\r\n\tThis book will describe the self-assembly of materials and supramolecular chemistry design principles for a broad spectrum of materials, including bio-inspired amphiphiles, metal oxides, metal nanoparticles, and organic-inorganic hybrid materials. It will provide fundamental concepts of self-assembly design approaches and supramolecular chemistry principles for research ideas in nanotechnology applications. The book will focus on three main themes, which include: the self-assembly and supramolecular chemistry of amphiplies by coordination programming, the supramolecular structures and devices of inorganic materials, and the assembly-disassembly of organic-inorganic hybrid materials. The contributing chapters will be written by leading scientists in their field, with the hope that this book will provide a foundation on supramolecular chemistry principles to students and active researchers who are interested in nanoscience and nanoengineering fields.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-702-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-701-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-703-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"e9cc643ae0a219e91e445a1e61b33a22",bookSignature:"Prof. Hemali Rathnayake and Dr. Gayani Pathiraja",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11908.jpg",keywords:"Amphiphiles, Artificial Siderophores, Coordination Chemistry, Self-Assembly Design, Supramolecular Structures, Metal Oxides, Metal Particles, 2D Inorganic Materials, Supramolecular Devices, Stimuli-Responsive Materials, Assembly-Disassembly Design, Superstructures",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 27th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 25th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 24th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 12th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 11th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"6 hours",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Rathnayake is a pioneering researcher in self-assembly and supramolecular chemistry, with a Ph.D. from the University of Massachusetts Amherst, US. 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Her research interests focus on the crystal growth mechanism and kinetics of metal oxide nanostructure formation via self-assembly.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"323782",title:"Prof.",name:"Hemali",middleName:null,surname:"Rathnayake",slug:"hemali-rathnayake",fullName:"Hemali Rathnayake",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323782/images/system/323782.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hemali Rathnayake, Associate Professor in the Department of Nanoscience at the Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, USA, obtained her B.S. in Chemistry from the University of Peradeniya in Sri Lanka. She obtained her Ph.D. from the University of Massachusetts Amherst (UMass), Department of Chemistry in 2007. She was a Postdoctoral research fellow at Polymer Science & Engineering, UMass Amherst. \r\nDr. Rathnayake is a pioneer scientist and a chemist in the field of Nanomaterials Chemistry, with a focus on the interfacial interaction of nanomaterials, molecules, macromolecules, and polymers in homogeneous and heterogeneous media. Her research on the design, synthesis, self-assembly, and application of well-defined superstructures in nanoelectronics, environmental remediation, and sustainable energy has impacted the scientific community with highly rated peer-reviewed journals publications, and more than 80 invited talks to scientific and non-scientific communities including colleges and high schools.",institutionString:"University of North Carolina at Greensboro",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of North Carolina at Greensboro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"427650",title:"Dr.",name:"Gayani",middleName:null,surname:"Pathiraja",slug:"gayani-pathiraja",fullName:"Gayani Pathiraja",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003CCSN2QAP/Profile_Picture_1644217020559",biography:"Dr. Gayani Pathiraja is a Postdoctoral Research Scholar at the Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering (JSNN). 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1. Introduction
1.1. Overview and general aspects of Zika
Zika virus (ZIKV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus discovered in rhesus monkeys in the Zika close to Kampala, Uganda in 1947, but it was not until February 2016 that the World Health Organization (WHO) declared Zika a public health emergency [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. The introduction and spread of ZIKV throughout Latin America embodies a convergence of ecologic, social and environmental factors that foster the emergence of new infectious threats in susceptible populations. Although ZIKV infection is typically asymptomatic or causes a mild flu-like, birth defects indicate a wide clinical spectrum that includes severe manifestations that underlie global concern [4, 5, 6, 7]. These, along with evidence of non-vector-borne transmission routes such as vertical transmission, blood transfusion and sexual contact [8, 9, 10, 11], highlight the need for augmented research in the area [12]. Currently, research efforts have been increasingly focusing on disease prevention through vaccine design and understanding of the role of antibody disease enhancement (ADE) on the immunopathogenesis of severe cases and fetal outcomes. New diagnostic tools are required in order to bypass cross reactivity with other flaviviruses like dengue or yellow fever, and there is a gap for implementation research in order to develop effective strategies for vector control and awareness programs among people [10−18].
2. Epidemiology
It is difficult to exaggerate the medical importance and burden of vector-borne infectious diseases as a series of emerging and re-emerging arboviruses epidemics are propagated in recent decades in previously unexposed geographic areas in Latin America and the Caribbean [9]. ZIKV has caused epidemics during 2015–2017 in different countries of the Americas, with more than 50 countries/territories affected in this region, and 148 globally affected in any form (including imported cases). After Brazil, probably Colombia is the second most affected country in the region, with over 100,000 cases having been reported from this northern South American country, reflecting overall incidence rates above 150 cases/100,000 [18]. During the years 2015–2017, the circulation of ZIKV was confirmed in 560 municipalities and four districts of Colombia. Suspected cases of ZIKV disease have been reported in 245 municipalities, adding a total of 809 municipalities with reported cases between confirmed and suspected cases. Thirty-five territorial entities of the departmental and district order have notified the surveillance system of ZIKV [19].
Although Colombia is not currently (November 2017) at epidemic status for ZIKV, it has become endemic with continued transmission. The main territories affected are those with previous circulation of dengue and chikungunya. In this sense, the departments (at the first administrative level) of Valle del Cauca, Santander, Tolima, Cundinamarca and Meta account with more than the 60% of the cases reported during 2017. On the other hand, 238 cases of symptomatic ZIKV infection had been documented in pregnant women (37 confirmed cases), and 20 cases charted in municipalities with no previously known ZIKV transmission. By territorial entity of residence, the one that has reported the largest proportion of cases is Santander with 46 pregnant women in the northeastern region, border with Venezuela [19].
3. Clinical aspects
It is estimated that 80% of people infected by ZIKV are asymptomatic, but they can still develop complications that lead the patient to death or generate severe chronic conditions such as Guillain-Barré syndrome. Asymptomatic individuals may be important for sustaining ZIKV transmission within a population despite being undiagnosed as a ZIKV case [6, 20].
Individuals with acute, symptomatic cases (25%) experience fever (elevation of axillary body temperature greater than 37.2°C), nonpurulent conjunctivitis, headache, myalgia, arthralgia, asthenia, maculopapular rash (usually in extremities and trunk) (Figure 1), lower limb edema and less frequently, retro-orbital pain, and gastrointestinal disturbance such as abdominal pain, nausea, and diarrhea. Notwithstanding, afebrile patients with rash should also be assessed for ZIKV infection [3, 11, 12]. These relatively mild symptoms last a few days (4–7 days), uncommonly result in hospitalization and are hardly distinguishable from other, better-known disease caused by other arboviruses [7, 16, 21]. Some neurological manifestations including Guillain-Barré syndrome, acute myelitis, and meningoencephalitis are associated with detection of ZIKV in the cerebrospinal fluid [2, 16, 22]. Interestingly, this virus can cross the fetoplacental barrier to affect the fetus and cause microcephaly, microcephaly-related intellectual disabilities to neonates, ophthalmological alterations, loss hearing and epilepsy. Evidence has suggested that ZIKV could also invade cardiac cells, which could explain a described association between congenital heart disease in an infant born to a ZIKV-infected mother [13, 23, 24]. Differentiation on clinical grounds alone is often a very difficult task. The biological and clinical behaviors exhibit not only different characteristics but also great similarities; thus, ZIKV could be easily confused with other arboviruses. The clinical picture may be further complicated by coinfections with various combinations of arboviruses [9, 12, 18].
Figure 1.
Clinical aspects of patients with Zika virus infection (confirmed by PCR) (pictures took and provided with patient authorization, by co-author Jose Antonio Suarez, Instituto Gorgas, Panama): conjunctivitis, rash, arthralgia.
4. Diagnostics
The transmission of the diseases through mosquito bite is the most common scenario in ZIKV infection, which was described in 1966 in Malaysia. However, few cases of nonvector-borne infections have been reported, and the existence of ZIKV in the pharynx and saliva of infected patients represents a potential but unproven route of transmission. ZIKV also has been detected in semen, cervicovaginal fluid and urine, consistent with several well-documented cases of sexual transmission [3, 14, 16, 25].
The diagnosis of ZIKV infection is established through detection of ZIKV RNA by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) typically performed on serum, plasma or urine within 2 weeks of symptom onset. ZIKV can also be diagnosed by serology (IgM antibodies). Serum RT-PCR is positive if done in the acute phase of the viremia, in blood on the first 3–7 days of the onset of illness, and for up to 10–14 days in urine. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is used to detect IgM, but unfortunately, there are only a few laboratories able to perform an ELISA for ZIKV. Fewer laboratories still are able to perform neutralization assays, which may be more specific than ELISA, but require greater resources and biosafety containment. Although the specific antibodies against ZIKV in serum (IgM antibodies) are detectable after 4 days of symptom onset, its diagnostic value is limited due to cross-reactivity with other flaviviruses. Comparing relative titers of binding or neutralizing antibodies may be helpful in discriminating ZIKV from related flaviviruses like dengue in research settings, this is not yet standardized to aid in clinical diagnosis [16, 21].
