The angiographic ICA staging system modified by Mugikura et al.
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Ltd., Atsugi, Japan, Researcher/Senior Researcher, Researches on Semiconductor Quantum Dots for Quantum Information, Semiconductor Optoelectronic Materials and Devices. \nApril, 2012 – March 2014: University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan, Senior Researcher, Researches on Quantum Information Processing Devices. \nApril, 2014 – now: Southwest Institute of Technical Physics, Chengdu, China, Professor, Researches on Semiconductor Optoelectronic Materials and Devices. \nJune, 2015 – now: University of Electronic Science and Technology, Chengdu, China, Professor, Researches on Nanoscaled Semiconductors and Quantum Information Processing Devices.\n \nAchievements\nSystematically studied the property of porous silicon materials and verified their mechanism; found green and ultraviolet luminescence, and clarified the multiple luminescence mechanisms of nanocrystalline-silicon embedded in SiO2, which is valuable to silicon-based optoelectronic integration; realized enhanced hole mobility in amorphous silicon, verified the existence of deep trap states in amorphous selenium, providing ways to improve amorphous optoelectronic materials. \nDiscovered lateral coupling between self-assembled quantum dots (QDs) and their tuning effect to 2D electron gas; illustrated and deeply explained the metal-insulator transition in 2D ordered QD arrays, all of which are worth in optoelectronic application of semiconductor QDs. \nDeveloped Sb-free technique to double the InAs/GaAs QD density and suppress the atomic interdiffusion, helped producing 1.3 um QD lasers, which won Japanese national prizes and had been merchandized; developed 1.06 um quantum-well lasers, which have been used to produce pure-green lasers robust against high temperature. \nFound a way to access buried QDs by scanning tunneling microscope; achieved a way to prepare diluted QDs by post-annealing and clarified its mechanisms; invented a technique to control the size and site of QDs by atomic-force microscopy lithography, and an apparatus to detect single electron spin states by optically-detected magnetic resonance; designed a few types of micropillar cavities applicable to realize 1.55 um highly-efficient, even coherent (strongly coupled) InAs/InP QD single photon sources; produced fiber-integrated photon-entangled sources, all of which are very useful to the applications of QDs in quantum information processing. \nDeveloped focal-plane single-photon avalanche detectors, providing central devices for 3D laser detecting and ranging system; explored antimonide middle- and long-wavelength infrared detectors and the surface plasmon enhancement effect in such detectors; advanced the acetone-sensing function of Eu-doped SnO2 nano-belt; found Nickle Phosphide serving as a good catalyst in hydrogen-producing. 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Similar cases have been described in Japanese literature. After that, the condition came to be known by various names and the term ‘spontaneous occlusion of the circle of Willis’ by Kudo gained popularity [2]. The disease was finally coined ‘
This cerebral angiopathy is broadly termed ‘moyamoya phenomenon’ comprising of two nosological entities. The cerebrovascular syndrome is called ‘Moyamoya syndrome’ [MMS] when it is associated with neurological and extra neurological diseases like Neurofibromatosis 1 [NF1], Down syndrome, thyroid disease, cranial irradiation, sickle cell anemia, among other pathological conditions [4]. The Guidelines of the Research Committee on the Pathology and Treatment of Spontaneous Occlusion of Circle of Willis defined isolated moyamoya angiopathy as being idiopathic and called it ‘Moyamoya disease’ [5].
MMD is more common in Asian ethnicities as compared to the Western population [6]. The increased prevalence in Japan, Korea and other East Asian countries raised genetic predisposition to this condition. Subsequently, Kamada
A literature search was conducted using PubMed. The keywords used were Moyamoya disease, Moyamoya syndrome, ‘puff of smoke’, Suzuki classification, angiography, revascularization procedures etc. Relevant articles were reviewed in detail. The search was filtered to include as many recent publications as possible. An effort was made to compile and highlight the key differences in the disease’s clinical profile from East to West.
For a very long time, Moyamoya disease was thought to be a disease of Asian lineage, but now it has been observed to be prevalent across the world in people with many ethnic backgrounds. MMD has been most extensively studied in Japan, where it is the most common pediatric cerebrovascular disease [8]. It shows a prominent East–West gradient, with a in East Asian countries ten times higher than the Western countries [9]. MMD is most frequently seen in Japan, with an incidence of 0.35–1.13/1,00,000/year and a prevalence of 3.16–10.5/1,00,000 [10]. In a study done in Hokkaido, Japan, 267 new cases were diagnosed between 2002–2006 [8]. The incidence and prevalence were also found to be high in other Asian countries like Korea, China and Taiwan [11]. The incidence in all these countries is found to be increasing over the years, most likely due to advancements in diagnostic modalities and a better understanding of the genetic factors linked to the disease [12]. Studies from outside Asia are very few. The incidence in Washington state and California was 0.086/1,00,000, but in them the incidence in Asian Americans was 4.6 times that of White [9]. In Europe, the incidence of MMD was 1/10th of that in Japan. North America’s incidence was as low as 0.09/1,00,000 individuals, although an increasing trend is now being noted [13].
