Impact physiological changes and pharmacokinetics in older adults [9, 11, 12, 13].
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8019",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Alginates - Recent Uses of This Natural Polymer",title:"Alginates",subtitle:"Recent Uses of This Natural Polymer",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Alginates are polysaccharides found in both the intercellular matrix of brown algae and extracellularly covering some species of bacteria. Alginate varies in composition of the algae from 20% to 60% dry matter, but on average brown algae species has 40% alginate. Alginate from brown algae occurs as gels containing sodium, calcium, strontium, magnesium, and barium ions. They are widely used by the food industry, giving foods texture properties such as thickening, adhesion, emulsification, gelling, or fullness. This book covers the latest uses of this phycocolloid in the pharmaceutical, medical, and technological fields, namely bioink for 3D bioprinting in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, and the application of artificial intelligence in modern healthcare systems.",isbn:"978-1-78985-642-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-641-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-558-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77849",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"alginates-recent-uses-of-this-natural-polymer",numberOfPages:150,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"61ea5c1aef462684a3b2215631b7dbf2",bookSignature:"Leonel Pereira",publishedDate:"February 5th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8019.jpg",numberOfDownloads:9053,numberOfWosCitations:25,numberOfCrossrefCitations:40,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:83,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:148,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 11th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 12th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 11th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 30th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 29th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"895",title:"Medical Microbiology",slug:"medical-microbiology"}],chapters:[{id:"68305",title:"Introductory Chapter: Alginates - A General Overview",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88381",slug:"introductory-chapter-alginates-a-general-overview",totalDownloads:1438,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:29,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Leonel Pereira and João Cotas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68305",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68305",authors:[{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira"},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas"}],corrections:null},{id:"67670",title:"Pharmacological Effects and Utility as a Food Additive of Calcium Alginate",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86861",slug:"pharmacological-effects-and-utility-as-a-food-additive-of-calcium-alginate",totalDownloads:860,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Here we review the physiological effects of the calcium salt of alginate (Ca-Alg), focusing on our own work. First, we found that Ca-Alg promotes the excretion and decreases the absorption of various metals, and does so more effectively than sodium alginate (Na-Alg). Ca-Alg also reduced plasma cholesterol (Cho) in rats fed a high-Cho diet for 2 weeks. This was considered to be due to reduced intestinal reabsorption of bile acid, resulting from the binding of Ca-Alg and bile acid; this induces an increase of bile acid synthesis from Cho in the liver, leading to a decrease in Cho in plasma. The increase of blood triglyceride (TG) levels in rats fed a high-fat diet for 5 weeks was significantly suppressed by Ca-Alg, leading to decreased fat accumulation in the liver and whole body. Ca-Alg in food was also effective in suppressing the postprandial increase of blood glucose level in rats and humans. An in vitro study suggested that Ca-Alg inhibits the interaction between α-glucosidase and its substrate maltose. In conclusion, Ca-Alg has a number of beneficial effects as a functional food ingredient, and is expected to be a safe and effective food additive for long-term use.",signatures:"Fumiyoshi Kasahara, Yoko Idota, Yuuki Fukai, Chihaya Kakinuma and Takuo Ogihara",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67670",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67670",authors:[{id:"297713",title:"Prof.",name:"Takuo",surname:"Ogihara",slug:"takuo-ogihara",fullName:"Takuo Ogihara"},{id:"297715",title:"Mr.",name:"Fumiyoshi",surname:"Kasahara",slug:"fumiyoshi-kasahara",fullName:"Fumiyoshi Kasahara"},{id:"297717",title:"Ms.",name:"Yoko",surname:"Idota",slug:"yoko-idota",fullName:"Yoko Idota"},{id:"304257",title:"Dr.",name:"Chihaya",surname:"Kakinuma",slug:"chihaya-kakinuma",fullName:"Chihaya Kakinuma"}],corrections:null},{id:"67763",title:"Current Perspective and Advancements of Alginate-Based Transplantation Technologies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87120",slug:"current-perspective-and-advancements-of-alginate-based-transplantation-technologies",totalDownloads:1083,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Versatile yet biocompatible bio-materials are in high demand in nearly every industry, with biological and biomedical engineering relying heavily on common biomaterials like alginate polymers. Alginate is a very common substance found in various marine plants which can easily be extracted and purified through cheap nonhazardous methods. A key characteristic of alginate polymers includes easily manipulatable physical properties due to its inert but functional chemical composition. Factors including its functional versatility, long-term polymer stability and biocompatibility have caused alginate-based technologies to draw major attention from both the scientific and industrial communities alike. While also used in food industry manufacturing and standard dental procedures, this chapter will focus on a discussion of the both clinical and nonclinical use of alginate-based technologies in transplantation for regenerative cell and drug delivery systems. In addition, we overview the immune system response prompted following implantation of alginate hydrogels. Consequences of immune cell reactivity to foreign materials, such as inflammation and the foreign body response (FBR), are also analyzed and current and future strategies for potential circumvention of severe immune responses toward alginate-based devices are reviewed and suggested.",signatures:"Samuel Rodriguez, Rahul Tuli, Ashlyn Wheeler, Amy Nguyen, Jennifer Luong, Reza Mohammadi, Michael Alexander and Jonathan R.T. Lakey",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67763",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67763",authors:[{id:"188950",title:"Prof.",name:"Jonathan",surname:"Lakey",slug:"jonathan-lakey",fullName:"Jonathan Lakey"},{id:"189626",title:"MSc.",name:"Michael",surname:"Alexander",slug:"michael-alexander",fullName:"Michael Alexander"},{id:"297817",title:"Mr.",name:"Reza",surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"reza-mohammadi",fullName:"Reza Mohammadi"},{id:"304998",title:"BSc.",name:"Samuel",surname:"Rodriguez",slug:"samuel-rodriguez",fullName:"Samuel Rodriguez"},{id:"304999",title:"Mr.",name:"Rahul",surname:"Tuli",slug:"rahul-tuli",fullName:"Rahul Tuli"},{id:"305000",title:"Ms.",name:"Ashlyn",surname:"Wheeler",slug:"ashlyn-wheeler",fullName:"Ashlyn Wheeler"},{id:"305001",title:"Ms.",name:"Amy",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"amy-nguyen",fullName:"Amy Nguyen"},{id:"305002",title:"Ms.",name:"Jennifer",surname:"Luong",slug:"jennifer-luong",fullName:"Jennifer Luong"}],corrections:null},{id:"68082",title:"The Use of Alginate Hydrogels for the Culture of Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs): In Vitro and In Vivo Paradigms",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88020",slug:"the-use-of-alginate-hydrogels-for-the-culture-of-mesenchymal-stem-cells-mscs-in-vitro-and-in-vivo-pa",totalDownloads:1002,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Alginate hydrogels have been widely used in stem cell cultures due to their biocompatibility, malleable nature, high water content, enhanced mass transport properties, and their functionalization with bioactive molecules providing cues that modulate cell proliferation and differentiation. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are extensively utilized in clinical cellular therapies because of their differentiation efficiency, their immunosuppressive properties, and them not being tumorigenic when implanted in vivo. MSCs are isolated from numerous fetal and adult tissues, suitable for both autologous and allogeneic applications. Consequently, alginate hydrogels/MSCs have been applied in vivo for the treatment of a wide variety of musculoskeletal, cardiac, neural, and endocrine disorders. This chapter will review the use of alginate hydrogels (physical properties and functionalization) for MSC culture in vitro (various culture systems) and the application of alginate/MSC implants (animal models and human applications) for cellular therapy purposes in vivo.",signatures:"Michail E. Klontzas, Hicham Drissi and Athanasios Mantalaris",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68082",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68082",authors:[{id:"299699",title:"Dr.",name:"Michail",surname:"Klontzas",slug:"michail-klontzas",fullName:"Michail Klontzas"},{id:"300726",title:"Dr.",name:"Athanasios",surname:"Mantalaris",slug:"athanasios-mantalaris",fullName:"Athanasios Mantalaris"},{id:"300736",title:"Prof.",name:"Hicham",surname:"Drissi",slug:"hicham-drissi",fullName:"Hicham Drissi"}],corrections:null},{id:"68290",title:"Alginate-Based Hydrogels in Regenerative Medicine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88258",slug:"alginate-based-hydrogels-in-regenerative-medicine",totalDownloads:1305,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:17,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents the following multipotential applications of alginate-based hydrogels in tissue healing and drug delivery. It contains state of the art and summary of the literature reports, which demonstrate that alginate-based hydrogels have a great potential in tissue healing. Sodium alginate (SA) is mainly used in medical devices for healing of wounds, scars, injuries of bones, regeneration of joint cartilage, and scaffold for cell growth and in drug delivery systems (DDSs). The latest literature describes the effects of laboratory tests and in vivo, which confirm the validity of its use as a biomaterial. Alginate biodegradable scaffolds can be a template that provides a suitable substrate for cellular growth while matching the physiochemical properties of the native extracellular matrix (ECM). Matching scaffold stiffness to the surrounding tissue and optimising its rate of degradation ensure that the infiltrating cells remain viable, maintain their desired phenotype and coordinate their response over the entirety of the wound healing process.",signatures:"Agnieszka Kaczmarek-Pawelska",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68290",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68290",authors:[{id:"300199",title:"Dr.",name:"Agnieszka",surname:"Kaczmarek-Pawelska",slug:"agnieszka-kaczmarek-pawelska",fullName:"Agnieszka Kaczmarek-Pawelska"}],corrections:null},{id:"68235",title:"Role of Alginates Combined with Natural Extracts to Prevent the Gastric Acid-Related Damage",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88135",slug:"role-of-alginates-combined-with-natural-extracts-to-prevent-the-gastric-acid-related-damage",totalDownloads:716,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The human stomach is extremely vulnerable to various attacks able to cause erosion and mucosal epithelium damage which lead to gastrointestinal tract bleeding and/or ulcer perforations and finally worsen the original disease. A prolonged exposition to strong acidic environment causes coagulation necrosis resulting from the desiccating action of the acid on proteins in exposed tissues with inflammation and