\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7603",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Mixed Reality and Three-Dimensional Computer Graphics",title:"Mixed Reality and Three-Dimensional Computer Graphics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Mixed reality is an area of computer research that deals with the combination of real-world and computer-generated data, where computer-generated objects are visually mixed into the real environment and vice versa in real time. It is the newest virtual reality technology. It usually uses 3D computer graphics technologies for visual presentation of the virtual world. The mixed reality can be created using the following technologies: augmented reality and augmented virtuality. Mixed and virtual reality, their applications, 3D computer graphics and related technologies in their actual stage are the content of this book. 3D-modeling in virtual reality, a stereoscopy, and 3D solids reconstruction are presented in the first part. The second part contains examples of the applications of these technologies, in industrial, medical, and educational areas.",isbn:"978-1-83962-623-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-622-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-624-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77405",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"mixed-reality-and-three-dimensional-computer-graphics",numberOfPages:180,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"96e6d4a84d98903e442415024f7403f5",bookSignature:"Branislav Sobota and Dragan Cvetković",publishedDate:"October 14th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7603.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7776,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:19,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:34,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 9th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 12th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 12th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 1st 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 30th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"109378",title:"Dr.",name:"Branislav",middleName:null,surname:"Sobota",slug:"branislav-sobota",fullName:"Branislav Sobota",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109378/images/system/109378.jpeg",biography:"Branislav Sobota obtained an MSc with honours from the Department of Computers and Informatics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Informatics, Technical University of Košice, Slovakia in 1990. He defended his Ph.D. in 1999 and habilitation thesis in the field of virtual reality and computer graphics in 2008. He is an associate professor at the Department of Computers and Informatics, Technical University of Košice. His scientific research focuses on computer graphics, parallel computing, virtual reality, and related technologies.",institutionString:"Technical University of Košice",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Technical University of Košice",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovakia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101330/images/system/101330.jpg",biography:"Dragan Cvetković obtained a Ph.D. in Aeronautics from the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, in 1997. To date, he has published sixty-five books, scripts, and practicums about computers and computer programs, aviation weapons, and flight mechanics. He has published many scientific papers as well. Dr. Cvetković became a full professor of Informatics and Computing at Singidunum University, Belgrade, in 2014. Since 2019, he has been the vice-rector for teaching at the same university.",institutionString:"Singidunum University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"10",institution:{name:"Singidunum University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"572",title:"User Interface Design",slug:"user-interface-design"}],chapters:[{id:"70449",title:"Using Augmented Reality Technology to Construct a Wood Furniture Sampling Platform for Designers and Sample Makers to Narrow the Gap between Judgment and Prototype",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90471",slug:"using-augmented-reality-technology-to-construct-a-wood-furniture-sampling-platform-for-designers-and",totalDownloads:828,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The production and design of wood furniture manufacturing includes manufacturing furniture parts and their assembly with appropriate finishing operations; the process requires repeated communication and discussions, as well as furniture sampling and trials, which are indispensable. However, in the sampling process, due to the different understandings of the designer and the sample maker in regard to the size of 2D drawings and the modeling of 3D furniture, the sampling results often differ greatly from the designer’s original concept; such errors appear mostly in the prototyping of wooden furniture. In this study, we focus on the wooden chair to explore whether augmented reality (AR) can contribute to the comparison between the virtual and physical shapes in the furniture prototyping process. We hope that by employing AR, the gap between the prototype and the finished furniture will be narrowed. By researching actual furniture prototyping with three furniture designers and two sample makers, this study has defined three furniture prototyping methods in the industry. Based on the basic principles, we recruited 38 designers to participate in the comparison experiments employing the above three different furniture prototypes. The results confirmed that applying the AR technology can effectively narrow the gap between judgment and prototype.",signatures:"I-Jui Lee",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70449",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70449",authors:[{id:"229636",title:"Dr.",name:"I-Jui",surname:"Lee",slug:"i-jui-lee",fullName:"I-Jui Lee"}],corrections:null},{id:"70925",title:"Augmented Reality as a New and Innovative Learning Platform for the Medical Area",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90871",slug:"augmented-reality-as-a-new-and-innovative-learning-platform-for-the-medical-area",totalDownloads:656,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This research paper shows an Augmented Reality (AR) project applied to medicine. The project is crystallized through a system, based on this new technology that serves as an innovative and innovative learning platform, which, in turn, helps in both teaching and learning abstract concepts in medicine, which requires of visual and manipulable objects difficult to obtain, due to the large space they occupy in magnetic media or because of how difficult it is to get their models in physical form. The proposed system strengthens the anatomical identification process in the area of medicine, specifically in the physiological activity of the human heart. In addition, this system allows interaction with the students, through which certain body parts of the human heart are identified, and, consequently, facilitates their learning with an iterative operation. Finally, the system is focused, so that the student uses his/her sense of sight, hearing, and kinesthetic, which, together, will allow a better assimilation of knowledge.",signatures:"Gerardo Reyes-Ruiz and Marisol Hernández-Hernández",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70925",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70925",authors:[{id:"313803",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",surname:"Reyes",slug:"gerardo-reyes",fullName:"Gerardo Reyes"},{id:"313837",title:"Prof.",name:"Marisol",surname:"Hernández Hernández",slug:"marisol-hernandez-hernandez",fullName:"Marisol Hernández Hernández"}],corrections:null},{id:"71251",title:"An Interactive VR System for Anatomy Training",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91358",slug:"an-interactive-vr-system-for-anatomy-training",totalDownloads:823,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In recent decades, virtual reality (VR) becomes a potential solution to enhance clinical medical (functional reeducation, training, etc.), especially with the growth evolution of technologies form both visualization (e.g., HoloLens, VR in Case, etc.) and 3D gestural interaction (Ray Casting, Free Hand, etc.) point of views. The 3D visualization of the human anatomy could be a serious asset for students in medicine. This new technology could provide a clear and realistic representation of the internal organs of the human body, without having to resort to surgery. 3D organs based-course supports visualization could be a useful tool for students, especially in their first graduate studies, to enhance their perception on human’s internal composition. This system is composed of two modules, 3D human’s anatomy visualization module and interaction module for organs manipulation. Finally, the system will be tested and evaluated with several subjects.",signatures:"Djamel Aouam, Nadia Zenati-Henda, Samir Benbelkacem and Chafiaa Hamitouche",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71251",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71251",authors:[{id:"64814",title:"Mr.",name:"Samir",surname:"Benbelkacem",slug:"samir-benbelkacem",fullName:"Samir Benbelkacem"},{id:"72390",title:"Dr.",name:"Nadia",surname:"Zenati-Henda",slug:"nadia-zenati-henda",fullName:"Nadia Zenati-Henda"},{id:"314338",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Djamel",surname:"Aouam",slug:"djamel-aouam",fullName:"Djamel Aouam"},{id:"318975",title:"Dr.",name:"Chafiaa",surname:"Hamitouche",slug:"chafiaa-hamitouche",fullName:"Chafiaa Hamitouche"}],corrections:null},{id:"71106",title:"Learning by Augmented Reality: Cluster Analysis Approach",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91252",slug:"learning-by-augmented-reality-cluster-analysis-approach",totalDownloads:641,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Because the use of augmented reality (AR) is increasing, it is important to study its possibilities within both formal and informal learning contexts. We clustered 146 sixth graders using AR at a science center based on their reasoning, motivation, and science learning results using the self-organizing maps method (SOM) to identify AR-using subgroups. The aim was to consider reasons why the AR method could be of more beneficial for some students than others. The clustering results complemented earlier findings on AR gains in learning, as an unexpected response to intervention was discovered using this nonlinear analysis. The previous results had indicated that after the AR experience, science test results generally improved and particularly among students with the lowest achievement. The SOM-clustering results showed a majority group of boys, especially those interested in science learning both at school and at the science center using AR. Despite low school achievement, their high motivation led to good science learning results. The prior results, according to which girls closed the science knowledge gap between boys after using AR, became more relative, as two girl-dominated subgroups were identified. The reasons for the results were considered on the basis of motivation, multimedia learning theory, and concept formation theories.",signatures:"Helena Thuneberg and Hannu S. Salmi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71106",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71106",authors:[{id:"314465",title:"Prof.",name:"Hannu",surname:"Salmi",slug:"hannu-salmi",fullName:"Hannu Salmi"},{id:"314498",title:"Dr.",name:"Helena",surname:"Thuneberg",slug:"helena-thuneberg",fullName:"Helena Thuneberg"}],corrections:null},{id:"71263",title:"3D Modeling and Computer Graphics in Virtual Reality",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91443",slug:"3d-modeling-and-computer-graphics-in-virtual-reality",totalDownloads:1064,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In the era of digital information technologies, 3D modeling and computer graphics techniques not only apply to the development of virtual models for computer simulation, artificial intelligence (AI), big data analytics, etc., but also they can be applied in many different applications in virtual reality (VR). However, the computer graphics effect and visual realism are usually the trade-offs with the real-time and realistic interaction in VR. In this book chapter, we would like to review the general flow of the VR program development process, and the recent 3D modeling and texture painting techniques used in VR. On the other hand, we would introduce some of the key 3D modeling and computer graphics techniques that can be applied