Effect of culture systems on contents of zinc and iron in bell pepper fruit
\r\n\tContaminated water is not suitable for drinking, or use in recreation, agriculture, and industrial activities. These waters cause poisoning of drinking water, deterioration of river and lake ecosystems, decrease in biological diversity as a result of the death of aquatic life, and various environmental problems.
\r\n\r\n\tWater resources are limited however, the need for water is gradually increasing. Considering that water quality deteriorates increasingly, the importance of preserving existing water resources in terms of quantity and quality is increasing day by day. So, it is important to determine the sources of contamination correctly and to take the necessary precautions.
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Prof. Dincer received the Technology Development Award from the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) in 2013 and a national study patent in 2019.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Researcher in the field of Microbiology, Biotechnology, Enzymology, Microbial Genetics, and Bacteriology. Dr. Mercimek Takci has 47 manuscripts published in national and international journals and is a winner of the TÜBİTAK Incentive Award.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Associate Professor at Near East University in Northern Cyprus whose teaching interests include industrial microbiology, bacteriology, biotechnology, enzymology, and environmental microbiology.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"188141",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadik",middleName:null,surname:"Dincer",slug:"sadik-dincer",fullName:"Sadik Dincer",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188141/images/system/188141.jpeg",biography:"For the past 35 years, Prof. Sadık Dincer has been involved in teaching, research, and academic work in numerous distinguished universities in Turkey. Currently, he is working at Cukurova University, Biology and Biotechnology Departments, Adana, Turkey. His manuscripts and book chapters have been published in national and international journals and his works has been cited 1018 times. To date he has trained twenty-five MSc and eleven PhD students. He received the Technology Development Award from the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) in 2013 and a national study patent in 2019. 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Her teaching interests contain Microbiology, Biotechnology, Enzymology, Microbial Genetics and Bacteriology. She has 47 manuscripts published in national and international journals and her works has been cited 245 times. Her research interests focus on multiple antibiotic and heavy metal resistance in bacteria, production and characterization of bacterial enzymes, bioremediation by bacteria, microbial quality (fecal contamination, bacterial diversity and microbial load) of aquatic environments. Related to these research areas, she has 17 projects supported the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) and coordinatorship of scientific research projects.",institutionString:"Kilis 7 Aralık University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Kilis 7 Aralık University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"292288",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Melis",middleName:null,surname:"Sümengen Özdenefe",slug:"melis-sumengen-ozdenefe",fullName:"Melis Sümengen Özdenefe",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/292288/images/14472_n.jpg",biography:"Associate Prof. Dr. Melis Sumengen Ozdenefe received her BSc, MSc, and PhD Degrees in Biology from Cukurova University, Turkey in 2009, 2011, and 2014, respectively. During her MSc, she was at Anhalt University, Germany for six months as an international exchange student and a researcher from 2010 to 2011. She has been working in the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Near East University in Northern Cyprus since 2014. Her teaching interests include Industrial Microbiology, Bacteriology, Biotechnology, Enzymology, and Environmental Microbiology. Her research areas involve enzymes and biosurfactant which are produced from various bacteria and fungi for industrial applications, the production and characterization of bacterial enzymes and bacteriocins, the antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of various plant structures, and multiple antibiotic resistance and heavy metal resistance of Gram-negative bacteria isolated from the aquatic environment. Her works have been published in national-international journals, conferences, congresses, and symposiums and cited 142 times.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Near East University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Cyprus"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"418965",firstName:"Nera",lastName:"Butigan",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418965/images/16899_n.jpg",email:"nera@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors.\nFrom chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. 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Conventional agriculture practices utilize high-yield crop cultivars, chemical fertilizers and pesticides, irrigation techniques, and mechanization that have a huge impact on our environment [2]. Plants are subjected to attack by a large and diverse number of pathogens and pests; as a result, crop producers often use large amounts of agrochemicals in an attempt to improve and protect the fruit quality and plant vigor [3]. Ever since people have become aware that health is linked to health environment, the control and reduction of pollution have become the focus of worldwide concern [4]. Pollution is becoming a serious problem in agricultural regions; for example, various mineral fertilizers and agrochemicals lead to pollution and serious health problems in humans, hence alternative production techniques which employ biological or organic compounds for disease and pest control are needed [5]. In addition to the human health concern of elevated heavy metal concentrations in soil, they can cause harm to native ecosystem and accumulation in plant tissue can result in damage to wildlife [6]. Plant toxicity is the primary concern for elevated zinc concentration in soil, whereas the potential for risk to the herbivores is the primary concern with elevated cadmium concentration in soil, while human health concerns focus on lead concentration for which the most pertinent pathway is direct ingestion of soil [7].
Organic farming, which essentially excludes the use of many inputs associated with modern farming, most notably synthetic pesticides and fertilizers, is becoming more and more popular worldwide [2, 8]. Consumer’s awareness of the relationship between foods and health, together with environment concerns, has led to an increased demand for organically produced foods. In general, the public perceives organic foods as being healthier and safer than those produced through conventional agricultural practices [9]. Consumers demand organic products because they believe they are more favorable and respectful to the environment and human health [10]. Organic foods have a nutritional and sensory advantage in comparison to their conventionally produced counterparts. Advocates for organic produce claim that it contains fewer harmful chemicals, is better for the environment, and may be more nutritious [11].