The probable modes of perinatal transmission are transplacental or may occur during delivery. Concern has raised about the possibility of breastfeeding transmission. Prenatal fetal evaluation of pregnant women suspected or confirmed to have a ZIKV infection is done by regular fetal ultrasound examination, which can detect abnormalities as early as 18–20 weeks of gestation. The main ultrasound findings associated with fetal ZIKV infection are microcephaly, intracranial calcifications, hydranencephaly, ventricular dilatation, brain atrophy, anhydramnios, hydrops fetalis, and intrauterine growth retardation. Amniotic fluid obtained by amniocentesis after 15 weeks of gestation can be tested for the presence of viral RNA by RT-PCR, but the sensitivity and specificity is unknown during gestation [13, 21, 26].
It is important in the differential diagnosis of dengue and chikungunya, among other conditions such as malaria, leptospirosis, measles, and also to consider the possibility of coinfections, especially in endemic areas where all these pathogens can cocirculate simultaneously. During the symptomatic period of infection, various laboratory parameters provide information on ZIKV infection. Various laboratory parameters such as leucopenia, thrombocytopenia, serum lactate dehydrogenase, gamma glutamyl transferase and elevated protein markers may be suggestive of ZIKV infection, but these findings are nonspecific [4, 13, 26]. Also, the virus can be detected in semen up to 81 days after infection.
5. Treatment
Currently, there is no ZIKV vaccine available, but the WHO has made ZIKV vaccine development a top priority. Thus, more than 50 ZIKV vaccine candidates are now in various stages of research and development, mainly, in phase I/II clinical trials that include inactivated whole viruses, recombinant measles viral vector-based vaccines, DNA and mRNA vaccines, and a mosquito salivary peptide vaccine [17, 27].
The treatment for ZIKV infection is entirely supportive, no antiviral. No drugs have yet been approved for a specific ZIKV treatment, although numerous nucleoside analogs have some antiviral activities in cell cultures such as ribavirin, sofosbuvir or favipiravir. Acetaminophen is used to control fever and pain, avoiding aspirin or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, because of their risk of hemorrhage (in case of DENV infection), and fluids are generously administered to prevent dehydration [24, 26, 28].
6. Control and prevention
During the last few decades, Latin America has been threatened by an unprecedented explosion of emerging arboviral outbreaks. These epidemics of emerging and re-emerging arboviruses are due to a number of factors such as climate change, levels of urbanization, increasing international travel, foreign trade, poor socioeconomic conditions, susceptible geographical areas (tropical and subtropical regions) among other factors. The presence of Aedes mosquitos enables ZIKV to invade new areas and poses a worldwide risk as there are no preventive approaches or vaccines for ZIKV [9, 12, 16, 26].
In countries where ZIKV epidemics are reported, cost-effectiveness studies may be important to determine the feasibility of systematic screening of blood components in donated samples. Unfortunately, at the moment, no specific data are available on the rate of reduction of blood-borne transmission due to such practices. Because the prevalence of viremia in blood donations is high in endemic areas, mainly asymptomatic donors, donor selection professionals should carefully evaluate the appropriateness of the donation based on the patient’s background, likewise, follow up on donors with the aim of identifying the onset of symptoms [16, 26].
The most challenging aspect of ZIKV is preventing congenital infection. Recommendations to avoid mosquito exposure or avoid pregnancy altogether are not practical for most women living in ZIKV-endemic areas. Women who are or are planning to become pregnant are discouraged from visiting areas of ZIKV transmission by travel restrictions issued by the US Center for Disease Control and other public health institutions. For preventing the sexual transmission of ZIKV for couples in which a man has traveled to or resides in an area with active ZIKV transmission, safe sexual practices for 6 months after the exposure regardless of the appearance of symptoms are recommended. What constitutes totally safe sexual practice is unclear, and some studies suggest that transmission of the small ZIKV (40 nm) may not be fully prevented by condoms [1, 2, 26, 29].
Much work remains before effective antiviral drugs and vaccines are available for ZIKV. For the time being, recognizing the importance of epidemiological control of emerging viral diseases and taking preventive measures such as the increase in Aedes vector control and containment strategies guided by the scientific literature is a priority to achieve control of tropical viruses with epidemic potential [2, 3, 9]. In general, in countries with sporadic imported cases of ZIKV infection or in ZIKV-free countries, the only precaution that must be taken is to notify the cases. However, for epidemic areas, the main way to combat ZIKV is to cover skin by cloths, use mosquito repellents, reside in air-conditioned or screened rooms, and avoid being near water containers like stagnant water ponds, old automobile tire or plants containing water [16, 17, 26].
Finally, it is important to note that because only symptomatic individuals are diagnosed with ZIKV, robust epidemiologic data required for optimal control programs are lacking. Additionally, only a few reported cases have received laboratory confirmation; thus, conditions such as dengue, chikungunya, malaria, leptospirosis, measles, among others may be incorrectly identified as ZIKV (or vice versa).
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/58426.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/58426.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58426",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58426",totalDownloads:1103,totalViews:180,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:56,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 2nd 2016",dateReviewed:"November 20th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"June 13th 2018",dateFinished:"December 26th 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/58426",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/58426",book:{id:"5716",slug:"current-topics-in-zika"},signatures:"Alfonso J. Rodríguez-Morales, Adriana M. Trujillo, Jorge A. Sánchez-\nDuque, Jaime A. Cardona-Ospina, Wilmer E. Villamil-Gómez, Carlos\nE. Jimenez-Canizalez, Jorge L. Alvarado-Socarras, Juan Carlos\nSepúlveda-Arias, Pío López, Matthew Collins, Alberto Paniz-\nMondolfi, Antonio C. Bandeira and José Antonio Suárez",authors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",email:"ajrodriguezmmd@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. Overview and general aspects of Zika",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3",title:"2. Epidemiology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"3. Clinical aspects",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"4. Diagnostics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"5. Treatment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"6. Control and prevention",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Rodriguez-Morales AJ, Espinoza-Flores LA. Should we be worried about sexual transmission of Zika and other arboviruses? International Maritime Health. 2017;68(1):68-69'},{id:"B2",body:'Rodríguez-Morales AJ, Willamil-Gómez WE. El reto de Zika en Colombia y América Latina: Una urgencia sanitaria internacional. Infection. 2016;20(2):59-61'},{id:"B3",body:'Rodriguez-Morales AJ. Zika: The new arbovirus threat for Latin America. The Journal of Infection in Developing Countries. 2015;9(06):684-685'},{id:"B4",body:'Rodriguez-Morales AJ, Acevedo WF, Villamil-Gómez WE, Escalera-Antezana JP. Aspectos Clínicos y Epidemiológicos de la Infección por Virus Zika: Implicaciones de la Actual Epidemia en Colombia y América Latina. Hechos Microbiológicos. 2016;5(2):92-105'},{id:"B5",body:'Gatherer D, Kohl A. Zika virus: A previously slow pandemic spreads rapidly through the Americas. Journal of General Virology. 2016;97(2):269-273'},{id:"B6",body:'Patiño-Barbosa AM, Rodríguez-Morales AJ. Debemos esperar una mayor expansión de distintos Arbovirus en las Américas. Ciencia e Investigación Medico Estudiantil Latinoamericana. 2017;22(2):2-8'},{id:"B7",body:'Rodriguez-Morales AJ. No era suficiente con dengue y chikungunya: llegó también Zika dengue and chikungunya were not enough: Now also Zika. Archivos de Medicina. 2015;11(2):3'},{id:"B8",body:'Rodríguez-Morales AJ, Sánchez-Duque JA, Anaya J-M. Respuesta a: Alfavirus tropicales artritogénicos. Reumatología Clínica. 2017. DOI: 10.1016/j.reuma.2017.07.011'},{id:"B9",body:'Rodríguez-Morales AJ, Sánchez-Duque JA. Preparing for next arboviral epidemics in Latin America; who can it be now? – Mayaro, Oropouche, West Nile or Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis viruses. Journal of Preventive Epidemiology. 2017;3(1):e01'},{id:"B10",body:'Rodríguez-Morales AJ, Anaya J-M. Impacto de las arbovirosis artritogénicas emergentes en Colombia y América Latina. Revista Colombiana de Reumatologia. 2016;23(3):145-147'},{id:"B11",body:'Villamil-Gómez WE, González-Camargo O, Rodriguez-Ayubi J, Zapata-Serpa D, Rodriguez-Morales AJ. Dengue, chikungunya and Zika co-infection in a patient from Colombia. Journal of infection and public health. 2016;9(5):684-686'},{id:"B12",body:'Paniz-Mondolfi AE, Rodriguez-Morales AJ, Blohm G, Marquez M, Villamil-Gomez WE. ChikDenMaZika syndrome: The challenge of diagnosing arboviral infections in the midst of concurrent epidemics. Annals of Clinical Microbiology and Antimicrobials. 2016;15(1):42'},{id:"B13",body:'Waggoner JJ, Pinsky BA. Zika virus: Diagnostics for an emerging pandemic threat. