The main parameters of the rotational sensors in the MEMS technology.
-Preparation and fabrications of nanolayers with different methods.\n
-Description of recent achievements related to very important III-V heterostructures.\n
-Descriptions of mechanical, thermal, optoelectronic, photocatalytic, and tribological properties of nanolayered structures.\n
Some environmentally friendly applications are also treated in this book.\nThe presented book provides a description of specific and original results obtained by authors. We hope that the volume will be of interest for a wide range of readers working in the field of material science.",isbn:"978-953-51-3144-1",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3143-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4829-6",doi:"10.5772/65465",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"nanoscaled-films-and-layers",numberOfPages:298,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"f43ea8f3894ee0c3e44b2351bf3447d5",bookSignature:"Laszlo Nanai",publishedDate:"May 24th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5789.jpg",numberOfDownloads:19270,numberOfWosCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitations:15,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:32,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:60,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 26th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 17th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 13th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 13th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 12th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"61978",title:"Prof.",name:"Laszlo",middleName:null,surname:"Nanai",slug:"laszlo-nanai",fullName:"Laszlo Nanai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61978/images/system/61978.png",biography:"Prof. Nanai was born on April 19, 1948, in Csopak (Hungary). He studied physics (MSc) at Saint Petersburg State University (RU), and his PhD degree and habilitation in the field of quantum electronics were obtained at Lebedev Physical Institute, Moscow (RU), and Szeged University (H). \r\n\r\nHe is a specialist in the fields of solid-state physics, laser-matter interaction fabrication and characterization of nanostructures. He has written over 170 scientific publications including about 10 books and chapters in books and conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Szeged",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Szeged",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1169",title:"Condensed Matter Physics",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials-material-science-condensed-matter-physics"}],chapters:[{id:"54288",title:"Formation of Nanolayer on Surface of EPD Coatings Based on Poly-Ether-Ether-Ketone",doi:"10.5772/67570",slug:"formation-of-nanolayer-on-surface-of-epd-coatings-based-on-poly-ether-ether-ketone",totalDownloads:1438,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Poly-ether-ether-ketone (PEEK) is a high performance polymer with many intrinsic properties. When it is used in the form of coating, an improvement of some of its functional properties was achieved by forming a surface nanolayer. In this chapter, it will be described how it was possible to obtain this result. Firstly, three kinds of PEEK composite coatings were deposited by electrophoretic deposition, adding alumina particles, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and lignin to PEEK. Then, the composite coatings were thermal treated in a furnace. Therefore, surface nanostructure and chemical composition of these PEEK composite coatings were modified with respect to bulk coatings, due to interaction between PEEK chain and secondary phase, emphasised by the thermal treatment conditions. Experimental evidence of the formation of surface nanolayer was provided by SEM, TEM, GIXRD, ATR-FTIR and XPS characterisations. Functional characterisations demonstrated that wear resistance—in the presence of alumina particles—hydrophobicity—in the presence of PTFE—and corrosion resistance—in the presence of Lignin—were increased with respect to pure PEEK.",signatures:"Maria Federica De Riccardis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54288",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54288",authors:[{id:"77857",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Federica",surname:"De Riccardis",slug:"m.-federica-de-riccardis",fullName:"M. Federica De Riccardis"}],corrections:null},{id:"54678",title:"Electroless Deposition of Nanolayered Metallic Coatings",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68220",slug:"electroless-deposition-of-nanolayered-metallic-coatings",totalDownloads:3440,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Electroless metallic coating is referred as the deposition of a substrate material by the process of chemical or autocatalytic reduction of aqueous metal ions deposited to a substrate material without any external supply of power. Electroless nickel alloys are generally considered synonymous to the word “electroless coating” as ~90% of productions in industries are of this alloy coating. Rest of the electroless metallic coatings includes gold, copper, palladium, cobalt, silver, etc. These electroless metallic coatings (other than electroless nickel coatings) are also one of the vibrant areas in the field of materials properties and surface engineering research. From the year 2000 to till date, nearly 1000 SCI indexed research papers were published on this topic. However, no comprehensive studies about the recent progress on this topic were reported elsewhere so far. In this context, the present chapter aims to give a complete overview on various aspects of the rest of the electroless metallic nanocoatings/layer as a whole. More importance will be on the recent developments of the nanocharacteristics and future scopes.",signatures:"Jothi Sudagar, Rajendraprasad Tamilarasan, Udaykumar Sanjith, Raj\nRajendran and Ravi Kumar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54678",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54678",authors:[{id:"202302",title:"Dr.",name:"Jothi",surname:"Sudagar",slug:"jothi-sudagar",fullName:"Jothi Sudagar"},{id:"203599",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamilarasan",surname:"Tr",slug:"tamilarasan-tr",fullName:"Tamilarasan Tr"},{id:"203600",title:"MSc.",name:"Sanjith",surname:"U",slug:"sanjith-u",fullName:"Sanjith U"},{id:"203601",title:"Prof.",name:"Rajendran",surname:"R",slug:"rajendran-r",fullName:"Rajendran R"},{id:"203602",title:"Prof.",name:"Ravi Kumar",surname:"Nv",slug:"ravi-kumar-nv",fullName:"Ravi Kumar Nv"}],corrections:null},{id:"54328",title:"Laser Prepared Thin Films for Optoelectronic Applications",doi:"10.5772/67659",slug:"laser-prepared-thin-films-for-optoelectronic-applications",totalDownloads:1503,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Laser techniques such as pulsed laser deposition, combinatorial pulsed laser deposition, and matrix-assisted pulsed laser evaporation were used to deposit thin films for optoelectronic applications. High-quality transparent conductor oxide films ITO, AZO, and IZO were deposited on polyethylene terephthalate by PLD, an important experimental parameter being the target-substrate distance. The TCO films present a high transparency (>95%) and a reduced electrical resistivity (5 × 10−4 Ωcm) characteristics very useful for their integration in the flexible electronics. InxZn1−xO films with a compositional library were obtained by CPLD. These films are featured by a high optical transmission (>95%), the lowest resistivity (8.6 × 10−4 Ωcm) being observed for an indium content of about 44–49 at.%. Organic heterostructures based on arylenevinylene oligomers (P78 and P13) or arylene polymers (AMC16 and AMC22) were obtained by MAPLE. In the case of ITO/P78/Alq3/Al heterostructures, a higher current value is obtained when the film thickness increases. Also, a photovoltaic effect was observed for heterostructures based on AMC16 or AMC22 deposited on ITO covered by a thin layer of PEDOT:PSS. Due to their optical and electrical properties, such organic heterostructures can be interesting for the organic photovoltaic cells (OPV) applications.",signatures:"Marcela Socol, Gabriel Socol, Nicoleta Preda, Anca Stanculescu and\nFlorin Stanculescu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54328",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54328",authors:[{id:"21373",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",surname:"Stanculescu",slug:"anca-stanculescu",fullName:"Anca Stanculescu"},{id:"21611",title:"Dr.",name:"Florin",surname:"Stanculescu",slug:"florin-stanculescu",fullName:"Florin Stanculescu"},{id:"178419",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",surname:"Socol",slug:"gabriel-socol",fullName:"Gabriel Socol"},{id:"184343",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicoleta",surname:"Preda",slug:"nicoleta-preda",fullName:"Nicoleta Preda"},{id:"198589",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcela",surname:"Socol",slug:"marcela-socol",fullName:"Marcela Socol"}],corrections:null},{id:"54765",title:"Heteroepitaxy of III–V Zinc Blende Semiconductors on Nanopatterned Substrates",doi:"10.5772/67572",slug:"heteroepitaxy-of-iii-v-zinc-blende-semiconductors-on-nanopatterned-substrates",totalDownloads:1564,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the last decade, zinc blende structure III–V semiconductors have been increasingly utilized for the realization of high‐performance optoelectronic applications because of their tunable bandgaps, high carrier mobility and the absence of piezoelectric fields. However, the integration of III–V devices on the Si platform commonly used for CMOS electronic circuits still poses a challenge, due to the large densities of mismatch‐related defects in heteroepitaxial III–V layers grown on planar Si substrates. A promising method to obtain thin III–V layers of high crystalline quality is the growth on nanopatterned substrates. In this approach, defects can be effectively eliminated by elastic lattice relaxation in three dimensions or confined close to the substrate interface by using aspect‐ratio trapping masks. As a result, an etch pit density as low as 3.3 × 105 cm−2 and a flat surface of submicron GaAs layers have been accomplished by growth onto a SiO2 nanohole film patterned Si(001) substrate, where the threading defects are trapped at the SiO2 mask sidewalls. An open issue that remains to be resolved is to gain a better understanding of the interplay between mask shape, growth conditions and formation of coalescence defects during mask overgrowth in order to achieve thin device quality III–V layers.",signatures:"Thomas Riedl and Jörg K.N. Lindner",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54765",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54765",authors:[{id:"196852",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Riedl",slug:"thomas-riedl",fullName:"Thomas Riedl"},{id:"197870",title:"Prof.",name:"Jörg K.N.",surname:"Lindner",slug:"jorg-k.n.-lindner",fullName:"Jörg K.N. Lindner"}],corrections:null},{id:"54687",title:"Surface Modification of III-V Compounds Substrates for Processing Technology",doi:"10.5772/67916",slug:"surface-modification-of-iii-v-compounds-substrates-for-processing-technology",totalDownloads:1971,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Semiconductor materials became a part of nowadays life due to useful applications caused by characteristic properties as variable conductivity and sensitivity to light or heat. Electrical properties of a semiconductor can be modified by doping or by the application of electric fields or light; and from this view, devices made from semiconductors can be used for amplification or energy conversion. The compound semiconductor materials from III-V class experienced a qualitative leap from promising potential to nowadays technologic environment. The III-V semiconductor compounds are the material bases for electronic and optoelectronic devices such as high-electron-mobility transistors (HEMT), bipolar heterostructure transistors, IR light-emitting diodes, heterostructure lasers, Gunn diodes, Schottky devices, photodetectors, and heterostructure solar cells for terrestrial and spatial operating conditions. Among III-V semiconductor compounds, gallium arsenide (GaAs) and gallium antimonide (GaSb) are of special interest as a substrate material due to the lattice parameter match to solid solutions (ternary and quaternary) whose band gaps cover a wide spectral range from 0.8 to 4.3 μm in the case of GaSb. The solid/solid interfaces could play a key part in the development of microelectronic device technology. In most of the cases, the initial surface of III-V compounds exposed to laboratory conditions is covered usually with native oxide layers. Various techniques for performing the surface cleaning process are used, e.g., controlled chemical etching, in situ ion sputtering, coupled with controlled annealing in vacuum and often these classic techniques are combined in order to prepare an eligible semiconductor surface to be exposed to a technological device chain. The evolution of surface native oxides in different cleaning procedures and the characteristics of as-prepared semiconductor surface were investigated by modern surface investigation techniques, i.e., X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), atomic force microscopy (AFM), Rutherford backscattering spectrometry (RBS) combined with electrical characterization. Surface preparation of semiconductors in particular for III-V compounds is a necessary requirement in device technology due to the existence of surface impurities and the presence of native oxides. The impurities can affect the adherence of ohmic and Schottky contacts and due to thermal decomposition of native oxides (e.g., GaSb) it also affect the interface metal/semiconductor. The practical experience reveals that the simple preparation of a surface is a nonrealistic expectation, i.e., surface preparation is a result of combined treatments, namely chemical etching and thermal treatment, ion beam sputtering and thermal reconstruction procedure.",signatures:"Rodica V. Ghita, Constantin Logofatu, Constantin-Catalin Negrila,\nLucian Trupina and Costel Cotirlan-Simioniuc",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54687",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54687",authors:[{id:"50919",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodica V.",surname:"Ghita",slug:"rodica-v.