Stress intensity factors
\r\n\t
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He holds two PhDs in Mathematics and Prognostics from the Lebanese University and Aix-Marseille University. His research interests are in the field of mathematics.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"248271",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdo",middleName:null,surname:"Abou Jaoudé",slug:"abdo-abou-jaoude",fullName:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248271/images/system/248271.jpg",biography:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé has been teaching for many years and has a passion for researching and teaching mathematics. He is currently an Associate Professor of Mathematics and Statistics at Notre Dame University-Louaizé (NDU), Lebanon. He holds a BSc and an MSc in Computer Science from NDU, and three PhDs in Applied Mathematics, Computer Science, and Applied Statistics and Probability, all from Bircham International University through a distance learning program. He also holds two PhDs in Mathematics and Prognostics from the Lebanese University, Lebanon, and Aix-Marseille University, France. Dr. Abou Jaoudé's broad research interests are in the field of applied mathematics. He has published twenty-three international journal articles and six contributions to conference proceedings, in addition to seven books on prognostics, pure and applied mathematics, and computer science.",institutionString:"Notre Dame University - Louaize",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Notre Dame University – Louaize",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lebanon"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"15",title:"Mathematics",slug:"mathematics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"252211",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Debeuc",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252211/images/7239_n.png",email:"sara.d@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Among the unconventional options, shale gas reservoirs have become conspicuous. It is generally accepted that horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing are required to effectively recover hydrocarbons from the shale reservoirs [11]. Creating complex fracture networks by hydraulic fracturing is one of the most efficient ways to produce hydrocarbons from these reservoirs due to very low effective permeability (~500 nano Darcy). However, the numerical modeling of hydraulic fractures in such low permeable reservoirs presents significant challenges in field applications [1].
There remains a need for fast, yet accurate, models that remain consistent to the underlying physics of the problem. For numerical simulations, several researchers have considered a number of issues: the coupling between fracture mechanics and fluid dynamics in the fracture [2], fracture interaction [3-5], proppant transport [6], and others [7-9]. Further, there have been specific codes developed to model complex fracture network development [14-16]. Nevertheless, the available literature within the oil and gas industry often ignores the significance of the crack tip in modeling applications developed for hydraulic fracture design.
The importance of accurate modeling of the stress induced near the crack tip is likely critical in complex geological reservoirs. Multiple propagating crack tips interact with each other along with natural fractures, discontinuities, etc., during stimulation treatments in these reservoirs. Consequently, accurate modeling of the stress ahead of the propagating fracture is required to predict fracture paths in this complex environment. This study investigates the influence of several boundary element numerical techniques, available in the literature [10,12,13], on the stress intensity factor near the crack tip and on the fracture profile, in general. This work is a part of a long-term project in the development of more accurate and efficient numerical simulations for field engineering applications.
To perform the investigation, we used the displacement discontinuity method (DDM), a version of the boundary element method (BEM). The method was developed for, and has been successfully applied to rock mechanics area such as mining engineering [17,18], fracture analysis [19,20], and wellbore stabilities [12]. We have applied DDM here using both constant and higher-order elements. The higher-order elements use a quadratic variation of displacement discontinuity, and are based on the use of three collocation points over a three-element patch centered at the source element [10], while the constant elements use a constant variation of displacement discontinuity [12]. Details related to the elements are elaborated on in Shou’s work [12]. Further, the authors also applied special crack tip elements [10] to capture the square root displacement variation at the crack tip, expected from Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM). The authors expect that special crack tip elements will provide the necessary flexibility to choose other tip profiles. This flexibility will be instrumental for efficient modeling of the different near-tip displacement profiles exhibited by various regimes in hydraulic fracture propagation (e.g., Viscosity-Dominated or Toughness-Dominated [22,23]). As others have shown, the accuracy of tip asymptote is critical in characterizing the stresses in the near-tip region of a propagating fracture [1].
We examined the numerically derived stress intensity factor for three crack geometries with and without higher-order elements and with and without special tip elements, to analytical solutions. The three crack geometries are a pressurized crack orthogonal to the least principle stress, a slanted straight crack, and a circular arc crack. Several authors selected these specific geometries to justify the use of higher-order or specialized boundary elements [24-27]. However, the quantification of the computational efficiency coupled with the accuracy has been limited. Therefore, we present the following analysis that aids in determining the method that provides the most efficient, yet accurate solutions. Accurate and efficient methods are required for the development of field applications of engineering software packages.