Mineral contents of fruits were found to be higher in fruits produced under conventional systems in comparison to the fruits produced under organic systems [12]. For example, bell pepper fruits, which were produced under conventional systems, were characterized by a high content of minerals (Table 1). The highest contents of zinc and iron in bell pepper were obtained in the conventional treatment with significant differences between other treatments, while there were no significant differences among the organic matter treatments, which could be attributed to the high application of chemical fertilizers [13].
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Conventional | \n\t\t\t1.410 a | \n\t\t\t57.75 a | \n\t\t
Cattle manure | \n\t\t\t1.170 b | \n\t\t\t45.50 b | \n\t\t
Poultry manure | \n\t\t\t1.163 b | \n\t\t\t39.75 c | \n\t\t
Sheep manure | \n\t\t\t1.165 b | \n\t\t\t39.25 c | \n\t\t
Mixture manure | \n\t\t\t1.227 b | \n\t\t\t42.75 bc | \n\t\t
Effect of culture systems on contents of zinc and iron in bell pepper fruit
*Means within each column having different letters are significantly different according to Least Significant Difference at 5% level.
The contents of calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, and phosphorous in bell pepper fruit were significantly higher in those produced with conventional system than all those produced with organic matter systems (Table 2); even though the highest calcium content was obtained by the conventional treatment, there was no significant difference with the poultry manure, which could be due to the high use of limestone in the chicken food mixture [13].
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Conventional | \n\t\t\t260 a | \n\t\t\t89.25 a | \n\t\t\t394 a | \n\t\t\t26.1 a | \n\t\t\t2323 a | \n\t\t
Cattle manure | \n\t\t\t243 b | \n\t\t\t79.50 b | \n\t\t\t315 b | \n\t\t\t19.1 b | \n\t\t\t1889 bc | \n\t\t
Poultry manure | \n\t\t\t257 a | \n\t\t\t81.75 ab | \n\t\t\t362 ab | \n\t\t\t19.9 b | \n\t\t\t1820 c | \n\t\t
Sheep manure | \n\t\t\t239 b | \n\t\t\t84.50 ab | \n\t\t\t349 ab | \n\t\t\t18.1 b | \n\t\t\t1986 b | \n\t\t
Mixture manure | \n\t\t\t246 b | \n\t\t\t77.75 b | \n\t\t\t348 ab | \n\t\t\t19.6 b | \n\t\t\t1915 bc | \n\t\t
Effect of culture systems on contents of calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, sodium, and potassium in bell pepper fruit
*Means within each column having different letters are significantly different according to Least Significant Difference at 5% level.
Vegetables represent the most important source of nitrogen for human nutrition, which is essential for growth. Therefore, its accumulation in plants is a natural phenomenon resulting from uptake of the nitrate ion that is found in excess amounts, and the intensive use of nitrogen fertilizer and manure causes nitrate contamination of the environment; therefore, vegetables can accumulate high levels of nitrogen and, when consumed, pose serious health concerns [13]. Ammonium and nitrate contents in conventionally grown strawberry fruits were 49.4 and 23.6 ppm, respectively, due to high use of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers, whereas it was found that ammonium content was 32.3 ppm and nitrate content was extremely low in organically produced fruits [10]. The nitrate content in bell pepper fruit was very low (<200 mgkg-1), for all different cultural systems (organic or inorganic), even though the minimum value of nitrate content for organically produced bell peppers and the maximum value for fertilized bell peppers were found below the safe limit [13].
All organically produced fruits had significantly higher total soluble solids (TSS) and lower titratable acidity (TA) in comparison to the conventionally produced fruits [5, 14]; for example, sensory attributes are important aspects of fruit quality, and the balance between sweetness and sourness are the most important determinants of overall quality of fruits [15]; for example, acceptance of the flavor quality of strawberry fruits is minimum 7% for TSS content, while the maximum is 0.8% for TA [16]. Organically grown strawberries had significantly higher TSS (7.1%) and lower TA content (0.93%) in comparison to the conventionally grown strawberries that had 6.6% TSS and 0.99% TA. On the other hand, addition of animal manure improved bell pepper fruit taste by increasing the percentage of TSS and the addition of animal manure decreased the percentage of TA in bell pepper fruit [10].
Phenolic metabolites may suit human health and contribute to the prevention of chronic diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular diseases [17]. In addition, phenolic compounds play a vital role in plant defense mechanisms against insect, fungi, and animal herbivores [18]. Levels of phenolic compounds were higher in organically grown fruits than the levels in conventionally produced fruits, because the restricted use of herbicides, pesticides, insecticides, and chemical fertilizers was reported to accelerate synthesis of phenolic compounds in organically produced fruits [19].
Ascorbic acid content in fruits is cultivar dependent according to Leskinen et al. [20]; levels of ascorbic acid in organically produced fruits were consistently higher than the levels in the conventionally grown ones [8]. The highest fruit ascorbic acid content (50.5 mg 100 g-1 fruit fresh weight) was obtained by the organically treated berry fruits, whereas the conventional treatment gave the lowest ascorbic acid content (41.25 mg 100 g-1 g fruit fresh weight), according to Abu-Zahra et al. [10]. On the other hand, Cayuela et al. [14] did not find significant difference in the ascorbic acid content between organic and conventional grown strawberry fruits. Also manure type has an effect; the highest amount of vitamin C was obtained from the sheep manure–treated pepper fruits, while the lowest amount was obtained by the conventionally produced pepper fruits [10].