A similar bimodal age distribution is seen across the world, with the first peak occurring at 5–14 years in the pediatric population and around 4th decade in adulthood [5]. In Japan, family history is present in 10–15% of cases, and the risk of the disease in a family member is about 30–40 times higher than the general population. A familial predisposition was less commonly seen in European countries. In most countries, the disease was more frequently seen in females, with male to female ratio ranging from 1:1.8 to 1:2.2 [10, 14]. These epidemiological parameters remained constant from East to West as evident in the literature review from across the world by Kim et al. [6].
The pathological features have been described based on autopsy findings of cases of MMD. The most common lesion is intracranial hemorrhage, which occurs in basal ganglia, thalamus, hypothalamus and brain stem. The intracranial hemorrhage may show intraventricular extension. Other findings are subarachnoid hemorrhage and small infarcts in the capsule- ganglionic area [14]. The main pathological findings according to the vessels involved are mentioned below.
Thus, the pathology of the disease can be viewed as ICA [Internal carotid artery] to ECA [External carotid artery] prism, where the contribution of ICA to cerebral blood supply gradually decreases, and the compensatory vascular network is formed which is predominantly fed by ECA.
The mechanisms leading to the above-mentioned pathology are not entirely known. It is not clear what leads to migration and proliferation of smooth muscle cells in the intima and leads to its thickening. Moreover, why this thickening happens only in the circle of Willis is unknown. Many features of the disease point towards a hereditary predisposition- high incidence in Japanese people, familial occurrence, association with other congenital disorders like sickle cell anemia, neurofibromatosis, Down syndrome, etc. A multifactorial mode of inheritance has been suggested. A possible linkage of the disease with markers located on chromosome 6, chromosome 17, chromosome 8q23 has been suggested [18, 19, 20]. Recently, a genetic locus in the Ring Finger Protein [RNF] 213 gene was also associated with MMD [7]. A higher carrier rate in Eastern Asia probably explains the higher prevalence of the disorder in Japan and other eastern Asian countries as compared to the Western world [21].
Moyamoya angiopathy has been identified with many genetic disorders like Neurofibromatosis 1, Noonan syndrome, Costello syndrome, Sickle cell disease, GUCY1A3 mutations, BRCC3/MTCP1 gene mutation, Down syndrome, Turner syndrome, etc. [19] Moyamoya disease associated with other familial or acquired conditions has also been termed as ‘quasi-MMD’. It was noted that unilateral presentation was more common than bilateral and hemorrhagic manifestations were less common in quasi- MMD [21].
Although genetic predisposition to the disease exists, the majority of cases are sporadic. Certain acquired factors have been suggested for disease progression. These include vasculitis [3], infections [20], cranial trauma [22], post-irradiation state [23] to name a few.
The pathological changes in cerebral arteries lead to cerebrovascular events in Moyamoya disease. Two peaks have been identified, at around ten years and 30–40 years. The peak occurs later in women than in men [24].
The symptoms can be classified in the following four main heads (Figure 1) [13].
Clinical symptoms of Moyamoya disease.
Transient ischemic attacks [TIA] and infarct may present as a variety of symptoms- motor paresis, sensory disturbance, speech disturbances, alteration of consciousness [25]. Whereas these symptoms present acutely, mental decline, dyskinesias tend to progress over the years. Dilated collateral vessels in basal ganglia have been implicated in the development of choreiform movements [26]. Bilateral disease is associated with cognitive deficits. Hemorrhagic type is more common in adults >40 years of age and most commonly present with impaired consciousness. Irrespective of the primary pathology [ischemic/hemorrhagic], the symptoms tend to be recurrent and usually a single pathology predominates in each individual. Headache is another common symptom generally seen in children <14 years old [27]. Dilated transdural collaterals stimulate dural nociceptors precipitating migraine-like headaches. Headache may also be a manifestation of chronic hypoxemia.
The symptoms are triggered by hyperventilation, such as blowing/crying due to decreased cerebral blood flow secondary to CO2 washout. Worsening is also seen with infection of the upper respiratory tract. Hypertension and aging often contribute to hemorrhage, which may occur at repetitive intervals. Massive bleeding may even lead to death. Epilepsy, as a manifestation of the disease, is usually seen in children less than ten years of age [28].
The clinical features also tend to vary from East to West. The ischemic manifestations are more predominant in the US [United States] than in other eastern countries. The rate of hemorrhagic disease in adults in Asian countries is higher [42%] than in those of Asian descent residing in the US [29]. The disorder’s overall spectrum remains constant worldwide, with ischemic manifestations as the main presenting feature in children and both ischemia and hemorrhage in adults.
Angiography is the gold standard for diagnosis and assessing disease progression. The hallmark findings of cerebral angiography are occlusion of intracranial internal carotid arteries (Figure 2) and abnormal smog-like arteriolar network [moyamoya vessels] at the base of the brain (Figure 3). The Circle of Willis and its main branches, leptomeningeal vessels and transdural anastomosis between ophthalmic artery, external carotid artery and vertebral artery are frequently seen. Involvement of posterior circulation is less commonly observed.