accumulation of intracellular radical oxygen species. Therapeutic strategies aim to treat both symptoms and epithelial damage with chemical or mechanical approaches. In this context, alginates seem to have great importance, especially if combined with other molecules known to have some properties on gastric epithelial cells, for example, vitamin D3, extract of prickly pear and olive leaves, and a tyndalized probiotic. This natural composition is able to exert a gastroprotective effect to maintain or restore the integrity of gastric epithelium through an antioxidant pathway, inhibiting apoptosis and activating survival kinases better than other pharmacological or natural active principles.",signatures:"Francesca Uberti, Lorenzo Secondini, Ian Stoppa, Mietta Catera and Claudio Molinari",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68235",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68235",authors:[{id:"181353",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesca",surname:"Uberti",slug:"francesca-uberti",fullName:"Francesca Uberti"},{id:"185862",title:"Prof.",name:"Claudio",surname:"Molinari",slug:"claudio-molinari",fullName:"Claudio Molinari"},{id:"301061",title:"Dr.",name:"Lorenzo",surname:"Secondini",slug:"lorenzo-secondini",fullName:"Lorenzo Secondini"},{id:"301062",title:"Dr.",name:"Ian",surname:"Stoppa",slug:"ian-stoppa",fullName:"Ian Stoppa"},{id:"301063",title:"Dr.",name:"Mietta",surname:"Catera",slug:"mietta-catera",fullName:"Mietta Catera"}],corrections:null},{id:"70389",title:"Importance of Alginate Bioink for 3D Bioprinting in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90426",slug:"importance-of-alginate-bioink-for-3d-bioprinting-in-tissue-engineering-and-regenerative-medicine",totalDownloads:1e3,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:14,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Among many bioinks used for extrusion 3D bioprinting, the most commonly used bioink is the polysaccharide alginate because of its various cellular-friendly property like gelation. Erratic degradation and cell-binding motifs are not present in alginate which are the limitations of alginate bioinks, which can be improved by blending various low concentrations of natural or artificial polymers. Here in this chapter, we will discuss the various important properties of the alginate which make it as the bioink for almost all bioprinting scaffold designs as well as how improve the cellular properties like its cell-material interaction by blending it with other polymer solutions.",signatures:"Sudipto Datta, Ranjit Barua and Jonali Das",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70389",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70389",authors:[{id:"304764",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudipto",surname:"Datta",slug:"sudipto-datta",fullName:"Sudipto Datta"},{id:"304768",title:"Mr.",name:"Ranjit",surname:"Barua",slug:"ranjit-barua",fullName:"Ranjit Barua"},{id:"312785",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonali",surname:"Das",slug:"jonali-das",fullName:"Jonali Das"}],corrections:null},{id:"70446",title:"Application of Artificial Intelligence in Modern Healthcare System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90454",slug:"application-of-artificial-intelligence-in-modern-healthcare-system",totalDownloads:1652,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:14,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Artificial intelligence (AI) has the potential of detecting significant interactions in a dataset and also it is widely used in several clinical conditions to expect the results, treat, and diagnose. Artificial intelligence (AI) is being used or trialed for a variety of healthcare and research purposes, including detection of disease, management of chronic conditions, delivery of health services, and drug discovery. In this chapter, we will discuss the application of artificial intelligence (AI) in modern healthcare system and the challenges of this system in detail. Different types of artificial intelligence devices are described in this chapter with the help of working mechanism discussion. Alginate, a naturally available polymer found in the cell wall of the brown algae, is used in tissue engineering because of its biocompatibility, low cost, and easy gelation. It is composed of α-L-guluronic and β-D-manuronic acid. To improve the cell-material interaction and erratic degradation, alginate is blended with other polymers. Here, we discuss the relationship of artificial intelligence with alginate in tissue engineering fields.",signatures:"Sudipto Datta, Ranjit Barua and Jonali Das",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70446",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70446",authors:[{id:"304764",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudipto",surname:"Datta",slug:"sudipto-datta",fullName:"Sudipto Datta"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:{id:"15",series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",issn:"2632-0983",editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}}},tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"548",title:"Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria",subtitle:"A Continuous Challenge in the New Millennium",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8a58b7ebbb9cd01db5c16fbf9f80b44",slug:"antibiotic-resistant-bacteria-a-continuous-challenge-in-the-new-millennium",bookSignature:"Marina Pana",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/548.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77349",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",surname:"Pana",slug:"marina-pana",fullName:"Marina Pana"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5193",title:"Probiotics and Prebiotics in Human Nutrition and Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"facfb45c80773cd5151d8f53b902be39",slug:"probiotics-and-prebiotics-in-human-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao and Leticia G. 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This shift towards a more aesthetic approach to human life is even detectable in processes of high-tech digitalisation and information technology with its emphasis on ‘big data’. Man is also the creator of beauty: man as
Steve Jobs changed a possible bankrupt company, Apple, into a financial miracle. The secret? He stayed true to his original vision for Apple: He believed there was room for beauty and art amid technology and commerce [4].
\nIf one transfers the notion of beauty to human life, very specifically the naked human body, what would be the implication for theory formation in anthropology and the human quest for meaning and significance? Thus, the aesthetic question: For what purpose is the human body designed?
\nIn a more moral approach anthropology, the fundamental question is often an ethical one: What is good and what is bad/evil? In many philosophies of life and religious circles, as influenced by Platonic dualism (the body is merely an inferior prison of the human soul), there is immediately the association that the human body, with its sensual needs, is from a lower order and should be suppressed in a Stoic way. Due to the Stoic principle of
Scepticism regarding the value of the sensual human body with its passions and sexual needs can be traced back to what one can call the
In general, the human body was in many religious circles and philosophies of life excluded from ‘soulfulness’ and reduced to the realm of ‘flesh’ (
What is most needed is a paradigm shift: From the body as object exposed to abusive exploitation, to the body as subject: corporeality and physicality as icons of embodied soulfulness and compassionate caring (Figure 1).1, 2
\nDepiction of human sinfulness and hell in the Last Judgement. Baigio da Cesena, a papal master of ceremonies, criticised Michelangelo\'s work saying that nude figures had no place in such a sacred place and that the paintings would be more at home in a public tavern. Michelangelo included da Cesena in the Last Judgement as Minos, one of the three judges of the underworld. When Baigio complained to the Pope, the Pontiff explained that he had no jurisdiction over hell and that the portrait would have to remain. In Greek mythology, Minos was the king of Crete and was the son of Zeus and Europa. He became one of the three judges of the underworld after his own death, and Michelangelo has depicted Minos with ass-ears and wrapped in serpent’s coils. The coils indicate to what circle of hell the damned are destined. The serpent\'s bite on the genitals of Minos (da Cesena) illustrates Michelangelo\'s disdain for the Cardinal and the fact that official ecclesiology always connected human sinfulness to sexuality and the area of the human genitals. Public domain: for research purposes only.
Instead of a dualistic approach in anthropology, what is meant by an integral approach to corporeal beauty? Is it also possible to see in the naked human body
In the social media, film, many magazines and public advertisements, the naked human body is often projected as a commodity and portrayed as object for lust and sexual gratification (Figure 2).
\nIn order to change the paradigm of the human body image and meaning of the genitals, the proposed shift should be from a hedonistic male functionalism and the commercialised exploitation of the sexual organ (the penis as a tool), to the aesthetics and beauty of the genitals within the whole of male embodiment (the penis as an integral part of an ensouled body). The image suggests a ‘more’ that can seduce. The posture of the body is suggestive and open for a kind of commercialised exploitation, rather than merely an advertisement of male underwear. Public advertisement on pavement Copenhagen. Photo: D.J. Louw.
Therefore, in many conservative Christian circles, nakedness and explicit sensual corporeality are bad and essentially ‘sinful’. But: ‘The sexual itself is not sinful. Real ignorance of the sexual, when nonetheless it is present, is reserved for the beast, which is enthralled in the blindness of instinct and acts blindly’ [9]. On the contrary, I want to posit that human sexuality is an intrinsic component of soulful embodiment and embodied soulfulness. The naked human body is not designed for ‘blind instinct’ (the beast), but for ‘compassionate intimacy’ (the beauty)—the physical ordinary, becomes the representation of the spiritual extraordinary.
\nBeautifying the human body implies the following: the ordinary (human flesh) should be viewed as extraordinary, as a piece of art (expression of worth, value, dignity and identity). In 1992, Ellen Dissanyake wrote a book entitled
If the naked human body is indeed about the aesthetics of the extraordinary, the art of embodied corporeality, what is the implication for an anthropology of beauty in theory formation? Thus, the intriguing aesthetic and anthropological question: to what extent can the human body, nakedness and physicality, be viewed as vital elements and means of beauty in order to contribute to the beautification of life rather than the exploitation of life? How can nakedness make life extraordinary rather than a nightmare to be survived? How can physicality become a means to express humane encounters that contribute to peaceful coexistence rather than violent destruction and inhumane exploitation?
\nThe basic assumption for founding a theory of aesthetics in anthropological thinking, namely that the human anatomy plays a fundamental role in the understanding of harmony and beauty, as well as the expression of spiritual wholeness and beauty, is illustrated in many pieces of art in antiquity and classic Greek sculpturing.
\nIn antiquity, the human body was a gendered subject and not an externalised object. It was only in contemporary societies that the body began to be regarded exclusively as a passive object of desire. According to Erez [11], this is evident in the censorship efforts ancient sculpture has been subject to. Modern man’s refusal to view naked human bodies is closely related to the fear that too long a gaze will suggest a homoerotic interest and thus a homosexual identity [12]. In contemporary society, the tendency is that the body is viewed rather as an exclusively passive, sexualised object robbed from subjectivity and nobility than an icon of vital spirituality (Figure 3).