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2016;54(4):860-867'},{id:"B14",body:'Rodriguez-Morales AJ, Bandeira AC, Franco-Paredes C. The expanding spectrum of modes of transmission of Zika virus: A global concern. Annals of Clinical Microbiology and Antimicrobials. 2016;15(1):13'},{id:"B15",body:'Rodríguez-Morales A. Aedes: un eficiente vector de viejos y nuevos arbovirus (dengue, chikungunya y zika) en las Américas. Revista del Cuerpo Médico del HNAAA. 2015;8(2):50-52'},{id:"B16",body:'Marano G, Pupella S, Vaglio S, Liumbruno GM, Grazzini G. Zika virus and the never-ending story of emerging pathogens and transfusion medicine. Blood Transfusion. 2016;14(2):95'},{id:"B17",body:'Wahid B, Ali A, Rafique S, Idrees M. Current status of therapeutic and vaccine approaches against Zika virus. European Journal of Internal Medicine. 2017;44(10):12-18'},{id:"B18",body:'Rodriguez-Morales AJ, Ruiz P, Tabares J, Ossa CA, Yepes-Echeverry MC, Ramirez-Jaramillo V, et al. Mapping the ecoepidemiology of Zika virus infection in urban and rural areas of Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia, 2015-2016: Implications for public health and travel medicine. Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease. 2017;Jul - Aug;18:57-66'},{id:"B19",body:'INS. Boletín Epidemiológico Semanal. In: Pública DdVyAdReS, editor. Instituto Nacional de Salud. 2017. Available from: www.ins.gov.co'},{id:"B20",body:'Rodriguez-Morales AJ. Zika and microcephaly in Latin America: An emerging threat for pregnant travelers? Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease. 2016;14(1):5'},{id:"B21",body:'Plourde AR, Bloch EM. A literature review of Zika virus. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2016;22(7):1185'},{id:"B22",body:'Carteaux G, Maquart M, Bedet A, Contou D, Brugières P, Fourati S, et al. Zika virus associated with meningoencephalitis. New England Journal of Medicine. 2016;374(16):1595-1596'},{id:"B23",body:'Minhas AM, Nayab A, Shobana Iyer MN, Fatima K, Khan MS, Constantin J. Association of Zika virus with myocarditis, heart failure, and arrhythmias: A literature review. Cureus. 2017;9(6):e1399'},{id:"B24",body:'Radha B, Muniraj G. Alternate paradigms on Zika virus-related complications: An analytical review. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine. 2017;10(7):631-634'},{id:"B25",body:'Martinez-Pulgarin DF, Acevedo-Mendoza WF, Cardona-Ospina JA, Rodríguez-Morales AJ, Paniz-Mondolfi AEA. Bibliometric analysis of global Zika research. Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease. 2016;14(1):55-57'},{id:"B26",body:'Shankar A, Patil AA, Skariyachan S. Recent perspectives on genome, transmission, clinical manifestation, diagnosis, therapeutic strategies, vaccine developments, and challenges of Zika virus research. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2017;8:1761'},{id:"B27",body:'Lin H-H, Yip B-S, Huang L-M, Wu S-C. Zika virus structural biology and progress in vaccine development. Biotechnology Advances. 2017. doi: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2017.09.004'},{id:"B28",body:'Munjal A, Khandia R, Dhama K, Sachan S, Karthik K, Tiwari R, et al. Advances in developing therapies to combat Zika virus: Current knowledge and future perspectives. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2017;8:1469'},{id:"B29",body:'Meaney-Delman D, Rasmussen SA, Staples JE, Oduyebo T, Ellington SR, Petersen EE, et al. Zika virus and pregnancy: What obstetric health care providers need to know. Obstetrics & Gynecology. 2016;127(4):642-648'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Alfonso J. Rodríguez-Morales",address:"arodriguezm@utp.edu.co",affiliation:'
Public Health and Infection Research Group, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira, Colombia
Infection and Immunity Research Group, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira, Colombia
Committee on Zoonoses, Tropical Medicine and Travel Medicine, Asociación Colombiana de Infectología, Colombia
Working Group on Zoonoses, International Society for Chemotherapy, United Kingdom
Committee on Travel Medicine, Pan-American Association of Infectious Diseases, Panama
Colombian Collaborative Network for Research on Zika and other Arboviruses (RECOLZIKA), Colombia
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Adriana M. Trujillo",address:null,affiliation:'
Public Health and Infection Research Group, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira, Colombia
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Jorge A. Sánchez-Duque",address:null,affiliation:'
Public Health and Infection Research Group, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira, Colombia
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Jaime A. Cardona-Ospina",address:null,affiliation:'
Public Health and Infection Research Group, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira, Colombia
Infection and Immunity Research Group, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira, Colombia
Colombian Collaborative Network for Research on Zika and other Arboviruses (RECOLZIKA), Colombia
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Wilmer E. Villamil-Gómez",address:null,affiliation:'
Committee on Zoonoses, Tropical Medicine and Travel Medicine, Asociación Colombiana de Infectología, Colombia
Colombian Collaborative Network for Research on Zika and other Arboviruses (RECOLZIKA), Colombia
Infectious Diseases and Infection Control Research Group, Hospital Universitario de Sincelejo, Colombia
Programa del Doctorado de Medicina Tropical, SUE Caribe, Universidad del Atlántico, Colombia
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Carlos E. Jimenez-Canizalez",address:null,affiliation:'
Public Health and Infection Research Group, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira, Colombia
Colombian Collaborative Network for Research on Zika and other Arboviruses (RECOLZIKA), Colombia
Department of Internal Medicine, Universidad Surcolombiana, Colombia
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Jorge L. Alvarado-Socarras",address:null,affiliation:'
Colombian Collaborative Network for Research on Zika and other Arboviruses (RECOLZIKA), Colombia
Unidad de Neonatología, Departamento de Pediatría, Fundación Cardiovascular de Colombia, Colombia
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Juan Carlos Sepúlveda-Arias",address:null,affiliation:'
Infection and Immunity Research Group, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira, Colombia
Colombian Collaborative Network for Research on Zika and other Arboviruses (RECOLZIKA), Colombia
Colombian Collaborative Network for Research on Zika and other Arboviruses (RECOLZIKA), Colombia
Department of Tropical Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Hospital Internacional Barquisimeto, Venezuela
Instituto Venezolano de los Seguros Sociales (IVSS), Department of Health, Venezuela
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Antonio C. Bandeira",address:null,affiliation:'
Colombian Collaborative Network for Research on Zika and other Arboviruses (RECOLZIKA), Colombia
Hospital Aliança and Faculdade de Tecnologia e Ciencias Medical School, Brazil
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"José Antonio Suárez",address:null,affiliation:'
Colombian Collaborative Network for Research on Zika and other Arboviruses (RECOLZIKA), Colombia
Clinical Research Department, Instituto Conmemorativo Gorgas de Estudios de la Salud, Panama
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\n
1. Introduction
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Industries play a vital role in the economic aspect of modern society and hazardous waste production is an inevitable outcome of developmental activities and industrialization. A material becomes waste when it is discarded without expecting to be compensated for its inherent value [1]. Hazardous wastes that are disposed off causes potential hazard to human health or the environment (soil, air, and water) when it is not properly managed. They are non-biodegradable, persistent in the environment and are deleterious to human health or natural resources. The management of hazardous waste is a process which includes the collection, recycling, treatment, transportation, disposal, and monitoring of wastes disposal sites. In the current scenario of developing countries, hazardous wastes are often disposed directly into the environment posing health and environmental risk. On the other hand, governments and international agencies are taking steps for controlling the growing problem of hazardous substances in the environment which appears to be a difficult process because the wastes are from many sources. Toxic and hazardous substances from these sources contaminate the land, air, and water [2]. The potential health risk associated with these substances vary from minor, short term discomforts, such as headaches and nausea to serious health problems, such as cancers and birth defects, to major accidents that cause immediate injury or death [3]. It is therefore important to take necessary steps in managing the waste. In view of this, management of hazardous wastes including their disposal in an environment friendly and economically viable way is very important and therefore suggestions are made considering the waste types and states [4, 5, 6]. Hence in this chapter we will discuss about hazardous waste, types and management.
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2. Classification of solid wastes
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Solid waste are classified into different types based on their source as shown in \nFigure 1\n\n
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Figure 1.
Classification of solid waste.
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2.1 Non-hazardous waste
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Non-hazardous waste is any waste that does not cause harm to people or the environment, and regulations for safe disposal of non-hazardous waste.