Neuroimaging of a 40 years old lady who presented with ICH. Non-contrast CT axial sections of brain (a, b, c) show intraventricular hemorrhage involving bilateral lateral ventricles (L > R), third and fourth ventricle. Angiographic images (d, e) show occlusion of the supraclinoid segment of the left internal carotid artery and attenuation on the right side with lenticulostriate collaterals showing a “puff of smoke” appearance (f).
Neuroimaging of a young boy of 6 years of age who presented with recurrent ischemic strokes. MRI brain axial sections show altered signal intensity areas hypointense on T1 (a) and hyperintense on T2 (b, c)) in bilateral frontoparietal cortex involving the MCA territory. Angiographic images show multiple tortuous collaterals involving both anterior (d) and posterior circulation (d, e, f) giving the typical
Suzuki et al. staged the disease progression into the following stages based on the angiographic findings [3, 22, 27].
Narrowing of the carotid forks
Initiation of moyamoya[dilated major cerebral artery and a slight network of collaterals]
Intensification of moyamoya with the disappearance of middle and anterior cerebral arteries
Minimization of moyamoya [disappearance of posterior cerebral artery and narrowing of individual moyamoya vessels]
Reduction of moyamoya [disappearance of main cerebral arteries, further minimization of moyamoya, increase in collaterals from external carotid arteries]
Disappearance of moyamoya [complete disappearance of moyamoya with blood flow derived only from the external carotid artery and vertebrobasilar system]
Apart from these changes, aneurysm formation can also be seen in angiography. A revised version of Suzuki staging system was given by Mugikura et al. (Table 1), where staging is done based on angiographic severity of stenosis of the middle cerebral artery and anterior cerebral artery [30].
ICA Stage | Angiographic findings |
---|---|
I | Mild to moderate stenosis around carotid bifurcation, absent/slightly developed moyamoya, ACA/MCA branches opacified in anterograde fashion |
II | Severe stenosis around carotid bifurcation, well developed moyamoya, several of ACA/MCA branches opacified in anterograde fashion |
III | Occlusion of proximal ACA/MCA, well developed moyamoya, only a few of ACA/MCA branches are faintly opacified in anterograde fashion through the mesh work of ICA moyamoya |
IV | Complete occlusion of proximal ACA and MCA, small amount of moyamoya, no opacification of either ACA/MCA branches in anterograde fashion |
The angiographic ICA staging system modified by Mugikura et al.
ACA- anterior cerebral artery, MCA- middle cerebral artery, ICA- internal cerebral artery.
Both the staging systems highlight that with the progression of the disease, the contribution of blood supply from ICA decreases and an intricate collateral network is formed which derives its blood flow from vessels outside the cerebral circulation.
CT scan shows hyperdensities in basal ganglia, thalamus, ventricular system and subarachnoid spaces in the hemorrhagic type of MMD. In the ischemic type of the disease, lacunar infarcts can be seen as the areas of hypodensities. When contrast-enhanced, tortuous and curvilinear vessels in basal ganglia can be visualized which represent the moyamoya vessels.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Angiography [MRI and MRA].
MRI and MRA provide visualization of the arterial tree without being invasive as conventional angiography. In addition to this, MRI also helps demonstrate small subcortical lesions that are difficult to identify on the CT scan. MRA helps to identify the stenotic distal end of the internal carotid artery, small moyamoya vessels and dural anastomosis between external carotid arteries and vessels of the posterior circulation.
The classification and scoring based on the MRA findings are given above in Tables 2 and 3. This MRA scoring system also finds its place in the 2012 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Treatment of MMD in Japan [5].
Score for each artery | MRA finding |
---|---|
0 | Normal |
1 | Stenosis of C1 |
2 | Discontinuity of the C1 signal |
3 | Invisible |
0 | Normal |
1 | Stenosis of M1 |
2 | Discontinuity of the M1 signal |
3 | Invisible |
0 | Normal A2 and blood vessels distal to A2 |
1 | Signal decrease A2 and its distal blood vessels |
2 | Invisible |
0 | Normal P2 and blood vessels distal to P2 |
1 | Signal decrease P2 and its distal blood vessels |
2 | Invisible |
The classification and scoring based on the MRA findings- Score of each artery.
MRA total score | MRA stage |
---|---|
0–1 | 1 |
2–4 | 2 |
5–7 | 3 |
8–10 | 4 |
The classification and scoring based on the MRA findings – MRA total Score.
MRA: Magnetic Resonance Imaging.
In patients with moyamoya disease, the involvement of many extracranial arteries like external carotid arteries, aorta, pulmonary artery, celiac artery, and renal artery has been described. Characteristic signs like ‘ champagne bottleneck sign’ seen due to reduction in the diameter of proximal ICA and ‘diamond reversal sign’ due to smaller ICA diameter compared to external carotid artery have been demonstrated [31].
Though all the diagnostic modalities contribute to identifying and staging abnormal vasculature, angiography remains the mainstay of diagnosis. It is also helpful in documenting the postoperative resolution of moyamoya.
Electroencephalography [EEG].