\nThe statue of the priest Ahmose and his mother, 18th Dynasty 1490–1499 BC, is quite remarkable. In Egyptian anthropology, the soul was viewed as an intrinsic part of human embodiment. Often in Egyptian sculptures, it seems as if the face was emotionless. This is not the case here. The figures represent complacent intimacy and projects soulfulness. It could be described as an excellent example of embodied aesthetics. One can even ‘see’ on their faces what they are thinking: contentment and fulfilment. Permission: National Museum, Copenhagen; photo: D.J. Louw.
Within Greek art, the naked human body and its perfect symmetry equal beauty and should be assessed as a piece of art. Spivey [13] refers to the canonisation of human embodiment in art by Polycleitus (Figure 4).
\nThe image from an ancient Greek statue in the classical Polycleitus-style (around 450 BC) suggests grace, harmony, control, inherent integrity and dignified courage. Within the whole of embodiment, male sexual identity becomes ‘whole’. Permission: Royal Cast Museum, Copenhagen; photo: D.J. Louw.
For Polycleitus, the human body is from an aesthetic point of view perfect due to the tension between symmetry, balance and harmony. This principle of harmony and balance is basic to the classic depiction of the human being as an expression of beauty and therefore as human grace and nobility. Every part of the body is ‘beautiful’. Even the sexual organs played a decisive role in the depiction of human embodiment as ‘divine’ and expression of spiritual values such as nobility, courage, grace and wisdom.
\nAlready in
With reference to the interplay between grace, the naked human body and aesthetics, the so-called
The Graces and Cupido by Thorvaldsen. Permission: Thorvaldsen Museum, Copenhagen, In Greco-Roman mythology, the three graces belong to the inner circle of Venus, the goddess of Love. As the classical artists pose—standing close together and embracing—they were supposed to express giving, receiving and returning; but they could also be understood to symbolise the seasons. B. Jørnæs Undated: 87. Denmark. Photos: D.J. Louw.
The following remark by Plato, underlines the fact that in Hellenistic art, nudity was removed from the idea of promiscuity. Greek art and sculptures rather were attempts to combine nudity with nobility, grace and profound wisdom. ‘Rather we must seek those craftsmen whose instinct guides them to whatsoever is lovely and gracious’ [16] (Figure 6).
\nThe interplay between womanhood and the creation of the beauty of life. Grace and seemliness of form and movement should complete gentleness. Sculpture in fountain, inner courtyard. Permission: NY Carlsberg Glyptotek founded by Carl Jacobsen. Copenhagen, Denmark; photo: D.J. Louw.
The naked human body represents gracious movement and courageous self-affirmation. The human body should therefore be rendered not as ‘ugly’ and from a lower order, wherein merely sensuality is playing a role in the establishment of meaning. The human body establishes and represents the spiritual striving towards wholeness, healing, integration and harmony, despite the existential reality of disintegration and external factors that rob our human existence from dignity and a sense of well-being—the existential reality of ugliness.
\nUgliness should be viewed as an important ingredient of aesthetics. In the
Ugly is not necessarily the opposite of beauty or merely the absence of form, asymmetry, disharmony, disfigurement and deformation or even the various forms of the repugnant (the ungainly, death and the void, the horrendous, the vacuous, the sickening, the felonious, the spectral, the demoniac, the witchlike and the satanic) [18].3 Ugliness rather frames beauty within the context of the shadow side of life. As such ugliness is an aesthetic category and a kind of perception that wrestles with the danger of corruption that can destroy a sense of dignity and justice. Instead of wholeness and integrity, ugliness as a spiritual category points in the direction of disintegration and disorientation rather than merely formlessness. According to Umberto Eco, all the synonyms for ‘ugly’ contain a reaction of disgust if not violent repulsion, horror or fear [18]: ‘In truth, in the course of our history, we ought to distinguish between manifestations of ugliness in itself (excrement, decomposing carrion, or someone covered with the sores who gives off a nauseating stench) from those of formal ugliness, understood as lack of equilibrium in the organic relationship between the parts of a whole’ [19]. Ugliness thus helps to demarcate beauty within the interplay between what is significant for the healing of life and what is not.
\nAesthetics4 implies more than the ‘beautiful’; it indicates an intensified awareness that stirs imaginative imaging and poetic creativity. Aesthetics5 interpenetrates reality and goes beyond or beneath the surface of things by means of creative imagination. As a hermeneutical event, aesthetics interprets reality from the perspective of creative reshaping and illuminative imaging. The fact that a work of art has some aesthetic intent or effect does not mean that the image is necessarily attractive to the eye of every viewer. ‘Remember that
The concept of aesthetics is slippery for the human mind; it evades any attempt to capture or define its meaning in rational categories. However, one can say that aesthetic experiences operate within the tension between sensual encounters/subjective attraction (being struck by….) and creative imaging; it coincides with the human attempt to make a qualitative assessment regarding the value, meaning and significance of phenomena observed. It refers to a kind of qualitative scrutiny within the act of evaluative decoding.
\nSchulte-Susse [23] links aesthetics with the theory of perspective (perspectivism). The theory of perspective addresses the question of how to represent a three-dimensional object on a two-dimensional surface, or how to represent a three-dimensional object via a material form or sculpture, so that the representation and image of the object, the idea within the object, corresponds with the proportions of the immediacy with the act of seeing, feeling and experiencing. Aesthetics can thus be associated with the intention and value assessment of the subject in relationship with the viewed or observed object.
\nReiner Matzker [24] relates aesthetics to the act of mediation within the tension between subject (impression and interpretation) and object or the implicit idea as related to an object or something perceived and observed. To mediate always implies an act of signifying, some
The mediatory function of a medium is to communicate, to inform, to disclose and to make something knowable. Aesthetics becomes an instrument (medium), an image (means) about some-thing (content). It transcends its own limitations in the direction of signification. In this regard, aesthetics implies acts of symbolisation (to symbolise, from the Greek
In aesthetics, there is a constant interplay between reality, image and significance, and particularly in the sense that through mediation aesthetics become the attempt to represent ‘some thing’. This representation presupposes a kind of competence or skill that one can call ‘art’. Through aesthetics, a value is attached to the product which invites the viewer to linger and to ponder, to grasp the ‘some thing’. This moment of significant articulation implies an act of evaluation that one can call ‘mediation as an act of beautification’; the mediation signifies the product as a ‘piece of art’ [26]. In the act of mediation, the viewer assigns artistic significance to the object. As a piece of art, the object invites the viewer to attribute ‘meaning’; to imitate (Plato: art as
The point in my argument thus far is that the naked human body is not per se ugly. Ugliness is a qualitative category within the interplay between beauty and the struggle to ‘save’ life from corruption and abusive exploitation. Even bodily deformation should not be enough reason to degrade the body to a lower degree of repulsiveness. The body entails more than sensuality and should not be viewed as merely a lust object to be exploited for sexual gratification. The body should indeed be reframed as an icon of compassionate intimacy.
\nIn an integrative approach to our being human, the body is an essential element of what one can call ‘human wholeness’. In fact, the body is about embodiment; i.e. the notion that soul is an embodied entity. I don’t have a body;
In Hebrew and Semitic thinking, even the bodily organs have been viewed as representations of the whole of our being. In anthropology, this approach is called stereometric thinking. Stereometric thinking ‘pegs out the sphere of man’s existence by enumerating his characteristic organs, thus circumscribing man as a whole’ [27]. Concepts like heart, soul and spirit are often used alternately in Hebrew poetry to reveal certain aspects of the human being. One component of our being human, for example the ‘heart’ or ‘mind’, represents the whole of life.
\nA stereometric approach firmly opposes any disregard of the embodied dimension of man\'s special status. ‘Wherever any specific aspect of human existence is considered, whether it is
Dunn [29] suggests that a better word in English for
In an African approach to anthropology, the body is part of the rhythm of life. Therefore, the notion of
One can conclude and say that beauty as an aesthetic category in anthropology refers to the notion of ‘wholeness’: every part of the human anatomy, the physiological, biological, neurological, hormonal components, constitutes together with the affective, the conative and cognitive, a sense of identity and integrative functionality—a harmonious whole. Whole is therefore not a static category of perfection and completeness. Wholeness is in fact a ‘spiritual category’ referring to a sense of integrity, identity and purposefulness. In this sense, wholeness should be rendered as an aesthetic category.
\nBeauty as an anthropological category encompasses the following aesthetics dimensions in an existential approach to daily human orientation and our striving to instil a sense of human dignity and meaning (significance) in life.
\nBeautification implies:
Within reference to the previous outline of the place of aesthetics in a qualitative approach to theory formation in anthropology, the human body should thus be rendered as ‘icon’ of soulfulness, nobility and grace. In an inclusive approach, the body includes all aspects of our being human and symbolises wholeness. It represents attitude and aptitude; it reveals or hides the inclinations of the human heart and should therefore be rendered as a sanctuary of spiritual and divine energy.
\nIt was the contention of George of Cyprus [33] that the word
In my view, it was Michelangelo who made a kind of ‘breakthrough’ in the sense that he viewed the perfect human figure as a representation of human dignity and eternal divinity. The naked human figure is portrayed as a ‘perfect’ and classic reflection of nobility and dignity.
\nOne can say that it was Michelangelo who made the first authoritative statement in art that the naked human body—that body which, in Gothic times, had been the subject of shame and concealment—could be made the means of expressing noble sentiments, life-giving energy and God-like perfection [34]. The Sistine ceiling therefore passionately asserts the unity of the human body, mind and spirit. In his depiction of the creation of Adam, when Adam stretches out his hand so that it almost touches the hand of God, it is as if ‘an electric charge seems to pass between the fingers. Out of this glorious physical specimen, God has created a human soul’ [35]. The body becomes a soul, and the soul embodied physicality.
