszu@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"207549",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Kaczerewska",fullName:"Olga Kaczerewska",slug:"olga-kaczerewska",email:"olga.kaczerewska@wp.pl",position:null,institution:null},{id:"220728",title:"MSc.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Pakiet",fullName:"Marta Pakiet",slug:"marta-pakiet",email:"mp50459@amu.edu.pl",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Mechanism of corrosion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Monitoring of corrosion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Laboratory methods for corrosion study",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Corrosion protection methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Organic corrosion inhibitors",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"6.1. Structures of organic corrosion inhibitors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"7. Quaternary ammonium salts as corrosion inhibitors",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"8. Biocorrosion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"8.1. Microorganism and environment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"8.2. Biocorrosion inhibitors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"9. Designing organic corrosion inhibitors",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"10. Summary",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Raja PB, Ismail M, Ghoreishiamiri S, Mirza J, Ismail MC, Kakooei S, et al. Reviews on corrosion inhibitors: A short view. 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Empirical and quantum chemical studies on the corrosion inhibition performance of some novel synthesized cationic gemini surfactants on carbon steel pipelines in acid pickling processes. Corrosion Science. 2016 Jul;108:94-110'},{id:"B102",body:'Hegazy MA, Abd El-Rehim SS, Badr EA, Kamel WM, Youssif AH. Mono-, di- and tetra-cationic surfactants as carbon steel corrosion inhibitors. Journal of Surfactants and Detergents. 2015 Nov;18(6):1033-1042'},{id:"B103",body:'Kaczerewska O, Leiva-Garcia R, Akid R, Brycki B. Efficiency of cationic gemini surfactants with 3-azamethylpentamethylene spacer as corrosion inhibitors for stainless steel in hydrochloric acid. Journal of Molecular Liquids. 2017;247:6-13'},{id:"B104",body:'Labena A, Hegazy MA, Horn H, Muller E. Cationic gemini surfactant as a corrosion inhibitor and a biocide for high salinity sulfidogenic bacteria originating from an oil-field water tank. Journal of Surfactants and Detergents. 2014;17:419-431'},{id:"B105",body:'Mobin M, Aslam R, Aslam J. Non toxic biodegradable cationic gemini surfactants as novel corrosion inhibitor for mild steel in hydrochloric acid medium and synergistic effect of sodium salicylate: Experimental and theoretical approach. Materials Chemistry and Physics. 2017 Apr;191:151-167'},{id:"B106",body:'Mobin M, Aslam R, Zehra S, Ahmad M. Bio−/environment-friendly cationic gemini surfactant as novel corrosion inhibitor for mild steel in 1 M HCl solution. Journal of Surfactants and Detergents. 2017 Jan;20(1):57-74'},{id:"B107",body:'Mobin M, Masroor S. Cationic gemini surfactants as novel corrosion inhibitor for mild steel in 1M HCl. International Journal of Electrochemical Science. 2012;7:6920-6940'},{id:"B108",body:'Sharma V, Borse M, Jauhari S, Pai KB, Devi S. New hydroxylated cationic gemini surfactants as effective corrosion inhibitors for mild steel in hydrochloric acid medium. Tenside, Surfactants, Detergents. 2005;42(3):163-167'},{id:"B109",body:'Tawfik SM. Ionic liquids based gemini cationic surfactants as corrosion inhibitors for carbon steel in hydrochloric acid solution. Journal of Molecular Liquids. 2016 Apr;216:624-635'},{id:"B110",body:'Tawfik SM, Abd-Elaal AA, Aiad I. Three gemini cationic surfactants as biodegradable corrosion inhibitors for carbon steel in HCl solution. Research on Chemical Intermediates. 2016 Feb;42(2):1101-1123'},{id:"B111",body:'Asefi D, Arami M, Mahmoodi NM. Comparing chain length effect of single chain and gemini surfactants on corrosion inhibition of steel in acid. ECS Transactions. 