Fruit crude fiber content highly differs according to fruit dry weight [21], but it is found to be higher in organically produced fruits in comparison to conventionally produced fruits [10]; the high crude fiber content in the organically produced fruits could ensure better nutritional and health benefits related to fiber consumption [22]. The highest strawberry crude fibre fruit value (8.13%) was obtained by the 4.5 kg organic matter/m2, which was significantly different from the conventional, and control treatments [13]. Although, crude fiber of bell pepper fruit was improved by the use of the cattle manure which produced the highest (2.96%) crude fiber content in comparison to the conventional system which produced the lowest content (2.8%) [23].
Fruit size is highly affected by the farming systems; the conventional agriculture resulted in the biggest fruits, in comparison to organically produced fruits. The large fruit size in the conventional farming system may be due to the good availability of soil nutrients that produced vigorous plants with higher yield and larger fruits. But it was observed that the use of high amount of organic matter (6 kg O.M/m2) produced a large fruit size, which may be due to the good improvement of physical and chemical properties of the soil [10, 24].
Fruit weight depends on cultivar and temperature rather than on the culture system (organic or conventional) [10]. Moreover, most researchers found only small and non-significant differences between organic and conventional systems in respect to fruit weight [20]. But in an experiment conducted on strawberry plants, they observed that the use of chemical fertilizers were found to produce the highest significant average fruit weight compared to fruits produced by using organic materials or without using any type of fertilizers [10, 25].
Fruit moisture content showed an opposite trend to fruit dry matter content; organically produced fruits had more dry matter and lower water content in comparison to the conventionally produced ones. The decrease in fruit water content of the organically produced fruits was reflected on increasing fruit dry matter content in comparison to the conventionally produced fruits that produced the lowest fruit dry matter and highest water content [10]. For example, the highest strawberry moisture content (93.37%) was obtained by the conventional system which produced the lowest fruit dry matter content (6.63%), while strawberry fruits that are produced under organic systems, contains 92.61% moisture content and 7.39% of dry matter content [10].
The fruit taste is highly affected by the fruit pH; addition of organic materials was found to lower the strawberry fruit pH, especially by using sheep manure as a source of organic matter [24]. However, in an experiment conducted on pepper plant, results do not show any significant differences between all of the used organic and inorganic treatments on fruit pH [23].
Chlorophyll content of the leaves was increased by the use of organic matter applications; the highest increase was obtained by using the sheep manure as a source of organic matter, while the lowest amounts of leaf chlorophyll content were obtained by the use of chemical fertilizers [26].
A promotional effect of organic matter treatments on chlorophyll contents might be attributed to the fact that nitrogen is a constituent of chlorophyll molecule [3]; moreover, nitrogen is the main constituent of all amino acids in protein and lipids that act as a structural compound of the chloroplast. Contradictory data about the relationship between growth and chlorophyll content of leaves have been reported in which bio-fertilizers increased the content of photosynthetic pigments [27].
Organically grown fruits developed a significantly stronger color than conventionally grown ones [14]. The highest anthocyanin content of strawberry fruits (42.88 mg 100 g-1fruit fresh weight) was obtained by the 6 kg O.M/m2 treatment, while the least anthocyanin content was obtained by the control treatment (neither synthetic fertilizers nor organic materials). In spite of that, the anthocyanin content of the control treatment of strawberry plants remained within the ranges between 17.8 and 41.8 mg 100 g-1, and values lower or higher than that range should not be acceptable [10].
In another study conducted on red pepper fruits, the highest anthocyanin (38.5 mg 100 g-1) amount was obtained by the mixture of different organic matter treatment. And the least anthocyanic content was obtained by the conventional culture system, which proves that organic farming provides peppers with the highest intensities of red and yellow colors, while the conventional fruits were those with the lowest values of color intensity [23].
It is recorded that fruit lycopene content was the highest in conventional agriculture, but without significant differences from the different organic matter sources. Also fruit lycopene was affected by the organic matter source, and the lowest lycopene content was obtained by the poultry manure source–treated pepper fruits, which means lycopene fruit content does not improve by the use of organic matter treatments in comparison to conventional agriculture that hastened fruit lycopene content [23].
Fruit characteristics from plants cultivated in soil supplemented with animal manure were generally better than those from plants grown in soils only or supplemented with chemical fertilizers. In most cases of animal manure sources, sheep manure gave the best results. On the other hand, the use of chemical fertilizers was found to increase the fruit lycopene content and improve fruit size and yield by increasing the fruit weight. Organic foods contain fewer harmful chemicals, are better for the environment, and may be more nutritious.
Since the successful exfoliation of graphene [1], a group of materials with two-dimensional structures have revived and are attracting explosive interests from a variety of fields, including transistors [2], photodetectors [3], chemical sensors, memories, and artificial synapses [4, 5]. This is benefited from the versatile properties, of 2D materials defined not only by their crystal structure (1 T, 2H, etc.) but also by their layer number, i.e., the electrical conductivity and optical bandgaps [6]. The transition metal chalcogenides (TMDs) of 1 T or 1 T’ phase usually manifest metallic behavior, while in 2H phase, they are semiconductor and can be transformed into insulator by field-effect modulation [7]. Meanwhile, monolayer MoS2, WSe2, and MoTe2 are transformed into direct band semiconductor with greatly improved photoluminescence yield compared to their indirect bulk form, rendering the further fabrication of light emitting diodes [8, 9]. The recent appearance of 2D ferroelectric materials from direct chemical synthesis or atom doping has further enriched the physical properties of 2D semiconductors [10, 11]. These rapid evolution of 2D materials with diverse physical and chemical properties motivates enduring efforts to explore various property tuning and integration strategies in functional devices, e.g., via chemical doping, alloying, or constructing heterostructures [12].