The following EEG findings have been seen in moyamoya disease [32]:
Diffuse, bilateral, low voltage, slow spike and wave
‘Buildup’ phenomenon- a diffuse pattern of slow waves
‘Rebuildup’ phenomenon- diffuse slow waves during hyperventilation. This rebuild up phenomenon is seen due to decreased pCO2 on hyperventilation leading to cerebral ischemia and vasoconstriction.
The advancements in various diagnostic modalities lead to the formulation of diagnostic guidelines for Moyamoya disease shown in Table 4 [5].
A. Cerebral angiography should present at least the following findings: |
1. Stenosis/occlusion at the terminal portion of ICA and/or at the proximal portion of ACA and/or MCA |
2. Abnormal vascular network in the vicinity of stenotic/occluded vessels |
3. Bilateral findings |
B. Conventional angiogram not required when MRI/MRA demonstrate following findings:1. |
1. Stenosis/occlusion at the terminal portion of ICA and/or at the proximal portion of ACA and/or MCA on MRA |
2. Abnormal vascular network in the basal ganglia on MRA[>2 flow voids in basal ganglia in MRI]. |
3. Bilateral findings |
C. Absence of arteriosclerosis, autoimmune disease, meningitis, brain neoplasm, down syndrome, Recklinghausen’s disease, head trauma, irradiation to head, others. |
D. Pathological findings: |
1. Stenosis/occlusion due to intimal thickening at the terminal ICA, usually on both sides |
2. Arteries of Circle of Willis show varying degree of stenosis/occlusion of intima, attenuation of media and waving of internal elastic lamina |
3. Numerous small vascular channels around the Circle of Willis |
4. Reticular conglomerates of small vessels in pia matter. |
Definitive case: A/B + C[In children, a case that fulfills A1 and A2 or B1 and B2 on one side and remarkable stenosis of terminal ICA on opposite side is also included.] |
Probable case: A1 and A2 [or B1 and B2] and C [unilateral] |
Diagnostic guidelines for Moyamoya disease.
Moyamoya disease is a chronic progressive disease described earlier, leading to recurrent strokes due to internal carotid artery occlusion and ischemia due to narrow, low caliber collaterals. The illness’s mainstay is revascularization surgery to increase the intracranial blood flow using extracerebral blood vessels by direct bypass or pialsynangiosis. The decision for surgical intervention is based on the patient’s age, symptomatic/asymptomatic disease, ischemic/hemorrhagic manifestations, presence/absence of aneurysm and risk of recurrence.
The indication of surgery can be briefly summarized as follows in Figure 4 [33].
Overview of the management of Moyamoya disease.
Moyamoya disease is known to progress over the years. The disease progression rate was reported to be approximately 20% over six years in those managed conservatively [34]. The risk factors of disease progression and subsequent ischemic stroke were identified as follows:
Female gender
Graves’ disease
RNF213 variant
Family history positive [35]
Posterior circulation was also recognized as a decisive risk factor for ischemic stroke [36].
Moyamoya disease is a progressive disease, and symptomatic progression is seen in approximately two-thirds of patients [29]. In a large meta-analysis, where 1,156 people were studied, it was seen that 87% of those who underwent surgical revascularization showed partial or complete resolution of symptomatic cerebral ischemia [37].
A careful choice of treatment, that is, conservative vs. surgical should thus be made keeping in mind the above-mentioned risk factors.
The predominant manifestation of MMD is ischemic stroke. However, antiplatelet therapy is ineffective to prevent recurrent cerebral infarction in ischemic MMD. The ischemic insult in MMD patients is a consequence of hemodynamic instability. There is no evidence of endothelial dysfunction at the site of internal carotid artery bifurcation. Therefore, increased platelet adhesion is not seen in MMD. Hence, theoretically, antiplatelet drugs are ineffective for preventing ischemic stroke in MMD. Moreover, increased risk of hemorrhage remains with antiplatelets in patients with MMD [38]. The annual stroke rate in patients managed conservatively is between 3.2%–15% [35].
Surgical revascularization is done to increase the cerebral blood flow and restore reserve capacity. The increase in cerebral blood flow prevents recurrent cerebral infarction. The indications for surgical revascularization are:
Recurrent clinical symptoms due to cerebral ischemia
Pediatric MMD because pediatric MMD is more progressive than adult MMD. Early diagnosis and intervention are of paramount importance to prevent irreversible damage. In a recent study, Rosi et al. confirmed a high benefit/risk ratio, with better postoperative functional status and low rates for the need of surgical retreatment in the pediatric population undergoing surgical revascularization [39].
Role of revascularization surgery in asymptomatic MMD with stable hemodynamics is not well established but preferred by neurosurgeons given the disease being a progressive disorder. Risk–benefit ratio determines the feasibility of the surgical intervention in such patients.
Role of revascularization surgery in hemorrhagic stroke is controversial.
With increased understanding of MMD being familial in at least some of the world’s regions, it is being suggested that asymptomatic siblings and family members should be screened for moyamoya pathology. Whenever such a condition is detected, it should be managed surgically, keeping in mind the illness’s progressive nature.