2011;35(17):89-101'},{id:"B112",body:'Zhang Q, Gao Z, Xu F, Zou X. Adsorption and corrosion inhibitive properties of gemini surfactants in the series of hexanediyl-1,6-bis-(diethyl alkyl ammonium bromide) on aluminium in hydrochloric acid solution. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects. 2011 May;380(1–3):191-200'},{id:"B113",body:'Hegazy MA, Atlam FM. Three novel bolaamphiphiles as corrosion inhibitors for carbon steel in hydrochloric acid: Experimental and computational studies. Journal of Molecular Liquids. 2016 Jun;218:649-662'},{id:"B114",body:'Abdallah M, Eltass HM, Hegazy MA, Ahmed H. Adsorption and inhibition effect of novel cationic surfactant for pipelines carbon steel in acidic solution. Protection of Metals and Physical Chemistry of Surfaces. 2016 Jul;52(4):721-730'},{id:"B115",body:'Hegazy MA, Abdallah M, Awad MK, Rezk M. Three novel di-quaternary ammonium salts as corrosion inhibitors for API X65 steel pipeline in acidic solution. Part I: Experimental results. Corrosion Science. 2014 Apr;81:54-64'},{id:"B116",body:'Kaczerewska O, Brycki B, Leiva-García R, Akid R. Cationic Gemini Surfactants as Corrosion Inhibitors of Stainless Steel (AISI 304) in 3M Hydrochloric Acid; Praga; 2017'},{id:"B117",body:'Qiu L-G, Wu Y, Wang Y-M, Jiang X. Synergistic effect between cationic gemini surfactant and chloride ion for the corrosion inhibition of steel in sulphuric acid. Corrosion Science. 2008 Feb;50(2):576-582'},{id:"B118",body:'Z-Y W, Fang Z, Qiu L-G, Wu Y, Li Z-Q, Xu T, et al. Synergistic inhibition between the gemini surfactant and bromide ion for steel corrosion in sulphuric acid. Journal of Applied Electrochemistry. 2009 Jun;39(6):779-784'},{id:"B119",body:'Zhao J, Duan H, Jiang R. Synergistic corrosion inhibition effect of quinoline quaternary ammonium salt and Gemini surfactant in H2S and CO2 saturated brine solution. Corrosion Science. 2015 Feb;91:108-119'},{id:"B120",body:'Altamirano RH, Cervantes VYM, Rivera LSZ, Conde HIB, Ramirez SL. Gemini surfactants, process of manufacture and use as multifunctional corrosion inhibitors. US 9023785 B2; 2015'},{id:"B121",body:'Henry KM, Hicks KD. Bis-quaternary ammonium salt corrosion inhibitors. US 8999315 B2; 2015'},{id:"B122",body:'El-Mahdy GA, Atta AM, Al-Lohedan HA, Ezzat AO. Influence of green corrosion inhibitor based on chitosan ionic liquid on the steel corrodibility in chloride solution. International Journal of Electrochemical Science. 2015;10:5812-5826'},{id:"B123",body:'Muyzer G, Stams AJM. The ecology and biotechnology of sulphate-reducing bacteria. Nature Reviews. Microbiology [Internet]. 2008 May;7; [cited 2017 Sep 19] Available from: http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/nrmicro1892'},{id:"B124",body:'Maluckov BS. Corrosion of steels induced by microorganisms. Metallurgical and Materials Engineering. 2012;18(3):223-232'},{id:"B125",body:'Kip N, van Veen JA. The dual role of microbes in corrosion. The ISME Journal. 2015 Mar;9(3):542-551'},{id:"B126",body:'Videla HA. Prevention and control of biocorrosion. International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation. 2002;49(4):259-270'},{id:"B127",body:'Miranda E, Bethencourt M, Botana FJ, Cano MJ, Sánchez-Amaya JM, Corzo A, et al. Biocorrosion of carbon steel alloys by an hydrogenotrophic sulfate-reducing bacterium Desulfovibrio capillatus isolated from a Mexican oil field separator. Corrosion Science. 2006 Sep;48(9):2417-2431'},{id:"B128",body:'Wagner M, Ivleva NP, Haisch C, Niessner R, Horn H. Combined use of confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and Raman microscopy (RM): Investigations on EPS – Matrix. Water Research. 2009 Jan;43(1):63-76'},{id:"B129",body:'Pradier CM, Rubio C, Poleunis C, Bertrand P, Marcus P, Compère C. Surface characterization of three marine bacterial strains by Fourier transform IR, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and time-of-flight secondary-ion mass spectrometry, correlation with adhesion on stainless steel surfaces. The Journal of Physical Chemistry. B. 2005 May;109(19):9540-9549'},{id:"B130",body:'Lee M, Kim H, Seo J, Kang M, Kang S, Jang J, et al. Surface zwitterionization: Effective method for preventing oral bacterial biofilm formation on hydroxyapatite surfaces. Applied Surface Science. 