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2.2 Hazardous waste
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Hazardous waste is waste that is dangerous or potentially harmful to our health or the environment. Hazardous wastes can be liquids, solids, gases, sludge’s, discarded commercial products (e.g., cleaning fluids or pesticides), or the by-products of manufacturing processes.
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2.2.1 Classification of hazardous wastes
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According to EPA more than 450 listed wastes which are known to be hazardous are grouped as F-List, K-List, P-List and U-List
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2.2.1.1 F-list
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The F-list contains hazardous wastes originated from a nonspecific source that includes various industrial processes leading to generation of these wastes. The list mainly incudes the solvent used in degreasing, metal treatment baths and sludge’s, wastewaters from metal plating operations and dioxin containing chemicals or their precursors. The F-list are categorized depending upon industrial operations generating the wastes.
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They can be divided into seven groups depending on the type of manufacturing or industrial operation generating the waste.
Solvent wastes
Metal finishing wastes
Dioxin-contaminated wastes
Chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons production
Wood preserving wastes
Waste from petroleum refinery
Multisource leachate.
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2.2.1.2 K-list
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The K-list contains hazardous wastes generated as a result of specific industrial processes and are considered as source-specific wastes. The classification of K-listed hazardous waste must fit into one of the 13 categories mentioned below
Wood preservation
Organic chemicals manufacturing
Pesticides manufacturing
Petroleum refining
Veterinary pharmaceuticals manufacturing
Inorganic pigment manufacturing
Inorganic chemicals manufacturing
Explosives manufacturing
Iron and steel production
Primary aluminum production
Secondary lead processing
Ink formulation
Coking (processing of coal to produce coke)
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2.2.1.3 P and U lists
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The unused chemicals of pure and commercial formulations that are being disposed come under P and U lists. For a P- or U-listed waste it requires the following three criteria:
The waste must contain one of the chemicals listed on the P or U list
The chemical in the waste must be unused
The chemical in the waste must be in the form of a commercial chemical product.
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3. Characteristics of hazardous waste
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3.1 Ignitability
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A waste is considered to be an ignitable hazardous waste if its flash point is less than 60°C, readily catches fire and burns vigorously as a hazard; or is an ignitable compressed gas or an oxidizer. Ex: Naphtha, lacquer thinner, epoxy resins, adhesives, and oil based paints etc.
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3.2 Corrosivity
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Any type of liquid waste whose pH is less than or equal to 2 or greater than or equal to 12.5 is considered to be corrosive hazardous waste. Sodium hydroxide (High pH) and hydrochloric acid (Low pH) is often used in many industries to clean or degrease metal parts. Prior to painting disposed solvents without any treatment contributes to corrosive hazardous waste.
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3.3 Reactivity
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A material is considered as reactive hazardous waste, if it is unstable, reacts violently with water, and generates toxic gases when exposed to water or corrosive materials, or explodes when exposed to heat or a flame.
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Examples of reactive wastes would be waste gunpowder, sodium metal or wastes containing cyanides or sulphides.
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3.4 Toxicity
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Toxicity of a hazardous waste can be determined by taking a representative sample of the material and subjected to a test conducted in a certified laboratory and toxic characteristics can be determined.
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4. Categories of hazardous wastes
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4.1 Radioactive substance
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Radioactive waste is the type of hazardous waste that contains radioactive material. Radioactive waste is a by-product of various nuclear technology processes, industries based on nuclear medicine, nuclear research, nuclear power, manufacturing, construction, coal and rare-earth mining and nuclear weapons reprocessing. Any substances capable of emitting ionizing radiation are said to be radioactive and are hazardous because prolonged exposure often results in damage to living organisms. Radioactive substances attract special concern because they persist for a long period and disposal depends upon half-life period of the radioactive substance. For example, uranium compounds have half-lives that range from 72 years for U232 to 23,420,000 years for U236.
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4.2 Chemicals
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The hazardous chemical wastes can be categorized into five group’s namely synthetic organics, inorganic metals, salts, acids and bases, and flammables and explosives. Some of the chemicals are hazardous because they threaten human lives.
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4.3 Bio-medical wastes
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The main sources of hazardous biological wastes are from hospitals and biological research facilities. The biological waste has the capability of infecting other living organisms and has the ability to produce toxins. Biomedical waste mainly includes malignant tissues discarded during surgical procedures and contaminated materials, such as hypodermic needles, bandages and outdated drugs.
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4.4 Flammable wastes
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The hazardous waste category also includes flammable wastes. This grouping is necessary because of risk involved in storage, collection and disposal of flammable wastes. The flammable wastes may be of solid, liquid or gaseous form. Examples of flammable waste include organic solvents, oils, plasticizers and organic sludge’s.
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4.5 Explosives
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Explosive hazardous wastes are mainly ordnance (artillery) materials. Explosives also involve high potential for hazard in case of storage, collection and disposal. These types of wastes may exist in solid, liquid or gaseous form.
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5. Principles and methods of hazardous waste management
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5.1 Principles
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Hazardous waste management is the general term associated with procedures and policies of hazardous waste management that it does not cause any potential threat to man and the environment. Traditionally, hazardous wastes are disposed by dumping in open space and burning. Open dumping results in soil and water pollution and open burning and incineration contribute to air pollution in the form of particulates, nitrogen oxides, noxious odors, and other constituents. After solid waste residues disposed leads to water pollution. Municipal incineration with sophisticated energy recovery systems were popular in large European and American cities at the turn of the century, but became extinct due to high operating costs. In recent years, for hazardous solid waste management incineration has become less popular because of risk associated with increased air pollution control requirements. Because of rapid industrialization the concern of hazardous waste management is increasing [7]. The waste generated from various industrial and domestic activities can result in severe health hazards and also leads to negative impact on the environment. The following procedure illustrates the standard waste management strategy in a developed society. Various steps involved in hazardous waste management was shown in \nFigure 2\n.
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Figure 2.
Steps involved in hazardous waste disposal.
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5.2 Handling of hazardous wastes
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Persons handling hazardous wastes are advised to have protective precautions to protect themselves from health effects. Exposure of hazardous waste leads to dermatitis in the skin, asthma on long exposure, eye irritation and also tightening of the chest.
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5.3 Transport of hazardous waste
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Hazardous waste generated often requires transport to a particular site for an approved treatment, storage, or disposal facility (TSDF). Because of potential threats to public safety and the environment, transport is given special attention by governmental agencies to avoid any occasional accidental spill [8].
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5.4 Disposal
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Disposal of hazardous waste is the final stage of a hazardous waste management system. The different waste disposal methods includes secure landfill, deep well and bedrock disposal [9].
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5.4.1 Secure landfill
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Disposal of some hazardous wastes in regular landfills resulted in unfavorable amounts of hazardous materials seeping into the ground. These chemicals eventually enter natural hydrologic systems. So to prevent the chemicals entering the soil, landfill requires a barrier for collecting hazardous substances that may remain in the disposed waste. Now, hazardous wastes are stabilized and made into solid and placed in landfill and this process depends upon the type of hazardous waste. A landfill is a disposal facility where hazardous wastes are placed into and stored in the soil [10]. An example of a recommended design is shown in \nFigure 3\n. The wastes are dumped in sealed drums before disposal. The hazardous-waste landfill setup consists of two impermeable liners and also includes leachate collection systems. Double leachate collection system is made up of network of pipes placed above each liner. The upper layer reduces the accumulation of leachate trapped in the fill, and the lower layer acts as a backup. The leachate collected is transferred to treatment plant for further process. An impermeable cap or cover is placed over a finished landfill is placed to reduce the amount of leachate in the fill and minimize the potential for environmental degradation.
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Figure 3.
Secure land fill method.
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The main components in the leachate from landfill sites are grouped as follows
Major elements and ions such as calcium, magnesium, iron, sodium, ammonia, carbonate, sulphate and chloride.
Trace metals such as manganese, chromium, nickel, lead and calcium
Wide variety of organic compounds
Biological agents
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Hazardous waste mainly from industries will give rise to leachate. Heavy metals concentration in the leachate is of greater concern compared to other components of leachate.
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5.4.2 Deep well disposal
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Another alternative disposal of liquid industrial waste is injection into deep well as shown in the \nFigure 4\n. Deep well injection is a liquid waste disposal technology. This alternative uses injection wells to place treated or untreated liquid waste into geologic formations that have no potential to allow migration of contaminants into potential potable water aquifers. In order to force the liquid into the pores and fissures of the rock, high pressures are applied. The rock unit selected are of porous and permeable (commonly, sandstone or fractured limestone), and must be separated by low permeability layers (for example, shale) above and below. Deep-well injection is a cost effective and requires little or no pretreatment of the waste, but it poses a danger of leaking hazardous waste and eventually polluting underground water resources.
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Figure 4.
Deep well disposal method.