Several other numerical techniques can be implemented within BEM. What we present here is not meant to be a review of possible combinations. We have chosen basic numerical techniques that provide the necessary flexibility to model very complex geometries, yet remain efficient enough for engineering modeling applications. The literature contains numerous examples of refinements to the techniques presented here [24-27]. For example, refinements with respect to the quarter-point method are found in Gray
The details related to the crack tip elements are available from a number of sources [10,12]. For brevity, this work will only summarize some basic concepts and mathematical formulas of the higher-order elements and the specialized crack tip elements. The next section of this paper describes the general displacement discontinuity method utilizing constant displacement elements. In section 3, the authors summarize the chosen higher order elements. Section 4 defines the special crack tip elements used in this work. Section 5 compares various combinations of the presented methods to known solutions of various crack geometries for an estimation of accuracy of calculations. Section 5 concludes by comparing of the computational efficiencies exhibited by the various methods. Finally, some concluding remarks are provided in Section 6.
The displacement discontinuity method (DDM), originally formulated by Crouch [12], is used here. DDM is based on the solution of the stresses and displacements at a point caused by a constant displacement discontinuity (DD) over a line segment in an elastic body under prescribed boundary conditions [12]. Due to the simplicity of mathematical formulas and procedures of DDM (with a constant DD), it has been widely applied to various engineering problems. This paper summarizes some of the important mathematical expressions but limits specificity. The details of DDM are well described in the literature [12].
The 2-D displacements and stresses at a point
where
and where the displacement discontinuity components are defined as:
For constant displacement elements (i.e. constant
where
For simplicity, the derivatives of
However, DDM with a constant DD can’t accurately calculate the stresses and displacements of the area closer than about one element-length distance from a boundary [12]. To improve the accuracy of calculations in close proximity to the boundaries, Crawford
To improve the accuracy of DDM without sacrificing the number of degrees of freedom of the overall system, a new higher-order elements method was suggested by Shou
This study uses Shou
Higher-order elements, as formulated by Shou
Quadratic collocation for the new higher-order elements [
where
Combining Equations (13) through (16) with Equations (6) and (7) gives the following simplified expressions:
where the subscript
which can be expressed in terms of constant, linear, and quadratic kernels
Based on these formulas, a crack can be discretized into N elements (see Figure 2) and 2N equations in terms of the DD component unknowns are formed (i.e. 2N unknowns of
Representation of a crack by N elemental displacement discontinuities [
where
In addition to advanced elements, Shou
Shou
Quarter element method at a crack tip [
Numerical implementation of this method is more efficient compared to the square root element method and provides reasonably accurate results. However, the displacement discontinuities near the crack tip do not capture the square root displacement variation at the crack tip, expected from LEFM [10]. Theoretically, this method may give unreliable results. Thus, Shou
LEFM predicts that in the vicinity of the crack tip the crack displacement is proportional to the square root of the distance from the crack tip (i.e.
where
Square root crack tip element [
To access the accuracy of the selected numerical techniques, this study compares the stress near the crack tips and stress intensity factors for three crack geometries with constant displacement or higher-order elements, both elements will be combined with and without specialized quarter and square root crack tip elements. We chose these particular geometries because analytical solutions are readily available. Further, many previous publications comparing BEMs have chosen these same geometries [25-27]. This research uses following elastic properties:
A single pressurized crack is a basic fracture geometry, and the analytical solutions are well documented [19,28]. Figure 5 shows a schematic diagram for the fracture geometry. The crack is pressurized by a pressure
Figure 5 illustrates the chosen locations where each of the given methods calculates the stress. The points are arbitrary, but chosen at a location of symmetry with respect to the fracture. In Figure 5, the blue X represents the point orthogonal to the fracture plane at the mid-point of the fracture. The red diamond represents a point ahead of the fracture tip. For convenience, this report uses the following abbreviations to represent each method: AM (analytical method), CDD (only constant displacement discontinuity), HDD (only higher-order elements), CDDCE (constant DD with the quarter element method), CDDCT (constant DD with the square root element method), HDDCE (higher-order elements with the quarter element method), and HDDCT (higher-order elements with the square root element method).