Anastomosis is formed between the superficial temporal artery and cortical branches of middle cerebral arteries in this procedure. For posterior circulation, the occipital artery is used as a donor for nteroposterior cerebral arteries’ cortical branches. The transdural or transcalvarial collateral channels should be preserved during the surgery.
The advantage of this procedure is an immediate improvement in the cerebral blood flow after surgery. However, the successful restoration of cerebral blood flow is operator dependant as it is challenging to perform. Moreover, postoperative hyperperfusion syndrome may develop after surgery leading to neurological deterioration. Patency and amount of bypass flow may be assessed postoperatively by digital subtraction angiography or quantitative magnetic resonance angiography.
The annual stroke rate after direct revascularization was reportedly 0–1.6% [40].
The various surgical procedures are
Encephalomyosynangiosis[EMS] where deep temporal artery supplying the temporalis muscle is the vessel for neovascularization
Encephalo-duro-arteriosynangiosis[EDAS]: Here, superficial temporal artery[STA] is harvested with surrounding galea and periosteum; STA flap is placed with a galea cuff. The dura and galea are then sutured to cover the brain with arterial flap.
Encephalo-myo-arteriosynangiosis[EDAMS]
Encephalo-galeo-synangiosis[EGS]
Omental flap surgery
Multiple burr hole surgery
The last two surgeries are performed as primary or after failed revascularization by other techniques.
Indirect revascularization is relatively easier to perform than direct surgeries, and the incidence of hyperperfusion is also less. However, the improvement in cerebral revascularization takes longer than the direct surgeries where the effect is immediate.
After indirect revascularization, patients experienced 0–14.3% postoperative annual stroke rate [41].
Thus either of the indirect and direct revascularization procedures can be performed to rectify the underlying pathology, but the risk of recurrence is much less with the direct revascularization surgeries without any delay to the benefit.
The following complications have been noted in the peri/postoperative period in MMD:
The risk of postoperative stroke has been estimated to be 1.6%- 16% [42].
The risk of perioperative ischemic complications is more in patients with unstable hemodynamics and advanced Suzuki stage with a lower cerebral blood flow.
Hemorrhagic stroke develops in 0.7%–8% [42].
Hyperperfusion syndrome- due to the chronic changes in cerebral blood vessels, the auto-regulatory function is lost, and the vascular reserve is decreased. The excessive blood flow immediately after the surgery is sometimes not well tolerated, leading to cerebral hemorrhage. Another factor that may predispose to intracranial hemorrhage is increased vascular permeability secondary to chronic ischemia.
Epidural hematoma mainly in the pediatric population.
Skin problems due to scalp ischemia after revascularization.
Moyamoya disease is a chronic progressive vasculopathy seen in children and adults, characterized by occlusion/stenosis at the terminal portions of the internal carotid artery and abnormal collateral network formation at the base of the brain. It is predominantly seen in Asian countries. It may be idiopathic [moyamoya disease] or associated with other disorders when it is called moyamoya syndrome. Various angiographic and magnetic resonance angiographic findings have been described which form the basis of the diagnostic guidelines for MMD. It may present as an ischemic/hemorrhagic stroke. It is generally managed with direct/indirect revascularization surgical techniques that aim to restore the cerebral blood flow and prevent strokes that restore the cerebral blood flow and prevent strokes’ recurrence.
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\n\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n5. TERMINATION
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\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
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\n\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
\n\n\n\n
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Arias"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7540",title:"Different Areas of Physiotherapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a73ff9538d7b2ff3aab93e411b669463",slug:"different-areas-of-physiotherapy",bookSignature:"Mintaze Kerem Gunel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7540.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"98035",title:"Prof.",name:"Mintaze",middleName:null,surname:"Kerem Gunel",slug:"mintaze-kerem-gunel",fullName:"Mintaze Kerem Gunel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6546",title:"Treatment of Brachial Plexus Injuries",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"24a8e7c7430e86f76fb29df39582855a",slug:"treatment-of-brachial-plexus-injuries",bookSignature:"Vicente Vanaclocha and Nieves Sáiz-Sapena",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6546.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"199099",title:"Dr.",name:"Vicente",middleName:null,surname:"Vanaclocha",slug:"vicente-vanaclocha",fullName:"Vicente Vanaclocha"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6249",title:"Neurological Physical Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a1a6d6a2abc0c752a0681b3d4aac5ab4",slug:"neurological-physical-therapy",bookSignature:"Toshiaki Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6249.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70872",title:"Prof.",name:"Toshiaki",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"toshiaki-suzuki",fullName:"Toshiaki Suzuki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3805",title:"Topics in Paraplegia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e44be7b6bdc95169c2e6d3bee44a7ca8",slug:"topics-in-paraplegia",bookSignature:"Yannis Dionyssiotis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3805.