-ghita",fullName:"Rodica V. Ghita"},{id:"197743",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucian",surname:"Trupina",slug:"lucian-trupina",fullName:"Lucian Trupina"},{id:"198134",title:"Dr.",name:"Constantin",surname:"Logofatu",slug:"constantin-logofatu",fullName:"Constantin Logofatu"},{id:"198135",title:"Dr.",name:"Constantin-Catalin",surname:"Negrila",slug:"constantin-catalin-negrila",fullName:"Constantin-Catalin Negrila"},{id:"198140",title:"Dr.",name:"Costel",surname:"Cotirlan-Simioniuc",slug:"costel-cotirlan-simioniuc",fullName:"Costel Cotirlan-Simioniuc"}],corrections:null},{id:"54581",title:"Nanoscaled Fluorescent Films and Layers for Detection of Environmental Pollutants",doi:"10.5772/67869",slug:"nanoscaled-fluorescent-films-and-layers-for-detection-of-environmental-pollutants",totalDownloads:1798,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Hazardous gas and ion pollutants are the most serious environmental problems around the world. It is of great importance to develop devices for easy detection of these hazardous substances. Fluorescence technology with high resolution and operational simplicity has attracted a lot of attention in recent years. Organic fluorescent dyes absorb/emit lights within a broad wavelength range, which is suitable for various demands. Chromophores, such as perylene, cyanine dyes, spiropyran, and so on, are widely studied as fluorescent probes for gases and ions. The dyes could respond to external stimuli through structural changes of the conjugated chromophore itself or the attached functional groups, leading to detectable spectral changes. Organic dyes are incorporated into nanoscaled films and layers, which are portable and durable for effective sensing in complex environments. In this chapter, preparation and application of fluorescent films and layers (FFL) for gaseous/ionic detection are reviewed. We discuss the response mechanism of fluorescent dyes, the fabrication of nanoscaled FFL, and some examples of FFL for the detection of gas and ion pollutants.",signatures:"Meizhen Yin and Chendong Ji",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54581",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54581",authors:[{id:"197509",title:"Prof.",name:"Meizhen",surname:"Yin",slug:"meizhen-yin",fullName:"Meizhen Yin"},{id:"200372",title:"Mr.",name:"Chendong",surname:"Ji",slug:"chendong-ji",fullName:"Chendong Ji"}],corrections:null},{id:"54290",title:"Mechanical Nanoprocessing and Nanoviscoelasticity of Surface- Modified Polycarbonate",doi:"10.5772/67512",slug:"mechanical-nanoprocessing-and-nanoviscoelasticity-of-surface-modified-polycarbonate",totalDownloads:1284,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"To clarify their potential as atomic force microscope (AFM) memory media, the nanometer‐scale mechanical processing properties of untreated and fluorocarbon plasma‐treated polycarbonate samples were determined via the sliding of an AFM tip. The surface energy of the polycarbonate was reduced by the fluorocarbon plasma treatment, as well as the force necessary for processing. Nanometer‐scale precise processing of the polycarbonate was realized after the fluorocarbon plasma treatment, and the interval pitch in the formation of lines, spaces, and nanometer‐scale fine dots was minimized to 60 nm with these samples. The viscoelastic properties of the fluorinated polycarbonate were evaluated using an AFM in force modulation mode. The fluorocarbon plasma treatment reduced the friction force of the polycarbonate sample and improved its wear resistance, which caused the friction durability corresponding to the reliability of data reproduction to be markedly improved. These results show that high‐density recording can be realized by nanometer‐scale processing of fluorocarbon plasma‐treated polycarbonate samples.",signatures:"Shojiro Miyake and Mei Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54290",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54290",authors:[{id:"22097",title:"Dr.",name:"Mei",surname:"Wang",slug:"mei-wang",fullName:"Mei Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"54966",title:"Green Intelligent Nanomaterials by Design (Using Nanoparticulate/2D-Materials Building Blocks) Current Developments and Future Trends",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68434",slug:"green-intelligent-nanomaterials-by-design-using-nanoparticulate-2d-materials-building-blocks-current",totalDownloads:1502,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Feasibility of designing and synthesizing ‘smart’ and ‘intelligent’ materials using nanostructured building blocks has been examined here based on the current status of the progress made in this context. The added advantages of using 2D layered/nonlayered materials along with phytosomal species derived from natural plants are highlighted with special reference to their better programmability along with minimum toxicity in biomedical applications. The current developments taking place in their upscaled productions are also included while assessing their upcoming industrial usages in diverse fields.",signatures:"Dinesh Kumar and Shamim Ahmad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54966",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54966",authors:[{id:"196523",title:"Dr.",name:"Shamim",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"shamim-ahmad",fullName:"Shamim Ahmad"},{id:"205981",title:"Prof.",name:"Dinesh",surname:"Kumar",slug:"dinesh-kumar",fullName:"Dinesh Kumar"}],corrections:null},{id:"54751",title:"Molybdenum Disulfide-Based Photocatalysis:Bulk-to-Single Layer Structure and Related Photomechansim for Environmental Applications",doi:"10.5772/67825",slug:"molybdenum-disulfide-based-photocatalysis-bulk-to-single-layer-structure-and-related-photomechansim-",totalDownloads:2006,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Bulk-to-single layer molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) is widely used as a robust candidate for photodegradation of organic pollutants, hydrogen production, and CO2 reduction. This material features active edge sites and narrow band gap features, which are useful for generating reactive species in aqueous suspensions. However, the high-charge carrier recombination, photocorrosion, unstable sulfide state, and formation of Mo-S-O links during photocatalytic reactions limit its applicability. Thus, research has focused on improving the performance of MoS2 by tailoring its bulk-to-single layer structure and combining it with other semiconductor materials to improve the photocatalytic performance. Different strategies have been successfully applied to enhance the photocatalytic activity of MoS2, including tailoring of the surface morphology, formation of heterojunctions with other semiconductors, doping, and modification with excess sulfur or carbon nanostructures. This review describes the influence of starting precursors, sulfur sources, and synthetic methods to obtain heterostructured morphologies and study their impact on the photocatalytic efficiency. Finally, the relevance of crystal facets and defects in photocatalysis is outlined. Future applications of MoS2 with tailoring and tuning physicochemical properties are highlighted.",signatures:"Surya Veerendra Prabhakar Vattikuti and Chan Byon",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54751",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54751",authors:[{id:"196995",title:"Prof.",name:"S V Prabhakar",surname:"Vattikuti",slug:"s-v-prabhakar-vattikuti",fullName:"S V Prabhakar Vattikuti"},{id:"199682",title:"Prof.",name:"Chan",surname:"Byon",slug:"chan-byon",fullName:"Chan Byon"}],corrections:null},{id:"54449",title:"Advance in Tribology Study of Polyelectrolyte Multilayers",doi:"10.5772/67571",slug:"advance-in-tribology-study-of-polyelectrolyte-multilayers",totalDownloads:1396,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This review introduced the preparation and structural characterization of polyelectrolyte multilayers in recent years and also summarized the tribology research progress of the polyelectrolyte multilayers, including tribological properties, surface adhesion characteristics, and wear resistance properties. Statistics analysis indicated that nanoparticles‐doped polyelectrolyte multilayers present better friction and wear performance than pristine polyelectrolyte multilayers. Furthermore, the in situ growth method resulted in improved structural order of nanoparticles composite molecular deposition film. In situ nanoparticles not only reduced the molecular deposition film surface adhesion force and friction force but also significantly improved the life of wear resistance. That was due to the nanoparticles that possessed a good load‐carrying capacity and reduced the mobility of the polymer‐chain segments, which can undergo reversible shear deformation. Based on this, further research direction of in situ nanoparticles molecular deposition film was proposed.",signatures:"Yanbao Guo and Deguo Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54449",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54449",authors:[{id:"196649",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanbao",surname:"Guo",slug:"yanbao-guo",fullName:"Yanbao Guo"},{id:"197584",title:"Prof.",name:"Deguo",surname:"Wang",slug:"deguo-wang",fullName:"Deguo Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"54123",title:"Thermal Radiative Wavelength Selectivity of Nanostructured Layered Media",doi:"10.5772/67395",slug:"thermal-radiative-wavelength-selectivity-of-nanostructured-layered-media",totalDownloads:1372,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Thermal radiative transport yields unique thermal characteristics of microscopic thin films—wavelength selectivity. This chapter focuses on a methodology about adjusting the wavelength selectivity of thin films embedded with nanoparticles in the far‐field and near‐field regimes. For nanostructured layered media doped with nanoparticles, Maxwell‐Garnett‐Mie theory is applied to determine the effective dielectric function for the calculation of radiative thermal transport. The thermal radiative wavelength selectivity can be affected by volume fraction and/or the size of the embedded nanoparticles in thin films. To characterize wavelength selectivity and optical property of nanostructured materials, both real and imaginary parts of effective refractive index need to be analyzed. It has been shown that the nanoparticles made of polar or metallic materials have different influence on thermal radiative wavelength selectivity of microscopic thin films.",signatures:"Yi Zheng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54123",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54123",authors:[{id:"197058",title:"Prof.",name:"Yi",surname:"Zheng",slug:"yi-zheng",fullName:"Yi Zheng"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7194",title:"Methods for Film Synthesis and Coating Procedures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0278e5a9a9d429a23692d1ce9bae2c2c",slug:"methods-for-film-synthesis-and-coating-procedures",bookSignature:"László Nánai, Aneeya Samantara, László Fábián and Satyajit Ratha",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7194.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"61978",title:"Prof.",name:"Laszlo",surname:"Nanai",slug:"laszlo-nanai",fullName:"Laszlo Nanai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"397",title:"Nanofibers",subtitle:"Production, Properties and Functional Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"934fe33b73b2ecba961c67d5a90021ec",slug:"nanofibers-production-properties-and-functional-applications",bookSignature:"Tong Lin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/397.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49937",title:"Dr.",name:"Tong",surname:"Lin",slug:"tong-lin",fullName:"Tong Lin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1045",title:"Nanocomposites and Polymers with Analytical Methods",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"65d477e855685ea85913e5aba0c5217e",slug:"nanocomposites-and-polymers-with-analytical-methods",bookSignature:"John Cuppoletti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1045.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49991",title:"Dr.",name:"John",surname:"Cuppoletti",slug:"john-cuppoletti",fullName:"John Cuppoletti"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3200",title:"Nanofibers",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"97487143b896780afaf08cfd67cd1eec",slug:"nanofibers",bookSignature:"Ashok Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3200.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7718",title:"Professor",name:"Ashok",surname:"Kumar",slug:"ashok-kumar",fullName:"Ashok Kumar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5139",title:"Semiconductor Photocatalysis",subtitle:"Materials, Mechanisms and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ddd35bd632c061ec2e69a0886a817443",slug:"semiconductor-photocatalysis-materials-mechanisms-and-applications",bookSignature:"Wenbin 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Mutual rotation or twisting of monumental blocks around a vertical axis as a result of seismic activity has been observed for nearly 300 years. The distortion of the San Bruno obelisk after the February 5, 1783 Calabria earthquake, intensity XI-XII MCS, is cited as the first illustration of these phenomena [1, 2], and now it is a symbol of seismic rotational effects. Starting with that event, we can find a large number of other examples of observed rotation effects resulting from historical earthquakes where the description of 12 majors ones (VII-XI MSC) can be found [3]. The shallow, catastrophic 2009 l’Aquila earthquake was a source of more than hundreds of evidenced rotational effects. Its analysis [4] revealed a tectonic dependence of their distribution and the influence of substrate. From the above, positive correlations have been found between rotation effects, damage and soft lithology of the site where buildings are located.
However, the term ‘rotation’ has several meanings in seismology. Displacement of rocks, soils and various objects during an earthquake in the focal area and its vicinity, and reversible rotational oscillations in the seismic wave field are called ‘seismic rotations.’ The historical explanation of observed seismic rotations based on mechanical models can be found in [5, 6], whereas Section 2. summarizes their explanations on the basis of continuum models.
Recently, it is believed that rotational signals contain additional information, valuable for studies on wave propagation, and that the rotational ground motion is an important source of excitations in the engineering structures. Therefore, increasing interest in rotational motions’ measurement has emerged. From seismological point of view, it is an area of a rotational seismology which according to [7] becomes an emerging field for the study of all aspects of a rotational ground motion induced by earthquakes, explosions, and ambient vibrations. This domain is very interesting for researchers from a wide range of geophysical disciplines, including broadband seismology, strong motion seismology [8], earthquake physics [9, 10], seismic hazards [11], seismotectonics [12], geodesy [13], and for physicists using Earth-based observatories for detecting gravitational waves generated by astronomical sources [14, 15, 16]. Additionally, it is interesting for researchers of earthquake engineering, where seismic behavior of different engineering structures is investigated [17] to search for their optimal seismic design [18].
However, rotational seismology needs a new methodology and new instruments for more reliable recordings. A rigorous analysis of existing classical solutions delivered from instruments for seismological investigation [19] shows their limited usefulness for rotational events recording, mainly because of their sensitivity to linear motions, as well. For the abovementioned reason, in Section 3, we have summarized the main types of rotational seismometers that now exist, with comments on their usefulness. This description shows that a new approach taking advantage of the von Laue-Sagnac effect [20] is the most promising one. Finally, in Section 4, recent results regarding rotational events’ detection, which are obtained in Poland, based on such approach are presented and discussed.