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5.4.3 Bedrock disposal
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Bedrock disposal is mainly meant for solid hazardous waste and a variety of bed rock types are being investigated as host rocks. The design of a bedrock disposal site or repository for hazardous wastes is shown in \nFigure 5\n. It is based on the multiple barrier (or multi barrier) concept: surrounding solid hazardous waste sealed with several different types of materials to prevent waste leakage or invasion by ground water. A major concern is the nature of the host rock as well as some potential drawbacks. The method is widely used for high-level radioactive wastes. Sealed into stainless steel canisters, or spent fuel rods encapsulated in corrosion resistant metals such as copper or stainless steel and buried in stable rock structures deep underground. Many geological formations such as granite, volcanic tuff, salt, thick basalts such as the Columbia River plateau basalt or shale will be suitable [11].
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Figure 5.
Bedrock disposal method.
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6. Waste management: Indian scenario
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Hazardous waste is any substance in solid, liquid or gaseous form, because of physical, chemical, reactive, toxic, flammable, explosive, corrosive, radioactive or infectious characteristics causes threat to human health and environment.
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The amount of hazardous waste generated per annum is found to be 4.4 million tonnes as per organization of economic cooperation and development (OECD). This estimate of about 4.4 million is based on the 18 categories of wastes which appeared in the Hazardous waste management (HWM) rules first published in 1989. Among this 38.3% is recyclable, 4.3% is incinerable and the remaining 57.4% is disposable in secured landfills. Nearly about 13 States of the country (Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka and Rajasthan) contributes for about 97% of total hazardous waste generation. The top five states include Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Tamil Nadu. If the hazardous waste is not properly maintained, severe pollution of land, surface and ground water will occur [12, 13]. As per industrial requirement category in India, every industry should have enough land available within its premises for the treatment and disposal and or reuse/recycling of the wastes generated from it [14]. There is a major concern all over the world for the safe disposal of hazardous waste. Hazardous Wastes (HWs) can be disposed off at Treatment, Storage and Disposal Facility (TSDF) as it is one of the centralized location for treatment of wastes. The TSDF helps small and medium scale industries generating hazardous waste [15, 16].
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6.1 Characterization of hazardous waste
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The Hazardous Wastes are categorized into three groups namely Recyclable, Incinerable, and Disposable. The disposable Hazardous Wastes category (inorganic in nature to be disposed off in landfill) is high compared to the other two categories [17].
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6.2 Quantification
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In India the amount of hazardous waste generated is 4,415,954 TPA covering 373 districts out of 525 districts. With reference to the cited literature [18] the land required to dispose 5.3 million tons of hazardous wastes in an engineered landfill with the density of waste (1.2 tonnes/m3) with the depth of the landfill 4 m is 1.08 km2 every year.
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6.3 Integrated sustainable waste management
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Integrated sustainable waste management is defined as selection and application of suitable techniques, technologies and management approaches to achieve specific objectives and goals. This system ensures the integrity of all the systems to work with compatibility and allows rational planning and execution [19]. It consists of four basic principles and three components.
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6.3.1 Principles of integrated sustainable waste management
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6.3.1.1 Equity
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All citizens should be exposed to appropriate waste management system for environmental health reasons.
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6.3.1.2 Effectiveness
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The waste management model should ensure safe removal of waste.
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6.3.1.3 Efficiency
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The major concern of waste management is to maximize the benefits, lower the costs and optimize the use of resources, taking into account, equity, effectiveness and sustainability.
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6.3.1.4 Sustainability
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The waste management system is appropriate to the local conditions and feasible from a technical, environmental, social, economic, financial, institutional and political perspective. It can maintain itself overtime without exhausting the resources upon which it depends.
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6.3.2 Components of integrated sustainable waste management
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The stakeholders
The (practical and technical) elements of the waste system
The aspects of the local context for assessing and planning waste management system.
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ISWM includes elements such as collection, transportation and disposal or treatment. and also gives equal importance to waste minimization, reuse, recycling and composting. The concept of integrated sustainable waste management was shown in \nFigure 6\n.
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Figure 6.
Integrated sustainable waste management.
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Sustainable hazardous waste management is of prime importance for proper health, protection of environment on and resource management towards sustainability. Prevention of the generation of hazardous wastes and the rehabilitation of contaminated sites are the key elements, and both require knowledge, experienced people, facilities, financial resources and technical and scientific capacities.
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7. Conclusion
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The main prospective of hazardous waste management program is to change the way of managing hazardous waste so that they can be stored, transported and dispose in an environmentally safe manner. The focus of managing hazardous waste comes in an effort to address potential threats to public health and environment. Hazardous waste management must have an initiative beyond disposing directly into the land surface. Industries are encouraged to generate less amount of hazardous waste as a part of manufacturing process. Because the toxic wastes cannot be completely eliminated and only possible way is to minimizing, recycling, and treating wastes. So steps should be taken to use the modern technology without causing any threat to environment. Minimizing, recycling, and treating wastes.
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\n\n',keywords:"hazardous waste, types and management",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74184.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/74184.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74184",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74184",totalDownloads:809,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"June 19th 2020",dateReviewed:"September 17th 2020",datePrePublished:"November 24th 2020",datePublished:"May 27th 2021",dateFinished:"November 24th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Waste management is one of the vital environmental issues since last few decades. It has been noted that the generation of waste increases with increasing population, industrialization and urbanization etc. The waste management strategy includes both non-hazardous and hazardous waste management. Non-hazardous waste does not cause potential threat to environment but instead hazardous waste is the waste that poses substantial or potential threats to public health and the environment. Rapidly growing industrial sector has contributed to the generation of large quantity of hazardous waste material. Therefore, to reduce environmental hazard, proper attention is required during storage, segregation, transportation and disposal of hazardous waste, because it cannot be disposed as off in the environment. This study explains about hazardous wastes, types and management.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74184",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74184",signatures:"Krishnaswamy Kanagamani, P. Geethamani and M. Narmatha",book:{id:"9664",type:"book",title:"Environmental Issues and Sustainable Development",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Environmental Issues and Sustainable Development",slug:"environmental-issues-and-sustainable-development",publishedDate:"May 27th 2021",bookSignature:"Suriyanarayanan Sarvajayakesavalu and Pisit Charoensudjai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9664.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-917-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-916-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-928-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"237021",title:"Dr.",name:"Suriyanarayanan",middleName:null,surname:"Sarvajayakesavalu",slug:"suriyanarayanan-sarvajayakesavalu",fullName:"Suriyanarayanan Sarvajayakesavalu"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"253697",title:"Dr.",name:"Geethamani",middleName:null,surname:"Palanisamy",fullName:"Geethamani Palanisamy",slug:"geethamani-palanisamy",email:"drpgeethamani@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"309960",title:"Dr.",name:"Kanagamani",middleName:null,surname:"Krishnasamy",fullName:"Kanagamani Krishnasamy",slug:"kanagamani-krishnasamy",email:"kanagamanichem@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"324864",title:"Ms.",name:"Narmatha",middleName:null,surname:"M.",fullName:"Narmatha M.",slug:"narmatha-m.",email:"narmatha4466@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Classification of solid wastes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Non-hazardous waste",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Hazardous waste",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.2.1 Classification of hazardous wastes",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_4",title:"2.2.1.1 F-list",level:"4"},{id:"sec_4_4",title:"2.2.1.2 K-list",level:"4"},{id:"sec_5_4",title:"2.2.1.3 P and U lists",level:"4"},{id:"sec_9",title:"3. Characteristics of hazardous waste",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.1 Ignitability",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.2 Corrosivity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.3 Reactivity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.4 