\nFor Leonardo da Vinci, beauty was the moment of mystical encounter (
From Socrates, Michelangelo learned that the purpose of painting was to present the human soul, the life of human souls, as an expression of the very internal being of humans. According to Néret [37], Michelangelo was interested only in the people he painted because perfect bodies were the carriers and containers of the idea of eternity and sacred soulfulness. Real art is actually only possible in sculpture when the artist reveals the essence (the soul) which is already embodied in the marble.
\nAn example of the sexualised beautification of male nudity is the statue of David by Michelangelo. Western society often used a fig leaf to protect the male genitals. ‘In an effort to hide
David facing Goliath projecting noble courage (aesthetics of the human soul expressed in the beauty of male nudity) over against brutal violence (the ugliness violence and destruction). Michelangelo, copy in front of Royal Plaster Museum, Copenhagen; photo: D.J. Louw.
Michelangelo’s portrayal of David had both a spiritual and political meaning. David’s nudity reflects an inner tension and spirited resourcefulness in his pose and musculature so that the good of spiritual courage can conquer the bad of unfaithful blasphemy. It represents divine faithfulness rather than violent destruction and folly (Goliath). The statue draws attention to the inner qualities of courage’ resolve, and faith necessarily presupposed by David’s victory. On a second level, the nude pose presents political freedom for the authorities of Florence.
\nThe tragedy, however, was that the clergy and contemporaries of Michelangelo responded with the ugliness of moralism and skewed images of promiscuity. See in this regard, the response of the papal master of ceremonies, Biago da Cesena, when he saw the fresco of the
The point is that with the fig leaf, David’s aesthetic beauty is changed into the ugliness of commercialised sexuality and the promiscuity of sexual desires without courageous fidelity. Nudity becomes politicised and is associated with reckless power, the vice of domination and the promiscuity of sexual exploitation. Under strict censorship, sexuality is deployed for aims of social and political powerful control.
\nDuring Pius V’s pontificate, the Congregation of the Council of Trent decided, on 11th January 1564, to have the private parts covered. This was the most pornographically oriented decision in the history of Christian spirituality! Pope Paul IV therefore summoned the House of Carafa Daniele da Volterra to cover the genitals. The artist who did the covering up was given the name ‘Braghettone’, meaning ‘trouser painter’ [40]. The ‘trouser painter’ transformed the beauty of physical beauty into the ugliness of promiscuity. The fig leaf reduced the beauty of the genitals into pornographic phallicism.
\nOne can call the obsession with the body and health, through the processes of commercialisation and exploitation (marketing), ‘bodyism’ and ‘healthism’. The naked body and the surface of the body become a social text with
For example, in contemporary society, the female body tends to become an object of lust and seduction. In the social media, the female body was high jacked by business, companies, the advertisement enterprise and the social media to sell products. The commodification of the female body contributes to the fact that femininity is constantly being robbed of soulful beauty and portrayed as an idol of glamour, fame and flirting sensuality (Figure 8).
\nThe female body is projected as a commodity to be possessed by male monsters and sexual driven animals. Sexuality is degraded to the level of primitive instinct and violent libido. Photo was taken in a shopping mall (Sony Centre) Berlin a week before Christmas 2012 (D.J. Louw).
In ancient Greek culture, womanhood was associated with wisdom and portrayed as the object of pure love.8 In Hellenistic mythology, wisdom was presented by the clothed figure of Minerva, draped with soft linen to protect wisdom against folly. Together with the owl, femininity presented the wisdom of human dignity and the intellectuality of democratic leadership. Femininity was a kind of symbol of serene intellectuality to be needed most by courageous men (Figure 9).
\nStatue of Minerva with owl as symbol of wisdom. The goddess is clothed because her identity resides in her capacity to lead and to guide into wisdom as the drapery for meaningful life. Copenhagen. Photo: D.J. Louw.
In antiquity, it was not necessary and even not the fashion to put up statues of nude females because a draped female body was the epitome of wisdom and dignity. The draped figure distinguishes itself from male identity. When it came to heroic aesthetics, nudity was more preserved for the young athletic male body. Strength was associated with masculinity and should be used by athletes and the military to protect society. Nudity as heroic, divine athletic was something to be avoided for women [45]. Full nudity connoted more the vigour of the male body than the serenity of the female. The female figure was associated with vulnerability and should be protected in order to safeguard civilised education and wisdom. While female nudity should be protected, male nudity was associated risking one’s life and should therefore be exposed fully. The shape of the male genitals contributed to the youthful beauty of male identity, not to pornographic exploitation.
\nPornography is derived from two Greek words,
Pornography is therefore not nakedness as such (see the statute of David by Michelangelo and the paintings in the Sistine Chapel) or explicit sexual pictures or portrayals of sexual acts, or erotic material, stimulating sexual excitement. The criterion cannot be sexual excitement or fantasy, because then any stimulation or visual impression related to sexual connotations and to sex will fall into the category of pornography. The criterion for judging a work to be pornographic is sexual exploitation within the schism between ensoulment and embodiment, between aesthetics and sensuality and between
Pornography refers very specifically to
In this sense, pornography is the description or depiction of obscenity with the effect of violating the dignity and rights of the human person through the exploitation and commercialisation of sexuality and sex. Explicit descriptions or depictions of males, females or children in dehumanised, mutilated, animalistic, submissive, distorted, sadistic and/or masochistic positions which place and keep them in undignified, subordinate roles and positions, all constitute pornography. Pornography reduces sex to the level of animal copulation and tends to rob sex of intimacy and tenderness.
\nThe central issue at stake in pornography is the promiscuous intention of the viewer and reader as well as hedonistic setting of lust with the intention of illegal exploitation; lust and sensuality have become detached from compassionate love and intimate faithfulness.
\nWith promiscuity is then meant an
Immoral functionalism is about obscene reductionism, wherein the human body is isolated from its humane framework and aesthetic design, namely compassionate intimacy and soulful integration.
\nIt was Socrates who described the body and its movements as spiritual indications of the ‘workings of the soul’ [49]. The idealisation of the beauty of the human body was in Greek art closely related to the interplay between the way feelings affect the body in action and represent the ‘workings of the soul’. Due to the fame of Pheidias, the sculptor who Pericles entrusted to supervise the decoration of temples (480 BC), the classic approach to represent the human body in any position or movement reflected ‘the inner life of the figures’ [50].
\nThe human body is not an idol of lust but an icon of soulful aesthetics and compassionate intimacy. The human body is thus designed to create intimate spaces of human encounter, wherein the ‘other’ is exposed to unconditional love, compassionate caring—caring that seeks to overcome the fear for rejection and loss.
\nCompassionate intimacy should enhance humane authenticity, as well as sustainable friendship and an ethos of non-discriminatory equality and unconditional acceptance. The notion of compassionate intimacy is an attempt to emphasise and introduce images of companionship, trustful partner, faithful colleague and caring nurturer (Figure 10).
\nPlaster copy in of the Royal Cast Collection, Copenhagen. Permission from museum; photo D.J. Louw. The child Dionysus in the arms of a Sicilian found in 1594 in Greece, fourth century BC. I was totally overwhelmed by the combination between male vigour and strength combined with sensitivity and caring embracement. The genitals are an inherent part of the intimate space of care created by the ‘patriarchal figure’. One can say that the sculpture portrays ‘sacred phallicism’ healed by compassionate intimacy. The penis nurtures and cannot destroy; the penis as an icon of intimacy and faithful commitment. The macho male can become indeed an idol of a caring and compassionate human being beyond the boundaries of merely gender differentiation (either male or female).
Embodied intimacy and sensual spirituality imply the following paradigm shifts in an anthropology of human nakedness (noble nudity).
From the soul-body dualism to integrative and compassionate intimacy.
Embodiment then represents qualitative intimacy as the realm for creating a space for human dignity through the enfleshment of unconditional love. One should accept one’s body as home: A living space meant for communication and relationships.
From gender performance to human beautification. The body is no longer viewed and handled as a machine but is holistically enjoyed as a living organism. Embodiment represents processes of personal sensitivity and caring other empowerment.
Beauty implies more than physicality. It refers to the representation of meaning and the body as the evidence of grace and humane nobility. The proportions of the body and the harmony of body wholeness project beauty. The anatomy of the body reveals ‘inner beauty’.9 The human body partakes in the divine beauty of creation; every part of the body contains an element of divinity and hence of beauty [52].
\nThe notion that the beauty of human corporality embodies the aesthetics of the human soul ([53], p. 16); the human body as the anatomy of the human soul should be rendered as a deconstruction of the pagan thinking and metaphysical dualism in anthropology. The advantage of the Michelangelesque perspective on nudity is the paradigm shift from the hedonistic perspective of promiscuity to the aesthetic perspective of beauty: from the performance of sexuality to the enjoyment of sexuality. Why? It is because the human body and the genitals are not designed to destroy and to ruin, but to heal and to beautify. Beautification then means instilling human dignity and guaranteeing trust and faithfulness. The paradigm shift is from violent sex (the abuse of power) to intimate sex (compassionate caring)); from carnal promiscuity (destruction and exploitation) to spiritual aesthetics (healing and intimacy).
\nIt is my contention that
Ageing is an inevitable process characterized by declining functions and increased susceptibility to certain diseases. Biologically, ageing results from a variety of molecular and cellular damage over time, leading to a gradual decrease in physical and mental capacity, increasing the risk of illness and death [1]. The fragility acquired by the elderly population with ageing is related to the gradual decrease of the physiological reserve and the failure of the homeostatic mechanisms. Thus, a cumulative decline is promoted in several physiological systems, and there is an exhaustion of the body’s reserves, starting to have a greater vulnerability to changes in health status [2]. The mechanisms associated with ageing are determined by environmental factors but also by genetic factors, which regulate the expression of genes that can be especially important for this process [3].