This chapter presents the description, the principle of operation, and the comparison of main technical parameters regarding requirements of rotational seismology. This will help seismologists and earth scientists involved in seismic studies to choose the best method for analyzing problems related to seismic rotation.
In all continuum models mentioned in this section, the wave motion, possibly with rotations, comes from the integration of motions and deformations of numerous small bodies, which form the given continuum. Exterior conditions or forces play only a minor role with the exception of a discontinuous surface. There exists a tension between two types of solid material’s mechanical features such as rock mass and soil. In the first case, the continuous material can translate rectilinearly in its body. A mechanical impulse is translated in a medium as the elastic wave in two simultaneous ways: as compressional-dilatational deformations––the longitudinal wave and transverse shape distortions––the transverse wave. In the second case, both the continuous and grainy solid matter can also be translated into rotational motions in which we distinguish a rotation (named also rigid rotation, or simply a turn) and a symmetric-shape distortion––the shear. It should be underlined that in the elastic theory, there is no place for a rigid rotation, as it would introduce a complicated deformation state around the small body which turns. This theory explained so many phenomena; as a result, the idea of rotation was not accepted.
Recently, it becomes clear that the S-waves comprise rotations of axes perpendicular to the wave propagation. For the plane wave, a suitable relation was found by Igel et al. [21] joining this rotation velocity to transverse acceleration and phase velocity. Rotation curves were very similar to signals of a horizontal acceleration divided by twice the phase velocity (all measured in SI units). The relation was confirmed with a simple geometrical consideration of motions [22, 23]. The same results were found also in the seismic near field, where the spherical wave front was taken as a sufficient approximation [24, 25]. This aspect of the measured oscillations leads to one of the reasons to study rotations––the phase velocity may be easily assessed in this way. The same relation is valid for a love-type surface wave. Since measurements usually proceed on the Earth’s surface, rotations about horizontal axis, as in Sv and Rayleigh waves, are not amenable to this method. Finally, various reasons can be found for the presence of rotations also in a P-waves’ part of a seismic event trace. For instance, it must be noted that in reality, far from ideal conditions, P-waves are not entirely longitudinal, as well as S-waves bear not only shearing deformations.
It must be noted that this geometrical aspect of rotation does not solve all the problems. Microscopic motions and deformations may not be uniform and not have the same sense. Possible modes of their propagation have been formulated within the vast area of micromorphic studies (including micropolar variant of theories) led by mathematicians and physicists [26]. This branch of science is also named the generalized continuum theory. This trend, initiated by Cosserat brothers in 1909 [27], started to flourish decades later with works of Eringen [28], Nowacki [29, 30], and others. In the micromorphic approach, solid material is taken consisting of numerous small (not infinitesimal) bodies, often called shells, which are capable of deformations and rotations. Various modes of passing them from one body to the other have been proposed [31], and this leads to the independent rotational waves’ concept [32, 33]. Individual small body in the undeformed state is usually seen as a cube; each of its sides may react not only to a vector of stress but also to their couple. Couple stress denotes a noncentric interaction between small bodies: a pair of forces act on the body’s surface and their moment “tries” to distort or rotate the body. This theoretical small body is treated, in some works, as anisotropic layered entity [34].
In some works, joints between small bodies are treated as important elements in the deformation/propagation process. Among the particle-based numerical studies, there are such in which neighboring particles (small bodies) are linked by elastic bonds “…which can transfer elastic forces, both attractive or repulsive” and break if the distance between the pair exceeds a certain threshold. Such model allows shearing, twisting, and bending interactions between two bonded particles. Used in simulating fracturing, this model facilitates realistic results [35].
The contemporary studies on generalized elasticity can be found in the works of Grekova [36] as well as in the works of Neff et al. [37], which finally concluded that the rotations that are treated as antisymmetric motions/deformations should also be presented. Review on the topic has been prepared by Hadjesfandiari and Dargush [38], which concluded that when an elastic wave propagates through the medium considered in accordance with generalized elasticity concepts, its elements undergo angular motions. Despite the fact that the micromorphic approach is more visible in acoustics or in the studies on various materials than in the geophysics, recent [39, 40, 41] search for laboratory confirmation of the micromorphic concepts of seismic rotation yielded sound results, as well.
Original theory of rotational components of a seismic field has been developed by Teisseyre. Starting from elastic continuum with defects [42], he constructed a model of rotations and shears’ generation and propagation on the base of constitutional bonds between the antisymmetric part of stresses, density of self-rotation nuclei and the stress moments. Finally, a linear continuum theory, incorporating asymmetric (symmetric plus antisymmetric) stress field, as well as shears and rotations, was introduced [43, 44, 45]. In this theory, rotation and shear propel each other. Developing stages of abovementioned theories helped to popularize the rotational seismology in the sciences and resulted in the monographs by [9, 10]. Teisseyre works also accomplished field studies with the use of original microarray of sensors [46, 47, 48, 49].
Near-field rotation effects were explained by the action of a nonlinear deformational bend-rotation wave [50]. Several studies point to the possibility of rotational soliton waves (pulses) generated during an earthquake in the focal area, then propagating slowly along fault and triggering new events [51].
Beside verifications of theoretical concepts, dynamic measurements of a real earthquake wave field are urgently needed. These should be best done with special devices enabling detection and recording of rotational motions. Such devices generally named the rotational seismometers or seismographs appeared relatively not long ago, and description of their current state is given in the following section.
The main thing regarding the practical construction of a rotational seismometer is a proper description of the fundamental parameters required for such sensor. The general scope of such parameters for a rotational seismometer, which is used for recording signals connected with rotational seismic effects was formulated only 5 years ago in 2012 by [52] as the following four requirements: (1) independently; (2) assures portable size as well as stable work under changing ambient conditions (temperature, humidity, vibration, pressure,…); (3) uses independent power supply that assures autonomous work; and (4) protects measuring rotation rate with an amplitude of the order of 10−7 rad/s at a frequency range between 0.01 and 0.1 Hz. Moreover, (1) the device should be completely insensitive to linear motion or has possibility to measure linear and rotational movements, and the similar requirements were also described for an earthquake engineering area of rotational seismology interest; the first three were the same and only the last one differs in a measuring range containing amplitude up to a few rad/s at a frequency range up to 100 Hz [53].
A formulation of main requirements for rotational seismometers regarding the rotational seismology is useful for a review of available current solutions in this area. Generally, all used devices can be classified as mechanical, acoustical, electrochemical, and optical devices.
The mechanical systems were historically first used, and they can detect rotation in two ways: directly and nondirectly. The directly rotation detecting systems represent modern mechanical rotational sensors based on a highly miniaturized technique named micro electro-mechanical systems (MEMS). Originally, this technique was developed for manufacturing integrated accelerometers for airborne applications. Rotational seismometers in this technique, usually called MEMS gyro, resemble microelectronic systems in terms of size and production methods. MEMS gyros use the Coriolis effect, and each type of these sensors currently uses vibrating proof masses, which generally vibrate at a high frequency. If the sensor rotates in an inertial space, a Coriolis force is induced on the proof mass. The Coriolis effect generates a vibration in an orthogonal plane, and amplitude of the orthogonal motion can be detected. One can distinguish the following technological structures of MEMS gyros [54]: tuning fork gyros (TFG), hemispherical resonating gyro (HRG) or wine glass resonator gyro, vibrating-wheel gyros, and Foucault pendulum gyros. The biggest advantage of these devices is their mass production at low cost with a small form factor. Systron Donner Inertial (USA), using this technology, manufactured a compact, high reliability, solid-state angular rotation sensor named Horizon™ [55]. It uses vibrating quartz tuning tines to sense rate, acting as a Coriolis sensor, coupled to a similar fork as a pickup to produce the rate output signal (Figure 1). Aligned with their support fixtures and frames, these paired tines are fabricated from thin wafers of single crystal piezoelectric quartz.
MEMS gyros: (a) scheme of operation, (b) the Horizon™ MEMS angular rate sensor HZ1-100-100, and (c) Gladiator Technologies Inc. model G200D [
Another company, Gladiator Technologies Inc., offers six models of MEMS gyros, which are very small, portable and of ultra-low power consumption (see Figure 1c) [56]. Nevertheless, the products by both abovementioned companies do not fulfill requirements for entirely rotational seismology as shown in the study, and their parameters are listed in Table 1. They are suited solutions as an additional device, which can be used for laboratory investigation, mainly for a rotational seismology engineering application (see example [57]).
Parameter | Unit | HZ1–200-100 [55] | G200D [56] |
---|---|---|---|
Axial | Uniaxial | Triaxial | |
Sensitivity1 | rad/s/√Hz | 4.4 × 10−4 | 8.7 × 10−5 |
Maximum rate | rad/s | 3.49 | 5.23 |
Frequency band | Hz | >60 | Bandwidth 200 |
Operating temperature | °C | −40 to +71 | −40 to +85 |
Calibration (S.F. dev. from 20/22°C) | %/°C | <0.08 | <0.05 |
Shock survival | g | 200 | 500 |
Power supply | VDC | 8–12 | 3.1–5.5 |
Supply current | mA | <20 | <300 |
Power consumption | W | 0.24 | 0.30 |
Weight | kg | <0.06 | <0.031 |
Dimensions (L × W × H) | mm | 58.3 × 25.3 × 25.3 | 25.4 × 25.4 × 25.4 |
The main parameters of the rotational sensors in the MEMS technology.
An output noise for SNR = 1 also defined as a resolution @ 1 Hz in (rad/s).
The mechanical systems working in an indirect way use defined pairs of classical seismometers. The first of them named Rotaphone based on commercially available geophones arranged in parallel pairs has been mounted on a rigid frame. They have been applied to record seismic events induced by natural sources (weak earthquakes with measured rotation about 10−6 rad/s) and anthropogenic sources (blasts with measured rotation about 10−3 rad/s) [24, 59, 60, 61]. They can be described as a recording system of ground velocity and rotational rate at a point. In order to obtain the rotational rate accurately, special gradients of the ground velocity wave field have to be measured. In 2010, a system named 6DOF (six-degree-of-freedom, see Figure 2a) was developed containing eight horizontal and one vertical geophones SM-6 (Sensor Nederland, B.V.), and it was mounted onto a cubic-shaped metal frame. It gives the possibility of recording three Cartesian components of ground velocity and three rotation rate components about Cartesian axes. Finally, the system named Rotaphone-D used 16 (eight horizontal and eight vertical) SM-6 geophones mounted around disc with a separation of the paired geophones of 0.4 m, as shown in Figure 2b [58]. The separating distances were chosen to correlate with a specific wavelength of interest. Data from Table 2 show that Rotaphone is close to fulfilling the requirements for seismological applications. However, their frequency ranges are still too narrow, and they should be treated as short-period systems. The other type of mechanical rotational seismometer operating in an indirect way named TAPS is described later.
Schematic and general view of Rotaphones: (a) 6DOF prototype II [
Parameter | Unit | Rotaphone | |
---|---|---|---|
6DOF [24] | D [58] | ||
Frequency range | Hz | 2–601 | 2–801 |
Sampling frequency | Hz | 250 | 250 |
Sensitivity2 | rad/s | 2.16 × 10−9 | 3.77 × 10−9 |
Maximum rate | rad/s | 2.87 × 10−1 | 3.17 × 10−2 |
Dynamic range | dB | 120 | 120 |
Operating temperature | °C | −20–40 | −40–1003 |
Weight | kg | 9.5 | 15.3 |
Dimensions (L × W × H) | mm | 350 × 350 × 430 | 4454 × 112 |
Natural frequency | Hz | 4.5 | 4.5 |
A/D converter (dynamic) | Type (Bit) | 4 × Tedia (28) | 1 × EE & S (24) |
The main parameters of Rotaphone rotational seismometers.
The instrument generally operates in a high-frequency range (above the natural frequency of the sensors used).
Understood as an expression for the smallest signal that can be resolved ([19] p. 79).
Data for geophone SM-6.
Disc diameter.