2018 Jan;427:517-524'},{id:"B131",body:'Enning D, Garrelfs J. Corrosion of iron by sulfate-reducing bacteria: New views of an old problem. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 2014 Feb 15;80(4):1226-1236'},{id:"B132",body:'Michalska J, Sowa M, Socha RP, Simka W, Cwalina B. The influence of Desulfovibrio desulfuricans bacteria on a Ni-Ti alloy: Electrochemical behavior and surface analysis. Electrochimica Acta. 2017 Sep;249:135-144'},{id:"B133",body:'Seo H, Roh Y. Biotransformation and its application: Biogenic Nano-catalyst and metal-reducing-bacteria for remediation of Cr(VI)-contaminated water. Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology. 2015 Aug 1;15(8):5649-5652'},{id:"B134",body:'Labena A, Hegazy MA, Horn H, Müller E. The biocidal effect of a novel synthesized gemini surfactant on environmental sulfidogenic bacteria: Planktonic cells and biofilms. Materials Science and Engineering: C. 2015 Feb;47:367-375'},{id:"B135",body:'Labena A, Hegazy MA, Horn H, Müller E. Cationic gemini surfactant as a corrosion inhibitor and a biocide for high salinity sulfidogenic bacteria originating from an oil-field water tank. Journal of Surfactants and Detergents. 2014 May;17(3):419-431'},{id:"B136",body:'Mishra B, Lushnikova T, Golla RM, Wang X, Wang G. Design and surface immobilization of short anti-biofilm peptides. Acta Biomaterialia. 2017 Feb;49:316-328'},{id:"B137",body:'Mishra B, Lushnikova T, Wang G. Small lipopeptides possess anti-biofilm capability comparable to daptomycin and vancomycin. RSC Advances. 2015;5(73):59758-59769'},{id:"B138",body:'Danaee I, Ghasemi O, Rashed GR, Rashvand Avei M, Maddahy MH. Effect of hydroxyl group position on adsorption behavior and corrosion inhibition of hydroxybenzaldehyde Schiff bases: Electrochemical and quantum calculations. Journal of Molecular Structure. 2013 Mar;1035:247-259'},{id:"B139",body:'Migahed MA, Shaban MM, Fadda AA, Ali TA, Negm NA. Synthesis of some quaternary ammonium gemini surfactants and evaluation of their performance as corrosion inhibitors for carbon steel in oil well formation water containing sulfide ions. RSC Advances. 2015;5(126):104480-104492'},{id:"B140",body:'Obot IB, Macdonald DD, Gasem ZM. Density functional theory (DFT) as a powerful tool for designing new organic corrosion inhibitors. Part 1: An overview. Corrosion Science. 2015 Oct;99:1-30'},{id:"B141",body:'Zarrok H, Oudda H, Zarrouk A, Salghi R, Hammouti B, Bouachrine M. Weight loss measurement and theoretical study of new pyridazine compound as corrosion inhibitor for C38 steel in hydrochloric acid solution. Pharma Chemica. 2011;3(6):576-590'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Bogumił Eugeniusz Brycki",address:"brycki@amu.edu.pl",affiliation:'
Faculty of Chemistry, Laboratory of Microbiocides Chemistry, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan, Poland
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Iwona H. Kowalczyk",address:null,affiliation:'
Faculty of Chemistry, Laboratory of Microbiocides Chemistry, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan, Poland
Faculty of Chemistry, Laboratory of Microbiocides Chemistry, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan, Poland
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1. Introduction
Since the 1980s, about 50% of the total production of synthetic polymers used as plastics worldwide has been achieved through free radical polymerization. Peroxy compounds in technical polymerization processes have played the most important role in addition to 60-year redox systems and azo initiators for nearly 100 years. For nearly 30 years, polymer synthesis with free radical polymerization reactions has attracted considerable attention technically, even though their share in total polymer production is still quite small [1].