With ageing, many chronic diseases arise, requiring the use of a higher number of drugs. Polypharmacy, defined as the use of five or more drugs, is a significant public health problem, particularly in the older adults, since it is responsible for the increase of adverse drug reactions (ADR) and, frequently, for the rise of the morbidity and mortality in this population [4]. There are many other important issues related to the problem of polypharmacy, such as the interaction between drugs, organization and adherence to treatment [4].
Through the normal ageing process, changes occur with impact on the pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of drugs. These changes may be related to the function of particular organs, homeostatic mechanisms and also to the ability to respond to specific receptors, causing greater vulnerability and susceptibility to ADR in older patients [5] frequently associated with the use of potentially inappropriate medication (PIM) in this population [6]. The inappropriate prescription in older patients occurs when the risk of adverse effects exceeds the clinical benefit, especially when there are more effective alternatives available [7]. The use of PIM is a public health challenge because it has high prevalence rates in different health contexts [8].
Although older adults are the primary consumers of medicines, the truth is that clinical trials are usually carried out on younger people, and the physiological changes that occur with ageing are not considered. With the rise of older people in the world, the needs associated with the resources of health systems will continue to increase, and several challenges will arise.
Over the past few years, to reduce the use of PIM in the older population, strategies and tools of explicit and implicit criteria have been developed to evaluate the appropriateness of medication use in the older patients. These criteria are useful tools for clinical practice, as a support for clinical decision.
The normal ageing process implies the occurrence of several physiological, biological, physical and psychological changes, which can affect the elderly patient’ quality of life and modify the ability to reach the best health outcomes [9]. The changes caused by ageing are associated with complex pathophysiology, variability in organ function and the presence of comorbidities, specific to this population [2]. When young, the human body has a sizeable physiological reserve to sustain the function of most organs. However, in early adulthood, the first physiological changes that can affect drug effects begin to occur, and the decline of cellular activity becomes a gradual and continuous process. In older adults, this reserve is increasingly diminished with decreasing in homeostatic mechanisms activity [10].
All of these factors contribute to the frailty of older adults making them more prone to drug-related problems. Most older people can experience significant changes in drug pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics due to age-related physiological changes and become more susceptible and vulnerable to adverse effects [7].
The bioavailability of a drug depends on many factors and all stages of pharmacokinetics (absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion) and can be modified with ageing [9, 11]. A summary of the main pharmacokinetics changes can be consulted in Table 1.
Pharmacokinetics | Physiological changes | Drug examples |
---|---|---|
Increased gastric pH Decreased gastrointestinal motility Decreased intestinal permeability Decreased gastrointestinal blood flow | Antacids H2-receptor antagonists Proton pump inhibitors Anticholinergic drugs | |
Decreased lean body mass Increased fat body mass Decreased body water | Benzodiazepines | |
Decreased liver volume Decreased blood flow Decreased hepatic clearance rates | Propranolol Morphine | |
Reduced renal blood flow Decreased glomerular filtration rates Increased urea excretion Decreased creatinine production Decreased renal clearance rates | Thiazides Loop diuretics ACEI ARBs Aliskiren Digoxin Potassium-sparing agents Beta-blockers NSAIDs |
There are several available routes of administration. However, the most common is the oral route. Although ageing is associated with decreased gastric emptying and peristalsis, in the absence of pathology, the absorption of most drugs does not decrease with age [9]. However, the presence of pathologies that affect the gastrointestinal organs can affect absorption. Furthermore, food intake can also affect drugs’ absorption. The fraction of the drug dose administered that reaches the bloodstream, after oral administration, can be influenced by several other factors, such as gastric pH, gastrointestinal motility, intestinal permeability and mucosal integrity, function and expression of drug carriers and gastrointestinal blood flow [11].
Drugs absorption after intramuscular or subcutaneous administration can be modified in older patients because there is a reduction in blood perfusion of the tissues [12].
After absorption, the drug enters the bloodstream and is distributed through the body. The distribution will influence the amount of active substance available to prosecute an effect at a specific target. Factors such as the extent of binding to tissues and plasmatic proteins, changes in body composition and protein synthesis can affect the distribution of drugs [11]. The volume of distribution can be affected by the proportions of lean body mass and fat body mass. With ageing, there is a reduction in the amount of body water and an increase in fat, so there are changes in the distribution of drugs that depend on lipid solubility. Also, the half-life of a drug increases with the volume of distribution. Thus, a decrease in the volume of distribution for hydrophilic drugs results in higher plasma concentrations and a lower half-life in older patients. Some examples are drugs such as digoxin and theophylline. As the volume of distribution increases, the half-life of liposoluble drugs increases, affecting, for example, long-acting benzodiazepines that can accumulate in the body [12].
Metabolism consists of converting an active substance in simpler and more polar substances, called metabolites. These metabolites are inactive or have modified activity. In the case of prodrugs, metabolism is necessary to convert the prodrug in an active drug. Therefore, hepatic metabolism is essential for the elimination of drugs from the body. Hepatic metabolism depends on hepatic blood flow, the transport of the drug from the blood to the hepatocytes and the ability to metabolize the drug [11]. It can be difficult to predict changes in liver metabolism for each patient. In addition to age, the nutritional status of the elderly also affects the rate of metabolism of the drug [12]. Moreover, the increase of inflammatory conditions in older adults can compromise the enzymes associated with the metabolism of many drugs. Frailty is associated with higher inflammatory markers and a reduction in the activity of esterases (enzymes class that catalyse hydrolysis reactions) [5].
With ageing, the composition of gut microbiome also changes. Intestinal bacteria play a role in the metabolism of drugs as they, being mostly anaerobic, participate in chemical reactions of reduction and hydrolysis of molecules. The changes caused by this phenomenon occur mainly in frailty older adults and long-term nursing homes residents. They have a decreased enzyme induction capacity, which can lead to an increase in genetic silencing with age. Also, external factors such as exposure to environmental contaminants are responsible for altering gene expression. These changes reflect the differential biological ageing [5].
Most drugs are eliminated through the kidneys, and in older adults, the ability to concentrate urine is reduced, consequently, there is a need for a higher amount of urine to excrete the same amount of toxic waste compared to young adults. The decline in renal function is mainly due to the decrease in the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and the reduction in renal blood flow. With ageing, the decline in glomerular filtration is quite evident. The decreased in renal function increases the risk of ADR, and therefore, special attention should be given when prescribing, to older patients, drugs excreted by kidneys. For drugs that have a narrow therapeutic index and are excreted through the kidneys, such as digoxin, metformin and lithium, it is especially important to adjust and monitor the treatment [12].
This decrease in GFR can be explained by an increase in urea excretion and a reduction in creatinine production in older adults. The renal plasma flow is reduced by 50%, and the kidney’s ability to increase baseline GFR by at least 20% (the renal reserve) also decreases significantly with ageing [13].
Sodium reabsorption is reduced in the older adults, and drugs that promote the excretion of salt and water, such as thiazides and loop diuretics, can induce hyponatraemia, hypovolaemia and renal failure. Also, renal excretion of potassium is significantly reduced with ageing, so drugs such as angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor (ACEI), angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs), aliskiren, digoxin, potassium-sparing agents, beta-blockers and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) can induce hyperkalaemia [13].
Age-related pharmacodynamic changes may also occur. However, these are more difficult to study than pharmacokinetic changes because there is low evidence of the mechanism underlying these changes.
Many response measures are subjective and can be influenced by several factors. These changes represent how drugs react in the body after absorption. The central nervous system (CNS) and the cardiovascular system, as well as the homeostatic mechanisms, are the most affected with the ageing process. Since most medicines used by the older adults have strong anticholinergic properties, the principal ADR that occur in this population are confusion, drowsiness and an increased risk of falls and fractures [14]. Due to all the physiological changes, an older adult’s ability to recover from an illness is often diminished, and symptoms may remain partially for a long time.
Age-related pharmacodynamic changes are associated with receptors (number, activity and expression) and with the ability to signal transduction and changes in homeostatic mechanisms [15].
Thus, in the older adults, there is an impaired circulatory response, an increased risk of falls and fractures, changes in thermoregulation mechanisms, laryngeal reflexes compromised with increased risk of aspiration or pneumonia, dehydration and bleeding due to changes in vascular stability and impaired cognitive ability. Therefore, drugs with sedative effects can considerably increase the risk of ADR in older patients [16].
Considering the drugs that act in the CNS, there is an increased sensitivity to the action of benzodiazepines, which can cause a high degree of sedation and impaired psychomotor performance in older adults, making them more favourable to the occurrence of falls and fractures. With increasing age, the ability to respond to antipsychotic drugs also increases, so there is an increased risk of anticholinergic and extrapyramidal effects, orthostatic hypotension and adverse cerebrovascular effects. The increase in the response capacity to antidepressants also increases the risk of anticholinergic effects in the elderly, being responsible for causing gastrointestinal bleeding and hyponatraemia. These population also have an increased sensitivity to intravenous and inhaled anaesthetic and opioid medications, with an increased risk of respiratory depression and reduced tolerability to these drugs. Furthermore, with ageing, there is an increased sensitivity to the adverse effects caused by lithium, increasing the risk of neurotoxic effects in these population [10, 17].