in VR in order to enhance the speed of interaction. The key techniques including smoothing techniques and mesh editing modifiers are not only useful for the designers to learn the 3D modeling process, but it also helps to create less complex mesh models maintaining good visual effects. The techniques are particularly important in the development of 3D models to satisfy the demanding computation requirement of real-time interaction in VR program.",signatures:"Yuk Ming Tang and H.L. Ho",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71263",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71263",authors:[{id:"314714",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuk",surname:"Tang",slug:"yuk-tang",fullName:"Yuk Tang"}],corrections:null},{id:"72385",title:"3D Solid Reconstruction from 2D Orthographic Views",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91977",slug:"3d-solid-reconstruction-from-2d-orthographic-views",totalDownloads:692,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Three-dimensional computer-aided design (CAD) models are widely used by designers because of their useful applications in the areas of CAD/CAM/CAE/CAQ. A desirous trend to create this model, which has long been studied by scientists around the world, is a 3D model reconstruction from 2D orthographic views. With this method, it is easy to enter geometric information as well as use 2D drawings that have already existed. Most of the previous works used three views, but many of the mechanical parts needed only two views. An advanced 3D solid reconstruction system using only two orthographic views is the subject of this chapter. The proposed method has been implemented and verified reliability by an ObjectARX program plugged into AutoCAD 2018. The 3D models have been checked for their compatibility with 3D CAD/CAM systems. This chapter presents principles, algorithms, databases, programming for the advanced reconstruction system, and some of its technical applications.",signatures:"Long Hoang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72385",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72385",authors:[{id:"310032",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Long",surname:"Hoang",slug:"long-hoang",fullName:"Long Hoang"}],corrections:null},{id:"73091",title:"Blockchain-Based Data Integrity for Collaborative CAD",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93539",slug:"blockchain-based-data-integrity-for-collaborative-cad",totalDownloads:886,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Distributed and collaborative computer-aided design (CAD) environments include building information modeling (BIM) and geographical information systems (GISs) in civil engineering and architecture, or product data management/product life cycle management (PDM/PLM) in mechanical engineering. It is essential to keep the data integrity in these computer applications as it contributes to buildingusers’ confidence in CAD/BIM/PDM data. Blockchain technology, the core foundation of cryptocurrencies, is increasingly being used for other purposes and could solve the data integrity issue in collaborative CAD environments. However, it has some disadvantages such as the transparency of data and the slowness of storing data in the blockchain due to distributed consensus. Increasing demand by the Industry 4.0, IoT, Smart Cities, and other initiatives could foster the best what blockchain has to offer: data integrity, reliability, and traceability. This chapter explains how blockchain works, how can it be utilized in distributed CAD environments, what are the major challenges for implementation, and how CAD vendors could use it to increase CAD data integrity.",signatures:"Samir Lemeš",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73091",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73091",authors:[{id:"167012",title:"D.Sc.",name:"Samir",surname:"Lemes",slug:"samir-lemes",fullName:"Samir Lemes"}],corrections:null},{id:"72350",title:"Mixed Reality in the Presentation of Industrial Heritage Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92645",slug:"mixed-reality-in-the-presentation-of-industrial-heritage-development",totalDownloads:646,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chapter ‘Mixed reality in the presentation of industrial heritage development’ is aimed at exploring opportunities for collaboration between theoretical research, monument preservation, virtual reality and architectural practice. It deals with the identified key factors that conditionally affect the quality and efficiency of architectural design process of architects within the cooperation in the conservation process of industrial heritage as well as the opportunities of transfer the research results from futuristic disciplines. For this purpose, the chapter examines the case study ‘the reconstruction of Old Power Plant in city Piešťany’ and describes possible solutions on the basis of the Mixed reality (MR). The opportunity to experience the industrial object with multiple senses (sight, hearing, smell, touch) in MR delivered a unique personalized experience and immersive memories about lost heritage.",signatures:"Vladimír Hain and Roman Hajtmanek",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72350",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72350",authors:[{id:"312940",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Vladimír",surname:"Hain",slug:"vladimir-hain",fullName:"Vladimír Hain"},{id:"312942",title:"Dr.",name:"Roman",surname:"Hajtmanek",slug:"roman-hajtmanek",fullName:"Roman Hajtmanek"}],corrections:null},{id:"72291",title:"Stereoscopy and Autostereoscopy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92633",slug:"stereoscopy-and-autostereoscopy",totalDownloads:550,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"For a seamless Mixed Reality visual experience the display device needs to be versatile enough to enable both 2D as well as 3D Stereoscopic and Autostereoscopic see through information display. The ability to enable single viewer 3D stereoscopic information display is now relatively mature and easier to accomplish but is still a challenge for multiple concurrent users. In addition, the ability to enable virtual reality information display for single viewer is now also relatively mature. However, the ability to enable seamless augmented reality information onto a 3D world is relatively more challenging. It is orders of magnitude, more challenging to have a mixed reality display approach that includes all these capabilities. This chapter will provide a treatise on the stringent requirements for autostereoscopic information display as well as switchable 2D-3D autostereoscopic information displays as a guide for designing better mixed reality displays. It will then conclude by providing an alternative approach for a switchable 2D-3D see through Mixed Reality information display.",signatures:"Wallen Mphepo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72291",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72291",authors:[{id:"319846",title:"Dr.",name:"Wallen",surname:"Mphepo",slug:"wallen-mphepo",fullName:"Wallen Mphepo"}],corrections:null},{id:"72705",title:"Mixed Reality: A Known Unknown",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92827",slug:"mixed-reality-a-known-unknown",totalDownloads:991,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mixed reality (MR) is an area of computer research dealing with the combination of real-world and computer-generated data (virtual reality), where computer-generated graphical objects are visually mixed into the real environment and vice versa in real time. This chapter contains an introduction to this modern technology. Mixed reality combines real and virtual and is interactive, real-time processed, and registered in three dimensions. We can create mixed reality by using at least one of the following technologies: augmented reality and augmented virtuality. The mixed reality system can be considered as the ultimate immersive system. MR systems are usually constructed as optical see-through systems (usually by using transparent displays) or video see-through. Implementation of MR systems is as marker systems (real scene will be added with special markers. These will be recognized during runtime and replaced with virtual objects) or (semi) markerless systems (processing and inserting of virtual objects is without exact markers. Additional information is usually needed, for example, image and face recognition, GPS coordinates, etc.). The chapter contains also a description of mixed reality as an advanced computer user interface and the newest collaborative mixed reality.",signatures:"Branislav Sobota, Štefan Korečko, Marián Hudák and Martin Sivý",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72705",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72705",authors:[{id:"109378",title:"Dr.",name:"Branislav",surname:"Sobota",slug:"branislav-sobota",fullName:"Branislav Sobota"},{id:"121880",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefan",surname:"Korecko",slug:"stefan-korecko",fullName:"Stefan Korecko"},{id:"322684",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Marián",surname:"Hudák",slug:"marian-hudak",fullName:"Marián Hudák"},{id:"322685",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Martin",surname:"Sivý",slug:"martin-sivy",fullName:"Martin Sivý"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7435",title:"Computer Graphics and Imaging",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"889abc91038189c977749c2175bbc8e2",slug:"computer-graphics-and-imaging",bookSignature:"Branislav Sobota",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7435.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109378",title:"Dr.",name:"Branislav",surname:"Sobota",slug:"branislav-sobota",fullName:"Branislav Sobota"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3787",title:"Human Computer Interaction",subtitle:"New Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3e674caf0f42f89fcb433e4e7ae3e05f",slug:"human_computer_interaction_new_developments",bookSignature:"Kikuo Asai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3787.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6710",title:"Dr.",name:"Kikuo",surname:"Asai",slug:"kikuo-asai",fullName:"Kikuo Asai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10271",title:"Software Usability",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c71aff43977a455e7563255a2c104b1",slug:"software-usability",bookSignature:"Laura M. 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At the same time, there has been a plethora of international crisis demonstrating how fragile the business environment can be. The most cited crises have been caused by nature (e.g. tsunami, hurricanes, bushfires, floods or disease) or by man (e.g. terrorism and the current Economic Tsunami). In this environment, the Hotel Managers’ duty of care should also involve planning and preparing for unforeseen events; running ‘what if’ scenarios, designing action plans for all departments, allocating individual responsibilities; building back-up capacity and training their staff to respond in appropriate manner to security concerns. Therefore, the
This paper is set out in the following structure: the basic crisis management concepts are outlined and applied to the tourism (and hospitality) settings. This is followed by a brief outline of the methodology utilised. The findings/discussion section is structured to reflect the key practical tips offered by the interviewees: ‘
Crisis management has its roots in strategic planning incorporating contingencies for unexpected events. The challenge for organisations is to recognise the early ‘warning signals’ and take appropriate action. Crisis can be classified by several variables:
Generally speaking, crisis as an event is characterised by its unexpected nature inflicting severe impact on those involved. Moreover, a crisis typically demonstrates the characteristics of suddenness, uncertainty and time compression thus demanding immediate action from the manager – often the crisis management decision-making is also based on incomplete facts [4, 5]. How any of these challenges are managed can determine the magnitude of the impact a crisis will have on the organisation. Prompt and expertly dealings with a crisis situation and those affected by this crisis can also open new opportunities for future business success [6]. Unfortunately the crisis reported in the news today will inevitably result in some financial losses as well as human suffering. As a result some businesses will be closed or relocated. The cynics amongst us argue that the crisis simply brought forward what was inevitable and that a ‘natural process of weeding out the weak’ has taken place.