A crack under a constant pressure. The blue X represents a point orthogonal to the fracture plane where the induced stress calculated from each method is compared. The red diamond represents the evaluation point ahead of the fracture tip.
Equation (23) is the analytical solution of the dimensionless half width under a constant pressure [29].
Figure 6 is a plot of the calculated fracture profile from each method. The analytical solution is the solid blue line. The computed half widths from each of the numerical methods are shown as a series of points. From the results, CDD overestimates the half width particularly near crack tip area as others have found [20]. Conversely, HDD underestimates the fracture width in the proximity of the tip. Methods that use tip elements show fracture width profiles close to the analytical solution. The importance of utilizing special crack tip elements is well established in the literature [10, 26, 27].
Dimensionless crack half width versus Dimensionless distance from the crack center (HDD, CDDCE, CDDCT and HDDCE overlap)
Figure 7 is more illustrative for comparing the accuracy of the various methods. It shows the relative error from the computation of the half width compared to the analytical solution (i.e.
Relative error of the half width
To evaluate the perturbed stress state due to the presence of a pressurized crack we use [30]
Equation (24) provides a dimensionless stress
Dimensionless stress versus Dimensionless distance ahead of the crack tip (i.e. at red diamond) (CDDCE, HDDCE and HDDCT overlap)
Figure 8 plots the dimensionless stress ahead of the crack tip. x/c = 1 represents the crack tip. Figure 9 plots the relative stress (the ratio of
Relative stress versus Dimensionless distance ahead of the crack tip (CDDCE, HDDCE and HDDCT overlap)
These figures also show that CDD overestimates the stress and HDD underestimates it while the other methods give results with less than 1% error. The inaccuracies of the methods without tip elements become significant closer to the crack tip. Similar to the half width results, the results of the methods with tip elements overlap since they are close to the analytical solution.
To calculate the stress induced orthogonal to a pressurized crack we use [30]
Equation (25) expresses a dimensionless stress
Dimensionless stress versus Dimensionless distance orthogonal to the fracture plane, i.e. at the blue X. In this case, all methods overlap
Table 1 shows the calculated stress intensity factor, along with the ratio to the analytical solution. For the mode I (or KI), CDD shows the biggest error while CDDCE, HDDCE and HDDCT give around 1% errors. Obviously, the mode II (or KII) stress intensity factor is zero. So, Table 1 omits the results.
Reasonable values from calculations of the stresses and displacements can be achieved at distances greater than the length of one discretized element, regardless of the numerical technique. Close to the crack tip, however, the error of displacements, stresses, and stress intensity factors for CDD elements are significant, whereas CDDCE, HDDCE and HDDCT provide reasonable estimations. This is not surprising; similar results are well documented in the literature [12,24,26].
\n\t\t\t | ||
AM | \n\t\t\t3963.3 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t
CDD | \n\t\t\t4905.6 | \n\t\t\t1.238 | \n\t\t
HDD | \n\t\t\t3670.8 | \n\t\t\t0.926 | \n\t\t
CDDCE | \n\t\t\t3933.8 | \n\t\t\t0.993 | \n\t\t
CDDCT | \n\t\t\t4219 | \n\t\t\t1.065 | \n\t\t
HDDCE | \n\t\t\t3933.8 | \n\t\t\t0.993 | \n\t\t
HDDCT | \n\t\t\t3918.5 | \n\t\t\t0.989 | \n\t\t
Stress intensity factors
While a straight pressurized crack shows zero KII, a slanted straight crack under a uniform tension can show a variable KII depending on the angle of incidence to the applied tension. Figure 11 illustrates the crack geometry. The stress intensity factors are calculated by [19]
Equation (26) expresses the analytical solution of the stress intensity factors [19]. The uniform tension is
Slanted straight crack under uniform axial tension at infinity [
Figure 12 shows the dimensionless KI (i.e.