Concerning drugs that act on the cardiovascular system, the main pharmacodynamic changes associated with age are related to the reduction of the baroreceptor response to low blood pressure and the increase in the sinoatrial suppressive effect, interfering with the administration of calcium channel blocker drugs, causing an effect that can lead to the occurrence of orthostatic hypotension, falls and a decrease in heart rate. With ageing, there is a change in the signal transduction of the beta receptor and negative regulation of the beta-adrenergic receptors, so that there may be a reduction in the effectiveness of beta-blocking agents at doses considered normal. The reduction in GFR causes a decrease in the capacity of diuretic and natriuretic responses. NSAIDs reduce the effects of diuretics, and there is a compromise in adaptive and homeostatic mechanisms, thus reducing the effectiveness of diuretics in doses considered normal, and a high risk of hypokalaemia, hypomagnesaemia and hyponatraemia may occur. NSAIDs can also reduce the effects of ACEI. Since older patients are more sensitive to warfarin, there is an increased risk of bleeding when taking anticoagulant drugs [10, 17].
The presence of comorbidities is also responsible for pharmacodynamic changes during the ageing process. For example, the presence of psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia, depression and dementia can alter the function of several neurotransmitters [16].
Pharmacotherapy can improve the quality of life, cure, prevent and relieve the symptoms of many pathologies. However, there is a growing concern that many older people are taking an inappropriately high number of medications [18]. Polypharmacy consists of the use of several drugs by the same patient and appears as a response to the increase in health-related problems, particularly in older adults. There is no consensual definition for polypharmacy; however, most studies consider the consumption of five or more drugs per day per person [19]. In older patients, polypharmacy has been associated with a wide range of negative health outcomes, including falls, ADR effects, changes in physical and cognitive ability, hospital readmission and mortality. It has also been associated with increasing costs in health [4, 18].
Besides, older adults often self-medicate themselves to improve their quality of life. This is a concern because the use of home medicines and herbal products, as well as the diet, can interfere with their health, due to the many drug interactions that can occur [20].
The inappropriate use of medicines by older patients who suffer from multiple diseases is a public health problem due to its impact on morbidity, quality of life and the improper use of health resources. There is an increase in hospital readmissions and the occurrence of ADR, leading the older patients to have difficulties in carrying out their daily activities, progressively losing their autonomy and, consequently, with loneliness and social isolation [4, 21]. Polypharmacy and multiple comorbidities are also associated with a lack of therapeutic compliance by older patients. The non-adherence may represent a risk because adverse health outcomes could occur like hospitalization and mortality [22].
Polypharmacy represents a challenge for health professionals, and it is essential to improve patients’ knowledge about their medication because beliefs about drugs are a strong predictor of adherence. If the patient knows what medicines he is using, the reason for pharmacotherapy and believe about its benefit, the adherence problem will be improved. In practice, the main goal is to achieve an ideal pharmacotherapy by reducing the number of drug-related problems (DRP).
The probability of a drug interaction occurring also increases with ageing due to the higher number of drugs used by older patients. These interactions have negative effects on health, and therefore, health professionals must be alert to possible interactions and must prevent them from occurring [23].
Most of the medications are considered appropriate for older patients, as long as they are used in the correct dosage and for the period strictly necessary. However, since older adults are more susceptible to the adverse effects of drugs, as a result of changes on pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, special care by health professionals is needed when treating older patients.
Having more than one prescriber increases the risk of inappropriate medications use. Thus, it is crucial to implement medication review procedures and that the most frailty older adults have a clinician with knowledge of all their pharmacotherapy and improve communication with caregivers [23].
Some studies have shown that some measures can be implemented to decrease polypharmacy and its adverse effects, improving the quality of the prescription, such as educational programmes for patients and professionals and the creation of multidisciplinary teams of health professionals [24].
To improve the pharmacotherapy in older patients, the available tools must be friendly to improve the use by the health professionals.
According to Wooten [25, 26, 27], 10 rules must be followed by the physician’s when prescribing, especially in older patients: (1) know the patient and use the patient’s most current medical record; (2) follow the tenets of evidence-based medicine, but understand the limitations of the evidence; (3) understand the potential pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic changes that can occur in older adults, and use this specific patient information to make prudent prescribing decisions; (4) recognize and investigate patient factors that may contribute to medication problems; (5) avoid the prescribing cascade, if possible; (6) prescribe and recommend only those medications/drug classes for which have a thorough understanding of the pharmacology; (7) identify, anticipate and monitor potential drug interactions before they become a problem; (8) establish a monitoring plan for each medication prescribed for both efficacy and toxicity; (9) properly counsel patients/caregivers on all of the patient’s medications, and ensure that the patient understands the pharmacotherapy plan; and (10) assess and address compliance issues.
Clinical decision support includes a variety of tools and interventions that can be computerized or noncomputerized. Clinical decision support systems (CDSS) are characterized as tools for information management and include several clinical guidelines. In the last decades, the focus has been on tools to provide specific recommendations to patients, called advanced CDSS. These may include, for example, checking interactions between drug-disease, drug-drug, individualized dosing support and advice on laboratory tests during drug treatment [28]. The creation and implementation of this type of tools are responsible for increasing the quality of care and improving health outcomes, reducing the likelihood of errors and adverse effects. Thus, it is possible to reduce uncertainty and increase the reproducibility of decisions, increasing efficiency, cost-effectiveness and the satisfaction of the patients and caregiver [29].
For reducing prescription errors in older patients, other measures can be taken, such as implementing an educational system to train prescription, especially in young doctors who have less practice, and also in hospitals, where this type of errors are more frequent [30]. In many hospitals, pharmacists are responsible for identifying errors in the prescription of medications and must report them immediately to the medical team. Sometimes, the environment involving prescribing physicians may influence the prescription process, leading to some errors. So, all the conditions must be met so that the physician can carry out the prescription in the best possible way, making simple changes such as reducing background noise and promoting more effective communication between all health professionals and with patients. Upon admission of the older patients to the hospital, it is advisable to carry out a reconciliation of the medication in which all medicines used should be checked. The importance and suitability of each medicine for the patient should be assessed, as well as the needs of adding a new list with the latest medications, explaining reasons. This list must be updated and given to the next health professional responsible for the patient [30]. There is currently a validated tool used to provide physicians with a method for obtaining their patients’ medication history, the structured history taking of medication use (SHiM). The SHiM consists of 16 questions and reveals the potential to avoid discrepancies in patients’ medication histories [31].
Another way to improve pharmacotherapy for older patients is to use criteria that were created to identify PIM as tools to support clinical decision support as described above.
To reduce the use of PIM in older patients, strategies and tools have been developed in recent years to assess the appropriateness of medication use in this population. The created criteria can be classified as explicit, implicit or mixed. Explicit criteria are lists of drugs that can be applied with minimal information and clinical judgement. These do not consider individual differences between patients. In contrast, the implicit criteria consider the patient’s therapeutic regimen and are based on the judgement of a health professional, being specific to each patient. The mixed criteria, on the other hand, consist of a combination of the previous two, allowing to obtain advantages from both [8].
In 1991, Beers et al. [32] were the first ones to introduce the concept of PIM and to propose a list of PIM for the older adults. These criteria, developed to help healthcare professionals to assess the quality of prescription in older patients, were initially intended for psychiatric patients. In 2011, the American Geriatrics Society (AGS) assumed the responsibility for these criteria and became compromised to update them regularly, and in 2012 [33] the criteria were updated. After that, criteria have been updated, and new, improved versions appeared in 2015 [34] and recently in 2019 [35]. A consensus panel was created with several experts to define what these criteria would be and what individual aspects should be considered. However, there are drugs not included in these criteria, and that may also be potentially inappropriate for older patients.
Many other attempts have been proposed using implicit or explicit criteria. For example, the Medication Appropriation Index (MAI) measures the appropriation of prescriptions for elderly patients [36]. That is an implicit tool that consists of making a structured assessment of the patient’s medications across 10 criteria worded as questions. The 10 items are essential to evaluate the potential of DRP.
Also, according to European standards, the EURO-FORTA List was created in 2018 and is based on the FORTA List that has been validated for Germany and Austria. The EURO-FORTA List is an implicit tool and consists of 264 drugs/drug classes organized in 26 groups according to clinical diagnosis or symptoms [37].
On the other hand, explicit tools, such as the Screening Tool to Alert to Right Treatment (START) and Screening Tool of Older Person’s Prescriptions (STOPP) criteria, originally created in 2008 [38], are adapted to European prescription standards. Over time, the START/STOPP criteria have been updated, with the most recent version (version 2) being published in 2015 [39]. These criteria are used as tools to help researchers and professionals to identify 81 PIM and 34 potential prescribing omissions (PPO). Although the STOPP criteria are classified as explicit, according to studies carried out recently in Portugal, for only 29 of the 81 STOPP criteria, a judgement can be made only with the patient’s medication profile information. This means that 52 of the STOPP criteria require additional information (i.e., duration of treatment, previous medication, current medical conditions, medical history and laboratory data) [40].
In 2015, the EU (7)-PIM List, an explicit criteria tool, was developed by experts from seven European countries (Germany, Finland, Estonia, Holland, France, Spain and Sweden) that allows the identification and comparison of PIM in these countries [41]. The EU (7)-PIM List development process was based on the participation of several European experts in two Delphi rounds. Some PIM concepts were defined considering the dose, the time of use or the therapeutic scheme, and the final list consists of 282 PIM.
In addition to these criteria, there are many other PIM lists in several countries, such as LaRoche (France) [42, 43], the PRISCUS list (Germany) [44], the Austrian consensus panel list [45], the NORGEP criteria (Norway) [46] and the Canada national consensus panel list [47].
Figure 1 is a flowchart that represents the steps that must be taken by health professionals when prescribing medications to the elderly, including the moment when they should consult the currently available PIM identification criteria.
Flowchart of the operating procedure of the expected steps during prescription for older patients.
There are many physiological and pathophysiological changes associated with ageing that can affect the disposition of a drug. However, there are many variations among individuals. Thus, health professionals should be more alert during a prescription to older patients and monitor their health status with individual attention.