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"76883",title:"PhD.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Dionyssiotis",slug:"yannis-dionyssiotis",fullName:"Yannis Dionyssiotis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:5,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"46005",doi:"10.5772/57189",title:"Animal Models in Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury",slug:"animal-models-in-traumatic-spinal-cord-injury",totalDownloads:3681,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:null,book:{id:"3805",slug:"topics-in-paraplegia",title:"Topics in Paraplegia",fullTitle:"Topics in Paraplegia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini and Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar",authors:[{id:"169162",title:"Dr.",name:"Vafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi-Movaghar",slug:"vafa-rahimi-movaghar",fullName:"Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar"}]},{id:"54351",doi:"10.5772/67470",title:"The Effects of Motor Imagery After a Variety of Motor Learning Times on Excitability of Spinal Motor Neurons and Accurate Motion",slug:"the-effects-of-motor-imagery-after-a-variety-of-motor-learning-times-on-excitability-of-spinal-motor",totalDownloads:1166,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Purpose: This study aimed to examine the effects of motor imagery on the excitability of spinal motor neurons and accurate motion. Subjects and Methods: About 30 healthy volunteers were recruited. F-waves were recorded at rest, while touching a sensor and motor imagery conditions. Also, the pinch force was measured before and after motor imagery. Furthermore, the subjects mastered the 50% MVC pinch force with learning times of 10 s, 30 s, 1 min, and 2 min beforehand. Results: Spinal motor neuron excitability with motor imagery after motor learning for 10 s, 30 s, 1 min, and 2 min was significantly increased as compared to other conditions. Accurate motion in the pinch task after motor imagery was better maintained than in the pinch task before motor imagery with motor learning times of 30 s and 1 min. However, with learning times of 10s and 2 min, the subject?s ability to sustain accurate motion in the pinch task after motor imagery was significantly decreased as compared to that of the pinch task before motor imagery. Conclusion: Motor imagery increases spinal motor neuron excitability. To maximally improve accurate motion using motor imagery, it is important to practice and master motor learning beforehand",book:{id:"6249",slug:"neurological-physical-therapy",title:"Neurological Physical Therapy",fullTitle:"Neurological Physical Therapy"},signatures:"Yuki Fukumoto and Yoshibumi Bunno",authors:[{id:"196577",title:"Mr.",name:"Yoshibumi",middleName:null,surname:"Bunno",slug:"yoshibumi-bunno",fullName:"Yoshibumi Bunno"},{id:"197857",title:"Mr.",name:"Yuki",middleName:null,surname:"Fukumoto",slug:"yuki-fukumoto",fullName:"Yuki Fukumoto"}]},{id:"66670",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85424",title:"Current Developments in Antioxidant Therapies for Spinal Cord Injury",slug:"current-developments-in-antioxidant-therapies-for-spinal-cord-injury",totalDownloads:1074,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"When spinal cord injury (SCI) occurs, numerous sources of reactive oxygen species and nitrogen species may be active within first minutes or hours and even reactivate few days later. Free radical formation and lipid peroxidation (LP) have been described as an important mechanism in the beginning and accelerated progress in the development of diverse pathologies, importantly in those related to central nervous system. The compromise of molecules and cellular structures due to the oxidative state of microenvironment in SCI may determinate survival or apoptosis of resident and infiltrating cells and polarization toward an inflammatory response, which lead to an extension of damaged tissue and loss of neuronal function, or a regulatory/regenerative response. The investigation of new antioxidant agents and their action at a molecular level begins to reveal mechanisms that, if correctly modulated, promise an improvement in recovery of functions with respect to conventional pharmacological therapies. In this chapter, we will review the general mechanisms of oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation, those antioxidant treatments in experimental development and clinical phase, as well as their achievements and limitations.",book:{id:"7879",slug:"spinal-cord-injury-therapy",title:"Spinal Cord Injury Therapy",fullTitle:"Spinal Cord Injury Therapy"},signatures:"Jonathan Vilchis Villa, Dulce M. Parra Villamar, José Alberto Toscano Zapien, Liliana Blancas Espinoza, Juan Herrera García and Raúl Silva García",authors:[{id:"280747",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Silva García",slug:"raul-silva-garcia",fullName:"Raúl Silva García"},{id:"280748",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonathan",middleName:null,surname:"Vilchis Villa",slug:"jonathan-vilchis-villa",fullName:"Jonathan Vilchis Villa"},{id:"280751",title:"BSc.",name:"Liliana",middleName:null,surname:"Blancas Espinoza",slug:"liliana-blancas-espinoza",fullName:"Liliana Blancas Espinoza"},{id:"280754",title:"MSc.",name:"José Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Toscano Zapien",slug:"jose-alberto-toscano-zapien",fullName:"José Alberto Toscano Zapien"},{id:"288703",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Herrera García",slug:"juan-herrera-garcia",fullName:"Juan Herrera García"},{id:"299206",title:"Dr.",name:"Dulce M.",middleName:null,surname:"Parra Villamar",slug:"dulce-m.