An indispensable feature of the 2D materials is their van der Waals interlayer coupling, which is weak enough compared to covalent or ionic bonding to enable mechanical or electrochemical exfoliation [13]. The exfoliated 2D materials in monolayer or few layer thicknesses can then be artificially stacked, either laterally or vertically, making heterostructures in various forms that are not possible in conventional semiconductors with 3D crystal lattice (Si, III-V, and oxides) due to the lattice mismatch. The great flexibility in assembling 2D materials thus renders unprecedented opportunity in discovering novel nanoscale transport phenomenon [14] and carrier dynamics and stimulates the exploration of 2D functional devices via deliberately designing the heterostructures. In optoelectronics, this enabled the tailoring of charge separation characteristics of photogenerated electron–hole pairs in semiconductors [15], thereby allowing innovated designs of heterostructured transistors [16, 17], tunneling diode for photodetection [18, 19], and further optoelectronic memories with float gate structures [20].
In this chapter, we first introduce the basic design of heterostructures for optoelectronics and the pick-transfer methods for their artificial assembly and then discuss the recent progress in fabricating novel 2D vdW heterostructures for functional devices. In view of the rapid progress in this field, the chapter is not intended to cover all aspects of the field but focus on optoelectronic-related application, typically photodiode and phototransistors for photodetection and optoelectronic memories that integrate both light sensing and memory function.
The interfacial energy band alignment in heterostructures governs the carrier dynamics in devices and therefore determines directly their functional performances. Depending on the relative positions of conduction band and valance band of constituting materials, there are generally three types of band alignments, including type I (straddling gap), type II (staggered gap), type III (broken gap), as illustrated in Figure 1a [21]. The different band offsets make them perform differently in optoelectronic devices [22]. In type I alignment, the bandgap of a semiconductor is located within the bandgap of another one; thus both electrons and holes tend to relax in the first narrow bandgap semiconductor. It is therefore widely used in light emitting diodes for higher light illumination efficiency by confining electron and hole pairs within the narrow bandgap semiconductor [23]. In contrary, in type II alignment, both the conduction band minimum (CBM) and valance band maximum (VBM) are higher or lower than the other, which forces electrons and holes residing in different semiconductors. The separation of electron–hole pairs in type II aligned heterostructures allows the fabrication of rectifying diodes with photovoltaic effects and is usually adopted for photoelectric detectors that transform incident light into electrical signals [3]. In the case of type III band alignment, the bandgap of a semiconductor lies outside of the other one, with its CBM lower than the VBM of the other. There is no more forbidden gap at the interface compared to the bulk semiconductor. Such type III band alignment is useful in tunneling field-effect transistors with large current density [24].
Band positions and alignments for 2D materials and heterostructures. (a) Heterostructures of type I, II and III interfacial band alignments, reproduced with permission from Ref. [
Since the conduction band is usually related to the cations while valance band is related to the anions, designing the band offsets is traditionally mostly achieved in superlattices of semiconductor alloys with widely tuned bandgap and suppressed lattice mismatches, e.g., AlxGa1−xAs/GaAs [25]. However, by using 2D materials, the lattice mismatch between adjacent heterostructured materials is in principle eliminated due to the weak interlayer coupling via van der Waals force. Various 2D materials of different energy band structures and gaps, e.g., graphene, MXenes, black phosphorous (BP), TMDs, and hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN), can thus be artificially stacked to make multiple kinds of heterostructures [13, 26]. Figure 1b illustrates the energy bandgap position of several 2D semiconductors [21, 27, 28]. Due to the zero-bandgap characteristic of graphene, it could not be directly used for high on–off switching devices, e.g., transistors, diodes, but is often used as electrode contacts for its ultrahigh carrier mobility >10,000 cm2 V−1 s−1 [29]. Recently, other 2D semiconductors have been found as alternatives, with widely distributed bandgaps from 0.2 eV to 2–3 eV [4, 6]. The electron affinity also varies largely from 3 to <5 eV, thus rendering the possibility to make all kinds of heterostructures (types I, II, III) with different band offsets, i.e., by choosing suitable 2D semiconductors. For example, WSe2/SnS2 constitutes a type III heterostructure, while MoS2/WSe2 forms a typical type II structure. Notably, the number of stacked layers is also not limited to two but can be facilely increased for multilayer heterostructures for tunneling diodes or device encapsulation [13]. The continuously increasing 2D material family thus incubates infinite possibilities in 2D heterostructures and extremely rich functions.