One of the main factors responsible for variability in older patients is genetics since the structure, function and expression of most of the enzymes involved in metabolism can be affected due to genetic polymorphism, which will modify the therapeutic effect of certain drugs. Thus, the concept of individualized therapy, which analyses for each subject, genetic and non-genetic factors to optimize the treatment for each patient according to their characteristics, is increasingly common.
In general, older patients have a higher sensitivity to drug therapy, so recommendations for the appropriate prescription of drugs in the elderly population should be considered.
The incorporation of the described criteria in the CDSS has been successful in the detection of PIM. Persistent changes in medication were recorded in 8.7% of the alerts generated [48]. These data suggest that CDSS alerts are a useful tool for implementing guidelines related to the identification of PIM for older patients and for helping physicians during the prescription process, improving healthcare practices.
This work was financially supported by the project MedElderly [SAICT-POL/23585/2016], funded by Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT/MCTES), Portugal 2020 and Centro 2020 grants, and by the project APIMedOlder [PTDC/MED-FAR/31598/2017], funded by FEDER, through COMPETE2020—Programa Operacional Competitividade e Internacionalização (POCI-01-0145-FEDER-031598), and by national funds (OE), through FCT/MCTES.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
ACEI | angiotensin conversion enzyme inhibitors |
ADR | adverse drug reaction |
AGS | American Geriatrics Society |
ARBs | angiotensin II receptor blockers |
CDSS | clinical decision support systems |
CNS | central nervous system |
DRP | drug-related problem |
GFR | glomerular filtration rate |
MAI | medication appropriation index |
NSAIDs | nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs |
PIM | potentially inappropriate medication |
PPO | potential prescribing omissions |
START | screening tool to alert to right treatment |
STOPP | screening tool of older person’s prescriptions |
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Tyagi, Neeraj Garg, Rahul Shukla and Prakash Singh Bisen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7663.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"269120",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeev",middleName:"K.",surname:"Tyagi",slug:"rajeev-tyagi",fullName:"Rajeev Tyagi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7604",title:"Colloid Science in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f3940914be015381c3928eae31c2457e",slug:"colloid-science-in-pharmaceutical-nanotechnology",bookSignature:"Selcan Karakuş",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7604.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206110",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcan",middleName:null,surname:"Karakuş",slug:"selcan-karakus",fullName:"Selcan Karakuş"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5357",title:"Advanced Technology for Delivering Therapeutics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb3505baf01046e3248ceb6cea7899f0",slug:"advanced-technology-for-delivering-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Sabyasachi Maiti and Kalyan Kumar Sen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5357.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"180971",title:"Dr.",name:"Sabyasachi",middleName:null,surname:"Maiti",slug:"sabyasachi-maiti",fullName:"Sabyasachi Maiti"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:3,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"54825",doi:"10.5772/65245",title:"Introductory Chapter: Drug Delivery Concepts",slug:"introductory-chapter-drug-delivery-concepts",totalDownloads:2702,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:null,book:{id:"5357",slug:"advanced-technology-for-delivering-therapeutics",title:"Advanced Technology for Delivering Therapeutics",fullTitle:"Advanced Technology for Delivering Therapeutics"},signatures:"Sabyasachi Maiti and Kalyan Kumar Sen",authors:[{id:"180971",title:"Dr.",name:"Sabyasachi",middleName:null,surname:"Maiti",slug:"sabyasachi-maiti",fullName:"Sabyasachi Maiti"}]},{id:"66994",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84217",title:"Aptamers for Targeted Delivery: Current Challenges and Future Opportunities",slug:"aptamers-for-targeted-delivery-current-challenges-and-future-opportunities",totalDownloads:1351,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Aptamers are synthetic ssDNA/RNA molecules that are emerging as novel tools for the development of therapeutics, especially for targeted delivery. Aptamers are comparable to monoclonal antibodies, which are well-established therapeutic molecules, in terms of specificity and affinity to their target. The advantage of aptamers over antibodies includes their high stability, ease of synthesis, less batch-to-batch variation, easy chemical modifications that allow different conjugation chemistries, small size for better tissue penetration and low immunogenicity. These advantages make aptamers an important tool for use in therapeutics for targeted delivery. However, aptamers do have some limitations that have hindered their widespread clinical use as a therapeutic agent. Some of their common limitations include serum stability, renal filtration and endocytic escape. Other limitations that are more specific to aptamers include lack of diversity in the aptamer library, nuclease susceptibility and claims of aptamer specificity as well. This book chapter sheds light on these challenges, and using examples, it explains the scientific advancements that have been achieved in overcoming these limitations. We will end this chapter by discussing the use of high-throughput technology, which is the only way of truly industrializing the aptamer technology akin to the development of small molecule drugs.",book:{id:"7663",slug:"role-of-novel-drug-delivery-vehicles-in-nanobiomedicine",title:"Role of Novel Drug Delivery Vehicles in Nanobiomedicine",fullTitle:"Role of Novel Drug Delivery Vehicles in Nanobiomedicine"},signatures:"Chetan Chandola and Muniasamy Neerathilingam",authors:null},{id:"70614",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90365",title:"Cyclodextrin Nanosponges: A Promising Approach for Modulating Drug Delivery",slug:"cyclodextrin-nanosponges-a-promising-approach-for-modulating-drug-delivery",totalDownloads:872,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Nanotechnology showed great promise and impact on administration of therapeutic agents owing to its advantages over contemporary delivery systems. Nanoscale carriers like nanosponges represent a novel category of hyper cross-linked polymer structures with nanosized cavities which can be filled with variety of active moieties (hydrophilic as well as hydrophobic). These nanocarriers can circulate around the body until they found the specific target site and adhere on the surface and release the active moiety in a predictable and controlled manner, resulting in more effective delivery of a given dosage. Nanosponge technology helps to reduce drug associated side effects, improve stability, increase elegance and improve the flexibility of formulations, administered orally, parenterally and topically. Among nanosponges, cyclodextrin-based nanosponges (CDNS) are smart versatile carriers studied widely for drug delivery applications. Statistically, it have presented that approximately 40% of active moieties marketed currently and about 90% of active moieties in their preliminary phase confront problems regarding to solubility. In the past decade, the number of studies describing CDNS has dramatically increased. In the present chapter, scientists working in arena of nanotechnology can get an idea of fabrication, characterization and therapeutic utilities of nanosponges.",book:{id:"7604",slug:"colloid-science-in-pharmaceutical-nanotechnology",title:"Colloid Science in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology",fullTitle:"Colloid Science in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology"},signatures:"Sunil Kumar, Pooja Dalal and Rekha Rao",authors:null},{id:"54175",doi:"10.5772/66466",title:"Hybrid Nano-carriers for Potential Drug Delivery",slug:"hybrid-nano-carriers-for-potential-drug-delivery",totalDownloads:2223,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Nanocarriers have provided the versatile platform for the delivery of various therapeutic and diagnostic agents. Liposome, niosomes, polymeric and solid lipid nanoparticles are the most promising nanocarriers that have been entered in the clinical trials and become commercially available. However, each system has been associated with some problems that can be minimized by using the combinatorial approach of hybrid nanocarriers. These hybrid systems combine the benefits of different structural components to synergize the outcome of the therapy. In this chapter, the different types of hybrid nanocarriers have been described with particular emphasis on the brief rationale for the development of these hybrid nanocarriers along with different fabrication approaches with greater emphasize on the lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles. A brief description factors governing the optimized response characteristics and their potential application of these hybrid nanoparticles are also presented.",book:{id:"5357",slug:"advanced-technology-for-delivering-therapeutics",title:"Advanced Technology for Delivering Therapeutics",fullTitle:"Advanced Technology for Delivering Therapeutics"},signatures:"Asadullah Madni, Nayab Tahir, Mubashar Rehman, Ahmed Raza,\nMuhammad Ahmad Mahmood, Muhammad Imran Khan and\nPrince Muhammad Kashif",authors:[{id:"186972",title:"Dr.",name:"Asadullah",middleName:null,surname:"Madni",slug:"asadullah-madni",fullName:"Asadullah Madni"},{id:"194586",title:"Dr.",name:"Nayab",middleName:null,surname:"Tahir",slug:"nayab-tahir",fullName:"Nayab Tahir"},{id:"194587",title:"Mr.",name:"Mubashar",middleName:null,surname:"Rehman",slug:"mubashar-rehman",fullName:"Mubashar Rehman"},{id:"194588",title:"Mr.",name:"Ahmad",middleName:null,surname:"Raza",slug:"ahmad-raza",fullName:"Ahmad Raza"},{id:"194589",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad Ahmad",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmood",slug:"muhammad-ahmad-mahmood",fullName:"Muhammad Ahmad Mahmood"},{id:"194592",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Imran",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"muhammad-imran-khan",fullName:"Muhammad Imran Khan"},{id:"194593",title:"Mr.",name:"Prince Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Kashif",slug:"prince-muhammad-kashif",fullName:"Prince Muhammad Kashif"}]},{id:"70345",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84424",title:"Polymer Properties: Functionalization and Surface Modified Nanoparticles",slug:"polymer-properties-functionalization-and-surface-modified-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:985,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Herein, the various polymer properties and the underlying mechanism for the functionalization and surface modification of polymer nanoparticles have been discussed. There are numerous polymer particles designed and developed for various applications. The synthesis and characterization of different types of polymers followed by the engineering of nanoparticles and capsules depend on various factors. There are too many polymerization methods approached for the development of nanoparticles with desired surface properties. The ring-opening polymerization (ROP), emulsion polymerization (EP), atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP), and free radical micro initiation are the significant approaches for the polymerization reactions. The polymer nanoparticle functionalization and modification of their surfaces based on requirements is an essential task. The solvent concentration, pH, temperature, and sonication have played a vital role to tune the morphology of polymer