Regrettably crisis events are commonplace, [7] as organisations are regularly dealing with the pre-crisis; during-crisis or post-crisis issues thus highlighting the need for an early ‘diagnosis and treatment’ of a crisis to reduce the negative impact to the company. Moreover, a crisis can also be a chain of events that are impossible to control or plan for, thus resulting in ‘death or significant injuries’ to those involved, disrupt the business operations as well as damage to or destruction of company assets. In other words, a crisis situation turns ‘business as normal’ into impossibility [3, 6].
Tourism as an industry has many characteristics that can make a crisis more probable, magnify the impacts of a crisis and attract extreme media coverage for the event. Firstly, tourism is big business and often cited as the ‘largest peacetime industry’ [8] and tourism is also advocated as the industry offering sustainable (and quick yielding) development opportunities to the least developed countries. Secondly, the tourism industry is highly integrated with several other industries. In other words, the ripples of a crisis event from the hotels’ supply chain can result in a flood of issues/problems for the business of providing hospitality [1]. Thirdly, the tourism industry is about the movement of people (i.e. all individuals with the means and motive to travel are potential tourists). Thus the variety of psychological or social responses to unexpected events from the guests of an international hotel will challenge even the ‘best laid [crisis] plans’ as well as the communications skills of experienced PR Managers to maintain calm [2]. Fourthly, since the consumption of a tourism product requires the customer to travel to a destination the demand for tourism products is sensitive to reports on security and health issues; and finally, many tourists are attracted to fragile locales particularly vulnerable to the forces of nature (e.g. tropical weather, proximity to sea and even seismic activity) or destination with low degree of infrastructure development (so called ‘unspoilt’ destinations) [5, 9-11].
Moreover, tourism participation is a discretionary activity for most international travelers, many countries (or destinations) have invested heavily on new campaigns in order to acquire the misplaced inbound tourists or to generate alternative demand from domestic travelers [12, 13]. Therefore, in tourism industry, ‘… it is no longer a question whether [a crisis] will arise, but when and how it will be dealt with’ [7] therefore hotels’ crisis plans should be more generic in nature, thus offering personnel accepted behavioural protocols without attempting to script for every eventuality. The wide variety of potential crisis in the hospitality industry also supports this argument.
The findings in this paper are based on in-depth interviews conducted during October 2008. Non-probability sampling was used to select locations due to the range of past crisis events varying from financial crisis (e.g. current financial crisis worldwide and the financial crisis in Finland in the early nineties), health concerns (e.g. SARS reports linked to Hong Kong) to terrorism (e.g. the UK and London) reported in those locations. At each city, major stakeholders from educational institutions to trade associations were approached to request contact details for hotel managers willing to participate in research projects. Individual interview requests were made through e-mail and the final number of interviews conducted was 12 (three in Hong Kong; six in London and three in Helsinki).
Each respondent received the planned interview questions in advance together with background information for this study and the University research ethics procedures. Although General Managers were approached initially, in some cases the interview request was delegated to the Head of Hotel Security thus resulting in a mixture of nine Hotel Managers and three Hotel Security experts. Collectively, the respondents hold decades of crisis management experience across the world with focus on the hospitality industry as well as other segments of the security industry like Police or Fire departments. Naturally, the personal crisis experience of each person influenced the examples and policies highlighted by each individual thus making the data more rich. The ‘default’ identification for each respondent was to code them by location e.g. ‘Hotel A, HK’ or ‘Hotel K, UK’ etc.
The first observation during the data collection process was how well prepared all hotels interviewed were. Most interviewees arrived with their crisis management plans, in one incident; a major evacuation practice was due to take place later on the same day.
The probability of incidents or crisis events taking place in a hotel increases with the volume of business and the size of the establishment; ‘when the company [the hotel or the chain of hotels] provides thousands of bed nights every year, something is likely to happen’. One important contributor to hospitality industry incidents or crises are the guests or visitors to the property. The Hotel Manager can select their staff members and train them to respond to events in the desired way. Unfortunately, such luxury does not always exist with the visitors and guests. This is not to say that the visitors would be deliberately causing harm but the mixture of varying cultural norms, language barriers and lack of understanding of the prevailing condition can confuse the guests, thus causing an incident or making the crisis control extremely difficult for the hotel employees [2]. However, clever use of the
The reported crises experienced by the respondents can be classified as internal (within their property) and external (outside their property). The internal crises varied from technical/power failures to death of a hotel guest and the external crises varied from mass cancellation of hotel bookings due to the current financial crisis, to accidental or deliberate incidents of vehicles crashing into the hotel buildings (such deliberate damage to the hotel property and risking of human lives would be classified as terrorism) (Hotel A, HK).
All respondents referred to the Hotel Manager’s responsibility for the well being and safety of staff and guests. In fact the Hotel Manager’s
All respondents advocated the importance of being prepared for crisis situations and most respondents arrived to the interview with their Crisis Preparation Manuals. Furthermore, in one hotel, a crisis response practice was scheduled to take place shortly after the interview. The obvious/visual display of security measures (e.g. metal detectors at the entrance) is appropriate for specific target segments or situations only. The examples illustrated the varied degree of security measures needed for mega events like the 2012 London Olympics (all London respondents) and offering hotel services to the top politicians in the EU or other VIP guests (Hotel E, Finland). In such instances the security protocols are set externally and specialist security personnel is provided by the event organisers. A more common request for additional security takes place when a corporate client uses the hotels conference facilities for a strategically significant meeting. In these situations public access to some parts of the hotel may be restricted (Hotel D, Finland).
The day-to-day security operations included the ‘secondary’ security role assigned to most front line employees. This approach allows for a more discrete security operations and maintaining the appropriate quality of service. For example, the concierge limits the access to the hotel by suspicious individuals (Hotel D, Finland and Hotel L, UK) and front of house personnel diplomatically offering assistance to visitors who do not seem to belong. Such helpful attention to visitors was also experienced by me as the ‘out of place interviewer’.
Managing costs effectively during any crisis is probably the key to being able to remain in business during and after crisis, as any reduction in hotel occupancy rates will translate into a drop in the revenues. However, this cost saving exercise should be conducted in a way that allows the hotel to bounce back quickly once the demand for their services returns. For example, short term cost cutting can result in years of Good Will from all stakeholders disappearing, thus resulting in difficulty in securing supplies and recruiting personnel after the crisis is over. A key cost area for service industries is the payroll, therefore if substantial cost cutting is required to survive the current crisis. Therefore, the Hotel Manager will need to ‘look for ways of reducing costs whilst maintaining their support to the staff’ (Hotel C, HK). The labour cost and capacity can be reduced by asking volunteers to take vacation during crisis (Hotel B, HK) or by changing operating procedures (Hotel C, HK). Another response to a crisis event is to stop recruiting (Hotel G, UK).
Moreover, a significant drop in demand and revenues due to a crisis will also require cutting costs in any area possible. For example, the supply costs for power and/or electricity can be managed by closing areas of the property; e.g. by closing a floor and concentrating the guests accommodation in dedicated areas will save power and allow for better utilisation of staff (Hotel B, HK). By concentrating the fewer visitors to specific areas can also help create the perception that the hotel is not badly hit by the current crisis situation, e.g. the worldwide economic crisis. And finally, a drop in demand and revenues should also prompt the Hotel Management to re-evaluate further investment plans. In conclusion, during a crisis event it is important not to waste resources (Hotel G, UK).
The advice to ‘make use of local advice’ that is often also offered for free, was most frequently communicated by interviewees based in Finland and London. However, such observation could be purely incidental; e.g. in Finland only three respondents were interviewed, one of them had recent experience in providing accommodation for high ranking EU delegates (Hotel E, Finland); the London hotels were getting ready for the 2012 Olympics, and therefore, a greater collaboration between hotels and authorities is to be expected.
The type of free advice offered by local authorities (as well as other organisations) is determined by the location of the hotel. For example, the location of the hotel will determine the required building standards as well as the requirement for a formal rescue plan to be lodged with the authorities, the frequency of relevant safety inspections, and the extent to which the authorities are working with the hotels in a proactive manner (Hotel D, Finland).
Two of the London Interviewees made unprompted comments on how they ‘welcomed the need for fire compliancy and regular inspections’ since ‘the fire certificate ensures compliance with fire safety’. Moreover, through a thorough crisis preparedness plan the hotels were also able to save in their insurance premiums (Hotel G, UK). Furthermore, ‘regular fire inspections help hotels enhance/update their fire safety plans’ (Hotel L, UK).