The most important advantage of conventional free radical polymerization, which is widely used, is that many monomers can be polymerized using this method and that this polymerization can be made under moderate conditions. The most important disadvantage of this polymerization technique is that the polymer architecture and molecular weight are not controlled and also the production of polymers with large molecular weight distribution [2]. The manufacturing of polymers, of which molecular architecture and molecular weight can be controlled in recent years and which have low molecular weight distribution (polydispersity), has been made possible with controlled radical polymerization techniques. Under favor of controlled radical polymerization techniques, polymers with narrow molecular weight distribution can be produced in a desired molecular weight and desired molecular way in a controlled and repeatable manner. Synthesis of polymers, which have the star, comb, brush, worm, or graft architecture, is provided by molecular structure and size-controlled radical polymerization techniques [3, 4, 5, 6, 7].
Until today, the synthesis of block copolymers has usually been made through ionic polymerization. But ionic polymerization requires strict conditions, and the number of monomers is relatively limited. To overcome these disadvantages, simpler and easier techniques have been used recently for block copolymer synthesis [8, 9]. It has been possible to be successful in block copolymer synthesis in recent years with RAFT-ROP [10], ATRP-ROP [11], and redox polymerization-ATRP methods which have many advantages compared to other popular methods and have been implemented by using different techniques together [12]. Due to the practicability of two transformations at the same time or through separate steps, it minimizes homopolymerization which causes side reactions. Combining different polymerization techniques should be an interesting method for block and graft copolymers because the presence of more than one monomer in a polymer chain has been by combining such different techniques [10, 13, 14, 15]. The new polymers may have amazing features with their various compositions and architectures. The synthesis of block and graft copolymers was successfully performed by combining controlled radical polymerization techniques and redox polymerization [16]. The synthesis of block copolymers ends with traditional radical polymerization based on the connection of functional groups of the chain and polymers. Though this strategy was effective and successful, it was difficult to test the molecular weight and architecture of the polymer which was obtained. To be able to solve this problem, controlled free radical polymerization techniques were developed quickly [17].
In this present study, the synthesis of block copolymers over separate steps or on the same step was examined with different free radical polymerization techniques and redox polymerization methods. Copolymer synthesis by combining such different techniques has recently attracted considerable attention in polymer synthesis science.
2. Redox polymerization
Redox initiator polymerization was first discovered in Germany (1937); then it attempted to remove the induction period in aqueous or emulsion polymerization by adding a reducing agent to the oxidant initiator in the USA (1945) and in England (1946). Only the increase of rate of polymerization (RP) along with the expected decrease in the induction period was observed at that rate. The main characteristic of the compounds which form a redox pair for aqueous polymerization is their solubility in water, producing active, stable, and relatively fast radicals [1, 18].
The polymerizations activated by a reaction between an oxidant and a reducing agent are called redox polymerizations. The essence of redox activation is a reduction-oxidation process. In this process, an oxidant, i.e., Ce (IV) or Mn (III), forms a complex by simply reacting organic molecules at the beginning, which then decomposes unimolecularly to produce free radicals that initiate polymerization. There are peroxides, persulfates, peroxide phosphate, and salts of transition metals among the oxidants commonly used. These oxidants form effective redox systems with various reducing agents such as alcohols, aldehydes, amines, and thiols for the aqueous polymerization of vinyl monomers. The basic properties of the components forming a redox pair for aqueous polymerization are their water solubility and the quite rapid and stable release of active radicals [19, 20]. It is easy to control the reaction rate by changing the concentration of metal ion or peroxide, except for the use of low temperatures in redox systems [21]. There are many studies about block copolymer synthesis in the literature. Starting with a redox operation is only one method to obtain such polymers [22, 23].