nanoparticles and capsules. Different characterizations such as FTIR, NMR (1H and 13C), HRMS, and MALDI-TOF are used for preliminary structural and confirmations. Further, SEM, FE-SEM, TEM, AFM, BET, XRD, Raman, EDAX, TGA-DSC, DLS, and zeta potential were used for morphological and thermal properties.",book:{id:"7663",slug:"role-of-novel-drug-delivery-vehicles-in-nanobiomedicine",title:"Role of Novel Drug Delivery Vehicles in Nanobiomedicine",fullTitle:"Role of Novel Drug Delivery Vehicles in Nanobiomedicine"},signatures:"Chander Amgoth, Chiuyen Phan, Murali Banavoth, Santosh Rompivalasa and Guping Tang",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70327",title:"Solid Lipid Based Nano-particulate Formulations in Drug Targeting",slug:"solid-lipid-based-nano-particulate-formulations-in-drug-targeting",totalDownloads:921,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Recently, targeted drug delivery systems have gained much more interest for delivering varieties of drugs as well as imaging agents specifically to the targeted disease cells or tissues. These are well known for their increased precision and accuracy in mode of drug delivery along with reduced side effects. Though numerous carriers are being employed for drug targeting, the solid lipid based nanoparticles (SLNs) are preferred over them owing to their ability to encapsulate wide varieties of drugs, biocompatibility, ease of surface modification, scaling up feasibility, and possibilities of both active as well as passive targeting to various organs. Surface of these drug loaded SLNs can be modified by conjugating different ligands to enhance their tissue/organ targeting ability and therapeutic efficacy to much higher extent. In this chapter, we have discussed about the SLNs and their different surface modified forms for passive as well as active targeting to different organ such as (colon, breast, lungs, liver, kidney, brain, eyes, etc.) in combating different diseases.",book:{id:"7663",slug:"role-of-novel-drug-delivery-vehicles-in-nanobiomedicine",title:"Role of Novel Drug Delivery Vehicles in Nanobiomedicine",fullTitle:"Role of Novel Drug Delivery Vehicles in Nanobiomedicine"},signatures:"Bibhash Chandra Mohanta, Subas Chandra Dinda, Narahari Narayan Palei and Jyotirmoy Deb",authors:null},{id:"54825",title:"Introductory Chapter: Drug Delivery Concepts",slug:"introductory-chapter-drug-delivery-concepts",totalDownloads:2704,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:null,book:{id:"5357",slug:"advanced-technology-for-delivering-therapeutics",title:"Advanced Technology for Delivering Therapeutics",fullTitle:"Advanced Technology for Delivering Therapeutics"},signatures:"Sabyasachi Maiti and Kalyan Kumar Sen",authors:[{id:"180971",title:"Dr.",name:"Sabyasachi",middleName:null,surname:"Maiti",slug:"sabyasachi-maiti",fullName:"Sabyasachi Maiti"}]},{id:"70083",title:"Drug Delivery through Targeted Approach with Special References to Phytosomes",slug:"drug-delivery-through-targeted-approach-with-special-references-to-phytosomes",totalDownloads:847,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Novel drug delivery is a great tool to deliver the drug at a specific site of action by the means of specific drug carrier like Solid-lipid Nanoparticles, Nano-structured lipid carriers, lipid vesicles, liposomes, phytosomes and ethosomes. Every carrier used in novel drug delivery system to deliver the drug at targeted site requires some special formulation techniques. These techniques help the drug carrier to deliver the active drug at targeted site, by reducing the side-effect, minimizing the dose, increasing the absorption and increasing the efficacy of the drug. There is a recent upsurge to move “back to nature” for healing body ailments because the report states that conventional treatment cause various side effects to the human body after prolonged used. Various novel drug delivery vesicles/‘somes’ are being used for the delivery of phytoconstitutents to the targeted site of action. Phytosome is one of the more reliable and best option for the delivery of herbal constituent to the targeted site. The combination of Novel drug delivery with the transdermal route may be a good idea having fast and targeted delivery of drug. Many health challenges like skin diseases, skin burns, migraine, allergies, cardiac problems, diabetes and trauma like bone fracture could be easily managed by the combination of novel drug delivery and the transdermal route in future.",book:{id:"7663",slug:"role-of-novel-drug-delivery-vehicles-in-nanobiomedicine",title:"Role of Novel Drug Delivery Vehicles in Nanobiomedicine",fullTitle:"Role of Novel Drug Delivery Vehicles in Nanobiomedicine"},signatures:"Mahendra Rana, Aadesh Kumar and Amita J. Rana",authors:null},{id:"67379",title:"Breaking down the Barrier: Topical Liposomes as Nanocarriers for Drug Delivery into the Posterior Segment of the Eyeball",slug:"breaking-down-the-barrier-topical-liposomes-as-nanocarriers-for-drug-delivery-into-the-posterior-seg",totalDownloads:1253,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Topical instillation is the most widely preferred noninvasive route of drug administration to treat diseases affecting the anterior segment of the eye. Nonetheless, the ocular bioavailability for deeper ocular tissues is very low. Different routes of administration, such as intravitreal injections, periocular injections, and systemic administration, have been used to deliver drugs into the posterior segment ocular tissues. However, the presence of blood-retinal barriers (BRBs) makes systemic administration an impractical approach, whereas the drug delivery with the periocular administration route is compromised by ocular static and dynamic barriers. On the other hand, intravitreal injection, the most common and widely recommended route for drug administration to treat posterior ocular diseases, is related to several side effects such as endophthalmitis, hemorrhage, retinal detachment, and poor patient tolerance. Diverse strategies to overcome ocular barriers have been explored for topical drop formulations in order to deliver drugs into the posterior segment ocular tissues. In this chapter, we will review the promising topical nanocarriers for drug delivery into the posterior segment of the eye, emphasizing the use of liposomes for topical ophthalmic formulations targeting the vitreous cavity and the retina.",book:{id:"7663",slug:"role-of-novel-drug-delivery-vehicles-in-nanobiomedicine",title:"Role of Novel Drug Delivery Vehicles in Nanobiomedicine",fullTitle:"Role of Novel Drug Delivery Vehicles in Nanobiomedicine"},signatures:"Arturo Santos, Juan C. Altamirano-Vallejo, José Navarro-Partida, Alejandro González-De la Rosa and Jane H. Hsiao",authors:null},{id:"66994",title:"Aptamers for Targeted Delivery: Current Challenges and Future Opportunities",slug:"aptamers-for-targeted-delivery-current-challenges-and-future-opportunities",totalDownloads:1360,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Aptamers are synthetic ssDNA/RNA molecules that are emerging as novel tools for the development of therapeutics, especially for targeted delivery. Aptamers are comparable to monoclonal antibodies, which are well-established therapeutic molecules, in terms of specificity and affinity to their target. The advantage of aptamers over antibodies includes their high stability, ease of synthesis, less batch-to-batch variation, easy chemical modifications that allow different conjugation chemistries, small size for better tissue penetration and low immunogenicity. These advantages make aptamers an important tool for use in therapeutics for targeted delivery. However, aptamers do have some limitations that have hindered their widespread clinical use as a therapeutic agent. Some of their common limitations include serum stability, renal filtration and endocytic escape. Other limitations that are more specific to aptamers include lack of diversity in the aptamer library, nuclease susceptibility and claims of aptamer specificity as well. This book chapter sheds light on these challenges, and using examples, it explains the scientific advancements that have been achieved in overcoming these limitations. We will end this chapter by discussing the use of high-throughput technology, which is the only way of truly industrializing the aptamer technology akin to the development of small molecule drugs.",book:{id:"7663",slug:"role-of-novel-drug-delivery-vehicles-in-nanobiomedicine",title:"Role of Novel Drug Delivery Vehicles in Nanobiomedicine",fullTitle:"Role of Novel Drug Delivery Vehicles in Nanobiomedicine"},signatures:"Chetan Chandola and Muniasamy Neerathilingam",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1194",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. 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She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. 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He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"186048",title:"Prof.",name:"Ines",middleName:null,surname:"Drenjančević",slug:"ines-drenjancevic",fullName:"Ines Drenjančević",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186048/images/5818_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Osijek",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"79615",title:"Dr.",name:"Robson",middleName:null,surname:"Faria",slug:"robson-faria",fullName:"Robson Faria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/79615/images/system/79615.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"84459",title:"Prof.",name:"Valerie",middleName:null,surname:"Chappe",slug:"valerie-chappe",fullName:"Valerie Chappe",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/84459/images/system/84459.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalhousie University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. 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Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorialBoard:[{id:"213786",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrique P.",middleName:null,surname:"Neiva",slug:"henrique-p.-neiva",fullName:"Henrique P. 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His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"8",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11404,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343"},editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",slug:"hitoshi-tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",slug:"marcus-vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",slug:"ramana-vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"9008",title:"Vitamin K",subtitle:"Recent Topics on the Biology and Chemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9008.jpg",slug:"vitamin-k-recent-topics-on-the-biology-and-chemistry",publishedDate:"March 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hiroyuki Kagechika and Hitoshi Shirakawa",hash:"8b43add5389ba85743e0a9491e4b9943",volumeInSeries:27,fullTitle:"Vitamin K - Recent Topics on the Biology and Chemistry",editors:[{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9759",title:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease",subtitle:"Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9759.jpg",slug:"vitamin-e-in-health-and-disease-interactions-diseases-and-health-aspects",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Júlia Scherer Santos",hash:"6c3ddcc13626110de289b57f2516ac8f",volumeInSeries:22,fullTitle:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease - Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109978/images/system/109978.jpg",institutionString:"Hacettepe University",institution:{name:"Hacettepe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7004",title:"Metabolomics",subtitle:"New Insights into Biology and Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7004.jpg",slug:"metabolomics-new-insights-into-biology-and-medicine",publishedDate:"July 1st 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Wael N. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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