Dimensionless KI versus the slanted angle (CDDCE, HDDCE and HDDCT overlap)
Dimensionless KII versus the slanted angle (CDDCE, HDDCE and HDDCT overlap)
Curved cracks may represent more realistic fracture geometry and exhibit complexity in calculation of the stress intensity factors. This study selects a circular arc crack under a far field uniform biaxial tension in order to evaluate the accuracy of the numerical methods. Figure 14 describes the fracture geometry. The uniform biaxial tension is
where
Circular arc crack under uniform biaxial tension [
Figures (15) and (16) show the values of the calculated KI and KII as a function of the circular crack angle, respectively. The figures depict actual stress intensity factor values under the prescribed biaxial tension, instead of dimensionless values. The unit of KI and KII is
Figures (17) and (18) show the normalized KI and KII stress intensity factors as a function of the circular crack angle, respectively.
KI versus the circular arc angle (CDDCE, HDDCE and HDDCT overlap)
KII versus the circular arc angle (CDDCE, HDDCE and HDDCT overlap)
Relative KI versus the circular arc angle (CDDCE, HDDCE and HDDCT overlap)
Relative KII versus the circular arc angle (CDDCE, HDDCE and HDDCT overlap)
Based on the results presented in this section, numerical calculations of KI and KII show similar patterns. As the circular crack angle increases, the differences between the analytically derived stress intensity factors increase. The ratio between the analytical and numerical stress intensity factors decreases, however. CDD and CDDCT show the overestimation while HDD method underestimates the stress intensity factors. The other methods (CDDCE, HDDCE, and HDDCT) provide very close results compared to the analytical solution.
In general, we find that CDDCE, HDDCE, and HDDCT methods significantly increase the accuracy of the computation of stress intensity factors for the geometries presented here. However, the required computational resource varies among the numerical methods. Further, for constant displacement elements, accuracy of the stress calculations ahead of the crack tip can be improved by increasing the number of elements. In order to objectively evaluate the efficiency of the numerical methods, we return to the pressurized crack example from Section 5.1. The following section first compares the accuracy improvement by increasing the number of elements for the constant element method. Then we compare the computation time for calculating the stress intensity factors for this particular problem.
The computer specifications used in this work are as follows: CPU-Intel® Xeon W3670 @ 3.2GHZ, installed memory (RAM)-24 gigabytes, OS- 64-bit Windows 7®, Software- Matlab® R2011b.
This study uses the stress of a horizontal crack near the crack tip to show the computational accuracy of simply increasing the number of CDD elements compared to higher-order elements and/or special tip elements. Figure 19, shows the normalized stress (the ratio of
Relative stress versus Dimensionless distance ahead of the crack tip (i.e. at red diamond) according to the number of CDD elements used
Computation time for the solution of the pressurized crack exercise
Finally, the computational efficiency is evaluated by inspecting Figure 20. This figure plots the calculation time of the various numerical methods for the pressurized crack exercise described above. As expected, CDD calculations with fewer elements are completed more quickly. Interestingly the CDDCE, HDDCE, and HDDCT methods show similar computation times while maintaining the highest accuracy of the numerical methods. This result allows for further refinement and evaluation of the CDDCE, HDDCE, and HDDCT methods using more refined element choices and increasingly complex crack geometries.
Overall results show that CDD gives prominent errors of calculations of stresses, displacements, and stress intensity factor compared to the other methods. Particularly, when approaching to the crack tips and a fracture is curved, the errors of CDD significantly increase. Replacing tip elements by special crack tip elements can mitigate calculation errors when close to the crack tips. Using higher-order elements helps to reduce errors for the simple straight crack geometries. When a fracture is curved, the efficiency of combining specialized crack tip elements in computational errors in the calculation of KI and KII is more important than for simple fracture geometries. Combination of higher-order elements and crack tip elements give the most accurate calculations, yet retain the necessary efficiency. However, the overall efficiency of CDDCE, HDDCE and HDDCT methods cannot be definitively evaluated using the simple geometries shown here. We reserve that analysis for subsequent publications.
For comparison within this work, the numerical methods maintained a similar number of elements for each fracture geometry. Increasing the number of CDD elements increases the accuracy of the CDD method. However, this requires increased computation time. Thus, the use of higher-order elements and crack tip elements is likely warranted if considering the development of more accurate and efficient numerical simulations for field engineering applications where computation resources are restricted. Evaluating the efficiency of specific combinations of higher-order elements coupled with specialized crack tip elements requires more complex geometries than presented here.