The electrochemical rotational seismometers use molecular electronic transfer (MET). One can point out R-1 and R-2 from Eentec (USA) as representative in this group. Sensor construction is based on the electrochemical transducer contained in a channel filled with an electrolytic solution [63]. It includes four fine platinum mesh electrodes separated by microporous spacers (Figure 3). The fluid motion is converted into an electrical signal by using the ions’ convective diffusion in electrolyte. The rotational seismometer has a toroidal channel filled with electrolyte. If the sensor rotates, liquid is forced through the MET sensor placed across the channel, converting liquid motion into electrical output. The parameters of R-1 and R-2 (see Table 3) are very close to fulfilling all technical requirements for entirely rotational seismology for both seismological and engineering applications.
The electrochemical rotational seismometer: (a) schematic diagram of the MET transducer and (b) the Eentec R-1 [
Parameter | Unit | R-1 [62] | R-2 [64] |
---|---|---|---|
Axial | Triaxial | Triaxial | |
Sensitivity1 | rad/s/√Hz | 1.2 × 10−7 | 0.6 × 10−7 |
Maximum rate | rad/s | 0.10 | 0.40 |
Dynamic range | dB | 110 | 117 |
Frequency band (extended) | Hz | 0.05–20 (0.03–50) | 0.03–50 (0.01–100) |
Scale factor2/optional | V/rad/s | 50/ 2 × 102 | 50/5–2 × 102 |
Operating temperature | °C | −15 to +55 (extended −45 to +55) | |
Shock survival | g | 200 | 200 |
Power supply | VDC | 9–14 | 9–18 |
Power consumption | W | 0.28 | 0.54 |
Weight | kg | 1.0 | 1.5 |
Dimensions (L × W × H) | mm | 120 × 120 × 90 | 120 × 120 × 100 |
The main parameters of rotational seismometers R-1, R-2.
An output noise for SNR = 1 also defined as a resolution @ 1 Hz in (rad/s).
Understood as the gain of the instrument ([19] p. 79).
Nevertheless, measurements carried out in the last decade showed reasonable results only for higher frequencies. The test with model R-1 showed its linear sensitivity equal to 6 × 10−5 rad/s/(m/s2) and a 2% cross-axis sensitivity [65]. The calibration quality casts also doubt in lower frequency range (<1 Hz) [66] since the frequency response does not have a flat shape, and at frequencies above 1 Hz, the dynamic range is only 80 dB [56]. Moreover, the measurement [52] in a temperature range of 20–50°C revealed deviations in the scale factor from the nominal value equaling 27 and 18% for R-1 and R-2, respectively, which suggests that this technology needs to be improved. In spite of the abovementioned disadvantages of the electrochemical seismometers, the R-1 model has recorded several hundreds of local earthquakes and two explosions in Taiwan [67].
The sensors designed by Applied Technology Associates (USA) [68] represent another technology with fluid. These devices operate based on the physical principle named magnetohydrodynamics (MHD). The main part of the sensing is a rotational proof mass containing conducting fluid as well as a permanent magnet that is fixed to the sensor case (Figure 4). The case-fixed magnetic flux moves through the inertially fixed conducting fluid with relative velocity as the case is rotated with the angular velocity Ω. This relative velocity between the magnetic flux and the fluid conductor generates a radially oriented electric field. This interaction or the MHD effect produces a voltage difference between the electrode surfaces that may be amplified by a transformer or other active electronic amplifier configurations. The signal (voltage output) is proportional to the angular rate Ω [70].
Principle of magnetohydrodynamics effect of a conductive fluid in the presence of a magnetic field [
At ATA website, one can find two models of angular rate sensors: ARS-14 and ARS-15 (Figure 5a and b), where ARS-14 is able to measure angular motions as low as 30 nanoradians. Nevertheless, it should be emphasized that the sensor construction in MHD technology limits the frequency bandpass because the lower corner frequency is a function of parameters such as conductive fluid and fluid proof geometry. The upper value of a frequency bandwidth is usually determined by a signal processing unit. The ATA model Proto-SMHD (Figure 5c) which can be found in [69] is interesting because it is the device suited for microseismic signal detection. Nevertheless, in the literature, there are no examples of these sensors application for recording effects connected with rotational seismology.
Various models of angular rate sensors by ATA: (a) ARS-14, (b) ARS-15 [
The last group is the optical systems operating based on the Sagnac effect [72] (more precisely, the von Laue-Sagnac effect). They are interferometric devices which use light for rotation detection. For the abovementioned reason, they have nonfrequency dependence of an output signal. The optical rotational seismometer exists in laser (RLG) or fiber (FOG) technology.
The ring laser gyroscopes (RLGs) detect the Sagnac beat frequency of two counter-propagating laser beams, which are propagated along a rectangular or triangular perimeter (Figure 6a). In the RLG, two coherent laser beams of an equal wavelength are generated. They are introduced into the system, and they circulate around the closed cavity in opposite directions. If the whole system rotates, the effective cavity length between the counter-propagating laser differs and a frequency splitting of two counter-propagating optical waves is obtained. The Sagnac frequency, δf, is described as:
where
The ring laser gyroscope: (a) principle of operation, (b) GEOSensor [
The RLGs have been applied for the rotational seismic events recording since the 1990s. The first ring laser gyroscope named “C-I” was assembled in the University of Canterbury in New Zealand in 1988–1990, and their parameters can be found in [75]. The next version was the ring laser “C-II” [76]. Its cavity with an area of 1.0 m2 was equipped with an ultra-high vacuum between metal flanges and a solid piece of Zerodur (glass ceramic with a low thermal expansion coefficient). The ring laser gyro with an area of 16 m2 and named ring laser “G” was assembled at Wettzell, Germany in 1998–2001. The bigger ring laser gyro named “UG-1” is installed in Cashmere Cavern, New Zealand. Its laser cavity has an area of 367 m2. Especially, for seismological application, the ring laser “GEOsensor” has been designed and assembled at Wettzell, Germany. The “ROtational Motions in seismologY (ROMY)” [74] is a big project under the leadership of Igel. During the project, an apparatus consisting of four individual triangular ring lasers arranged in the shape of a tetrahedron with 12 m of length on each side (Figure 6c) will be used. The ROMY’s constructors expect sensitivity in the range between 0.02 and 0.05 × 10−12 rad/s [74]. Table 4 summarizes the fundamental parameters of various RLG systems. As one can see, there are not so many installations of RLGs, mostly because of their high cost and high sophistication involved in installation. They are very sensitive to external local disorders such as temperature, noise or pressure. Due to their dimensions and special isolation, they are unable to be transported.
RLG name | Area (m2) | Sensitivity (rad/s/√Hz) |
---|---|---|
C-II | 1 | 7.2 × 10−10 |
G | 16 | 9.0 × 10−11 |
UG1 | 367 | 4.7 × 10−12 |
GEOsensor | 2.56 | 4.5 × 10−11 |
ROMY | 249 | (0.02–0.05) × 10−12 |
The sensitivity of different RLG systems used for rotation detection.
Regarding the practical application of the optic rotational seismometer in fiber technology, the authors have knowledge only about one, other than their solution described in the next section, from iXBlue (France) named blueSeis-3A. Its parameters are available on web page http://www.blueseis.com as: portable, three-component system with 0.01–100 Hz broadband, low noise <20 nrad/s/√Hz, high dynamic range, Plug & Play, no calibration needed, maintenance-free, embedded digitizer, GNSS time stamping, and so on.
Finally, in this section, we compare results obtained from two rotational seismometer systems installed for a continuum measurement in Książ, Poland seismological observatory––the Fibre-Optic System for Rotational Events& phenomena Monitoring (FOSREM) based on a fiber-optic gyroscope and the Twin Antiparallel Pendulum Seismometers (TAPS) based on microarray of mechanical seismometers.
FOSREM is a new version of Autonomous Fibre-Optic Rotational Seismometer (AFORS), which was used between 2007 and 2017 in Książ. Each FOSREM contains three basic parts, which work interdependently: rotational seismometers FOSREM-XX type, data transmission unit (DTU), and power communication unit (PCU), see Figure 7a. The heart of the FOSREM––the rotational seismometer FOSREM-XX type––contains an optical head for generating the phase shift proportional to the detected rotation rate as well as the electronic part for data processing (Figure 7b). The optical head is constructed according to a so-called minimum configuration of FOG [77]. The light beam emitted by the source SLED is halved by the coupler and propagated to the sensor loop where two beams are propagating in the opposite direction. The sensor loop has been constructed by winding of 5 km SMF-28e + fiber in a double-quadrupole mode on a 0.215 m duralumin circular frame with attenuation equal to 0.35 dB/km@1310 nm [78]. The two polarizers mounted in line between two couplers assure the same optical path for the both counter-propagating waves. In order to shift the operating point to quadrature point of operation, the phase modulator at the end of the sensors loop was applied. The detected rotation rate is obtained by a specially designed system of filters (see Figure 7b), which properly select and amplify the first (A1ω) and the second (A2ω) amplitude of harmonic detected output signal u(t). The electronic part calculates the rotation rate Ω. Applying the following equation [79]:
So and Se are optical and electronical constant of the interferometer, respectively.
FOSREM: (a) from left: rotational seismometer FOSREM-SS, FOSREM-BB, data transmission unit (DTU), and power communication unit (PCU); (b) schematic diagram of FOSREM-XX, top––optical head, bottom––electronic part.
In order to continuously collect data, the special software has been applied which enables the recording of only values of signals, which gained the assumed level of event [79]. The DTU enables a synchronic data recording from up to three rotational seismometers with their collection on a local disc as well as a transfer to PCU via fiber link. The PCU transmits the recorded data using Internet or GSM/GPS to a dedicated server FOSREM with a rate up to 100 Mbps. Furthermore, PCU enables the device to run for a minimum of 12 h.
Table 5 summarizes the main parameters of three fiber systems used by our team. They differ in sizes, mechanical protections, and measuring range. AFORS and FOSREM-SS are suited for seismological investigation, but they cannot be applied for an engineering application because they have limited detection of the maximum rotation rate. FOSREM-BB due to the optimized optical part and the special software solution allows for the rotation rate detection in a wider range of signal amplitude up to 10 rad/s.
The main parameters of rotational seismometers AFORS and FOSREM type.
AFORS and FOSREM may work even when tilted; moreover, when used in continuous mode, they may record the tilt. They are portable, easy to assemble, as well as fully remotely controlled via Internet. It makes them as suitable devices to work with in a continuous mode for a very long period of time (weeks, months, and even years). For these reasons, AFORS (in 2007) and two FOSREM-SS (in 2017) have been mounted in seismological observatory in Książ in order to gather data connected with rotational seismic events.
As a reference system, the TAPS has also been mounted in Książ. TAPS is a mechanical rotational sensor constructed by a group from Institute of Geophysics PAS, Poland [80]. It is a set of two antiparallel pendulum seismometers (SM-3 type, Russia) mounted at one axis and connected parallel with opposite orientations (Figure 8). If the ground motion includes the displacement
where the signs “+” and “−“represent right (R) and left (L) seismometers, respectively. From the above, the rotational and translational components can be obtained from the sum and difference of two recorded signals, respectively as:
The TAPS rotational seismometer: (a) scheme [
Due to the rotational rate determination from the sum of the measured signals, the inaccuracies and difficulties can be observed. If the two antiparallel seismometers are precisely the same, the sum of the signals is proportional to the rotation rate. Taking into account the practical aspects of the pendulums, they are never identical. There is a difference in measured signals, which is widely described in [81]. As a result, it causes noise in the measurements of one order of magnitude greater for TAPS than for SM-3. In practice, the attenuation characteristic differences of the pendulum seismometers equal to a few per cent can generate a false rotational signal, especially if the rotational component is small in comparison with the translation one. There are different solutions for eliminating this problem, unfortunately with limited efficiency. Nowadays, one can find the records obtained by TAPSs including rotational motions during earthquakes [46, 82, 83] and seismic activity connected with artificial detonation in mine regions [84, 85, 86, 87]. Unfortunately, this system does not fulfill the requirements for seismological applications of the rotational seismology due to the limited frequency bandpass as well as the measuring range.
In order to illustrate the rotational phenomena in the seismic wave field, we present in Figure 9 seismograms of seismic events recorded in Książ. This earthquake was felt around Jarocin town and radiated the seismic field with clean rotational components. The distance to the source was of about 200 km. We show the unfiltered diagrams of the whole waveforms, but with a low-pass filtration which cut the spectrum at about 12.5 Hz. We decided to use these analyses in order to remove a high-frequency noise. The presented data allow for the comparison of rotational signals obtained by two different devices––TAPS and AFORS which have totally different idea of design. The compatibility between these two sensors is disturbed by differences in their spectral characteristics [86]. Unfortunately, we have observed noncorrelation between TAPS and AFORS for the same set of recorded events. For this reason, we decided to install in Ksiaż two FOSREM-SS in order to obtain more precise data.