The closer links between the London Metropolitan Police and the hotels had also resulted in the Police issuing regular updates on specific criminal activities targeting hotels as well as fraudulent individuals to watch out for (Hotel L, UK). Finally, the time to develop positive relationships with authorities like the police or fire/rescue departments is during the quiet times, as good links to the authorities would be needed during crisis (e.g. Hotel L, UK; Hotel D, Finland).
In a large hotel good customer records are the basis for excellent customer relations. These records will allow the hotel to learn about their frequent guests and to keep their loyal customers (e.g. Hotel D in Finland). However, such inside knowledge should not be used to exhaust the guests with direct mail but rather preserve such communications for times when there is a need to attract business (Hotel L, UK). Furthermore, good guest history [and incident reports] also help dealing with complaints that may be received later.
Accurate record keeping should not be limited to the Customer Relations Department but be a standard across all the departments within the hotel. Moreover, all well documented procedures can also stop a minor incident from becoming a major crisis. For example, accurate temperature control in food preparation processes, maintenance work carried out, and even the details of deliveries taken, may be questioned months after the guest has departed. One Hong Kong based Hotel Manager (Hotel A) commented on guests from several months ago inquiring whether they had been served milk products sourced from China at any stage during their visit to the hotel. These guests had heard international news reports about contaminated baby milk in China and wanted to know if any food or beverages consumed in the hotel could have traces of such contaminated milk (for more on milk contamination in China please see [14] ). This example highlights the need of thorough record keeping across all departments within the hotel, as these files are needed to reply to a concerned guest whether they have been exposed to any external health risks during their stay at the hotel (Hotel A, HK). For example, international news reports on poor air quality, polluted rivers or even faulty air-conditioning units near the hotel location could cause some negative word-of-mouth if the hotel is not able to demonstrate appropriate duty of care through well maintained records.
Hotels also provide the venue and catering for different types of events. Such functions serve specialist menus to groups up to several hundred guests. The participants of these specialist events can continue their celebrations in various independent restaurants outside the hotel and may even conclude the night with a snack from a street vendor. A guest suffering from food poisoning might blame the hotel for their symptoms even when they are not able to identify all food items consumed during their celebrations. A hotel can eliminate false accusations of poor food hygiene by preserving/freezing a small sample of food prepared for a major banquet. If required, the hotel can get the preserved food samples analysed by an independent laboratory before accepting any liability (Hotel B, HK). Finally, the prevalence of food allergies today requires detailing and standardising the ingredients for every item on the menu (Hotel D, Finland).
Technology can be used to enhance the overall hotel security and cameras in corridors as well as other public spaces are the norm today (Hotel D, Finland). Well positioned cameras and other visible security measures are welcomed by the guests as they increase the perception of security (Hotel I, UK). However, excessive use of cameras can give the impression of specific security problems on the premises (Hotel L, UK). Electronic key cards are also the norm today and the CCTV is viewed invaluable in securing the hotel premises (Hotel K, UK).
Recording security cameras at key positions, alarms and motion sensors indicating unauthorised access, as well as digital monitoring of access to the premises, were nominated as common tools for maintaining hotel security. The hotels in Finland were already using external security agencies to monitor their alarms as well as patrol the premises (Hotel D). Some of the London based hotels were considering such an option as well (Hotel G).
The Internet and e-mail were seen as a tool for enhancing the hotel security as well as a potential risk to the operations or the image of the hotel. The need for up-to-date firewalls to protect the hotels’ computer networks was highlighted by some of the interviewees (e.g. Hotel D, Finland). Furthermore, the need to backup the data together with alternative communications channels outside the primary premises was also identified (e.g. Hotel B, HK; Hotel, UK). Moreover, licence plate readers were installed in the garage of one busy London hotel (Hotel L, UK). Finally, the collaboration between hotels and the police also involved e-mail alerts of scams targeting hotels complete with photographs of the suspects the hotels should look out for (Hotel D in Finland; Hotel K, UK).
Finally, many types of technology was utilised by all interviewees in maintaining the hotel security, and to some extent overt security measures facilitated by technology (e.g. electronic key cards, security cameras in public places) are now expected by the hotel guests. However, the underlying guideline for the use of technology in hotels was the need to ‘protect the privacy of our guest’ (Hotels H and L, UK),
The main contribution from this study is the accumulation of practical advice that all Hotel Managers can utilize, regarding of the size of their hotel. The practical advice offered by the participants of this study is based on accumulation of decades hotel management experience across the globe. The findings from these interviews can be grouped under the following headings:
The findings of this study could be presented as a benchmark for good practice for crisis prevention in large international hotels. The examples cited by the interviewees covered crisis situations from small accidents to terrorism or accidental death within the premises.
The limitations of this study are, therefore, outcome of the limited resources (time and funding for data collection) and the bias towards large, international hotels. The timing of the data collection also coincided with the Economic Tsunami of 2008 where the signs for economic slowdown were already evident (reduced advance bookings, lower than usual occupancy rations as well as the cancellations of large bookings).
The conclusion of this paper should also cite two quotes reflecting the many years of crisis management experience by the Interviewees: ‘every cloud has a silver lining’ (Hotel K, UK) and that hotels can ‘come out of crisis stronger’ (Hotel I, UK)
This study was funded by La Trobe University Outside Studies Programme
The choice of the right materials is an arduous engineering challenge to the materials engineer and, if done carefully, can be a springboard to the proper and successful implementation and subsequent operation of the design. There are a host of materials available to the designer, and making the right decision is a vital achievement in putting forth a successful design. Materials are required to perform according to the designer’s expectations and must possess and retain the right properties in the working environment throughout the working period.
\nMaterial selection is in most cases a contradictory decision-making process. Light-weight materials will most likely not possess sufficient strength, and brittle materials will not necessarily be good in fatigue resistance, stiffness or toughness. It is also almost impossible to find a single monolithic material with the required property profile for engineering applications. Moreover, material properties are greatly affected by the working environment (such as temperature, pressure, humidity, etc.) and the nature of loading (gradual, fluctuating, impact, fatigue, etc.). There is need, therefore, to combine two or more materials, as alloys or composites so as to utilise the different useful properties offered by the different materials. Most engineering materials appear in this configuration, and very few applications utilise pure monolithic materials [1]. This is true of aluminium, the most abundant metallic element in the Earth’s crust, accounting for 8% of the planet’s soil and rocks. Aluminium has been a metal of tremendous importance to the domestic and manufacturing industries from the mediaeval period (fifth–fifteenth century) and played an important role in the early years of the industrial revolution. The successful extraction and the first commercial applications of aluminium took place in the nineteenth century, the period in which the enthusiasm for new materials and their possible uses was immense [2].
\nThe first mention of aluminium as a metal of industrial importance indicated the metal was first utilised in the manufacture of household and ornamental items before becoming an important material in the construction of large industrial structures and machine components. With the advent of alloying technology, the use of aluminium was developed farther and positioned aluminium as the most utilised industrial metal for decades. The popularity of aluminium grew due to its good attributes related to its unique properties, mainly of light-weight combined with good thermal/electrical conduction and reasonably good strength and resistance to corrosion. With alloying, aluminium has found more applications than previously envisioned, making aluminium a serious competitor with (and sometimes a preferred alternative to) the traditional “strong” metals iron and steel [3].
\nAluminium alloys and composites have, in most applications, exhibited superior performance compared to their rival metals. The choice of aluminium alloys and composites derives from one important attribute of aluminium metal—light-weight. Light-weight translates into many important outcomes in engineering applications. In the automotive industry, it means less dead weight, lower fuel consumption, lower emissions, increased payload (for passengers and cargo) and easier handling. In the aerospace and aircraft industry, it translates into more payload (cargo), less fuel and lower emissions. There are similar advantages in all areas where aluminium is utilised—marine, rail, packaging, thermal management, building and construction, sports and recreation, etc. Aluminium’s good electrical and thermal conductivity have seen its increased use in electrical conductors, electronic packaging and thermal management. Nowadays, aluminium is viewed as an important material for energy conservation and environmental protection [4].
\nModern technology aims at meeting the market whose standards are ever appreciating. The market demands faster, more comfortable and hassle-free transport, more compact and lighter machines and tools, more efficient methods of power generation, etc. Most engineered materials can easily meet or surpass design specifications that would not have been envisaged a few years back. Today’s materials are subjected to more critical loads, more stresses and more severe operating conditions in an environment never experienced before. In a spacecraft, for example, the operating conditions experienced are quite unique and require special types of materials to withstand the severe stresses imposed on the spacecraft during take-off and maintenance in the orbiting space. Traditional materials have been found wanting in meeting these operating conditions and hence the need to intensify research and development (R&D) efforts in new and advanced materials for specific applications and efficiency improvement. Among the advanced materials on the R&D, the menu is the metal matrix micro- and nanocomposites. Metal matrix composites (MMCs) are metals or metal alloys that incorporate particles, whiskers, fibres or hollow microballoons made of a different material and offer unique opportunities to tailor materials to specific design needs [5]. In automotive applications, for example, these materials can be tailored to be light-weight and with various other useful properties including high specific strength and specific stiffness, high hardness and wear resistance, high thermal conductivity, high energy absorption and a damping capacity and low coefficients of friction and thermal expansion.