Displacement | \n|
Stress | \n|
Young’s modulus | \n|
Poisson’s ratio | \n|
Shear modulus | \n|
Plane strain, | \n|
Fracture half-length or half height | \n|
Fracture length or height | \n
Serious environmental and climate problems have been arisen due to the continuous consumption and depletion of fossil fuels [1, 2, 3, 4]. This problem would be worst in the coming days as the demand of energy is going increased day by day. Consequently, there is a need of clean and sustainable energy resources such as solar cells and batteries. The solar cell always needs sun light to generate continuous electricity supply. This problem can be sort out by integrating an energy storage device to the solar cell. Batteries can be used for the above work however their replacement and maintenance are major issues [1, 3, 5, 6, 7]. Supercapacitors have drawn much attention in recent years to be used in several applications such as industrial power and energy management. Moreover, they are very efficient (fast charging/discharging and long life), low-cost and environmentally friendly [8, 9, 10, 11]. They have larger power density than batteries and capability to deliver the charge quickly [12, 13, 14, 15]. A supercapacitor is fabricated with two electrodes separated by a separator, and electrolyte (Figure 1). The electrode materials have decisive role in the charge storage capacity; therefore, different materials and their combinations have been used in supercapacitor [2, 16, 17, 18, 19]. Supercapacitor can store the energy via two process (1) formation of electric double layer (EDL) at the electrode/electrolyte interface [4, 19, 20] and (2) redox reactions (pseudocapacitor) [16, 21, 22] (Figure 2). Carbon and silicon based materials are generally used for EDL capacitor whereas pseudocapacitor consists of metal oxides and conducting polymers. A hybrid supercapacitor technology has also been developed by combining the properties of EDLC and pseudocapacitor [24, 25, 26, 27].
Structure of (a) dielectric capacitor and (b) supercapacitor.
(a) Ragone plot for different devices. (b) Schematic representation of charge storage at high surface area electrode. (c) Different models for EDL: Helmholtz model, Gouy–Chapman model and Gouy–Chapman–Stern model. Charge storage process via redox process (pseudocapacitor); (d) bulk redox and (e) surface redox. (Reprinted with permission from Ref. [
Carbon based electrodes can offer high power and long cycle stability. However, low energy density is major concern with carbon electrodes [28, 29]. In the past decade, major efforts have been made developing a hybrid supercapacitor in order to meet the demands of high energy and high power density [30, 31]. Nano-sized structure of metal oxides can offer higher surface area to the electrode for good electrode/electrolyte ions interaction and short ion-diffusion length. Among metals oxides, iron oxides (FeO
A supercapacitor or ultracapacitor is an advanced technology which has much larger capacitance than a normal capacitor. Supercapacitors can store the energy about 10 times more than dielectric capacitors and return the energy back faster than batteries. They occupy the place between dielectric capacitors and rechargeable batteries in Ragone plot (Figure 2a). The charge storage process in supercapacitor is completely different than that of conventional capacitor. In electrostatic capacitor, two conducting electrodes are separated by a dielectric material. The charge is stored by the polarization process in the dielectric material. In case of supercapacitor, an electrolyte is filled between two electrodes of high surface area. During charging, opposite charge starts accumulating on the surface of electrodes. As the charge is stored physically with no chemical change, it is highly reversible and it shows stable behavior for a large number of cycles. Capacitance (C) is defined as the ratio of stored charge (Q) to the applied voltage (V)
C is directly proportional to the surface area (A) of each electrode and inversely proportional to the distance (d) between the electrodes
Where ε is the permittivity of the insulating material, A is the area of the electrode and d is the distance between the electrodes. The energy (E) of a capacitor is calculated by the following equation;
Power (P) is the energy delivered by a device per unit time. The maximum power is limited by equivalent series resistance (ESR) with the following relation
An EDLC has two electrodes which are immersed in an electrolyte and separated by a separator. Its charge storage is non faradaic in nature, there is no transfer of charge between electrode and electrolyte. Electric charge is accumulated electrostatically on electrode/electrolyte interface which is responsible for the formation of EDL (Figure 2b). The charging and discharging processes are highly reversible and there is no chemically change in the electrodes. This leads to the increased in cycle life, compared to batteries but less than conventional capacitor.