M = 3.8 earthquake near Jarocin, Poland, 2012.01.06, 15:37:56. The uppermost window shows a rotation signal obtained from the AFORS. Plots of the rotation labeled “from TAPS” were obtained with the array method––two TAPSs were used.
Several advanced technologies of rotational sensors began to develop due to rapid increasing interest of rotational seismology. Nevertheless, the strict requirements for this scientific discipline are not fulfilled in many cases. From the presented review, it is clear that probably technologies based on optical interferometer are the most promising ones. However, it can be concluded that theoretical and mainly experimental studies of the rotational seismology are still in the initial state of development. Future works should be channeled toward acquiring a large amount of reliable experimental data recorded by different devices regarding rotational events from long distance sources (earthquakes generated in natural ways) as well as from short distance sources (the shocks generated in an artificial way––the explosions in a mine region). Such data are very handy for the confirmation of any theoretical investigation in the area of rotational seismology.
This work was carried out with the financial support of the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education project POIR.04.02.00-14-A003/16: “EPOS—System Obserwacji Płyty Europejskiej”, the National Science Centre, Poland under project 2016/23/N/ST10/02508 as well as the Statutory Activity of the Military University of Technology PBS-654.
Groundwater resources are important for at least two reasons: Firstly, they are well appropriate for drinking1 due to their (generally) high quality [2, 3]. Secondly, groundwater reservoirs constitute very important long-term storage [4, 5, 6], particularly useful during long periods of droughts characterizing arid and semi-arid regions.
The two major threats to groundwater are over-exploitation and pollution [7]. The rapid demographic growth, urbanization, industrialization, intensification of farming practices and climate change pressures have led to an increasing demand for groundwater as a reliable source of water supply.2
Intensive abstraction can deplete the groundwater in an aquifer. It might be possible to over-pump any aquifer temporary during periods of droughts, but durable over-exploitation would certainly lead to irreversible degradations [9], due for example to saline intrusion, sea water intrusion and quality deteriorations generated by declining water tables. The artificial recharge of aquifers is appealing, but it might not be implemented on a large scale, meaning that only the long-term natural replenishment guarantees the groundwater conservation. The only course left open is then a better management of the resource.
A large set of policy instruments have been developed for a better groundwater management, including economic instruments and institutional arrangements. Several economic instruments are used to limit over-exploitation such as water quotas, pumping taxes or marketable pumping permits. They however focus on individual withdrawals which are assumed to be publicly observable. This is rarely the case in the real world as legal and administrative settings are generally insufficient to perfectly monitor individual withdrawals, meaning that groundwater may present open-access resource features [10]. Groundwater is hence withdrawn in an imperfect informational context and the above instruments become ineffective.
Economists now agree on the fact that resource allocation in less developed economies is profoundly influenced by non firm institutions such as group lending, credit cooperatives, sharecropping, Water Users Associations and so forth. In developing countries various water institutions coexist. They range from centralized regulation, where management responsibility is entirely delegated to government agencies, to markets3 for tradable water rights where farmers can sell their water shares to higher value uses. In between lies the entire spectrum of water allocation methods characterized by levels of decentralization, including Water Users Associations (referred to as water cooperatives), where users are involved in the decision-making process, and are thereby entrusted with part of the management responsibility normally held by government agencies. Water institutions can be effective at improving the resource allocation whenever they are well designed. Institutions influence individual behavior through incentives they give rise to, but institutions themselves evolve endogenously in part because of their incentive properties [11].
This paper sheds light on the design of various incentive schemes to face groundwater over-exploitation by farmers who can over-pump water typically by manipulating their individual water meters in an asymmetric information context.4 In the sequel of this work, we refer to groundwater over-pumping as groundwater theft. The study in particular shows how the effective design of water institutions in response to a perceived problem of theft can help to reduce theft of water, and thereby improve water use efficiency. The response of the Water Authority (hereafter, WA), to tackle theft will differ according to whether it uses an incentive scheme based on the individual farmer’s withdrawal which is her private information, namely the centralized management which dominated water management in developing countries for several decades [13] or it resorts to total water use-based incentive schemes, where the total amount of water withdrawn by farmers is publicly observable and payments from farmers can be conditioned on it.
In the centralized scheme, farmers who steal, do so directly from the WA, and thereby do not impose negative externalities on each other. The WA tries to reduce theft by directly monitoring the farmers’ behavior, punishing observed instances of theft. We show in the model that some monitoring is always required in equilibrium. The WA tolerates some theft in order to save in monitoring costs.
In the decentralized management, where unobserved farmers withdrawals can be regulated through instruments based on collective performance (observed aggregate withdrawals) two schemes will be proposed. The first one corresponds to the framework of moral hazard in teams’ problem where the WA administers incentive schemes that do not balance the budget, restoring thereby the full-information outcome [14]. Such scheme works independently of the team size, but it may be infeasible when farmers have endowment constraints. This is why one may resort to an alternative team-based incentive scheme that might not violate individual endowment constraints and in which the WA makes use of the informational advantages farmers have over the WA because of their long standing and high trade links (especially in close-knit societies). This corresponds to cooperative institutions which are very likely to be well suited to deal with a variety of collective action problems associated with water management, though their success in doing so depends on some particular features of their design. In this research we show that such institutions may also be well suited to dealing with groundwater theft; we discuss the features of their design that enable them to do so. We show that the incentives for theft vary considerably in response to these features and discuss implications for policy. We in particular consider the properties of cooperatives characterized by a collective responsibility rule, which makes all members jointly liable for aggregate withdrawals, and show that this feature is likely to induce peer monitoring by cooperative members5 which is likely to be more effective at reducing theft than any means available to more centralized structures. We in particular show that groundwater theft is more likely when monitoring costs are high, punishment levels are weak and cooperatives are large. Moreover, straightforward comparison of the two team-based schemes shows that with sufficiently stringent punishments, the two schemes achieve the full-information water use level. Otherwise, theft occurs in cooperatives and a positive monitoring effort is required in equilibrium, meaning that the first team-based incentive scheme outperforms the cooperative management.
The results in the cooperative setting are obtained for given levels of punishment and cooperative size, but cooperatives are typically able to influence both of these variables. The model shows that these institutional characteristics are endogenously determined by constraints on monitoring: Higher monitoring costs increase punishment levels and reduce the cooperative size. Simulations also show that cooperatives can be neither too small because of the “monitoring costs savings” effect nor too large because of the “stealing” effect.
We extend the analysis thereafter to tackle the issue of collusion in monitoring efforts of cooperative members and show that collusion is welfare enhancing. We then compare among different monitoring structures, mutual and localized monitoring. Although in practice the mutual monitoring structure - whereby each farmer in the cooperative is being simultaneously monitored by all of her peers - is commonly observed [15], other monitoring structures deserve consideration. An interesting departure from the mutual structure is the “
The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, we review the relevant literature. Section 3 sketches our model. In Section 4, we present an individual water use-based incentive scheme. In Section 5, we propose two total water use-based incentive schemes. We state a number of propositions describing the dependence of groundwater theft on a number of determinants, some of which are themselves determined by more fundamental factors including costs of monitoring. Section 6 provides two extensions of the basic model: the analysis first allows for collusion in monitoring efforts of cooperative members and then compares different monitoring structures. Section 7 proposes some policy recommendations. In Section 8, we present some potential extensions for further research. Section 9 concludes. Mathematical details are relegated to an Appendix.
Our research relates to various types of literature emphasizing the team nature of a problem. It relates to the peer monitoring on group lending programs and to decentralized groundwater management literatures, where peer monitoring is recognized as an effective instrument in mitigating the moral hazard behavior of individuals linked by a collective responsibility rule. It also relates to the non-point source pollution and to the non-point groundwater withdrawals, where unobserved individual emissions (withdrawals) can be regulated through instruments based on collective performance, which is the level of observed aggregate (ambient) pollution (withdrawals).
In the peer-monitoring literature, peer monitoring is an important means to mitigate free riding in groups of borrowers related by a joint-liability clause that creates an incentive mechanism in which each group member has an interest in screening and monitoring the other members. In the case of non-repayment by the group, all members will be denied future access to loans from the program, and defaulters who are caught may face fixed social sanctions. The seminal publications in this area are Stiglitz [19] and Varian [21], who show that the (costless) peer monitoring within groups can prevent members’ shirking in their productive efforts (Varian), and reduce poor project selection (Stiglitz), improving thereby repayment rates and reducing the costs of lending. More recently several papers including Ghatak and Guinnane [20], Armendariz [15], Che [17], and Conning [18], elaborate on the Stiglitz-Varian models, relax the assumption of the costless peer monitoring and deal with various extensions including the optimal group size, monitoring structures and the dynamic aspect of contractual relationship between group members.
In the context of decentralized groundwater management, Montginoul et al. [22] mentioned the use of a mechanism that consists of providing incentives for all groundwater users getting involved in the monitoring of groundwater abstraction to monitor each other, in order to increase the probability of control. The cost of decentralized monitoring (peer monitoring) is expected to be lower, since agents have more information on the actions of other agents (areas and crops irrigated, irrigation practices and frequencies, etc.) than any centralized structure. The incentive to participate in such a decentralized monitoring system can be provided by redistributing a share of the fine to the person who discovers the defaulter. This system has been used for centuries for regulating access to forests and common pastures in the Italian Alps [23]. This mechanism is likely to be rejected in many cultural contexts as it may be strongly assimilated to denouncement.
The literature on non-point source pollution follows the pioneering work of Segerson [24], whose analysis built on the earlier theoretical analysis of Holmström6 [14], who addressed the problem of free riding in teams in a more general environment.
Segerson [24] proposed a target based mechanism (TBM) where a regulator should monitor ambient pollution concentrations of a well-defined group imposes to each group member a tax (or a subsidy) proportional to the difference between observed group emission level and the group target. She shows that for a sufficiently high level of the ambient tax, the Nash equilibrium yields an aggregate pollution level equal to the group target.
Segerson’s work has inspired several intriguing extensions (e.g., Xepapadeas [25]; Miceli and Segerson [26]; Karp [27]; Millock and Salanié [28]). Xepapadeas [25] proposed a scheme of subsidies and two fining regimes: collective and random fining. Under collective fining, all firms are charged a fine whenever the observed ambient pollution level lies above some predetermined standard. Under the random fining scheme, only one firm is randomly chosen to be punished, irrespective of being responsible for the whole group’s deviation from the standard level.
Miceli and Segerson [26] proposed the introduction of collective responsibility rules among group members that create incentives similar to the ones created by ambient taxes. However, Litchenberg [29] noted that these liability rules are not likely to be first-best and are probably best-suited for controlling pollution related to the use of hazardous materials, or for non-frequent occurrences of environmental degradation like oil spills. Karp [27] suggested a model in which polluting firms behave strategically with respect to the regulator and found that their tax burden is lower under an ambient tax than taxes based on individual emissions, provided that the tax adjusts quickly, firms are patient, and the number of firms is small. Millock and Salanié [28] proposed a model of ambient taxes, where polluters might cooperate, and show that ambient taxes give strong incentives towards cooperation. However, when the degree of cooperation is unknown, the optimal regulation requires the regulator to offer a choice between a standard Pigouvian tax and a much lower ambient tax.
Although theoretically appealing, ambient-based schemes are rarely implemented in the field (an exception is presented in Ribaudo, Horan, and Smith [30]) for numerous technical, practical and political reasons [31].
The “ambient tax” instrument proposed by economic literature to solve diffuse pollution problems can be well suited to manage unobserved groundwater withdrawals since withdrawals of a well-defined group can be approximated by the groundwater table level monitored at some observation points [9]. The ambient tax (subsidy) would be charged (paid) to all users if the groundwater table falls below (above) the target level set by a regulator which was decided to not overpass.
In the decentralized management of groundwater several authors including Giordana [32], Lenouvel et al. [12] and Figureau et al. [33], show that contract-based instruments may play a significant role in reducing groundwater over-pumping.
Giordana [32] proposed three incentive instruments to fight groundwater over-pumping: a tax/subsidy over reported individual withdrawals with a random audit and penalties in case of non-compliance by groundwater users, an ambient tax, and a mixed instrument combing both instruments. He shows that the latter scheme outperforms the former two schemes.