\nMMCs, therefore, offer more possibilities for wider applications of materials by manipulating their processing to suit the requisite properties under different working environments. The design of composite materials with specific properties can, moreover, be accomplished with the use of finite element modelling techniques. It is possible to predict the properties of a certain material of specified composition by using these techniques. In the same way, it is possible to design materials to offer specified properties by the use of these techniques [1].
\nA composite is a mixture of two or more constituents or phases which are chemically distinct on a microscopic scale, separated by a distinct interface, and can easily be specified. In addition, other criteria are normally satisfied before a material can be called a composite. The constituents have to be present in reasonable proportions, and the constituent phases should have distinctly different properties, such that the properties of the composite are noticeably different from the properties of the constituents [4]. The constituent which is continuous and in most cases available in larger quantities is termed the
Composite materials are usually classified according to the physical or chemical nature of the matrix, e.g. metal matrix, polymer matrix and ceramic composites. Additionally, the emergence of the intermetallic matrix and carbon matrix composites as reported by [7] has broadened the scope of composites. Intermetallic compounds are metal-based systems centred on the fixed atomic compositions occurring in metallic systems of aluminium with nickel (Ni), titanium (Ti) and niobium (Nb), such as Ni3Al, Ti3Al, TiAl and Nb3Al. Intermetallic compounds are of interest because they often exhibit higher melting points and less ease of deformation due to the lattice arrangement of their atoms [8].
\nIn certain applications, metal matrix composite materials, formed by combining two or more materials—one of which is a metal—exhibit a primary advantage over their counterpart organic matrix composites in regard to the maximum operating temperature. To support this point, [9] reports that the boron/aluminium composite offers useful mechanical properties up to a temperature of 510°C, whereas an equivalent boron/epoxy composite is limited to about 190°C. Furthermore, composites of graphite/aluminium, graphite/copper and graphite/magnesium exhibit higher thermal conductivity due to the significant contribution from the metallic matrix. A metal matrix composite retains the desirable properties of both the matrix and the reinforcement by combining the strength of its reinforcement with the ductility of its matrix [10]. The reinforcing constituent may be a particle, platelet, short fibre or continuous fibre and may range from sub-micrometre to millimetre in size. There is a difference between metal matrix composites and multiphase metallic alloys as the concept of MMCs introduces additional degrees of freedom into designing the microstructure. Materials with desirable properties not obtainable by conventional alloying and heat treatment can be created compositing. This can be achieved by altering the reinforcement type (metallic, ceramic or polymeric), content (volume fraction), size, shape, distribution and orientation [11].
\nIn the early development of MMCs, continuous ceramic fibres and single-crystal ceramic whiskers were the preferred reinforcements as they provided the most remarkable increase in strength and stiffness. Later, particulate and discontinuously reinforced MMCs then followed, registering substantial progress on many fronts especially in composites with aluminium as the metal matrix. In aluminium metal matrix composites (AlMMCs), aluminium or its alloy forms a percolating network and is the matrix phase, while the other constituent, which is embedded in this matrix, is the reinforcement. The reinforcement is usually ceramic such as silicon carbide (SiC) or aluminium oxide (Al2O3). The properties of AlMMCs can be varied by varying the nature of the constituent phases and their volume fractions [4].
\nAlthough the MMCs have been in existence since the 1960s, they have not been put to full commercial use due to their higher production costs and lack of proper understanding of their high-temperature behaviour [12]. The higher costs are mainly attributed to the machining processes requiring tool materials to have very high wear resistance because of the reinforcement component being extremely abrasive [13]. However, with the invention of functionally graded materials (FGMs), it is now possible to reduce the cost of secondary processing. FGMs are an emerging category of advanced materials that exhibit gradual microstructural transitions and/or the composition in a specific direction and hence different functional performances within a part [14, 15].
\nThe rapid growth and development of AlMMCs happened in the years after the launch of the Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites Roadmap 2002, a policy document produced by the Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites Consortium with support from the Technology Research Corporation (TRC) of the United States and other stakeholders. The document spelt out a pathway for the AlMMCs’ growth in 20 years from 2002 and asserted the industry’s vision to position AlMMCs as the material of choice in a broad range of structural and nonstructural applications. This vision was to be achieved by addressing three strategic goals, namely:
To reduce the cost of discontinuously reinforced AlMMCs to be comparable to existing alternatives by 2010
To develop the necessary infrastructure to provide design confidence for AlMMCs
To increase the market size for AlMMCs
By that time, AlMMCs had proved their potential in such applications as aerospace, automotive, electronic packaging, commercial and industrial markets. The market was projected to grow at a 14% overall rate to $173 million by 2004. The industry believed then that there was much greater unrealised potential for growth [16].
\nMetal matrix composites can be classified into several distinct classes, generally defined with reference to the type, shape and method of their reinforcements. The following classification is relevant to MMCs with aluminium as the matrix metal as explained in [4] and [11]. Typical microstructures are shown in Figures 1 and 2.
\nTypical microstructures of AlMMCs. (a) Al/Al2O3 platelets. (b) Al/Al2O3 continuous fibres. (c) Al/SiCp. (d) Al/graphite with 20 vol.% graphite flakes taken along the basal plane (source: [
Typical microstructures of MMCs. (a) Cu/Cr co-deformed composite. (b) Ti-6Al-4 V/SiC monofilament. (c) NiAl/Mo in situ composite. (d) Mg/Al2O3 short-fibre composite. (e) Al/SiC particulate composite. (f) Co/WC cermet (source: [
Other MMCs with variety of matrices other than aluminium include:
Primary compositing processes for manufacturing of AlMMCs at industrial scale can be classified into two main groups, namely, (1) liquid-state processes and (2) solid-state processes [4]. The liquid-state processes are further classified into liquid-metal-mixing processes and liquid-metal-infiltration processes. Specifically, liquid-metal mixing is the primary compositing route for producing materials considered for high-volume automotive applications, liquid-metal infiltration for high-volume electronic packaging applications and solid-state processing for high-performance aerospace applications [20].
\nThe liquid-metal-mixing process involves the incorporation of reinforcement particles or short fibres into a molten or semi-solid aluminium matrix through a stirring process. In stir casting technique, the process involves the incorporating of ceramic particulate into liquid aluminium melt and allowing the mixture to solidify. It is crucial to ensure that good wettability between the particulate reinforcement and the liquid aluminium alloy melt is achieved. Generally it is possible to incorporate up to 30% ceramic particles in the size range from 5 to 100 μm in a variety of molten aluminium alloys [16]. Surappa [4] identifies another variation of the stir casting process, called
Particulate-reinforced AlMMCs have been commercially available in significant quantities since the 1990s. The interest in these MMCs was driven by the combination of improved mechanical and physical properties imparted by the reinforcement while still maintaining the favourable metalworking characteristics and predominantly metal-like behaviour. A second motivating factor was the ability to tailor the mechanical and physical properties through selection of the reinforcement composition along with the matrix alloy.
\nIn the liquid-metal-infiltration process, the molten aluminium or its alloy is moved into a preform of the reinforcement, either as a packed bed or a rigid, free-standing structure. In order for the preform to retain its integrity and shape, it is often necessary to use silica- and alumina-based mixtures as a binder. Some degree of pressure is needed to overcome the wetting and capillary resistance, and this can vary from atmospheric to thousands of
Other variations of this technique include
The liquid-metal-infiltration process was first successfully demonstrated in the production of the Toyota piston in which a discontinuous fibre preform was infiltrated by squeeze casting to provide a local improvement in wear resistance in the piston ring land area. The technology has since been adopted for the manufacture of several automotive and military powertrain and suspension components [20].
\nSolid-state processes involve the mixing of reinforcement (particles or whiskers) into a solid-state matrix. Historically, these methods employed solid-state-based processes, such as powder metallurgy (P/M), to produce AlMMCs with the highest combinations of properties. Therefore, these materials are primarily employed in higher-performance applications, especially in the aerospace and automotive markets, where these materials are used in high-performance components, mostly those dominated by fatigue. Initially, ceramic-whisker materials were produced, and subsequently, ceramic-particulate-reinforced materials followed. These materials, while expensive both in terms of the reinforcement and processing costs, developed dramatically improved properties over the base metal and were used in a number of high-performance applications, both military and commercial. However, due to the health risks posed by whisker-reinforced MMCs, particulate-reinforced MMCs have replaced them in many applications, leaving the whisker-reinforced MMCs for specialised military applications [23]. Particulate reinforcement, besides being of lower cost, also exhibited improvements in strength and stiffness almost as high as those obtained in whisker-reinforced materials.
\nVariations in solid-state processing have been identified (see, e.g. [4]):
\nGenerally, aluminium has derived its importance in industrial and commercial applications due to the following attributes, most of which are imparted to its alloys and/or composites:
Aluminium is light; its density is only one-third that of steel.