Pseudo means false so, as the name indicates this type of materials do not store charge like a conventional capacitor that is by forming EDL but work like a capacitor. The charge storage mechanism of such type of capacitor is faradaic in nature or the electrode reacts with the electrolyte to store charge (Figure 2d and e). Transition metal oxide and polymer show such kind of behavior. A reversible redox processes take place in which the valence electrons of electro active materials are transferred across the electrode/electrolyte interface, resulting in a potential-dependent capacitance (Figure 2e). The term pseudo-capacitance is used to distinguish this mechanism of charge storage from double layer. So we can say that that pseudo capacitance possess battery-like behavior with faradic reactions between electrodes and electrolyte. Table 1 shows the difference between EDLC and pseudocapacitor.
EDL capacitor | Pseudocapacitor |
---|---|
It stores charge by non-faradaic mechanism. | It stores charge by faradaic mechanism. |
Capacitance is low as compared to pseudo capacitance. | Capacitance is 10 times higher than EDLC. |
Large cycle stability | Poor cycle stability |
The charging/discharging curve is highly reversible | Reversible but not as compared to EDLC |
Comparison between EDLC and pseudocapacitor.
Fe2O3 electrode stores the charge via reversible oxidation/reduction reactions at the electrode and electrolyte interface. Low conductivity and poor cycling stability hamper its application in supercapacitor. Shivakumara et al. [36] have used porous α-Fe2O3 as electrode in supercapacitor. Porous α-Fe2O3 synthesized by sol–gel route offered BET surface area of 386 m2 g−1. α-Fe2O3 demonstrated specific capacitance of 300 F g−1 in 0.5 M Na2SO3 at a discharge rate of 1 A g−1. However, the electrode could retain only 73% of the initial capacitance after 1000 cycles.
Flower-like α-Fe2O3 nanostructures prepared by ethylene glycol mediated self-assembly process exhibited capacitance value of 127 F g−1 in 0.5 M Na2SO3 determined at a current density of 1 A g−1 [37]. Flower-like α-Fe2O3 has retained 80% of the initial capacitance after 1000 cycles. Despite of good value of capacitance, Fe2O3 does not meet the requirement of long cycle life. Change in volume during multiple cycles causes large degradation in the capacitance. Therefore, maximum efforts have been made towards shorting the diffusion length of electrolyte ions and minimizing the volume change by combining Fe2O3 with conducting materials.
Large efforts have been made to add a conductive phase to Fe2O3 electrodes to enhance overall capacitive performance. Abad et al. [38] have synthesized rGO-Fe2O3 nanocomposites by hydrothermal process for supercapacitor application. In the composite electrode, Fe2O3 nanoparticles have average size of 25 nm and are anchored on graphene sheets making good physical contact. The Fe2O3 nanoparticles prevent the restacking of rGO sheets which results in good accessibility of electrolyte ions to the electrode. rGO-Fe2O3 exhibited a specific capacitance of 291 F g−1 at 1 A g−1 in 1 M KOH aqueous solution. The performance was observed stable in the negative potential window of −1 to 0 V with three-electrode system. Fe2O3 worked well as negative electrode in asymmetric supercapacitor. A hybrid structure of porous Fe2O3 nanosheets on carbon fabric (CF-Fe2O3) was developed in order to overcome poor electrical conductivity and poor cycling stability of Fe2O3 [39]. Fe2O3 was deposited on CF via electrodeposition process. An asymmetric supercapacitor with CF-Fe2O3 as negative electrode and CF-Co3O4 as positive electrode was fabricated, which exhibited a good value of areal capacitance to be 842 mF cm−2. The asymmetric supercapacitor demonstrated maximum volumetric energy density of 6.75 mWh cm−3 and power density of 104 mW cm−3. The device retained 93% capacitance after 4000 cycles.