Toxicity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"4. Categories of hazardous wastes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.1 Radioactive substance",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"4.2 Chemicals",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"4.3 Bio-medical wastes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"4.4 Flammable wastes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"4.5 Explosives",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"5. Principles and methods of hazardous waste management",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"5.1 Principles",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"5.2 Handling of hazardous wastes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"5.3 Transport of hazardous waste",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"5.4 Disposal",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_3",title:"5.4.1 Secure landfill",level:"3"},{id:"sec_24_3",title:"5.4.2 Deep well disposal",level:"3"},{id:"sec_25_3",title:"5.4.3 Bedrock disposal",level:"3"},{id:"sec_28",title:"6. Waste management: Indian scenario",level:"1"},{id:"sec_28_2",title:"6.1 Characterization of hazardous waste",level:"2"},{id:"sec_29_2",title:"6.2 Quantification",level:"2"},{id:"sec_30_2",title:"6.3 Integrated sustainable waste management",level:"2"},{id:"sec_30_3",title:"6.3.1 Principles of integrated sustainable waste management",level:"3"},{id:"sec_30_4",title:"6.3.1.1 Equity",level:"4"},{id:"sec_31_4",title:"6.3.1.2 Effectiveness",level:"4"},{id:"sec_32_4",title:"6.3.1.3 Efficiency",level:"4"},{id:"sec_33_4",title:"6.3.1.4 Sustainability",level:"4"},{id:"sec_35_3",title:"6.3.2 Components of integrated sustainable waste management",level:"3"},{id:"sec_38",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nV. Misra, S.D. Pandey, Hazardous waste, impact on health and environment for development of better waste management strategies in future in India. Environment International. 2005,31(3), 417-435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2004.08.005\n\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nE.D.Enger, B.F.Smith, A study of interrelationships. Environmental Science. Edward E. Bartell. California, USA, 2004\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nB. Roger, E.S.James, & D.David The safe disposal of Hazardous wastes: The special needs and problems of developing countries, A world Bank Technical paper 1989,1 (93),154\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nC.C. Amadi, O.C. Okeke & D.C. Amadi, Hazardous waste management: A review of principles and methods, International Journal of Advanced Academic Research Sciences, Technology & Engineering, 2017, 3 (8), 1-20\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nL. Fazzo, F. Minichilli, M. Santoro, A. Ceccarini, M. Della Seta, F. Bianchi, P. Comba & M. Martuzzi, Hazardous waste and health impact: a systematic review of the scientific literature, Environmental Health, 2017, 16 DOI 10.1186/s12940-017-0311-8\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nVandana bharati, Jaspal singh, A.P.Singh, A Review on Solid Waste Management Methods and Practices in India, 2017, 4065-4067\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nV.M. Iyyanki & M.Vali, Science and Engineering for industry, Environmental Management 1st Edition, Elsevier. Inc, 2017\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nA.N.Jerry, Encyclopedia Britannica, Hazardous Waste management,2015\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nC.Visvanathan , Hazardous waste disposal, Resources, Conservation and Recycling.1996,16, 201-212. https://doi.org/10.1016/0921-3449(95)00057-7\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nEncyclopedia Britannica, Hazardous Waste Disposal,2016,Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/technology/hazardous-waste-management\n\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nRajkumar Joshi, Sirajuddin Ahmed, Status and challenges of municipal solid waste management in India: A review, Cogent Environmental Science 2016, 2, 1139434\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nV.Ramakrishna and B.V. Babu, “Fresh water depletion – a crisis: Causes & remedies”, Environment & People.1999a, 6(1), 33-39\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nJ. Parsa., H.M. Stuart and R. Steiner, Stabilization /solidification of hazardous wastes using fly as, J. Environ. Engg, ASCE, 1996,122 (10), 935-940\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nLeelavathy Karthikeyan , Venkatesan Madha Suresh , Vignesh Krishnan , Terry Tudor and Vedha Varshini, The Management of Hazardous Solid Waste in India: An Overview, Environments, 2018, 5, 103\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nB.V. Babu and V. Ramakrishna, Mathematical modeling of Site sensitivity indices in the site selection criteria for hazardous waste treatment, storage and disposal facility, Journal of the Institution of Public Health Engineers India, 2000, 2000 (1), 54-70\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nR. Lakshmi, Remote Sensing application in siting of waste disposal facilities with special reference to hazardous wastes”, in Remote Sensing Applications in Applied Sciences, edited by Saumitra Mukherjee, Manak Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1999, 141-179\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nA. Agarwal., M. Agarwal, A. Mehta, and M. Bajpai. A review on current status of municipal solid waste management in India, MSSRGIJCE3, 2016, (5):122-125\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nSDNP. Hazardous waste: special reference to municipal solid waste management, 2003\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nA.V. Shedkar, Sustainable solid waste management: An integrated approach for asian countries, Waste Manage., 2009, 29(4), 1438-1448\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Krishnaswamy Kanagamani",address:"kanagamanichem@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Department of Chemistry, SNS College of Technology, Coimbatore, India
Department of Chemistry, SNS College of Technology, Coimbatore, India
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"9664",type:"book",title:"Environmental Issues and Sustainable Development",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Environmental Issues and Sustainable Development",slug:"environmental-issues-and-sustainable-development",publishedDate:"May 27th 2021",bookSignature:"Suriyanarayanan Sarvajayakesavalu and Pisit Charoensudjai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9664.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-917-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-916-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-928-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"237021",title:"Dr.",name:"Suriyanarayanan",middleName:null,surname:"Sarvajayakesavalu",slug:"suriyanarayanan-sarvajayakesavalu",fullName:"Suriyanarayanan Sarvajayakesavalu"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"206518",title:"Dr.",name:"Pratap",middleName:null,surname:"Sanchetee",email:"pratap.sanchetee@gmail.com",fullName:"Pratap Sanchetee",slug:"pratap-sanchetee",position:null,biography:"Dr. Pratap Sanchetee is a first batch alumnus of Dr. SN Medical College, Jodhpur, and achieved his MBBS in 1970. Subsequently, he received his MD diploma (Medicine) from the University of Rajasthan in 1974, and DM (Neurology) from the Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education & Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh in 1985. He served in the Armed Forces India as a Physician and Neurologist for 24 years and retired as Lt Col in 1998. From 1994 to 1998, he also served as an Associate Professor, Armed Forces Medical College, Pune. He was awarded Chief of Army Staff’s Commendation in 1980. Since 1998, he has been pursuing clinical practice in neurology at various hospitals at Jodhpur and at Guwahati Assam. He has been a Visiting Professor, Ph.D. guide, and advisor to Jain Visva Bharti University (JVBI) and Bhagwan Mahaveer International Research Centre (BMIRC), Ladnun, Rajasthan since 2009. He is a Director of Research at the Spiritual Training Research Foundation (STRF), Mumbai, India. His areas of active interest are the mind as an interface between soul and body, meditation and the brain, and delivery of neurology care in society. Dr. Sanchetee has a life membership of 9 national associations. He is the editor of four books and has published 112 original papers, chapters, and review articles in national and international journals. He is currently the Chairperson of the 'Tropical Neurology Subsection' of the Indian Academy of Neurology. He regularly participates in national and international conferences and presents academic papers. He was an executive editor of the Medical Journal Armed Forces India and Journal of Indian Academy of Geriatrics.",institutionString:"Sanchetee Hospital & Research Institute",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/206518/images/system/206518.jpg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"2",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[{id:"9444",type:"book",slug:"ischemic-stroke",title:"Ischemic Stroke",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9444.jpg",abstract:"Stroke continues to be a major public health issue. It is the third leading cause of death and disability across the globe. Its early identification and treatment along with prevention are major issues that confront a treating physician. We have understood the importance of early intervention and of the quote ‘time is brain’. Our endeavor now should be directed to the public at large and paramedics in particular. Although a stroke is a common condition, the availability of neurologists or stroke specialists is quite scarce. Today, management of a suspected case of stroke is done by a specialist team of medical and paramedical personnel. Advances in imaging, newer therapeutic agents, and endovascular management have revolutionized the management. Currently, we are witnessing a new era in the management of strokes and I am hopeful that continued research will get us to a satisfactory solution. This book along with another book from IntechOpen titled ‘Ischemic Stroke of Brain’ aims to improve the understanding of stroke medicine for postgraduate medical students in medicine and neurology who have an interest in stroke care.",editors:[{id:"206518",title:"Dr.",name:"Pratap",surname:"Sanchetee",slug:"pratap-sanchetee",fullName:"Pratap Sanchetee"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}},{id:"6789",type:"book",slug:"ischemic-stroke-of-brain",title:"Ischemic Stroke of Brain",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6789.jpg",abstract:"The stroke is the third leading cause of death and disability across the globe. We have evolved from a sense of frustration and helplessness to proactive and effective management in the hyperacute and acute phase of a stroke. The aim is to salvage the ischemic brain and turn it again into a viable and functional one. Advances in imaging and newer therapeutic strategies of this devastating illness have changed our outlook. The modern management of an ischemic stroke involves intravenous thrombolysis within a window period of four and half hours. Endovascular management with newer stent retrievers has a higher rate of recanalization with an extended therapeutic