The synthesis of block copolymers with redox systems provides a number of technical and theoretical advantages as compared with the other methods. Redox polymerization minimizes side reactions under favor of its applicability at low temperatures [24]. In radical polymerization, redox systems are widely used as initiators, and a result is accomplished in a very short time. When compared with the other methods, it is the main advantage of processing at a very moderate temperature (low; 30 kcal/mole for thermal start and 10–20 kcal/mole for activation energy). This shows that it can minimize possible side reactions. The Ce(IV) or permanganate initiators, which combine with a reducing agent that includes a hydroxyl or carboxyl group, are more commonly used initiators [25].
The mechanism and the speed of redox polymerization can be shown with the following equations:
For the first radical formation,
where R·is the form of one or two CH2OH functional groups converted to CH2O and kd is the rate constant for initiator cleavage in the redox reaction.
For initiation,
where M in the equation shows the polymerizable monomer by the redox method and ki shows the starting rate constant.
For growing,
There could be three types of endings: linear, bimolecular, and oxidative termination of the first radical:
For linear termination,
where kt1 is the linear termination rate constant.
For bimolecular termination,
where kt2 is the bimolecular termination rate constant.
For oxidative termination of the first radical,
where ko is the rate constant of the termination of the first radical.
3. Catalysts used in redox polymerization systems
Various compounds such as ceric, manganese, copper, iron, vanadium ion salts, and hydrogen peroxide were used as catalysts for the synthesis of block copolymers through redox polymerization. The ceric-based catalysts are the most widely used in these catalyst systems. The redox systems containing other catalysts were also examined. Ce(IV) or permanganate initiators, which combine with reducing agent containing a hydroxyl or carboxyl group, are the more commonly used initiators.
Ceric salts have shapes such as ceric(IV) ammonium nitrate (CAN), ceric(IV) ammonium sulfate (CAS), ceric(IV) sulfate (CS), and ceric perchlorate. As oxidation strength, ceric perchlorate > ceric nitrate > ceric sulfate were observed (1.7, 1.6, and 1.4 V), respectively, in the studies carried out with vinyl monomers [26]. A wide range of usages in the free radical production has been found by taking advantage of its amplifying properties in redox polymerization. The reduction reaction is given below.
The Ce(IV) salts and the Ce(IV) salt-reducing substance system are used as initiators for vinyl polymerizations in aqueous acidic solutions [27]. Organic reductant substances most commonly used with the Ce(IV) salts are alcohols, glycols, aldehydes, ketones, and carboxylic acids [27, 28]. Ce(IV) salts are used only in acidic solutions and most preferably in 0.5 or higher acid concentrations [29]. The solution’s color is yellow. The turning point can be determined even without an indicator in hot and non-dilute solutions.
It has been proven by research that Ce(IV) ion cannot initiate acrylamide polymerization alone and water is not oxidized by Ce(IV) ions [27]. So the radicals that start polymerization occur as a result of the reaction between the Ce(IV) ion and the reducing substance. A general mechanism is proposed for this.
When keeping the concentration of methyl methacrylate and Azo I constant and increasing the concentration of Ce(IV) up to 6 × 10−4 mol L−1, the polymerization rate also increased proportionally with [Ce(IV)]½ in the methyl methacrylate polymerization initiated by the hydroxyl functional group with a redox pair Ce(IV)-Azo I. This adherence explains the bimolecular termination. The rapid degradation of polymerization in high Ce(IV) concentrations indicates that active chains are terminated by Ce(IV) [30].
Arslan and Hazer [31] reported the polymerization of methyl methacrylate initiated by ceric ammonium nitrate (MMA) in the form of combination with polytetrafuran diol (PTHF-diol) and polycaprolactone diol (PCL-diol) in aqueous nitric acid. PMMA-b-PTHF and PMMA-b-PCL block copolymers were obtained. The polymerization reactions are presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Synthesis of PMMA-b-PCL-b-PMMA block copolymer with PCL-diol/Ce(IV) redox systems.