Aluminium is resistant to weather, common atmospheric gases and a wide range of corrosive liquids.
Aluminium is safe and can be used in contact with a wide range of foodstuffs.
Due to its high reflectivity, aluminium is usually employed in a number of decorative applications.
The strength of aluminium alloys can equal (and sometimes exceed) the strength of normal construction steel.
Aluminium is highly elastic, a property which qualifies it to be employed in structures subjected to shock loads.
Aluminium has a unique behaviour of maintaining its toughness down to very low temperatures, unlike carbon steels which would otherwise suffer embrittlement.
Aluminium exhibits ease of workability and formability and can easily be rolled to very thin gauges.
Aluminium conducts electricity and heat nearly as well as copper.
With alloying and compositing, these attributes are enhanced, and the shortcomings of the base aluminium metal are improved tremendously. The major improvements in the properties of AlMMCs are manifested in form of greater strength and improved stiffness, reduced density, improved abrasion and wear resistance, improved high-temperature properties, better control of thermal expansion coefficient, better thermal/heat management, enhanced and tailored electrical performance, better control of reciprocating mass and improved damping capabilities.
\nThe above advantages have been quantified for a better appreciation. For example, [4] reports that the elastic modulus of pure aluminium can be enhanced from 70 to 240 GPa by reinforcing with 60 vol% continuous alumina fibre. Also, a decrease in the coefficient of thermal expansion from 24 to 7 ppm/oC can be achieved by incorporation of 60 vol% alumina fibre in pure aluminium.
\nWith the advent of nanostructured materials, new materials have been developed with exceptional properties exceeding those expected for monolithic alloys or composites. For example, carbon nanotubes have ultrahigh strength and modulus; when included in a matrix, they could impart significant property improvements to the resulting nanocomposite [5]. Jun and co-workers [24] present quantifiable results to the effect that incorporating only 10 vol% of 50 nm alumina particles to an aluminium alloy matrix using the powder metallurgy process increased yield strength to 515 MPa—which is 15 times stronger than the base alloy and over 1.5 times stronger than AISI 304 stainless steel.
\nAluminium metal matrix composites are increasingly registering success as “high-tech” materials in various applications. Significant performance-related benefits and economic as well as environmental benefits have been realised as a result of utilisation of AlMMCs. Notable among them are improved properties, increased component lifetime, improved productivity, energy savings, lower maintenance costs and environmental benefits such as lower noise levels and fewer airborne emissions. These composites can replace monolithic materials that include ferrous alloys, aluminium and titanium alloys and polymer-based composites in many applications. For widespread replacement, the whole system may be redesigned in order to gain additional weight and volume savings. Ideally, AlMMCs can be viewed not only as a replacement for existing materials but also as a means of enabling radical changes to the product or system design [4].
\nEngineering viability of AlMMCs in a number of applications has been well-documented. AlMMCs having a different type of reinforcements and produced both by solid-state and liquid-state processing have been used in many engineering applications. Some of the newer and visible applications of different types of AlMMCs are detailed below.
\nDetailed applications and the current state of utilisation are covered in Chapter 3.
\nThe automotive market represents the largest current market for AlMMCs on a volume basis. The potential for AlMMCs in this area is barely tapped, however, and represents a great opportunity for substantial growth. Through R&D, lighter, engineered materials are being developed which offer better performance than the existing materials. Replacement of steel and cast iron in internal combustion engine applications as well as in unsprung weight components, such as the brake system, is judged the most promising for the near term.
\nAluminium metal matrix composites are suitable replacements, not only for steel but also for aluminium alloys in various automotive systems and components. There are many ways to achieve light-weight without compromising the strength and safety requirements. Ideally, it is common practice to completely replace the existing structural material with the material of higher yield strength, with a possible reduction in section dimensions. The other way of achieving weight saving is to selectively replace conventional steel at specific areas with the lighter materials. By applying the mass reduction techniques, the mass of vehicles can be reduced independent of vehicle size, functionality, class or model [1]. In most of these techniques, lower density aluminium composites continue to replace the carbon steels. Aluminium-based engine blocks, suspension components, body panels and frame members are increasingly becoming common [27]. Most cylinder heads are aluminium-based, and by 2005, engine blocks made from aluminium in the US light-duty vehicles passed the 50% mark, surpassing steel in this area for the first time [28]. However, engine blocks typically require cast iron cylinder liners due to the inferior wear properties of aluminium—a shortcoming that has attracted considerable research and development (R&D) efforts, leading to some positive results. For example, [5] reports about the progress made in the development of aluminium alloy cylinder liners containing dispersed graphite particles that provide solid lubrication. Aluminium alloys and composites are also competing to replace many various traditional steel components in vehicles, such as valve covers, torque converter and transmission housings, crankcase, control arms, cradles, suspension links, door frames, steering wheels, dashboards, sheet panels and beams are also being replaced by alloy aluminium alloys and composites [29]. New areas are being explored for aluminium-based materials, and these include “all aluminium” bodies, bumpers, crash management systems and unibody construction [30].
\nThe automotive breaking system components, such as the disc brakes and callipers, are another area where significant weight savings can be realised by utilising AlMMCs. Most modern vehicle models including Lotus Elise, General Motors EV1, Chrysler Prowler, Volkswagen Lupo 3 L and Toyota RAV4 EV have used SiC-reinforced aluminium brake rotors [31]. Regarding the chassis, the requirements for vehicle performance and survivability of occupants in severe crashes dictate that chassis materials should possess adequate strength and toughness. Aluminium-fly ash (a waste by-product of coal power plants) cenosphere syntactic foams can be used to reinforce box or tubular frame sections in crumple zones to increase torsional rigidity and energy absorption upon vehicle impact [32]. Further cost/weight savings can be realised by incorporating fly ash in the aluminium matrix for components that do not experience extreme loading. In the suspension system, the use of aluminium-based materials has led to reduction in the unsprung weight, consequently, improving vehicle dynamics. Control arms and wheel hubs made of SiC-reinforced aluminium nanocomposites have exhibited improved strength characteristics similar to cast iron while using less material than aluminium. Self-lubricating graphite-reinforced aluminium bushings can also be incorporated into control arm castings to allow for service-free components [5].
\nApart from the core body frame structure, weight saving technology features in other areas can add up to substantial secondary weight reductions elsewhere. Lighter roof panels, side panels and beams are being offered by different vehicle manufacturers with thinner gauge high-strength steel (HSS), aluminium and some limited magnesium [33]. Significant weight reductions are being registered within the suspension and chassis system by utilising “alloy” (i.e. aluminium alloy) wheels and redesigned braking systems. In addition, many suspension and chassis parts can realise secondary weight savings from reduction in their size that result from weight reductions elsewhere on the vehicle [1].
\nThere is a limit to the savings made. Although primary weight savings also enable downsizing many of the other vehicle systems, a study sponsored by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) evaluated the maximum weight reductions possible for some car models. Using Honda Accord as the study sample, it was found out that the baseline body-in-white (BIW) mass, which was 48% HSS, could be reduced by 22% with advanced high-strength steel (AHSS) and by up to 35% with an aluminium-intensive design [1, 34]. In another study conducted by IKA, University of Aachen (Germany), it was observed that it was possible to obtain a weight reduction of their “alumaximised” model car from 1229 to 785 kg, after primary and maximum secondary weight savings [35].
\nWeight reduction has been driven to higher heights by new and advanced technologies and concepts. The new concept of “multi-material designs”, used mainly for high-volume production, is an alternative to the “all-aluminium” designs of BIW. The concept consists of mixing various materials to benefit from their individual advantages. To this end, it is possible to use aluminium together with high- and ultrahigh-strength steels, magnesium and plastics or composites, where applicable [1]. The driving force behind this concept is to use the “best and most suitable” material for the appropriate functions in order to achieve an overall cost-efficient light-weight design. This concept has been championed by some European car manufacturers, notably, BMW, in their 5 E60 series which utilises 20% as deep-drawing steels, 42% as higher-strength steels, 20% as ultrahigh-strength steels and 18% aluminium alloys. The front-end substructure consists of 16.4 kg steel, and 29.4 kg is made of 86 aluminium-based parts (stamped sheet, extrusions, high-pressure die castings and hydroformed tubes) [35, 36].
\nThe multi-material design concept was adopted and further developed by the SuperLIGHT-CAR (SLC) project. Under the umbrella of the European Council for Automotive Research (EUCAR), the European Commission (EC) in the year 2005 co-funded the 4-year collaborative SLC project, whose overall objective was to develop truly light-weight multi-material car concepts up to 50% lighter than the high-volume cars produced in the year 2004. The SLC project, recognising the importance of weight reduction as one of the most effective ways of reducing fuel consumption and CO2 emissions in the road transport sector, embarked on developing the integrated knowledge and technological capabilities needed to design and manufacture multi-material car bodies with reduced raw material consumption of up to 30% [37]. This was achieved by an ingenious mix of metals headed by aluminium. The multi-material concept consequently exceeded the initial target and yielded a 35% (or an equivalent of 101 kg) weight reduction compared to the reference 2004 benchmark of a VW Golf V [38].