Lenouvel et al. [12] proposed an optional target-based mechanism to reduce groundwater over-exploitation when farmers’ behavior is imperfectly monitored. The mechanism combines a classical ambient tax, paid by all farmers of the area when the water table level falls below a pre-defined target, with an optional individual contract signed with the regulator in which signatory farmers commit to provide true information to the regulator concerning the location of their wells, irrigated fields, and volume pumped, and to facilitate the control of this information. These farmers avoid the collective sanction if they comply with an individual quota. This mechanism is tested experimentally in the lab with a contextualized protocol and results show that it reduces withdrawals but that subjects are able to coordinate in a repeated setting to extract an informational rent.
Figureau et al. [33] have proposed three policy instruments, which can be used to enhance farmers’ compliance with individual groundwater allocations for irrigation in a decentralized management context. The first policy couples economic incentives by combing the use of a penalty with a reward. The penalty consists of a tax charged to farmers who exceed their allocation and is proportional to the over-pumping. The revenues from this penalty system are then shared between farmers who withdraw less than their entitlement, each one receiving a share proportional to their water saving.
The second policy is a “pooling agreement” through which farmers would agree to mutualize their quotas, in the sense that some farmers agree to relinquish part of their individual water allocation to help other farmers confronted by unusual situations. The volume given back to the Groundwater Users Association (GWUA) is then redistributed to farmers who have an exceptional need for extra water. The internal redistribution follows general principles and rules, which have been validated by the farm community. The contract is favorable to the agents as a team relative to the standard penalty system provided that the team does not exceed the targeted abstraction level, but unfavorable to the team if the target is exceeded. The third policy combines payments and fines. Farmers exceeding their quota pay an increasing block fine for the extra water pumped. Revenues from fines are then redistributed among farmers who use less than their quota; the amount received by farmers is proportional to their water saving efforts.
The three policies are tested through experiments with farmers and results reveal a preference for the third scheme that combines economic and social incentives, as it is expected to meet water and budget balance simultaneously.
Our cooperative model differs from most of the existing theoretical literature on peer monitoring in two respects. First, in their models the punishment is fixed: in the case of non-repayment by the group, all members will be denied future access to loans from the program, and defaulters who are caught may face fixed social sanctions. However, in our model the punishment depends continuously on the extra water pumped by farmers. Second, peer monitoring in this paper is quite specific in that farmers are competing in monitoring, which gives rise to a distributional effect in addition to an incentive effect. Indeed, peer monitoring may allow each cooperative member to shift the cooperative fine on others in addition to mitigating the moral hazard behavior of group members.
As for the ambient tax literature, it differs from the cooperative model in several respects. First, in our model the joint liability clause creates incentives for peer monitoring by group members, while ambient taxes do not. Second, in the ambient tax mechanism each individual is taxed according to the socially marginal damage when ambient emissions deviate from some predetermined level of emission. In our study, however, the distribution of the punishment burden is endogenously determined by peer monitoring. Third, in our study whether efficiency is obtained or not depends on the stringency of the punishment burden. However, most mechanisms suggested in the ambient tax literature are theoretically suitable for implementing the efficient allocation of abatement efforts in a Nash equilibrium.
In the decentralized groundwater management using mechanisms creating incentives for peer monitoring, such incentives are created through joint liability clauses based on rewards rather than punishment sharing rules as in our model.
Our cooperative model differs from decentralized groundwater management using contract-based instruments in three respects. Firstly, their mechanisms do not create incentives for peer monitoring as in our model. Secondly, in our model there are no rewards for farmers using less than the allocated quota. Third, in their models, they mainly use economic instruments as rewards and punishments to mitigate aquifer over-exploitation, but they do not come close to institutional design of the group of groundwater users such as the optimal size of the group and the optimal punishment or reward.
Consider two identical farmers who pump water from a
The superscript
The farmer is allocated a
The response of the WA will differ according to whether there is centralized management or management based on total water use which is publicly and costlessly known. We consider these two cases in turn.
Here we present the centralized management in an incomplete informational context. In what follows, a few assumptions necessary to the analysis are listed.
where
where the punishment rate
Rewriting this condition yields
The order of events is that the WA chooses monitoring9,
Whose first-order condition is
The performance of the centralized management relative to the full-information setting depends on the intensity of monitoring as summarized by corollary 1:
COROLLARY 1:
The full-information outcome obtains if the farmer is intensively monitored; Otherwise, theft occurs, as it becomes a privately profitable activity, i.e., the expected net benefit from stealing is
Now let us turn to the initial contracting stage, where the WA anticipates the farmer’s behavior and picks monitoring,
The WA must also consider two major constraints. The first one is the water availability constraint
which reflects the scarcity of the resource: farmers can at most use what is available. And the second one is the replenishment constraint
which states that the rate of groundwater utilization should be lower than the replenishment rate. In what follows proposition 1 characterizes the solution to the WA’s problem:
The proposition reveals that some monitoring is always required in equilibrium. However, because monitoring is costly, the optimal response of the WA would be to tolerate some theft in order to save in monitoring costs. Moreover, the equilibrium monitoring effort responds directly to the degree of water scarcity, captured by parameter
The more severe the shortage of water is, the higher is the required monitoring effective at reducing theft.
We assume that the aggregate water use of the two farmers,
and that every team member is allocated the same quota
The order of events is that taking the price of water11
Whose first-order condition is
A mere comparison of (1) and (11) gives
and thereby
Implying that each farmer has to pay the total liability,
The WA can restore the full-information outcome by administering incentive schemes that
This incentive scheme works independently of the team size, but its implementation may be constrained by the farmers’ limited liabilities. That is why the WA may promote cooperative behavior.
Similarly to the previous scheme we assume that the total water use by cooperative members,
Now suppose that, relative to the WA, farmers have informational advantages in monitoring each other, as a result of social ties and/or spatial proximity and neighborhood and/or long term trade relations.
We assume that peer monitoring brings about only evidence of the occurrence theft but not of its amount.13 The WA may then contemplate the possibility of inducing peer monitoring between cooperative members by setting a collective responsibility rule that makes all members jointly liable: If theft occurs, the fine inflicted on the cooperative as a whole is shared equally between farmers who are caught stealing; otherwise it is shared by all members.
Performing peer monitoring is costly, we denote by
where
The order of events is that taking for given the price of water
The subgame perfect equilibrium is the profile
and that every cooperative member is allocated the same quota
Similarly to the centralized structure, in cooperatives we shall restrict attention to the punishments that are higher than the price of water, i.e.,
and
Peer monitoring reduces groundwater theft18 (
The immediate corollary of proposition 2 is that the comparative evaluation of the performance of the two team-based incentive schemes depends on the stringency of punishment rates. For sufficiently stringent punishments (i.e.,
To obtain explicit solutions where possible we assume that monitoring costs take the quadratic form
We now show how the intensity of monitoring will be related to monitoring costs, punishments and the price of water. Monitoring is decreasing with the costs of monitoring and increasing with water price and punishment.20
A higher water price increases the incentives for theft and the punishment burden that would be incurred by a member who was the only one to be caught, inducing farmers to perform more monitoring to shift the cooperative fine on the others.
In the range of non stringent punishments, there is a higher scope for theft, and an increase in the punishment rate renders the punishment burden for a given level of theft high, and also the total punishment that would be incurred by a member who was the only one to be caught. This would increase the farmers’ incentives to compete more in monitoring to shift the cooperative fine on the others. The results above suggest that the distributional effect of peer monitoring is very likely to always dominate the incentive effect.
It is interesting to compare the equilibrium monitoring effort to the socially optimal one. We compare equilibrium outcomes to those that would occur in a second-best problem faced by the WA as a social planner who can decide about monitoring levels of farmers but not their water use choices once monitoring decisions have been made. In addition, we assume that the WA cannot affect the farmers’ incentives to steal water for given monitoring levels. In particular, the WA cannot ensure that farmers do not steal the resource. The WA chooses a monitoring level,
It is socially optimal not to monitor in cooperatives governed by these rules (
Here the basic analysis is extended to allow for endogenous punishment, where the punishment rate
Cooperative members choose the punishment rate
This has a first-order condition21:
which is also sufficient22 to identify a global maximum.
From this condition one can show that the punishment level is decreasing with monitoring costs. Totally differentiating the first order condition with respect to
where23
The analysis thus far has remained restricted to the two-farmer cooperative. However, in practice, most cooperatives irrigating from aquifers involve up to as many as 40 farmers, and most cooperatives using surface water involve more than 100 farmers [20]. We investigate here the optimal cooperative size, where the basic set-up is extended from the two-farmer cooperative to the n-farmer one.24
We characterize the symmetric subgame perfect equilibrium
Where
From the necessary conditions one can see that the farmer withdraws more water as the cooperative becomes larger:
meaning that larger groups increase the incentives for theft. However, it is not clear whether the equilibrium monitoring level tends to increase or decrease with the cooperative size. The intuition suggests that the group size affects the incentive problem in two ways. A larger group discourages monitoring, as the evidence about the farmer’s theft could be established when she is detected stealing by at least one of her peers. Monitoring all together might hence become useless, as the same outcome could be achieved with a smaller number of farmers, avoiding thereby the useless duplication of monitoring. This free-riding problem reduces the farmers’ incentives for monitoring. On the other hand, a larger group may increase the total amount of water stolen in the cooperative, increasing therefore the maximum punishment that would be incurred by a member who was the only one to be caught. This would rather increase the farmer’s incentives to monitor more intensively to catch the other members stealing, which may reduce her expected share from the total fine. This
It is very difficult to derive an analytical expression of monitoring level in equilibrium, as monitoring is implicitly given by (31). In order to get some insights, we will proceed in the remainder of this section to the following simplification: we restrict attention to sufficiently small values of
To obtain explicit solutions where possible we assume that monitoring costs take the quadratic form
Monitoring decreases with monitoring costs which is straightforward
As for the impact of the cooperative size on monitoring it is given by
Where
Plugging the expression of
which sign is ambiguous because the term in the bracket parenthesis has an ambiguous sign (the terms
The production function is
The per-unit private cost and price of water are
The transaction costs related to monitoring take two different values
Simulations suggest that the shape and the value of monitoring,
For any
For any
We now explore the optimal cooperative size. Farmers may seek a group size
The first-order condition for an interior solution (assuming that the second-order condition holds) is given by:
The (first-order) change in social welfare attributable to a marginal entrant is composed of two terms. The first term implies that the new entrant causes every member to better free ride on her peers and thus to contract her monitoring effort. This would increase the opportunities for theft for everyone. This
On the positive side, free riding results in monitoring cost savings. This
The optimal cooperative size,
The effect of the group size on the cooperative welfare is found to be analytically complicated, that is why we use a numerical example to shed light on the intensity of
Finally, simulations suggest that monitoring costs reduce the cooperative size. The intuition is that higher monitoring costs make it more difficult to monitor, which gives more opportunities for theft, requiring smaller cooperatives to compensate.
The cooperative model described up until now corresponds to a non-cooperative game. Each cooperative member is out to maximize her expected payoff, and makes her decisions about monitoring and water use independently of the other members. What happens if we relax this assumption and consider possibilities of coordinated actions about monitoring? A natural model is to consider what happens if the two cooperative members choose their monitoring efforts in order to maximize joint payoffs,
The collusive monitoring effort is efficient. In the absence of collusion, cooperative members compete on monitoring because of their
Although in practice the mutual monitoring structure - whereby each farmer in the group is being simultaneously monitored by all of her peers - is commonly observed [15], other monitoring structures deserve consideration. An interesting departure from the mutual structure is the “
Consider a cooperative formed by three farmers
The subgame perfect equilibrium is the profile
(assuming that the second-order condition for a maximum holds). The solution to this problem is summarized in proposition 3:
and
By the same token, consider a three-farmer cooperative in which farmers
(assuming that the second-order condition for a maximum holds). The solution to this problem is characterized by proposition 4:
and
Comparing the monitoring levels in both settings is not straightforward, however under certain relevant circumstances one can say something. For sufficiently small
and
A mere comparison of (48) and (49) suggests that the equilibrium localized monitoring is higher than twice the equilibrium mutual monitoring
This result may sound unlikely, one indeed expects farmers to monitor less in cooperatives characterized by localized monitoring, as this structure avoids the duplication of monitoring. But, the rationale for this result comes from the distributional character of monitoring, as cooperative members compete on monitoring to shift the cooperative fine on the others. In the mutual structure, a farmer may well reduce her expected share from the total fine as the cooperative fine might be shared with more than one member. However, in the localized structure, each farmer monitors only one of her neighbors increasing the risk to bear the whole punishment burden on her own. This acts as an incentive to monitor more to increase the probability of shifting the fine on that neighbor.