window. A new era has emerged in the management of ischemic stroke treatment. This book, written by experts, aims to improve the understanding of stroke medicine for postgraduate medical students in medicine and neurology who have an interest in stroke care.",editors:[{id:"206518",title:"Dr.",name:"Pratap",surname:"Sanchetee",slug:"pratap-sanchetee",fullName:"Pratap Sanchetee"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}],chaptersAuthored:[{id:"74822",title:"Current Trends in Stroke Rehabilitation",slug:"current-trends-in-stroke-rehabilitation",abstract:"Stroke remains a leading cause of adult disability. The social, physical and psychological consequences of stroke are devastating. With better understanding of causation and breakthrough advances in management, we are witnessing a greater population of stroke survivors with varying neurological and functional deficits. Poststroke rehabilitation is a multi-disciplinary and multi-modal endeavor and not a ‘one size fits all’ intervention. A combination of interventions may be better suited to treat motor and sensory impairments, cognitive problems and psychological issues. There is great interest in exploring novel rehabilitation technologies to augment conventional therapies to reduce neurological disability and improve function. Yoga and spirituality, though ancient practices, are finding a bigger role in field of rehabilitation. In spite of good potentials for recovery, these rehabilitative measures are underutilized and major barriers are limited availability, geographical distance, high cost and lack of awareness about its benefits. While conventional measures are well engraved, this article review the recent concepts in stroke rehabilitation.",signatures:"Pratap Sanchetee",authors:[{id:"206518",title:"Dr.",name:"Pratap",surname:"Sanchetee",fullName:"Pratap Sanchetee",slug:"pratap-sanchetee",email:"pratap.sanchetee@gmail.com"}],book:{id:"9444",title:"Ischemic Stroke",slug:"ischemic-stroke",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"45925",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragoș",surname:"Cătălin Jianu",slug:"dragos-catalin-jianu",fullName:"Dragoș Cătălin Jianu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45925/images/system/45925.jpg",biography:"Dragoș Cătălin Jianu, MD, Ph.D., Dr. habil., is a Professor of Neurology, Ph.D. Coordinator, and head of the Centre for Cognitive Research in Neuropsychiatric Pathology, Department of Neurosciences, University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Timişoara, Romania. \n\n He has published on a diverse array of topics, including vascular aphasias, vascular cognitive impairment, and neuro-ophthalmology/color Doppler imaging of orbital vessels (anterior ischemic optic neuropathies, central retinal artery occlusion, and giant cell arteritis with eye involvement). More recently, his work has focused on ischemic stroke, including large artery diseases, small artery diseases, and cerebral venous thrombosis. with type 2 diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, and cerebral venous thrombosis.",institutionString:"Victor Babeș University of Medicine and Pharmacy Timișoara",institution:{name:"Victor Babeș University of Medicine and Pharmacy Timișoara",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"55071",title:"Dr.",name:"Silviana Nina",surname:"Jianu",slug:"silviana-nina-jianu",fullName:"Silviana Nina Jianu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241849",title:"Dr.",name:"Traian Flavius",surname:"Dan",slug:"traian-flavius-dan",fullName:"Traian Flavius Dan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241852",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgiana",surname:"Munteanu",slug:"georgiana-munteanu",fullName:"Georgiana Munteanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"306350",title:"Prof.",name:"Hayder M.",surname:"Al-kuraishy",slug:"hayder-m.-al-kuraishy",fullName:"Hayder M. Al-kuraishy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318289",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Carmen",surname:"Adella Sirbu",slug:"carmen-adella-sirbu",fullName:"Carmen Adella Sirbu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/318289/images/11624_n.jpg",biography:"Carmen Adella Sirbu, MD, Ph.D., MPH, holds a diploma in Medicine (MD) from, Carol Davila’’ University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She also holds a Ph.D. from the same university. She received 12 prizes for the best research achievement in International and National Meetings. She is Associate Professor at, Titu Maiorescu, University, and Head of Neurology Clinic at Central Military Emergency University Hospital „Carol Davila,” Bucharest from 2018. She has a Master in Public Health at the University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Carol Davilla, and competence in neurosonology and psychopedagogy. She has 18 medical monographs and book chapters, over 100 articles, and more than 120 scientific presentations at medical meetings. She was an investigator in seven clinical studies and had several notable awards. Member since 2006 of Superior Committee of Discipline, belong to the founding member of the professional association, ASCAMED,. She is a medical expert in the neurology specialty for the disciplinary causes to be solved by the High Commission for Discipline of the Medical College of Romania, and elected member of the National Council for Ethics of Scientific Research, Technological Development and Innovation (CNECSDTI). She is a member of EAN (European Academy of Neurology) Scientist Panel for Neuroophtalmology, Neuro otology and Neurooncology from 2006-2020, and active member of MSBase Organization. Member of the working group of the European Brain Council (https://www.braincouncil.eu/), she is involved in the project “Creating a policy narrative on neurodegenerative disorders across Europe.” She is a member of the Management Committee in the project COST CA16207 The ‘European Network for Problematic Usage of the Internet’ 2017-2021and Member of the Management Committee in the project\tCOST CA15111, EUROMENE, 2016 - 2020 http://www.euromene.eu/. Her field of interest is multiple sclerosis, neuroimmunology, epilepsy, stroke, internet addiction.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318767",title:"Ms.",name:"Diana",surname:"Mihai",slug:"diana-mihai",fullName:"Diana Mihai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318785",title:"Prof.",name:"Ligia",surname:"Petrica",slug:"ligia-petrica",fullName:"Ligia Petrica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"320565",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristina Florentina",surname:"Plesa",slug:"cristina-florentina-plesa",fullName:"Cristina Florentina Plesa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"320566",title:"Dr.",name:"Any Docu",surname:"Axelerad",slug:"any-docu-axelerad",fullName:"Any Docu Axelerad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"our-story",title:"Our story",intro:"
The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n\\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\\n\\n
2004
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\\n\\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n
\\n\\n
2005
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\\n
\\n\\n
2006
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\\n
\\n\\n
2008
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\\n
\\n\\n
2009
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\\n
\\n\\n
2010
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\\n
\\n\\n
2011
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\\n
\\n\\n
2012
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\\n
\\n\\n
2013
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\\n
\\n\\n
2014
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\\n
\\n\\n
2015
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\\n\\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\\n\\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\\n
\\n\\n
2016
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\\n
\\n\\n
2017
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n
2010
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n
2011
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n
2012
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n
2013
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n
2014
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n
2015
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n
2016
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
\n\n
2017
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
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In this chapter, the current status of ergonomics in laparoscopy, laparoendoscopic single‐site surgery (LESS), and robot‐assisted surgery will be reviewed. Ergonomic guidelines for laparoscopic surgical practice and methods for ergonomic assessment in surgery will be described. Results will be based on the scientific literature and our experience. Results showed that the surgeon's posture during laparoscopic surgery is mainly affected by the static body postures, the height of the operating table, the design of the surgical instruments, the position of the main screen, and the use of foot pedals. Ergonomics during the laparoscopic surgical practice is related to the level of experience. Better ergonomic conditions entail an improvement in task performance. Laparoscopic instruments with axial handle lead to a more ergonomic posture for the wrist compared to a ring handle. LESS is physically more demanding than conventional and hybrid approaches, requiring greater level of muscular activity in the back and arm muscles, but better wrist position compared with traditional laparoscopy. Physical and cognitive ergonomics with robotic assistance were significantly less challenging when compared to conventional laparoscopic surgery.",book:{id:"5390",slug:"laparoscopic-surgery",title:"Laparoscopic Surgery",fullTitle:"Laparoscopic Surgery"},signatures:"Francisco M. Sánchez-Margallo and Juan A. Sánchez-Margallo",authors:[{id:"14715",title:"Prof.",name:"Francisco M.",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Margallo",slug:"francisco-m.-sanchez-margallo",fullName:"Francisco M. Sánchez-Margallo"},{id:"188738",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan A.",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez Margallo",slug:"juan-a.