\nLutsey [27] reports that reductions are more likely to be registered in manufacturing costs for vehicle mass reduction options up to about 20% for the light-duty vehicles in the 2009 fleet. Quoting the IMPACT Ford F150 project as an example, it is reported that the vehicle designs that reduced the pickup’s mass by 19% were achieved at net-zero manufacturing cost, whereas the full 25% mass reduction package came with a $ 500 per vehicle cost increase. Other studies involving aluminium-intensive designs also showed the potential for minimal net-vehicle costs with substantial mass reductions. The SLC multi-material design also shows the feasibility of a unibody structure of aluminium, magnesium and composites that delivers up to a 39% body mass reduction and with costs that are less than €10/kg-saved. The Lotus High Development vehicle study [39] found out that a 33% mass reduction is achievable at a 3% cost increase, which would roughly correspond to a $ 400–600 per vehicle increase in manufacturing cost. All these studies attest to the fact that it is possible to register significant cost reductions by increasingly making use of AlMMCs.
\nAluminium alloys and composites have played a big role in the advancement of aircraft and rocket technology. Right from the Wright brothers’ utilisation of aluminium in the engine of their first biplane to NASA’s use of an aluminium-lithium alloy in the spacecraft, aluminium has created and enhanced the mankind’s potential to fly around the Earth and into the outer space.
\nAluminium alloys and/or composites are the favoured choice for the fuselage, wing and supporting structures of commercial airliners and military or cargo aircraft. The airframe of a typical modern commercial transport aircraft is composed of 80% aluminium by weight. Attention is now focused towards aluminium casting technology, which offers lower manufacturing costs, the ability to form complex shapes and the flexibility to incorporate innovative design concepts.
\nAluminium metal matrix composites have been the material of choice for space structures of all types ever since the launch of Sputnik 1 (October 4, 1957). Chosen for their light-weight and their ability to withstand the stresses that occur during launch and operation in space, AlMMCs and alloys have been used on Apollo spacecraft, the Skylab, the space shuttles and the International Space Station. Aluminium alloys/composites consistently exceed other metals in such areas as mechanical stability, dampening, thermal management and reduced weight [40].
\nAluminium railroad cars were pioneered for the railroad industry in the late 1950s and are still the material of choice for this mode of transportation. Rail cars, designed with aluminium-based extrusions, require one-third the number of components, have reduced welding needs and are two-thirds the weight of comparable steel cars. The higher carrying capacity of aluminium repays its higher initial cost in less than 2 years, and the life-cycle fuel costs are lower due to the lighter weight of the car [41]. Aluminium-based materials offer excellent resistance to corrosion and high salvage value.
\nDesigning with aluminium results in light-weight cars that retain the strength of steel cars but can carry greater loads, hence saving money in increased freight and reduced fuel costs. The third generation of the French TGV Duplex high-speed train is a good example in this case. The train converted from steel to aluminium-based materials, resulting in a 20% weight saving, while at the same time converting to two decks and keeping the axle load below 17 tons. Similarly, the Japanese high-speed “bullet” train and the Washington DC Metro trains are also made with aluminium-based materials.
\nThe durability of aluminium makes it a suitable material for the railroad environment. Extensive shaking tests and decades of use offer testimony to aluminium’s superiority for this application. A recent study shows that after 20 years of service, there is a negligible loss of metal thickness or surface defects on cars used to ship different materials an average of 110,000 miles per year. Metal loss on floors and sidewalls from corrosion and wear measured approximately 25% less than comparable steel cars [42].
\nMarine transport has also been revolutionised with the use of aluminium alloys and composites. The use of these materials has enabled an increase in the speed and size of boats, yachts, ferries and ships while improving their fuel efficiency, seaworthiness, safety and reliability and reducing maintenance costs. By substituting aluminium for steel, weight savings of 35–45% in hulls and 55–65% in superstructures can be achieved [42]. Higher vessel speeds and load capacities translate into extra traffic volume and profits for a ship or boat operator.
\nIt is also possible to increase vessel volume and height without loss of stability. Passenger compartments can be larger, and more cabins can be located above sea level. The use of aluminium-based materials also ensures increased manoeuvrability and access to shallow draught ports.
\nAluminium-intensive cargo ships with load capacities up to 3000 metric tons have been designed to operate at up to 60 knots, crossing the Atlantic in under 60 hours. Military requirements seek smaller, more agile vessel designs with a lower radar cross section and capable of 60–80 knots or more—another excellent fit for aluminium, which is made possible due to advances in manufacturing methods, such as friction-stir welding and structural bonding.
\nAluminium-based materials satisfy the requirements of the International Maritime Organization high-speed code for vessel design, safety and control of fire risk. Compared to steel, aluminium performs better in handling the torsional, flexural, compression and impact loads of high-speed water travel [42].
\nIn 2009 the building and construction market constituted the third largest North American market for aluminium. Strength and stiffness are the two most important characteristics for structural applications of aluminium-based materials. The composites of aluminium such as the fibre-reinforced alloys of aluminium, discontinuously reinforced aluminium (DRA) and the conventional metals and graphite/epoxy composites provide the good uniaxial specific stiffness and specific strength and hence are the materials of choice for applications where maximum structural efficiency is the primary selection criterion [43].
\nAluminium was first used in large quantities for building and construction in the 1920s, with the applications primarily oriented towards decorative detailing and art deco structures. Nowadays, aluminium-based materials are recognised as some of the most energy efficient and sustainable construction materials. Moreover, an estimated 85% of the aluminium used in modern buildings comes from recycled material. Bridge decks made from aluminium-based materials need minimal maintenance, are corrosion-resistant, require no painting and, unlike concrete, require no extension framework or cure time. Advanced aluminium alloys and composites can easily support the weight of heavy glass spans, thus maximising the building’s capability for using natural sunlight.
\nAluminium has, over time, been viewed as a vital component of sustainable buildings since the metal is easily recycled and loses none of its properties during recycling. Moreover, the recycling process reduces energy consumption by more than 90% compared to the energy required to produce new aluminium [44]. Aluminium and its alloys are infinitely recyclable. More than 75% of all aluminium produced is still in use today.
\nOffshore platforms, helidecks and seawalls are other possible areas where aluminium-based materials can be effectively utilised. In water depths of 400 feet, a 1 ton weight saving in platform superstructure means weight savings of 6 tons in the supporting structure [42].
\nAluminium-based materials are often used in the construction of helicopter decks (helidecks) for resupply of oil rigs. Here, marine-grade aluminium alloys offer maintenance-free service with remarkable corrosion resistance. Using aluminium components reduces handling and offshore lifting costs and speeds the task of assembly. Aluminium is safe to use as it does not burn and presents no thermite sparking risks. It requires minimal maintenance. Even in salty water applications, little or no protective coatings are required for aluminium seawalls.
\nMarine-grade aluminium alloys are used for helidecks, telescoping bridges, accommodation modules, stair towers, cable ladders, fire walls, mud mats, gratings and many other applications. Aluminium structures weigh 40–70% less than equivalent steel structures. Handling is made easier since larger, lighter aluminium structures can be handled and lifted with smaller, less expensive equipment. In marine environments, properly selected aluminium alloys/composites require no painting and require little or no maintenance.
\nAluminium seawall shapes are generally extruded, achieving the most strength with the least material. Aluminium is easy to extrude and fabricate; hence, retrofitting of the offshore platforms and customisation become cost-effective. Installation is also easy since designers can create either a single-piece component, bolted connections or interlocking sections for fast and simple fit-up on site. Various proven mechanical methods joining can be applied to aluminium. Its weldability is good as it can be welded three times faster than steel, using inexpensive MIG machines. Aluminium offers excellent safety advantages as it is non-combustible and gives off no flammable vapour when heated—an important consideration when choosing materials for offshore applications such as helidecks [42].
\nThe high-temperature applications in the automotive industry are mainly concerned with the engine, transmission and braking components. These experience temperatures up to about 300°C. The AlMMCs suitable for use under these circumstances must be able to retain the desired properties of the part/component operating under these conditions [1].
\nThe major automotive components that have been successfully manufactured from AlMMCs are the following:
\nAerospace propulsion and power systems are ever placing increasing demands on load bearing materials. The quest to propel bigger payloads into space and provide electrical power for space experiments while at the same time meeting the demands of manned and unmanned spacecraft flying at hypersonic velocities requires the right materials. The materials must be light-weight and be able to withstand high temperatures for long periods of time in hostile environments.
\nMetal matrix composites have the potential to meet the wide variety of these requirements. By selection of the proper high-temperature fibre and combining the fibres with an appropriate matrix, a high temperature, light-weight MMC can be produced. Extensive research is needed on advanced fibres and matrices. Since the fibres provide the characteristics that dominate the strength, stiffness and conductivity of a composite, superior fibres need to be developed. Fibres having high melting points and coefficients of thermal expansion matching those of the matrices need to be evaluated for high-temperature strength, modulus and compatibility with various matrices. In case of matrices, intermetallic compounds offer higher melting points, light-weight and (in the case of aluminides and silicides) good oxidation resistance for aerospace propulsion systems [48].