An immediate implication of (44), (46) and (50) is that cooperatives using mutual monitoring welfare dominate those using localized monitoring
Where
Surface water is not only scarce but also highly uncertain and often of bad quality in particular in arid and semi-arid regions. Groundwater is seen as a unique guarantee (whenever it is well managed) for the long term viability of an agriculture sector crucial for giving those fragile countries a minimum food security.
The principal aim of this research was to design the appropriate institutions and incentives to reduce groundwater over-exploitation. We have proposed various incentive schemes, some based on individual water use and others on aggregate water use. The model has in particular shown that total water use-based incentive schemes may well overcome the individual water use-based scheme (centralized management). Moreover, the comparative evaluation of the two team-based incentive schemes has shown that for a relevant range of non stringent punishments, the first scheme dominates the cooperative management since it restores the full-information outcome. Nevertheless such a scheme may suffer from a strong implementation problem: endowment constraints may render it infeasible. How to overcome this drawback? The solution could be imported from the theory of “
Simulations in our paper suggested that the cooperative size is weakly decreasing with monitoring, meaning that the best policy of the WA would be to implement non large cooperatives which would reduce the scope for groundwater over-exploitation.
This research could be extended along the following directions. Firstly, we know from simulation results that it is socially beneficial to form small and medium cooperatives. But, what about irrigated areas with a large number of farmers? In practice, centralized structures are in charge of running such areas. In addition, a direct management transfer of these areas to cooperative institutions is unlikely to enhance water use efficiency, as the “
Secondly, in our theoretical study we have formalized the cooperative management where members interact only once, however in practice members interact repeatedly. The knowledge that pursuit of their short-term interests can harm their long-term aims by affecting the reaction of others in the future interactions may be a powerful inducement to behavior that displays apparent solidarity with the interests of the group. When cooperative members are homogenous, in particular they are all landlords and moreover the agricultural activity is their main source of income, their interactions can be modeled as an infinitely repeated game.30 What one can learn from group lending literature is that such cooperatives might not need to have access to an exogenous penalty device since peer sanctions can be accomplished in the dynamic framework and they are self enforcing 31 [17]. It suffices to make the group members jointly liable for the payment of their total amount of water use, e.g., denying them future access to the public source of water supply or rising the price of water for next periods when theft occurs in the current period. In such a management design, a group member can be penalized by other members’ shirking (=stealing), in that a member’s shirking increases the payment burden of her peers, and thereby negatively affecting their payoffs. In turn, when cooperative members are heterogenous in that some members are landlords and others are rental contract holders and/or tenants, an exogenous penalty technology might be required, e.g., one may think for example of the exclusion of defaulting users from the cooperative or from the community or from certain kinds of input supply facilities.32 Whereas, being excluded from the cooperative could be perceived as extremely harmful for a land owner, this might not be the case for rental contract holders who interact only for a finite number of periods and the pursuit of their short-term interests induce them to adopt the strategy of “take the money and run away.33” However, this may well harm their long-term interests - the loss of reputation may be very costly for these farmers: their exclusion from the cooperative might make it difficult for them to integrate other cooperatives in the same area and/or even in other areas. In short they might be excluded from the community. What might be critical here is the enforcement of such social sanctions in practice, especially how and why a farmer should ever impose a sanction on a “friend” or “relative” who has defaulted. One possible explanation on the face of it is the impossibility to keep the information about strategic defaults secret. An other explanation may be the harmful consequences of foregoing the punishment of defaulters, e.g., the absence of alternative sources of water supply if the cooperative is denied future access to her principal source of water supply.
This paper has investigated the design of the appropriate institutions and rules to enhance groundwater use efficiency by reducing over-pumping of aquifers. We have proposed various incentive schemes, some based on individual withdrawals which are the farmers’ private information and some based on the total water withdrawn by all farmers which is publicly observable. In the latter setting, two schemes are proposed. In the first scheme, the WA administers an incentive scheme that does not balance the budget, restoring thereby the full-information water use level. Such scheme works independently of the group size, but it may be infeasible when farmers have endowment constraints. This is why the WA resorts to a second total water use-based incentive scheme by promoting the cooperative behavior. We device cooperative institutions characterized by a joint liability clause that induces peer monitoring by members. We show that higher monitoring costs and larger cooperatives entail more theft and higher punishment levels reduce it. We also show how the cooperative membership and punishments are determined endogenously by constraints on monitoring. Higher monitoring costs increase punishment levels and reduce the size of the cooperative. The basic analysis is then extended to allow first for collusion in monitoring between cooperative members, and show that the collusive monitoring effort is efficient. Secondly, we explore a different monitoring structure “localized monitoring” and compared it with the mutual monitoring structure which is commonly observed in practice. Finally, we use the theoretical results to derive some useful policy recommendations that could help decision makers to implement the right policies to alleviate groundwater over-exploitation.
Overall, these results provide strong confirmation of the ability of well designed incentives and institutions to reduce groundwater over-exploitation, and that constraints on monitoring costs affect institutional design.
The details of mathematical demonstrations are available from the authors upon request.
JEL classification: Q13; Q15; Q25; R48
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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Theory and Applications",slug:"electrodialysis-technology-theory-and-applications",totalDownloads:14610,totalCrossrefCites:24,totalDimensionsCites:62,abstract:null,book:{id:"51",slug:"desalination-trends-and-technologies",title:"Desalination",fullTitle:"Desalination, Trends and Technologies"},signatures:"Fernando Valero, Angel Barceló and Ramón Arbós",authors:[{id:"17419",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Valero-Cervera",slug:"fernando-valero-cervera",fullName:"Fernando Valero-Cervera"},{id:"18893",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón",middleName:null,surname:"Arbós-Sans",slug:"ramon-arbos-sans",fullName:"Ramón Arbós-Sans"},{id:"47900",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Barceló",slug:"angel-barcelo",fullName:"Angel Barceló"}]},{id:"33763",doi:"10.5772/37625",title:"Membrane Distillation: Principle, Advances, Limitations and Future Prospects in Food Industry",slug:"membrane-distillation-principle-advances-limitations-and-future-prospects-in-food-industry",totalDownloads:10198,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:45,abstract:null,book:{id:"1981",slug:"distillation-advances-from-modeling-to-applications",title:"Distillation",fullTitle:"Distillation - Advances from Modeling to Applications"},signatures:"Pelin Onsekizoglu",authors:[{id:"113560",title:"Dr.",name:"Pelin",middleName:null,surname:"Onsekizoglu",slug:"pelin-onsekizoglu",fullName:"Pelin Onsekizoglu"}]},{id:"42247",doi:"10.5772/53822",title:"Application of Differential Scanning Calorimetry to the Characterization of Biopolymers",slug:"application-of-differential-scanning-calorimetry-to-the-characterization-of-biopolymers",totalDownloads:8952,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:38,abstract:null,book:{id:"2519",slug:"applications-of-calorimetry-in-a-wide-context-differential-scanning-calorimetry-isothermal-titration-calorimetry-and-microcalorimetry",title:"Applications of Calorimetry in a Wide Context",fullTitle:"Applications of Calorimetry in a Wide Context - Differential Scanning Calorimetry, Isothermal Titration Calorimetry and Microcalorimetry"},signatures:"Adriana Gregorova",authors:[{id:"142120",title:"Dr",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"Gregorova",slug:"adriana-gregorova",fullName:"Adriana Gregorova"}]},{id:"42261",doi:"10.5772/51882",title:"Differential Scanning Calorimetry Studies of Phospholipid Membranes: The Interdigitated Gel Phase",slug:"differential-scanning-calorimetry-studies-of-phospholipid-membranes-the-interdigitated-gel-phase",totalDownloads:4698,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:35,abstract:null,book:{id:"2519",slug:"applications-of-calorimetry-in-a-wide-context-differential-scanning-calorimetry-isothermal-titration-calorimetry-and-microcalorimetry",title:"Applications of Calorimetry in a Wide Context",fullTitle:"Applications of Calorimetry in a Wide Context - Differential Scanning Calorimetry, Isothermal Titration Calorimetry and Microcalorimetry"},signatures:"Eric A. Smith and Phoebe K. Dea",authors:[{id:"139501",title:"Prof.",name:"Phoebe",middleName:null,surname:"Dea",slug:"phoebe-dea",fullName:"Phoebe Dea"},{id:"141802",title:"Mr.",name:"Eric",middleName:null,surname:"Smith",slug:"eric-smith",fullName:"Eric Smith"}]},{id:"13758",doi:"10.5772/14779",title:"Renewable Energy Opportunities in Water Desalination",slug:"renewable-energy-opportunities-in-water-desalination",totalDownloads:7484,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:34,abstract:null,book:{id:"51",slug:"desalination-trends-and-technologies",title:"Desalination",fullTitle:"Desalination, Trends and Technologies"},signatures:"Ali A. Al-Karaghouli and L.L. Kazmerski",authors:[{id:"18734",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali A.",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Karaghouli",slug:"ali-a.-al-karaghouli",fullName:"Ali A. Al-Karaghouli"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"44033",title:"Ion-Exchange Chromatography and Its Applications",slug:"ion-exchange-chromatography-and-its-applications",totalDownloads:29942,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"3487",slug:"column-chromatography",title:"Column Chromatography",fullTitle:"Column Chromatography"},signatures:"Özlem Bahadir Acikara",authors:[{id:"109364",title:"Dr.",name:"Özlem",middleName:null,surname:"Bahadır Acıkara",slug:"ozlem-bahadir-acikara",fullName:"Özlem Bahadır Acıkara"}]},{id:"53750",title:"Mathematical Modelling of Batch Distillation Columns: A Comparative Analysis of Non-Linear and Fuzzy Models",slug:"mathematical-modelling-of-batch-distillation-columns-a-comparative-analysis-of-non-linear-and-fuzzy-",totalDownloads:2452,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Distillation is the process most commonly used in industry to separate chemical mixtures; its applications range from cosmetic and pharmaceutical to petrochemical industries. The equipment required to perform the distillation process is known as distillation column. Since initial investment and maintenance costs for distillation columns are very high it is necessary to have an appropriate mathematical model that allows improving the comprehension of the column dynamics, especially its thermal behaviour, in order to enhance the control and safety of the process. This chapter presents a general panorama of the mathematical modelling of distillation columns, having as a specific case of study the comparison of a space-state non-linear model and a Takagi-Sugeno fuzzy model for a batch distillation column using a binary mixture (Ethanol-Water).",book:{id:"5452",slug:"distillation-innovative-applications-and-modeling",title:"Distillation",fullTitle:"Distillation - Innovative Applications and Modeling"},signatures:"Adriana del Carmen Téllez-Anguiano, Mario Heras-Cervantes, Juan\nAnzurez-Marín, Gerardo Marx Chávez-Campos and José Antonio\nGutiérrez Gnecchi",authors:[{id:"12387",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Gutierrez Gnecchi",slug:"jose-antonio-gutierrez-gnecchi",fullName:"Jose Antonio Gutierrez Gnecchi"},{id:"189166",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"Téllez-Anguiano",slug:"adriana-tellez-anguiano",fullName:"Adriana Téllez-Anguiano"},{id:"194844",title:"MSc.