-parra-villamar",fullName:"Dulce M. Parra Villamar"}]},{id:"47090",doi:"10.5772/58625",title:"Functional Electrical Stimulation in Paraplegia",slug:"functional-electrical-stimulation-in-paraplegia",totalDownloads:4703,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"3805",slug:"topics-in-paraplegia",title:"Topics in Paraplegia",fullTitle:"Topics in Paraplegia"},signatures:"Aris Papachristos",authors:[{id:"170551",title:"Dr.",name:"Aris",middleName:null,surname:"Papachristos",slug:"aris-papachristos",fullName:"Aris Papachristos"}]},{id:"62054",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78722",title:"Tension in Peripheral Nerve Suture",slug:"tension-in-peripheral-nerve-suture",totalDownloads:863,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Avoiding suture tension in peripheral nerve coaptation seems to be a clinical dogma since 30 years, although experimental data are weak and clinical practice shows good functional outcome after peripheral nerve repair by direct coaptation under “reasonable” tension, defined by local anatomic feasibility and the use of specific suture material. In this article, we focus on the microsurgical technique of nerve stump coaptation and the distribution of tension through epineural sutures with various suture materials; we also analyze the impact on the different nerve tissue layers, the limit of this approach and its combination with other tissue releasing techniques like paraneurolysis, adjacent joint flexion, or bone shortening.",book:{id:"6546",slug:"treatment-of-brachial-plexus-injuries",title:"Treatment of Brachial Plexus Injuries",fullTitle:"Treatment of Brachial Plexus Injuries"},signatures:"Jörg Bahm, Tobias Esser, Bernd Sellhaus, Wissam El-kazzi and Frederic Schuind",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"63594",title:"Physical Rehabilitation in the Management of Symptomatic Adult Scoliosis",slug:"physical-rehabilitation-in-the-management-of-symptomatic-adult-scoliosis",totalDownloads:2227,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Scoliosis is prevalent in elderlies over the age of 60. Of the different curve types, the thoracolumbar curve is the most common curve type operated upon, as it is associated with marked trunk shift and disability. Current physiotherapy treatments consist of electrotherapy, aquatic exercises, core-strengthening exercises, and dry needling. Outcome of these treatments has not been satisfactory. Long-term successful rate of conservative treatment of symptomatic adult scoliosis is low, as the treatment addresses symptoms but not the biomechanics involved in adult scoliosis. Recent studies have shown that physiotherapeutic scoliosis-specific exercises (PSSE) and bracing stabilized the curves in 80% of the subjects. Thus PSSE and bracing should be added to the standard physiotherapy care in the management of symptomatic adult scoliosis. For asymptomatic patients with thoracolumbar curve that has an increased risk of progression, PSSE should be considered as preventative exercises. Patients who do not respond to conservative treatments and have significant spinal stenosis should be referred for surgery.",book:{id:"7540",slug:"different-areas-of-physiotherapy",title:"Different Areas of Physiotherapy",fullTitle:"Different Areas of Physiotherapy"},signatures:"Shu-Yan Ng, Tsz-Ki Ho and Yin-Ling Ng",authors:[{id:"204673",title:"Dr.",name:"Shu Yan",middleName:null,surname:"Ng",slug:"shu-yan-ng",fullName:"Shu Yan Ng"}]},{id:"54213",title:"Physical Therapy for Cerebellar Ataxia",slug:"physical-therapy-for-cerebellar-ataxia",totalDownloads:6338,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Ataxia, the incoordination and balance dysfunction in movements without muscle weakness, causes gait and postural disturbance in patients with stroke, multiple sclerosis, and degeneration in the cerebellum. The aim of this article was to provide a narrative review of the previous reports on physical therapy for mainly cerebellar ataxia offering various opinions. Some systematic reviews and randomized control trial studies, which were searched in the electronic databases using terms “ataxia” and “physical therapy,” enable a strategy for physical therapy for cerebellar ataxia. Intensive physical therapy more than 1 hour per day for at least 4 weeks, focused on balance, gait, and strength training in hospital and home for patients with degenerative cerebellar ataxia can improve ataxia, gait ability, and activity of daily living. Furthermore, the weighting on the torso, using treadmill, noninvasive brain stimulation over the cerebellum for neuromodulation to facilitate motor learning, and neurophysiological assessment have a potential to improve the effect of physical therapy on cerebellar ataxia. Previous findings indicated that physical therapy is time restricted; therefore, its long-term effect and the effect of new optional neurophysiological methods should be studied.",book:{id:"6249",slug:"neurological-physical-therapy",title:"Neurological Physical Therapy",fullTitle:"Neurological Physical Therapy"},signatures:"Akiyoshi Matsugi",authors:[{id:"196990",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Akiyoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Matsugi",slug:"akiyoshi-matsugi",fullName:"Akiyoshi Matsugi"}]},{id:"65842",title:"Treatment of Neuropathic Pain in Brachial Plexus Injuries",slug:"treatment-of-neuropathic-pain-in-brachial-plexus-injuries",totalDownloads:1471,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Brachial plexus injuries are commonly followed by chronic pain, mostly with neuropathic characteristics. This is due to peripheral nerve lesions, particularly nerve root avulsions, as well as upper limb amputations, and complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS). The differential diagnosis between CRPS and neuropathic pain is essential as the treatment is different for each of them. Medical treatments are the first step, but for