The deterministic transfer of two-dimensional materials constitutes a crucial step toward the fabrication of heterostructures based on the artificial stacking of two-dimensional materials. To stack multiple 2D materials into heterostructure, one needs to transfer 2D materials into a specified position on substrate. This is usually done under an optical microscope, in which one could identify the ultrathin 2D materials through their slight color contrast with substrates. A 3D moving stage is usually equipped to fine adjust the stacking position of each layer, as indicated in Figure 2a [30]. So far, a lot of methods and processes have been developed to achieve high-quality assembly of 2D materials in devices and multilayer heterostructures. For 2D materials initially grown on substrates, e.g., graphene on copper, MoS2 on sapphire, they are usually first etched free from the substrates via polymer (typically poly(methyl methacrylate), known as PMMA)-assisted handling and wet-chemical etching processes [31]. However, the residual of PMMA and wet etching chemicals often deteriorate material performance and also degrades the cleanness of stacked interface, which can be serious in multilayered heterostructures. All-dry transfer of 2D materials is thus desired for making high-performance devices.
Setup and typical dry transfer processes for 2D vdW stacking. (a) Schematic of the experimental setup and (b) the processes employed for the all-dry transfer process, reproduced with permission from Ref. [
To make a heterostructure based on vertical stacking, 2D materials can be typically exfoliated from single crystals by Scotch tape and then transferred to viscous elastomer stamp (poly dimethyl siloxane, PDMS), as illustrated in Figure 2b [30]. The transparent PDMS stamp is then used to handle the exfoliated 2D flakes. Under optical microscope, it is then aligned to a target position, e.g., the position of already transferred 2D layer. The position of the stamp is then fine-tuned in all three dimensions to approach the target substrate, until the full contact. It is then slowly peeled off from substrate leaving 2D material behind. Sometimes slight heating of the substrate is necessary to reduce the viscosity of PDMS stamp and promote the successful transfer of 2D material onto target substrate. Instead of the common used PDMS stamps, thermal release tapes can be also used as the handle [32]. Though no wet-chemical etching processes is adopted in the above procedures, the surface of PDMS is full of silane groups and may contaminate the 2D material during transfer and make the contacting substrate hydrophobic. It may therefore deteriorate the material and interface quality in device.
An improved polymer-free method was reported by Wang et al., which adopted the clean h-BN as the buffer layer to attach graphene (Figure 2c) [33]. This is based on the stronger interaction between graphene and h-BN compared to SiO2, so that elastomer stamps with h-BN layer could pick up graphene layer from substrate. Note that the graphene layer is initially transferred onto SiO2 substrate by tape exfoliation; both the top and bottom surface are free from polymer residuals due to the fresh exfoliation when peeling off the tape. Through this method, the graphene layer during all transfer processes is protected by h-BN and thus could form clean interfaces with both the top and bottom h-BN layers. The as-prepared h-BN-encapsulated graphene manifests unprecedented room temperature mobility up to 140,000 cm2 V−1 s−1, with long ballistic transport distance over 15 μm at 40 K, demonstrating the ultrahigh interface quality formed in such polymer-free transfer methods.
Recently, the pick-transfer methods have been also modified to transfer metal electrodes onto 2D materials, avoiding the interdiffusion of elements within the contact interface with 2D materials from traditional physical deposition of metal electrodes (via magnetic sputtering, thermal evaporation, etc.) [34]. Importantly, the formed electrical contact with MoS2 using different metal electrodes displayed ideal Schottky barriers defined by the work function difference between metal and MoS2, which have not been achieved in conventional Si devices. It is therefore undoubted that the versatile usages of pick-transfer methods in assembling 2D devices hold vast potential in reforming existing technologies from many aspects.
There are several kinds of photodetectors that convert incident light signal to electrical signals, including detectors that rely on photoelectric effect, pyroelectric effect, and photothermal effects. Among the various detectors, the photoelectric detectors exhibit fast response dynamics based on simple separation of electron–hole pairs and are mostly used in commercial products. The photoelectric detectors can be further categorized into photodiode and phototransistors. In photodiodes, the photogenerated electron–hole pairs are separated by the built-in electric field in space charge region, while in phototransistors, an external electric field is applied to generate photodetection gain >100% for highly sensitive detection.
In 2D heterostructures, both photodiodes and phototransistors can be built up by vdW stacking of different materials. Because of the presence of band offset at the interface, heterostructured junctions tend to enable efficient charge separation compared to homojunctions, which requires deliberate control of their p and n doping states. In this section, we discuss several typical heterostructures in type I–III band alignments and their behavior in photodetection.