\nHeat sinks play two key roles in electronic packaging: thermal management and mechanical support. Heat sinks support electronic devices and provide a path for heat dissipation. They are used in packages and with printed circuit boards (PCBs). Traditional heat sinks were primarily aluminium, copper or unalloyed blends of two metals, such as copper-tungsten or copper-molybdenum. The traditional heat sinks have exhibited a number of shortcomings, which has necessitated designing of new improved materials, primarily composites reinforced with fibres and particles. The new materials exhibit better properties including high thermal conductivities; low, controllable coefficients of thermal expansion; weight reductions; high strength and stiffness; and availability of net-shape fabrication processes.
\nThe packaging density is ever on the increase, which has resulted in the demand for materials with high thermal conductivities. In addition, to minimise thermal stresses that can cause component or solder failure, it is desirable that the packaging material should have a coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) matching that of the ceramic component it supports. Utilisation of composite materials is not a new phenomenon in electronic packaging. For example, polymer matrix composites (PMCs) in the form of E-glass fibre-reinforced polymer PCBs are well-established packaging materials.
\nAluminium metal matrix composites with the high volume fraction of reinforcement are attractive materials for thermal management. This is in view of the possibility to further enhance the thermal conductivity (TC) of the composite material by the use of high TC reinforcements and the flexibility to adjust the CTE by controlling the volume fraction of the reinforcement. Aluminium and copper were usually used as matrices due to their high TCs, and the reinforcements involved SiC, carbon and diamond. However, owing to the fact that the specific thermal conductivity of aluminium-based composites was higher than that of Cu-based composites, aluminium-based composites are more desirable in avionic applications where light-weight is demanded [49].
\nIn 2009, containers and packaging regained their position as the top market for aluminium-based materials. The aluminium industry shipped 4.73 billion pounds for packaging applications or 26.5% of all shipments [42]. Aluminium-based materials are used in products such as beverage cans and bottles, food containers and household and institutional foil. Manufacturers and consumers appreciate foil for its impermeability to light, water and air—making it a preferred packaging material for food, beverage and pharmaceutical products. Moreover, aluminium’s light-weight gives it a competitive advantage over other materials with regard to shipping costs and volume.
\nRegarding containerisation, it is difficult to discuss rail transport of freight and commercial goods without reference to the ubiquitous container. The cargo can be packed into large containers and conveniently shipped to their destinations interchangeably by rail, road, sea or air. The container has greatly simplified the transport of goods and has been adapted to the different modes of transport. With a backbone of aluminium extrusions and with considerable use of aluminium-based sheet material, the growth of containerisation has greatly facilitated the transportation industry.
\nAluminium-based materials have many advantages for electrical applications. Properties such as light-weight, strength, corrosion resistance and high efficiency in electrical conduction (aluminium has twice the conductivity of copper) render these materials the best choice for transmitting power from generating stations to homes and businesses. Their ease of recyclability makes them a perfect fit for today’s environment.
\nIn 2010, electrical market applications rose by 13.1%, and shipments of aluminium conductor steel-reinforced (ACSR) cable, bare cable, insulated wire and cable products soared to 631 million pounds, an increase of 11 million pounds from the previous year. The North American electrical market was the fourth largest for aluminium worldwide, accounting for 7.3% of all aluminium shipments during the year [42].
\nThe sporting goods industry is not left behind as far as utilisation of AlMMCs is concerned. Aluminium metal matrix composites are very attractive as materials for sporting goods applications. The material used generally consists of an aluminium matrix reinforced with particles of silicone carbide or boron carbide. The specific strength and modulus of these materials can offer design advantages not possible with steel or carbon/epoxy composites. In addition, they have a tremendous marketing appeal for the high-end sporting goods consumer as they are a new phenomenon [50]. Recreational products, including those used in golf, cycling, baseball, skiing and other leisure as well as competitive sporting activities, have always offered profitable opportunities for high-performance materials due to the focus on performance over cost. Although AlMMCs have been used in niche applications, more widespread opportunities are available if an improved combination of performance, manufacturability and cost can be achieved through specific R&D activities.
\nFinally, AlMMCs have been considered for specialised applications in which the combination of properties makes them especially well suited. Examples of these applications include robotics, medical, biomedical and nuclear shielding. These applications may require specific R&D activities to be carried out and technical problems solved before substantial use can occur but may represent high-value market opportunities for the industry if successful [16].
\nSeveral challenges must be overcome in order to intensify the engineering usage of AlMMCs. Design, research and product development efforts and business development skills are required to overcome these challenges. Surappa [4] emphasised the need to address the following issues:
A more and thorough understanding of the science of primary processing, especially the factors affecting the microstructural integrity including agglomerates in AlMMCs.
Need to improve the damage tolerant properties particularly fracture toughness and ductility in AlMMCs.
Need for work to be done towards the production of high-quality and low-cost reinforcements from industrial wastes and by-products.
An urgent need to develop simple, economical and portable non-destructive kits to quantify undesirable defects in AlMMCs.
Work in developing less expensive secondary processing tools for machining and cutting AlMMCs.
Work must be done to develop recycling technology for AlMMCs.
The challenges and barriers listed above are echoed by [16]. Further penetration of AlMMCs will largely depend on their primary production processes and secondary machining processes being affordable. Generally, the cost of aluminium is around 4–5 times that of steel. In addition, the manufacturability of these composites is cumbersome. These challenges are being addressed through R&D activities. In early development of AlMMCs, the industry was modelled on the roadmap drawn by the Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites Roadmap 2002, which spelt out a pathway for the AlMMCs growth in 20 years from 2002 and asserted the industry’s vision to position AlMMCs as the material of choice in a broad range of structural and nonstructural applications [1]. During the workshop that gave birth to the AlMMCs Roadmap 2002, a number of critical barriers hampering the market penetration of AlMMCs were identified, and common themes agreed on how to mitigate these barriers and realise their vision [16].
\nAlMMCs present a great opportunity and a host of possibilities for the materials/design engineer. There are now many possibilities for manipulation of properties/property combinations to suit specific requirements of material and component properties in order to enhance performance and reliability. New and emerging technological developments point to increased utilisation of AlMMCs in current and future industrial developments. Some of the existing barriers and challenges are being addressed through various R&D efforts to find a lasting solution.
\nFrom the foregoing review, it is evident that the future of AlMMCs in various industrial and commercial applications is very bright. Advanced technological developments in primary and secondary processing of AlMMCs will continue to give them a competitive edge over the alternative materials such as Mg, AHSS and polymer composites. The main challenges and barriers that have been identified include lack of property modelling (especially the high-temperature behaviour of AlMMCs), lack of design data and high costs of primary and secondary processes. However, there are promising signs of technological breakthroughs by various research efforts dedicated to finding solutions to these challenges. New developments in CNT and nanotechnology have, for example, offered possibilities of production of AlMMCs with enhanced properties for high-temperature applications and improved wear and corrosion resistance. Other developments such as the novel rheocasting process of semi-solid alloys [e.g. see [51]] and FGMs have also offered new possibilities of cost reduction in primary production and secondary processing of AlMMCs, respectively. New alloys of aluminium have been developed for application in such areas as crash management (crash alloy)—an area previously dominated by steel. These alloys offer new R&D opportunities for further development of AlMMCs and will redefine new roles and potential of AlMMCs in automotive applications. Various researchers are also coming up with innovative cost-reduction techniques to bring down the cost of replacing conventional ferrous materials with aluminium metal matrix composites.
\nThe authors would like to sincerely acknowledge the material and financial support extended by the Vaal University of Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering and the collaborating institutions—The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Pretoria and Makerere University, Kampala Uganda.
\nThe authors envisage no conflict of interest.
These Terms and Conditions outline the rules and regulations pertaining to the use of IntechOpen’s website www.intechopen.com and all the subdomains owned by IntechOpen located at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, United Kingdom.
',metaTitle:"Terms and Conditions",metaDescription:"These terms and conditions outline the rules and regulations for the use of IntechOpen Website at https://intechopen.com and all its subdomains owned by Intech Limited located at 7th floor, 10 Lower Thames Street, London, EC3R 6AF, UK.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/terms-and-conditions",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"By accessing the website at www.intechopen.com you are agreeing to be bound by these Terms of Service, all applicable laws and regulations, and agree that you are responsible for compliance with any applicable local laws. Use and/or access to this site is based on full agreement and compliance of these Terms. All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'By accessing the website at www.intechopen.com you are agreeing to be bound by these Terms of Service, all applicable laws and regulations, and agree that you are responsible for compliance with any applicable local laws. Use and/or access to this site is based on full agreement and compliance of these Terms. All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.
\n\nThe following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
\n\n“Client”, “Customer”, “You” and “Your” refers to you, the person accessing this website and accepting the Company’s Terms and Conditions;
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\n\nAll Terms refer to the offer, acceptance, and consideration of payment necessary to provide assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner, whether by formal meetings of a fixed duration, or by any other agreed means, for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services/products, and in accordance with, and subject to, the prevailing laws of the United Kingdom.
\n\nAny use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
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