-sanchez-margallo",fullName:"Juan A. Sánchez Margallo"},{id:"188740",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Hermoso De Mendoza",slug:"javier-hermoso-de-mendoza",fullName:"Javier Hermoso De Mendoza"}]},{id:"59483",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74117",title:"Handheld Devices for Laparoscopic Surgery",slug:"handheld-devices-for-laparoscopic-surgery",totalDownloads:1265,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Despite the well-known benefits of minimally invasive surgery (MIS) to the patients, this surgical technique implies some technical challenges for surgeons. These technical limitations are increased with the introduction of laparoendoscopic single-site (LESS) surgery. In order to overcome some of these technical difficulties, new handheld devices have been developed, providing improved functionalities along with precision-driven and articulating instrument tips. In this chapter, we will review the current status of handheld devices for laparoscopy and LESS surgery. Devices that provide additional and innovative functionalities in comparison with conventional surgical instruments will be considered. Results will be based on studies published in the scientific literature and our experience. These surgical devices will be organized into two main groups, mechanical devices and robotic-driven devices. In general, these instruments intend to simulate the dexterity of movements of a human wrist. Mechanical devices are cheaper and easier to develop, so most of the available handheld instruments fall into this category. The majority of the robotic-driven devices are needle holders with an articulating tip, controlled by an interface implemented on the instrument handle. In general, these handheld devices claim to offer an enhancement of dexterity, precision, and ergonomics.",book:{id:"6360",slug:"new-horizons-in-laparoscopic-surgery",title:"New Horizons in Laparoscopic Surgery",fullTitle:"New Horizons in Laparoscopic Surgery"},signatures:"Francisco M. Sánchez-Margallo, Juan A. Sánchez-Margallo and Amir\nSzold",authors:[{id:"14715",title:"Prof.",name:"Francisco M.",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Margallo",slug:"francisco-m.-sanchez-margallo",fullName:"Francisco M. Sánchez-Margallo"},{id:"188738",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan A.",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez Margallo",slug:"juan-a.-sanchez-margallo",fullName:"Juan A. Sánchez Margallo"},{id:"214776",title:"Dr.",name:"Amir",middleName:null,surname:"Szold",slug:"amir-szold",fullName:"Amir Szold"}]},{id:"21003",doi:"10.5772/18033",title:"Risks Associated with Laparoscopic Surgery",slug:"risks-associated-with-laparoscopic-surgery",totalDownloads:16645,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"1041",slug:"advanced-laparoscopy",title:"Advanced Laparoscopy",fullTitle:"Advanced Laparoscopy"},signatures:"Tülün Öztürk",authors:[{id:"30184",title:"Prof.",name:"Tulun",middleName:null,surname:"Ozturk",slug:"tulun-ozturk",fullName:"Tulun Ozturk"}]},{id:"21013",doi:"10.5772/20516",title:"Port-Site Metastasis Following Laparoscopic Surgery",slug:"port-site-metastasis-following-laparoscopic-surgery",totalDownloads:3938,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"1041",slug:"advanced-laparoscopy",title:"Advanced Laparoscopy",fullTitle:"Advanced Laparoscopy"},signatures:"Terence C. Chua, Tristan D. Yan, David L. Morris and Paul H. Sugarbaker",authors:[{id:"39316",title:"Dr.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Sugarbaker",slug:"paul-sugarbaker",fullName:"Paul Sugarbaker"},{id:"63672",title:"Prof.",name:"David",middleName:"Lawson",surname:"Morris",slug:"david-morris",fullName:"David Morris"},{id:"97099",title:"Dr.",name:"Terence",middleName:null,surname:"Chua",slug:"terence-chua",fullName:"Terence Chua"},{id:"97100",title:"Dr.",name:"Tristan",middleName:null,surname:"Yan",slug:"tristan-yan",fullName:"Tristan Yan"}]},{id:"46621",doi:"10.5772/58533",title:"History of the Inguinal Hernia Repair",slug:"history-of-the-inguinal-hernia-repair",totalDownloads:4855,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"3818",slug:"inguinal-hernia",title:"Inguinal Hernia",fullTitle:"Inguinal Hernia"},signatures:"Andrzej L. Komorowski",authors:[{id:"169228",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrzej",middleName:null,surname:"Komorowski",slug:"andrzej-komorowski",fullName:"Andrzej Komorowski"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"53643",title:"The Evolution of Minimally Invasive Techniques in Restoration of Colonic Continuity",slug:"the-evolution-of-minimally-invasive-techniques-in-restoration-of-colonic-continuity",totalDownloads:2158,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Restoration of bowel continuity after Hartmann’s procedure is considered technically challenging and is associated with high morbidity and mortality. This is the main reason why restoration of intestinal continuity is often not attempted. Over the past decade, considerable international experience has gained on this topic with new minimally invasive techniques being developed. This review details the evolution of minimally invasive techniques in restoration of colonic continuity after Hartmann’s procedure. A comprehensive search of PubMed and Embase was done. Different restoration modalities were included. Eight studies, from six different countries, in which multiport laparoscopic restoration of continuity was compared to conventional open restoration of bowel continuity, were included. In the total of 254 patients, continuity was restored laparoscopically compared with 255 patients in which continuity was performed in open fashion. Restoration of bowel continuity via trephine access was also reported; three studies including 37 patients were included in this review. Single-port restoration of bowel continuity after Hartmann’s procedure is a natural evolution of multiport laparoscopy and trephine access. Six studies reporting on single-port reversal of Hartmann’s procedure were included with a total of 75 patients. Single-port access in combination with a transanal approach has also been reported; however, data are extremely limited as there is only one study in the published literature. Success of restoration of bowel continuity with less morbidity and mortality has been demonstrated throughout the evolution of the different surgical techniques. In this review advantages of different approaches for restoration of bowel continuity after Hartmann’s procedure are discussed. Furthermore, surgical techniques are described, pictorial guides are added for some techniques, and flowcharts are given for easy use during clinical decision-making.",book:{id:"5390",slug:"laparoscopic-surgery",title:"Laparoscopic Surgery",fullTitle:"Laparoscopic Surgery"},signatures:"Stefan H.E.M. Clermonts, Laurents P.S. Stassen and David D.E.\nZimmerman",authors:[{id:"187504",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Zimmerman",slug:"david-zimmerman",fullName:"David Zimmerman"},{id:"194463",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Clermonts",slug:"stefan-clermonts",fullName:"Stefan Clermonts"},{id:"194464",title:"Prof.",name:"Laurents",middleName:null,surname:"Stassen",slug:"laurents-stassen",fullName:"Laurents Stassen"}]},{id:"60143",title:"Total Laparoscopic Hysterectomy",slug:"total-laparoscopic-hysterectomy",totalDownloads:1274,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The applications of minimally invasive pelvic surgery continue to grow. This chapter focuses primarily on the preoperative evaluation, surgical technique and post-operative care of total laparoscopic hysterectomy. Since laparoscopic assisted vaginal hysterectomy is a slight modification of the procedure it is not being discussed separately. The major physiologic obstacles to safe laparoscopy include pregnancy, increased intra cranial pressure, abnormalities of cardiac output and gaseous exchange in the lung, chronic liver diseases and coagulation disorders. In a redo surgery there may be problems of laparoscopic port entry.",book:{id:"6360",slug:"new-horizons-in-laparoscopic-surgery",title:"New Horizons in Laparoscopic Surgery",fullTitle:"New Horizons in Laparoscopic Surgery"},signatures:"Nidhi Sharma and Vanusha Selvin",authors:[{id:"220214",title:"Prof.",name:"Nidhi",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"nidhi-sharma",fullName:"Nidhi Sharma"},{id:"225521",title:"Dr.",name:"Vanusha",middleName:null,surname:"Selvin",slug:"vanusha-selvin",fullName:"Vanusha Selvin"}]},{id:"56017",title:"Surgical Anatomy of the Groin",slug:"surgical-anatomy-of-the-groin",totalDownloads:2522,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Most surgeons are familiar with the inguinal anatomy from the anterior perspective. With the advent of laparoscopic techniques for inguinal hernia repair, it became important to understand the inguinal anatomy from the preperitoneal view for a posterior approach to the inguinal region. The purpose of this chapter is to describe the anatomic landmarks of the groin region.",book:{id:"5928",slug:"hernia",title:"Hernia",fullTitle:"Hernia"},signatures:"Kamer Tomaoglu",authors:[{id:"201271",title:"M.D.",name:"Kamer",middleName:null,surname:"Tomaoglu",slug:"kamer-tomaoglu",fullName:"Kamer Tomaoglu"}]},{id:"21003",title:"Risks Associated with Laparoscopic Surgery",slug:"risks-associated-with-laparoscopic-surgery",totalDownloads:16645,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"1041",slug:"advanced-laparoscopy",title:"Advanced Laparoscopy",fullTitle:"Advanced Laparoscopy"},signatures:"Tülün Öztürk",authors:[{id:"30184",title:"Prof.",name:"Tulun",middleName:null,surname:"Ozturk",slug:"tulun-ozturk",fullName:"Tulun Ozturk"}]},{id:"56039",title:"Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia",slug:"congenital-diaphragmatic-hernia",totalDownloads:2560,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Despite advances in neonatal and surgical care, the management of congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) remains challenging with no definitive standard treatment guidelines. Several centers report mortality rates as low as 20%, but if extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) support is required, the mortality rate rises to 50%. The disease severity is related to the degree of pulmonary hypoplasia and pulmonary hypertension that occurs with CDH. Both conditions decrease the infant’s ability to ventilate and oxygenate adequately at delivery. These physiologic conditions that impair gas exchange are the important determinants of morbidity and mortality in CDH infants. Presently, delivery of infants with CDH is recommended close to term gestation. The focus of care includes gentle ventilation, hemodynamic monitoring, and treatment of pulmonary hypertension followed by surgery for the defect. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) is considered after failure of conventional medical management for infants ≥ 34 weeks’ gestation or with weight >2 kg and no associated major lethal anomalies. This chapter discusses long‐term follow‐up recommendations for survivors, which should involve a multidisciplinary approach, as there are many surgical and nonsurgical consequences to the disease process. Clinical strategies that address these multifaceted aspects of care, from prenatal to long‐term follow‐up, may further reduce the high mortality rate for these infants.",book:{id:"5928",slug:"hernia",title:"Hernia",fullTitle:"Hernia"},signatures:"Joanne Baerg, Arul Thirumoorthi and Rajaie Hazboun",authors:[{id:"178844",title:"Dr.",name:"Joanne",middleName:null,surname:"Baerg",slug:"joanne-baerg",fullName:"Joanne Baerg"},{id:"180308",title:"Dr.",name:"Arul",middleName:null,surname:"Thirumoorthi",slug:"arul-thirumoorthi",fullName:"Arul Thirumoorthi"},{id:"206025",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajaie",middleName:null,surname:"Hazboun",slug:"rajaie-hazboun",fullName:"Rajaie Hazboun"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1146",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:288,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. 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After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. 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His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNVJQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-07T13:23:04.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. 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