To fabricate heterostructured diode, one kind of 2D material is exfoliated and transferred onto the other one. For the charge separation in vertical direction, type II band alignment is desired. However, this is not naturally obtained, especially when one adopts a narrow bandgap semiconductor for infrared applications, e.g., BP. However, since the work function of ultrathin 2D materials can be dramatically modulated by electrostatic methods, the behavior of 2D diodes was demonstrated tunable by applying gate voltages [35, 36, 37]. As illustrated in Figure 3a, BP and WSe2 form type I band alignments [38], with slight conduction band offset (~0.1 eV). When increasing the back-gate voltage from negative to positive, the WSe2 layer is tuned sequentially from p to i and n states by the injection of gate-coupled electrons and then forming, respectively, p–p, pi, and p-n junctions with the p-typed BP. Further increasing gate bias also tunes BP to n type and results in n-n junction. Accordingly, these junctions manifest different rectification ratios under gate bias. Figure 3b displays the forward and reverse channel current (at
2D Heterostructures of different interfacial band alignments and their characteristics. (a) The type I band alignment between BP and WSe2 and (b) the appearance of various junction behaviors (p-p, p-n, n-n) under gate modulation, reproduced with permission from Ref. [
By choosing appropriate 2D semiconductors, p-n junctions can be formed directly without gate bias. Wang et al. reported such diode based on p-typed gate and n-type MoS2 [37]. It displays apparent photovoltaic effect under light illumination, as indicated in Figure 3c. The extracted ideal factor of the junction is as low as 2 at room temperature, corresponding to Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH) recombination-dominated carrier loss during transport. So far, various kinds of p-n junctions have been made based on such type II band alignments, including BP/MoS2 [38], MoS2/MoTe2 [40], MoS2/WSe2 [41], etc. The open circuit voltage by photovoltaic effect in such type II band heterostructures is limited by the interfacial bandgap determined by the lower conduction and higher valance band. It is therefore usually less than the maximum
Tunneling diodes can be formed by heterostructures of type III band alignment [24]. In the case of WSe2/SnS2 heterostructure, due to the high electron affinity of SnS2, type III heterostructure is formed with direct interband transition between valance band of WSe2 and the conduction band of SnS2 [19]. The diode initially displayed high rectification ratio >104 for low dark current under reverse bias, whereas under illumination, the device exhibits dramatically increased light current by direct tunneling, resulting in high responsivity >200 AW−1 and excellent detectivity >1013 Jones. Further exploration of the kind of heterostructure using other 2D materials with different bandgap may have the potential to make high-performance tunneling photodiodes for infrared. The heterostructure of narrow bandgap BP and larger bandgap MoS2 has been used to realize multi-value inverters with high gains >150 based on gate-modulated tunneling current [44].
In addition to the two-layer stacking, multilayered heterostructures have been also developed as tunneling diodes. Figure 4a illustrates such a heterostructure based on vertically stacked graphene/MoS2/graphene [35]. Because of the work function between top and bottom graphene (due to the unidentical substrate doping effect), the multilayer displayed photovoltaic separation of electron–hole pairs under illumination, reaching a
Various kinds of vertical heterostructures. (a) Schematic of Gr/MoS2/Gr heterojunction, which displays photovoltaic separation of electron–hole pairs and (b) the extracted external quantum efficiency (EQE) under different light power and wavelengths, reproduced with permission from Ref. [
In photodiodes, the photodetection gain is limited due to the maximum attainable quantum efficiency (photon-to-electron conversion efficiency) less than unity [46]. Hence, photodiodes are less sensitive and are usually operated under reverse bias or self-driven mode without external bias. In comparison, when integrating such heterostructure into a photoconductor configuration, phototransistors can be made with high sensitivity based on the photoconductive gain and vertical photovoltaic effects. The photodetection gain originates from the separation of electron–hole pairs at the heterostructure interface, with one kind of carrier accumulated in the 2D high mobility channel, therefore yielding amplified photoconductive gains by the ratio of injected charges compared to the inherent carrier concentration in 2D channel [47]. A representative example is PbS quantum dot (QD)-sensitized graphene, in which the QDs and 2D surface are coupled by vdW interaction (Figure 5a) [48]. Upon illumination, holes are injected into graphene and transport there with dramatically increased mobility compared to QDs that have large amount of grain boundaries and surface states. In this way, ultrahigh responsivity >107 A/W has been demonstrated in such hybrid photodetectors. Notably, based on the gate-modulated Fermi level in graphene, the charge injection from PbS QDs to graphene can be extensively tailored. As indicated in Figure 5b, the attained responsivity is sensitive to the applied gate bias; under
Phototransistors based on various heterostructures. (a) The schematic of PbS quantum dots sensitized graphene for infrared photodetection; (b) the back-gate-modulated responsivity of the hybrid photodetector, reproduced with permission from Ref. [
In addition to colloidal quantum dots, 2D heterostructures based on vertically stacked 2D layers can also make up phototransistors. A narrow bandgap semiconductor can be stacked on another 2D material for extended photodetection spectra. As illustrated in Figure 5c, BP is stacked on a WSe2 channel [17]. The photoexcited carriers in BP by near-infrared photons are separated by the type II interface, with electrons injected to WSe2. The amount of injected charge is related to the junction capacitance and the photovoltage built across the junction. In Figure 5d, the photodetection gain in such device reaches 102 at 1500 nm, which is considerably larger than the photodiodes (<1) by the amplification mechanism in phototransistor. Therefore, the specific detectivity of the device reaches 1010–1014 Jones at the measured wavelength (400–1500 nm) range. Longer wavelength results in low gain and detectivity due to the decrease of light absorption. Instead of BP, a lot of other 2D materials has been also explored to construct such heterostructured phototransistor, in which the photovoltaic separation of photocarriers can be used to gate the semiconductor channel and amplify the photoconductive gain.
Without complicated stacking processes, 2D vdW heterostructures can be also made by combining organic small molecules with 2D material. As illustrated in Figure 5e, Huang et al. recently reported such a vdW phototransistor based on Zinc phthalocyanine (ZnPc, a π-conjugated planar molecule)-decorated monolayer MoS2, which is achieved by simple solution treatment [16]. The formed junction displayed apparent rectification characteristic at the out-plane direction by forming type II band alignment and p-n junction. As a result, the detector displayed remarkably improved response speed and optimal responsivity (Figure 5f) with proper Al2O3 passivation. Other molecules, such as pentacene, have been also used to modify the performance of 2D semiconductors (MoS2, ReS2, etc.) in addition to response dynamics but also the response spectra [50, 51]. Considering the huge library of 2D materials and organic molecules, it is believed such hybrid heterostructure holds special promise in achieving scalable high-performance photodetections, in which using existing pick-transfer procedures is apparently challenging.