Hazer et al. [32] searched the polymerization of methyl methacrylate initiated by ceric ammonium nitrate and poly(glycidyl azide)-diol in the aqueous nitric acid. Poly(methyl methacrylate)-b-poly(glycidyl acrylate) copolymer was obtained. The reaction mechanism is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Polymerization of methyl methacrylate initiated by ceric ammonium nitrate in combination with poly(glycidyl azide)-diol (PGA-diol).
Çakmak et al. [33] used redox reactions in the preparation of acrylamide-ethylene glycol block copolymers (PAAm-PEG) containing azo groups in the main chain. The synthesis pathway of the copolymers is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3.
Polymerization of acrylamide with poly(ethylene glycol)azoester/Ce+4 redox system.
Shimizu et al. [34] synthesized redox reaction with the poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-b-ethylene glycol) [(PNIPAM)-b-(PEG)] thermo-responsive block copolymers in ceric ammonium nitrate catalyzer using the PEG macroinitiator. The synthesis mechanism of block copolymers is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4.
Synthesis of poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)-block-poly(ethylene glycol) block copolymer via poly(ethylene glycol)/Ce(IV) redox pair.
Göktaş et al. [12] evaluated poly(methyl methacrylate)-b-poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) [PMMA-b-PNIPAM] block copolymers in two steps under the catalyzer of ceric ammonium (IV) nitrate (CAN) [Ce(NH4)2(NO3)6] by using 3-bromo-1-propanol initiator, suitable for both redox polymerization and atom transfer radical polymerization which is one of the controlled radical polymerization techniques. The synthesis mechanisms of the polymerization are shown in Figures 5 and 6.
Figure 5.
Reaction pathways in the synthesis of ATRP macroinitiator.
Figure 6.
Reaction pathways in the synthesis of PMMA-b-PNIPAM block copolymers.
Zhuang et al. [16] evaluated poly(hydroxylethyl methacrylate)-branched-poly (acrylamide) (PHEMA-branched-PAM) polymer by combining atom transfer radical and redox polymerization methods. The synthesis mechanism of the polymer is shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7.
The synthesis route of PHEMA-branched-PAM layers via ATRP and redox polymerization on silicon substrates.
Göktaş et al. [35] evaluated poly(methyl methacrylate-b-styrene) and poly(methyl methacrylate-b-acrylamide) which were synthesized in two steps using a combination of the redox polymerization method and the atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) method. The synthesis mechanisms of the polymerization are shown in Figures 8 and 9.
Figure 8.
Figure 1 Chemical synthesis of PMMA-Br macroinitiator via redox polymerization.
Figure 9.
Synthetic route poly(MMA-b-S) and poly(MMA-b-AAm) for block copolymers.
Çakmak et al. [24] evaluated poly(acrylonitrile)-block-poly(ethylene glycol) block copolymer via redox polymerization using Mn(III) as catalyzer. The synthesis pathway of the copolymers is shown in Figure 10.
Figure 10.
Synthesis of poly(acrylonitrile)-block-poly(ethylene glycol) block copolymer via poly(ethylene glycol)/Mn(III) redox couple.
Liu et al. [36] evaluated methyl acrylate (MA) and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) block copolymers using a novel redox system-potassium diperiodatocuprate(III) [DPC]/PEG system in alkaline aqueous medium. The synthesis mechanism of the polymer is shown in Figure 11.
Figure 11.
Block copolymerization of methyl acrylate (MA) and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) using potassium diperiodatocuprate(III)[DPC]/PEG redox system.
4. Conclusion
Today, polymer materials science dominates the synthesis and design of polymers with complex architecture and advanced properties. The functional copolymers with block, graft, star, and brush structures can be prepared by controlled radical polymerization techniques. Copolymer synthesis has been important recently, especially by using controlled radical polymerizations in combination with traditional polymerization methods such as cationic polymerization and redox polymerization. This is because the homopolymer formation is minimized in block copolymer synthesis with the combination of such different techniques.
In this study, it was emphasized that block copolymer synthesis has superior properties compared to traditional polymerization methods using the redox polymerization method and different polymerization techniques, because combining different monomers in the same polymer chain in copolymer synthesis with multi-synthesis methods contributes positively to polymer material science.