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Heras-Cervantes",slug:"mario-heras-cervantes",fullName:"Mario Heras-Cervantes"},{id:"194845",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Anzurez-Marín",slug:"juan-anzurez-marin",fullName:"Juan Anzurez-Marín"},{id:"194846",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:"Marx",surname:"Chávez-Campos",slug:"gerardo-chavez-campos",fullName:"Gerardo Chávez-Campos"}]},{id:"54078",title:"Distillation Techniques in the Fruit Spirits Production",slug:"distillation-techniques-in-the-fruit-spirits-production",totalDownloads:5066,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"During the distillation of the fermented fruit mash or juice, ethanol and water are the carriers of a huge number of the other volatile aroma compounds. Unique and distinctive flavour of the final spirits depends on their quantity and quality. Fruit spirits have higher concentration of almost all types of volatile compounds with comparing to other types of distilled spirits. The art of distillation run is to obtain the best balance between congeners present. Two different types of distillation equipment are used for the production of fruit spirits: copper Charentais alembic and batch distillation columns. Although both distillation methods are based on the same theoretical principles, a different quantity of the flavour compounds of the final spirits is produced by using different distillation equipment. The main difference was shown in different distributions of the methanol, n-propanol, higher alcohols and fatty acid esters. Distillation methods need to be adjusted for each fruit spirits regardless to distillation equipment employed because fermented mash of different fruit varieties has a different requirement for distilling. Alembic stills yield better aroma and more characteristic fruit distillates but are slow and require more labour. Column still cleans the distillate giving a decent aroma and higher concentration of alcohol.",book:{id:"5452",slug:"distillation-innovative-applications-and-modeling",title:"Distillation",fullTitle:"Distillation - Innovative Applications and Modeling"},signatures:"Nermina Spaho",authors:[{id:"189124",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Nermina",middleName:null,surname:"Spaho",slug:"nermina-spaho",fullName:"Nermina Spaho"}]},{id:"54676",title:"Fractional Distillation of Organic Liquid Compounds Produced by Catalytic Cracking of Fats, Oils, and Grease",slug:"fractional-distillation-of-organic-liquid-compounds-produced-by-catalytic-cracking-of-fats-oils-and-",totalDownloads:1767,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This work aims to investigate the fractional distillation of organic liquid products (OLP) obtained by catalytic cracking of palm oil (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) at 450°C, 1.0 atm, with 5, 10, and 15% (wt) Na2CO3, using a stirred tank reactor of 143 L. The fractional distillations of OLP were carried out in laboratory scale with and without reflux using columns of different heights, and a pilot‐packed distillation column with internal reflux. OLP and distillation fractions (gasoline, kerosene, light diesel, and heavy diesel) were physicochemically characterized for density, kinematic viscosity, acid value, saponification value, refractive index, flash point, and copper strip corrosion. The OLP and light diesel fractions were analyzed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT‐IR) and gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry (GC‐MS). For the experiments in laboratory scale, the yields of distillates decrease along with column height, with and without reflux, while those of bottoms products increase. The yields of distillates and gas increase with increasing Na2CO3 content, while those of bottoms products decrease. The densities of gasoline, kerosene, and light diesel produced in laboratory scale with reflux superpose exactly those of kerosene, light diesel, and heavy diesel produced in laboratory scale without reflux. The kinematic viscosity decreases with increasing column height for the experiments in laboratory scale. The acid values of distillation fractions decrease along with the column height for the experiments with and without reflux. The FT‐IR of distillation fractions in pilot and laboratory scales identified the presence of aliphatic hydrocarbons and oxygenates. The GC‐MS analysis identified OLP composition of 92.84% (area) hydrocarbons and 7.16% (area) oxygenates. The light diesel fraction contains 100% hydrocarbons with an acid value of 0.34 mg KOH/g, proving the technical feasibility of OLP de‐acidification by the fractional distillation process.",book:{id:"5452",slug:"distillation-innovative-applications-and-modeling",title:"Distillation",fullTitle:"Distillation - Innovative Applications and Modeling"},signatures:"C. C. Fereira, E. C. Costa, D. A. R. de Castro, M. S. Pereira, A. A.\nMâncio, M. C. Santos, D. E. L. Lhamas, S. A. P. da Mota, M. E. Araújo,\nLuiz E. P. Borges and N. T. Machado",authors:[{id:"189087",title:"Prof.",name:"Nelio",middleName:null,surname:"Teixeira Machado",slug:"nelio-teixeira-machado",fullName:"Nelio Teixeira Machado"}]},{id:"43603",title:"Ion Exchange Chromatography - An Overview",slug:"ion-exchange-chromatography-an-overview",totalDownloads:5997,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:null,book:{id:"3487",slug:"column-chromatography",title:"Column Chromatography",fullTitle:"Column Chromatography"},signatures:"Yasser M. Moustafa and Rania E. Morsi",authors:[{id:"105737",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasser",middleName:null,surname:"Moustafa",slug:"yasser-moustafa",fullName:"Yasser Moustafa"},{id:"108356",title:"Dr.",name:"Rania",middleName:null,surname:"Morsi",slug:"rania-morsi",fullName:"Rania Morsi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"699",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"78950",title:"Performance Investigation of the Solar Membrane Distillation Process Using TRNSYS Software",slug:"performance-investigation-of-the-solar-membrane-distillation-process-using-trnsys-software",totalDownloads:39,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100335",abstract:"Membrane distillation (MD) is a separation process used for water desalination, which operates at low pressures and feeds temperatures. Air gap membrane distillation (AGMD) is the new MD configuration for desalination where both the hot feed side and the cold permeate side are in indirect contact with the two membrane surfaces. The chapter presents a new approach for the numerical study to investigate various solar thermal systems of the MD process. The various MD solar systems are studied numerically using and including both flat plate collectors (the useful thermal energy reaches 3750 kJ/hr with a total area of 4 m2) and photovoltaic panels, each one has an area of 1.6 m2 by using an energy storage battery (12 V, 200 Ah). Therefore, the power load of solar AGMD systems is calculated and compared for the production of 100 L/day of distillate water. It was found that the developed system consumes less energy (1.2 kW) than other systems by percentage reaches 52.64% and with an average distillate water flow reaches 10 kg/h at the feed inlet temperature of AGMD module 52°C. Then, the developed system has been studied using TRNSYS and PVGIS programs on different days during the year in Ain Temouchent weather, Algeria.",book:{id:"10995",title:"Distillation Processes - From Solar and Membrane Distillation to Reactive Distillation Modelling, Simulation and Optimization",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10995.jpg"},signatures:"Abdelfatah Marni Sandid, Taieb Nehari, Driss Nehari and Yasser Elhenawy"},{id:"81310",title:"Modeling of Solar-Powered Desalination",slug:"modeling-of-solar-powered-desalination",totalDownloads:29,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103934",abstract:"The scarcity, global, and local demand of pure water for SDGs become prominent issue. The global emissions of CO2 and GHGs have put pressure to develop the solar-powered desalination plants. This article discussed the selection of site for the solar thermal desalination in Pakistan keeping the eye on sustainability and modeling and cost analysis of single solar stills technology at Lyari River in Karachi, Pakistan. Pakistan is among the water-deficit countries having 35% of population having lack of pure drinkable water. The plenty of solar irradiance and saline water in Pakistan make it very favorable for solar-powered desalination. The solar stills technology is one of the best technologies to meet the local demand of pure water. The modeling is composed of governing equations based on the law of conservation of mass and law of conservation of energy. The solar irradiance at Lyari River is taken from MERRA–2. The result depicted that the hourly production of distill water is 1 kg/m3 and 8 kg/m3 with and without the FRL lens. The cost of distill water produced from the solar stills having FRL lens is 33% less as compared with solar stills without FRL lens.",book:{id:"10995",title:"Distillation Processes - From Solar and Membrane Distillation to Reactive Distillation Modelling, Simulation and Optimization",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10995.jpg"},signatures:"Zafar Abbas, Nasir Hayat, Anwar Khan and Muhammad Irfan"},{id:"80466",title:"Reactive Distillation Applied to Biodiesel Production by Esterification: Simulation Studies",slug:"reactive-distillation-applied-to-biodiesel-production-by-esterification-simulation-studies",totalDownloads:114,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102667",abstract:"Reactive distillation is an operation that combines chemical reaction and separation in a single equipment, presenting various technical and economic benefits. In this chapter, an introduction to the reactive distillation process applied to the biodiesel industry was developed and complemented by case studies regarding the production of biodiesel through esterification a low-cost acid feedstock (corn distillers oil) and valorization of by-products (glycerol) through ketalization. The kinetic parameters of both reactions were estimated with an algorithm that performs the minimization of the quadratic differences between experimental and calculated data through a Nelder-Mead simplex method. A 4th order Runge Kutta method was employed to integrate the conversion or concentration equations used to describe the kinetics of the reactions in a batch reactor. Both processes were simulated in the commercial software Aspen Plus with the estimated kinetic parameters. The results obtained are promising and indicate that the productivity of both processes can be improved with the application of reactive distillation technologies. The simulated esterification process with an optimized column resulted in a fatty acids conversion increase of 84% in comparison to the values lower than 50% obtained in the experimental tests. Solketal production through ketalization also achieved a high glycerol conversion superior to 98%.",book:{id:"10995",title:"Distillation Processes - From Solar and Membrane Distillation to Reactive Distillation Modelling, Simulation and Optimization",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10995.jpg"},signatures:"Guilherme Machado, Marcelo Castier, Monique dos Santos, Fábio Nishiyama, Donato Aranda, Lúcio Cardozo-Filho, Vladimir Cabral and Vilmar Steffen"},{id:"79275",title:"Thermal Desalination Systems: From Traditionality to Modernity and Development",slug:"thermal-desalination-systems-from-traditionality-to-modernity-and-development",totalDownloads:99,totalDimensionsCites:3,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101128",abstract:"As well known, the basic birthrights of human are the clean air, clean water, healthy food, and green energy. So, clean water is the second important requested need of all living organisms on Earth. To know the importance of water to our human bodies, a deficiency of just 2% in our body’s water supply indicates dehydration. Nowadays, all countries suffer from the problem of freshwater shortage. Despite the importance of clean water for our lives, only 0.01% is available as surface water such as the rivers, lakes, and swamps. These frightening facts have made it a national and humanitarian duty for scientists to research how to overcome the water problem and how to provide alternative sources of safe drinking water using renewable energies. Desalination is the most famous and operative technique used to overcome this problem. In this chapter, the different desalination techniques are reviewed and reported. Also, the solar distillation processes are mentioned with an extended review on the solar distillers. Besides, the application of artificial intelligence in improving the performance of desalination systems is reported. The main conclusions are stated at the end of this chapter.",book:{id:"10995",title:"Distillation Processes - From Solar and Membrane Distillation to Reactive Distillation Modelling, Simulation and Optimization",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10995.jpg"},signatures:"Fadl A. Essa"},{id:"79937",title:"Desalination by Membrane Distillation",slug:"desalination-by-membrane-distillation",totalDownloads:187,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101457",abstract:"At present, around 25% of water desalination processes are based on distillation. Similar to classical distillation, membrane distillation is a phased-change process in which a hydrophobic membrane separates two phases. Membrane distillation is considered an emerging player in the desalination, food processing and water treatment market. Due to its high salt rejection, less fouling propensity, operating at moderate temperature and pressure, membrane distillation is considered as a future sustainable desalination technology. The distillation process is quite well known in desalination. However, membrane distillation emerged a few decades ago, and a thorough understanding is needed to adapt this technique in the near future. This review chapter introduces the classical distillation and membrane distillation as an emerging technology in the desalination arena. Heat and mass transfer and thermodynamics in membrane distillation, characteristics of the performance metrics of membrane distillation are also described. Finally, the performance evaluation of MD is presented. The possibility of using low-grade heat in membrane distillation allows it to integrate directly to solar energy and industrial waste heat.",book:{id:"10995",title:"Distillation Processes - From Solar and Membrane Distillation to Reactive Distillation Modelling, Simulation and Optimization",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10995.jpg"},signatures:"Mustakeem Mustakeem, Sofiane Soukane, Muhammad Saqib Nawaz and Noreddine Ghaffour"},{id:"79199",title:"Principles and Modes of Distillation in Desalination Process",slug:"principles-and-modes-of-distillation-in-desalination-process",totalDownloads:153,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100855",abstract:"Distillation has been a very important separation technique used over many centuries. This technique is diverse and applicable in different fields and for different substances. Distillation is important in the desalination section. Various principles are used in desalting seawater and brackish water to fulfill the demands of freshwater. This work explains the modes and principles of distillation in desalination, their types, present improvement, challenges, and limitations as well as possible future improvements. The first and primary mode of distillation is the passive type. As times went by and the demand for freshwater kept increasing, other modes were introduced and these modes fall under the active distillation type. However, each mode has its own advantages, disadvantages, and limitations over each other. The principles and modes of distillation are as significant as understanding the energy sources needed for distillation. Hence, they are the basic knowledge needed for future innovation in the desalination industries.",book:{id:"10995",title:"Distillation Processes - From Solar and Membrane Distillation to Reactive Distillation Modelling, Simulation and Optimization",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10995.jpg"},signatures:"Abubakar Sadiq Isah, Husna Takaijudin and Balbir Singh Mahinder Singh"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:8},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:333,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:144,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:126,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:23,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:13,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. 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She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. 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Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. 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His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. 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