Optoelectronic memory can transform incident optical signals into stored electric charges [52]. Considering the light program signals can be free from interferences, the optoelectronic memories are particularly attractive for realizing high-throughput data storage, e.g., in parallel computing [53]. A typical optoelectronic memory is consisted of light sensing part and charge storage component, which could be feasibly realized using multilayered 2D stacking. Compared to the conventional 3D counterparts, the 2D devices have the advantages in having high on–off ratio by the ultrathin channel, the conductance of which can be feasibly modulated via slight amount of trapped charges. According to the charge trapping mechanism, in the following we describe two kinds of optoelectronic memories, based on, respectively, the charge trapping in (i) defect energy states or (ii) float gates.
The ultrathin nature makes 2D semiconductors highly suitable as the readout channel in memory, as their conductance can be modulated greatly by slight charge trapping, including by the inherent trap states in devices. In literatures, the prepared MoS2 often exhibits midgap trap states [54], and the device also suffers from interface defect states, e.g., at the interface with SiO2 [55], which may capture some charges under gate modulation by the shifted Fermi level EF (the trap states below EF are prone to be filled with electrons, while those states above EF tend to be empty). This usually results in large hysteresis in field-effect devices and different conduction states after positive and negative gate stress. However, the limited density of trap states restricted the on–off switch in memory. Lee et al. reported an improved device by introducing localized electronic states in MoS2 using tailored SiO2 substrate with functional silanol groups (Si-OH)(Figure 6a) [56], which exhibit strong polar interaction and causes local potential fluctuation in energy band. The device is composed of thin MoS2 layer on SiO2 substrate, using the back-Si as the gate. The conduction state is reset by using positive gate bias (80 V) and then programmed using light exposure under gate bias (20 V). Applying
2D optoelectronic memories. (a) Schematic of a 2D memory based on MoS2 on tailored SiO2 surface and (b) the light exposure time programmed memory states in the device, reproduced with permission from Ref. [
The above optoelectronic memory works under visible light excitation due to the bandgap limit of MoS2. Wang et al. reported an infrared memory using the vdW heterostructure of MoS2/PbS [57], which is sensitive to 1550 nm radiation with the sensitization of narrow bandgap PbS thin flakes epitaxially grown on MoS2 (as illustrated in Figure 6c). The charge trapping is based on the electron injection into MoS2 by the generation of large amount of photoexcited electrons in PbS under light illumination, as indicated by the energy band diagram shown in Figure 6d. However, the device exhibits low resistance change by light exposure and transient conductance variation after program, due to the eventual recombination of electron–hole pairs in dark, which drive carrier distribution to equilibrium. Also, the program speed is directly determined by photon energy and the overall incident power, as the former governs the energy of photoexcited carriers (whether it is sufficient to overcome the interfacial potential barrier to be injected into the other side) and the latter determines the number of excited carriers. Alternatively, the charge trapping in defect states in dielectric materials tends to exhibit long retention time. Xiang et al. constructed a nonvolatile memory using WSe2 transferred on insulate h-BN layer (Figure 6e) [58]. The inherent defect states in h-BN are able to trap photoexcited carriers in WSe2, therefore enabling optoelectronic memory operation. The memory is operated under the simultaneous light exposure and gate bias, thus to force the charge trapping into the midgap states of h-BN. Because of the large bandgap of h-BN, the trapped charges can hardly move, and the resulted memory exhibits long-term retention characteristics for more than 104 s. Such optoelectronic memory can be feasibly transformed into multi-bit memory, by using either the amplitude of gate bias or the light irradiation power, wavelength, and pulse number as the input (Figure 6f). However, slight temporal change of conductance is still observed due to the recombination of photogenerated electron–hole pairs in WSe2 itself. Nevertheless, the strategy has been exploited to develop artificial optoelectronic synapses, the overall weight of which is less sensitive to the single-unit device but to the average of multiple connections [59].
Instead of charge trapping in random trap states, float gate structure exhibits well-described charge trapping characteristics and long-term retention characteristics [60]. The charge trapping can also be triggered by light irradiation to the light sensing semiconductor channel or float gate. Using 2D materials, the float gate structure can be assembled by h-BN as the insulate barrier and 2D semiconductors as the channel.
Figure 7a displays the initial 2D float memory based on graphene and MoS2 separated by h-BN [61]. The device usually has the structure of a field-effect transistor but with an additional float gate inserted between the source-drain channel and the control gate. The memory behavior of the device by using MoS2 as the channel and graphene as the float gate is shown in Figure 7b. The charge trapping is based on the quantum tunneling under gate bias, which induces FN tunneling by lowering the effective tunneling barrier with trigonal potential profile in the insulate h-BN layer. Alternatively using graphene as the channel results in low on–off ratio due to the zero-bandgap nature of graphene, by what the graphene channel can hardly be turned off. Notably, the thickness of h-BN is critical for the float memory, as too thin h-BN results in direct tunneling loss of charges and poor retention behavior, while too thick h-BN is good for retention but requires high operation voltages. The optimal thickness of h-BN is ~6–10 nm. The thin thickness of h-BN enables efficient tunneling of channel conductance by the float gate potential, as indicated in the inset of Figure 7b. Instead of graphene and MoS2, many other 2D semiconductors have been explored for the float memory, including WSe2, ReS2, BP, etc. [63, 64, 65, 66]. They all displayed high on–off ratio up to 107, which is likely to benefit multi-bit storage.