\n',keywords:"redox systems, free controlled radical polymerization, redox polymerization, copolymer, macroinitiator",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68129.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/68129.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68129",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68129",totalDownloads:379,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:2,dateSubmitted:"December 3rd 2018",dateReviewed:"June 16th 2019",datePrePublished:"September 27th 2019",datePublished:"July 8th 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"In this study, block copolymer synthesis was evaluated by combining the redox polymerization technique and different polymerization techniques. By combining such different polymerization techniques, block copolymer synthesis has recently become an important part of polymer synthesis and polymer technology. The block/graft copolymers synthesized by combining such different techniques contribute greatly to macromolecular engineering. In today’s polymer synthesis, copolymer synthesis is of great interest in polymer technologies especially by using controlled radical polymerization and different polymerization techniques together. The success achieved in copolymer synthesis by using different polymerization techniques such as ATRP-ROP, RAFT-ROP, and ATRP-RAFT on the same step or different steps was achieved by combining redox polymerization with moderate polymerization conditions and controlled radical polymerization techniques as well.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68129",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68129",signatures:"Melahat Göktaş",book:{id:"7743",title:"Redox",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Redox",slug:"redox",publishedDate:"July 8th 2020",bookSignature:"Rozina Khattak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7743.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"207213",title:"Prof.",name:"Rozina",middleName:null,surname:"Khattak",slug:"rozina-khattak",fullName:"Rozina Khattak"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"288167",title:"Dr.",name:"Melahat",middleName:null,surname:"Goktas",fullName:"Melahat Goktas",slug:"melahat-goktas",email:"melahat_36@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Redox polymerization",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Catalysts used in redox polymerization systems",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Braun D. Origins and development of initiation of free radical polymerization processes. International Journal of Polymer Science. 2009;2009:10. DOI: 10.1155/2009/893234'},{id:"B2",body:'Misra GS, Bhattacharya SN. Polymerization of acrylamide initiated by the Ce4+/thiourea redox system. Journal of Polymer Science: Polymer Chemistry Edition Banner. 1982;8:61-131. DOI: 10.1002/pol.1982.170200114'},{id:"B3",body:'Okada S, Matyjaszewski K. Synthesis of bio-based poly(N-phenylitaconimide) by atom transfer radical polymerization. Journal of Polymer Science: Polymer Chemistry Edition Banner. 2015;53:822-827. DOI: 10.1002/pola.27507'},{id:"B4",body:'Lee IH, Discekici EH, Shankel SL, Anastasaki A, De Alaniz JR, Hawker CJ, et al. 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DOI: 10.1080/10601325.2014.953366'},{id:"B11",body:'Öztürk T, Yavuz M, Göktaş M, Hazer B. One-step synthesis of triarm block copolymers by simultaneous atom transfer radical and ring-opening polymerization. Polymer Bulletin. 2016;73:1497-1513. DOI: 10.1007/s00289-015-1558-2'},{id:"B12",body:'Göktaş M, Deng G. Synthesis of poly(methyl methacrylate)-b-poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) block copolymer by redox polymerization and atom transfer radical polymerization. Indonesian Journal of Chemistry. 2018;18:537-543. DOI: 10.22146/ijc.28645'},{id:"B13",body:'Öztürk T, Göktaş M, Hazer B. One-step synthesis of triarm block copolymers via simultaneous reversible-addition fragmentation chain transfer and ring-opening polymerization. Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 2010;117:1638-1645. DOI: 10.1002/app.32031'},{id:"B14",body:'Öztürk T, Göktaş M, Hazer B. 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DOI: 10.1007/s11696-019-00785-y'},{id:"B36",body:'Liu Y, Bai L, Zhang R, Li Y, Liu Y, Deng K. Block copolymerization of poly(ethylene glycol) and methyl acrylate using potassium diperiodatocuprate(III). Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 2005;96:2139-2145. DOI: 10.1002/app.21594'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Melahat Göktaş",address:"melahat_36@hotmail.com",affiliation:'
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