refractory cases there are two main types of surgical alternatives: ablative techniques and neuromodulation. The first group involves destruction of the posterior horn deafferented neurons and usually provides a better pain control but has a 10% complication rate. The second group provides pain control with function preservation but with limited effectiveness. Each case has to be thoroughly evaluated to apply the treatment modality best suited for it.",book:{id:"6546",slug:"treatment-of-brachial-plexus-injuries",title:"Treatment of Brachial Plexus Injuries",fullTitle:"Treatment of Brachial Plexus Injuries"},signatures:"Nieves Saiz-Sapena, Vicente Vanaclocha-Vanaclocha, José María Ortiz-Criado, L. Vanaclocha and Nieves Vanaclocha",authors:[{id:"204651",title:"Dr.",name:"Nieves",middleName:null,surname:"Saiz-Sapena",slug:"nieves-saiz-sapena",fullName:"Nieves Saiz-Sapena"}]},{id:"63605",title:"Movement Rehabilitation in Physiotherapy after Stroke: The Role of Constraint-Induced Movement Therapy",slug:"movement-rehabilitation-in-physiotherapy-after-stroke-the-role-of-constraint-induced-movement-therap",totalDownloads:1603,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Stroke is increasingly becoming a global health problem. This is because it may lead to death, Long-term disability such as in motor function, and significant burden to the patients and their families. The disability can be prevented or rehabilitated using a physiotherapy technique known as constraint-induced movement therapy (CIMT). The CIMT comprises of task practice with the affected limb, constraint of the unaffected limb, and transfer package to foster compliance and increase the amount of task repetition. It helps to reestablish normal motor control through facilitating changes in physiological functions of the brain, improvement in real-world arm use, and movement precision and quality. However, its protocols vary. Some protocols use number of hours and others use number of repetitions to determine the intensity or the amount of task practice. This chapter argued that CIMT is effective, but the protocols that use a number of hours of task practice are not clear and are resource intensive; and as such they could interfere with the process of clinical decision making. Consequently, it proposed the use of a number of repetitions of task practice to determine the intensity or the amount of task practice and extending the application of CIMT to those with severe impairments after stroke.",book:{id:"7540",slug:"different-areas-of-physiotherapy",title:"Different Areas of Physiotherapy",fullTitle:"Different Areas of Physiotherapy"},signatures:"Auwal Abdullahi",authors:[{id:"252115",title:"Mr.",name:"Auwal",middleName:null,surname:"Abdullahi",slug:"auwal-abdullahi",fullName:"Auwal Abdullahi"}]},{id:"63762",title:"Postural Control in Individuals with Parkinson’s Disease",slug:"postural-control-in-individuals-with-parkinson-s-disease",totalDownloads:1475,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Parkinson’s disease is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder in the elderly population. It is a complex, progressive, multisystem disease associated with motor and nonmotor impairments. Postural instability is a crucial component of functional mobility, often overlooked by both clinicians and patients with Parkinson’s disease. It is a refractory drug complication for which rehabilitation is the most effective nonpharmacological aid. However, many interventions are based on empirical experience. Improving knowledge on the pathophysiology of postural control disorders is crucial to understand the multifaceted components affected and thus design specific rehabilitation protocols. This chapter intends to offer a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge on this topic starting from the pathophysiology of postural control disorders occurring in various ecological conditions to the most innovative multidisciplinary rehabilitation approaches.",book:{id:"7540",slug:"different-areas-of-physiotherapy",title:"Different Areas of Physiotherapy",fullTitle:"Different Areas of Physiotherapy"},signatures:"Marialuisa Gandolfi, Nicola Valè, Mirko Filippetti, Eleonora Kirilova Dimitrova, Christian Geroin, Alessandro Picelli and Nicola Smania",authors:[{id:"48223",title:"Prof.",name:"Nicola",middleName:null,surname:"Smania",slug:"nicola-smania",fullName:"Nicola Smania"},{id:"48224",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandro",middleName:null,surname:"Picelli",slug:"alessandro-picelli",fullName:"Alessandro Picelli"},{id:"48225",title:"Dr.",name:"Marialuisa",middleName:null,surname:"Gandolfi",slug:"marialuisa-gandolfi",fullName:"Marialuisa Gandolfi"},{id:"96546",title:"BSc.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Geroin",slug:"christian-geroin",fullName:"Christian Geroin"},{id:"252052",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicola",middleName:null,surname:"Valè",slug:"nicola-vale",fullName:"Nicola Valè"},{id:"252054",title:"Dr.",name:"Eleonora",middleName:null,surname:"Dimitrova",slug:"eleonora-dimitrova",fullName:"Eleonora Dimitrova"},{id:"252056",title:"Dr.",name:"Mirko",middleName:null,surname:"Filippetti",slug:"mirko-filippetti",fullName:"Mirko Filippetti"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1122",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Dr. Şentürk serves as the editorial board member of several international journals.",institutionString:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}],selectedSeries:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry"},selectedSubseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry"}}},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"bookSubject",path:"/subjects/1122",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"1122"},fullPath:"/subjects/1122",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()