Several representative 2D float gate heterostructures. (a) The schematic configuration of a float gate memory based on MoS2/h-BN/graphene (b) shows the hysteresis memory behavior using back-Si gate, and the inset depicts the MoS2 conductance modulated by float gate potential, reproduced with permission from Ref. [
Because of the excellent tunability of charges in 2D channel, the float gate structure has been reformed into semi-float and two-terminal structures. Figure 7c shows a semi-float gate device with WSe2 as the channel [62], in which the graphene as float gate spans half of the channel. Thus, the charge trapping in graphene only modulates the carrier concentration in partially the overlapped region. Taking advantage of the ambipolar characteristic of WSe2, the gate region can be tuned either p- or n-doped, forming the lateral pn diodes or Schottky diodes with apparent rectification behavior (Figure 7d). A special advantage of such device is their reconfigurable device behavior on demand. The device structure can be further simplified into two-terminal structures by removing the control gate, which usually is the back-Si gate [20]. Figure 7e displays a schematic structure of such two-terminal float memory. The charge tunneling can be realized by applying enough source-drain bias as indicated in Figure 7f. Because of the nonuniform electric field in channel, the potential drop between drain and float gate is sufficient to induce charge injection into float gate. After applying negative
The various heterostructures by versatile 2D stacking have enabled the blossom of 2D optoelectronic devices. There is also an emerging of optoelectronic programmed logic elements using the flexible gate coupling in ultrathin thickness [67]. The pathway toward multifunctional 2D devices seems very promising to stimulate indispensable applications based on continuously expanding family of 2D materials.
As a summary, in this chapter, we have introduced various types of 2D heterostructures for both photodetection and optoelectronic memory, both of which extensively take advantage of the feasible field-effect modulation to the optoelectronic properties of 2D materials. In the past few years, we have witnessed the marvelous revolution of design and construction of functional devices using diverse 2D materials and feasible vdW stacking methods. The progress will undoubtedly continue given the remarkable flexibility of stacking 2D material in atomic thickness, which had been extremely challenging for 3D materials. However, one shall expect critical breakthroughs are necessary before their practical applications, especially in the large-scale fabrication of vdW devices, and the development of indispensable functions compared to the existing ones in consumer markets.
This work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 61804059).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\\n\\n5. TERMINATION
\\n\\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\\n\\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Article attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\\n\\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Article and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Article is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Article,
\\n\\nIntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\\n\\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\\n\\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\\n\\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\\n\\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Journal Article:
\n\n1. DEFINITIONS
\n\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Article who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author. Co-Author: All other Authors of the Article besides the Corresponding Author. IntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Journal.
\n\nJournal: The publication as a collection of Articles compiled by IntechOpen .
\n\nArticle: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\n\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\n\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to publish, communicate to the public, reproduce, republish, transmit, sell, distribute and otherwise use and make available the Article in whole, partial or adapted from and/or incorporated in or in conjunction with other works, in electronic and print editions of the Publication and in derivative works and on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen, throughout the world, in all languages, and in all media and formats now known or later developed.
\n\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to create and store electronic archival copies of the Article, including the right to deposit the Article in open access digital repositories.
\n\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to license others to reproduce, translate, republish, transmit and distribute the Article in whole, partial or adapted from and/or incorporated in or in conjunction with other works under the condition that the Corresponding Author and each Co-Author is attributed (currently this is carried out by publishing the Article under a Creative Commons 4.0 International Licence).
\n\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\n\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Article but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Article as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world. The Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Article and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Article.
\n\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\n\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Article as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Article arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\n\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Article, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Journal in which the Article has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Journal in which the Article has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re publishing the Article.
\n\n3.2 When submitting the Article, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\n\n• Comply with all instructions and guidelines provided by IntechOpen;
\n\n• Produce the Article with all due skill, care and diligence, and in accordance with good scientific practice;
\n\n• Submit all the corrections in due time as defined during the publishing process schedule.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Article Processing Charge.
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Article worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\n\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Article does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Article contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Article is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Article has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a Journal or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication
\n\nAgreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Article to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Article was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Article on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n5. TERMINATION
\n\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\n\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Article attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Article and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Article is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Article,
\n\nIntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\n\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\n\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\n\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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The eye is frequently affected in neurofibromatosis, and therefore ocular manifestations play a major role in the diagnosis of NF. This chapter aims to explore the spectrum of ocular manifestations found in neurofibromatosis highlighting the importance of ophthalmic exam in these patients. It will describe various intraocular manifestations involving the iris, lens, and retina. It will be focusing on glaucoma and the pathogenesis behind it in this group of patients. Moreover, periorbital and orbital involvement such as skin neurofibromas and optic nerve gliomas will be discussed along with some of their histopathological findings.",book:{id:"8729",slug:"neurofibromatosis-current-trends-and-future-directions",title:"Neurofibromatosis",fullTitle:"Neurofibromatosis - Current Trends and Future Directions"},signatures:"Hind M. Alkatan, Sawsan S. Bakry and Mohammad A. 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