Jiang et al. [40] have synthesized Fe2O3/porous carbon nanocomposites (Fe2O3/HAC) by hydrothermal method. The porous carbon prevents the agglomeration of Fe2O3 nanoparticles and minimizes the ion diffusion path on the electrode surface, providing more flow channels for the ions. Fe2O3/HAC demonstrated larger capacitance of 156 F g−1 than that of individual components of HAC (145 F g−1) and Fe2O3 (90 F g−1). Redox peaks were observed in CV of both Fe2O3 and Fe2O3/HAC. The obtained CV consisted of a pair of oxidation peaks at −0.652 and −0.641 V and reduction peaks at −0.996 and −1.038 V, respectively. Fe2O3/HAC stores the charge via following mechanism;
A specific capacitance of 970 F g−1 was achieved from Fe2O3/rGO composite which was prepared by in situ synthesis and mechanical agitation methods [41]. This high value of capacitance is mainly due to the synergistic effect between Fe2O3 and rGO. rGO provides high electrical conductivity to the composite electrode and makes fast channels for the movement of charges. A degradation of 25% of capacitance was observed after 2000 cycles. A carbon shell layer has been coated on porous Fe2O3 nanowire arrays by hydrothermal route to improve the electrochemical properties of the electrode [42]. Fe2O3/C was used as the anode in solid state asymmetric supercapacitor with MnO2 as the cathode. A wide voltage of 2 V was achieved with this configuration. The fabricated device could give a maximum energy density of 30.625 Wh kg−1 and a maximum power density of 5000 W kg−1. The device exhibited good stability about 82% retention of capacitance after 10,000 cycles. A α-Fe2O3/MnOx and α-Fe2O3/C core-shell nanostructures were developed to design an asymmetric supercapacitor [43]. In the hybrid electrode, fast reversible redox-reactions occur on MnOx and α-Fe2O3 NR core facilitates electron transfer between shell and the current collector. Similarly, α-Fe2O3/C core-shell works as negative electrode. The asymmetric device fabricated with α-Fe2O3/C//α-Fe2O3/MnOx core-shell exhibited specific capacitance of 1.28 F cm−3 at a scan rate of 10 mV s−1 with voltage window of 0–2 V. The supercapacitor was able to retain 78% capacitance at the scan rate of 400 mVs−1 with a maximum energy-density of ∼0.64 mWh cm−3 and a maximum power-density of 155 mW cm−3. Zhang et al. [44] have developed Fe2O3@NiO nanorods on flexible carbon cloth by hydrothermal method. A specific capacitance of 800 mF cm−2 at 10 mA cm−2 was obtained with Fe2O3@NiO/CC electrode. Remarkable long cycle stability (96.8% capacitance retention after 16,000 cycles) was demonstrated by the electrode. This outstanding performance from Fe2O3@NiO/CC is due to the good electrical contact of active material with flexible carbon.
α-Fe2O3 has shown good electrochemical performance with graphitic (g-C3N4) carbon nitride [45]. The as-prepared g-C3N4/α-Fe2O3 composites with large specific surface area exhibited specific capacitance of 580 F g−1 determined at 1.0 A g−1 in 1M KOH. The Fe2O3 nanoparticles accommodate the space between the layers of g-C3N4 avoiding restacking and increasing the probability of interaction between Fe2O3 and electrolyte. Zhong et al. [46] have fabricated a heterostructure of Fe2O3 nanospheres anchored on FeS2 nanosheets by one-step hydrothermal approach for supercapacitor. The FeS2@Fe2O3 hybrid electrode demonstrated a specific capacitance of 255 F g−1 as well as good cycle stability, 90% capacitance retention after 5000 cycles. The excellent long cycle life could be ascribed to hybrid structure which can facilitate fast transportation of the electrolyte ions. A hybrid electrode of PEDOT coated onto Ti-doped Fe2O3 showed a remarkable capacitive performance [47]. A high value of areal capacitance of 1.15 F cm−2 at 1 mA cm−2 has been achieved with this strategy. Ti-Fe2O3@PEDOT demonstrated extraordinary cyclic stability of 96% retention in capacitance after 30,000 cycles, which is better than that of Ti-Fe2O3 (80.7%) and Fe2O3 (81.8%) electrodes. Ti-doping in the electrode enhances electrical conductivity and better utilization of Fe2O3. PEDOT has two important roles here, working as protective layer for Fe2O3 and relaxing the transfer of electrons.
A high specific capacitance of 1124 F g−1 has been achieved form a ternary composite of polyaniline/Fe2O3 decorated graphene coated on carbon cloth (Figures 3 and 4) at a current of 0.25 A g−1 in 1 M H2SO4 [48]. This large value of specific capacitance is due to the synergistic effects of individual component in the electrode. Graphene contributes as EDL capacitance and Fe2O3 and polyaniline as pseudocapacitance to the overall capacitance of hybrid electrode. In-situ polymerization of polyaniline also leads to improve the surface area of electrodes. Le et al. [50] have fabricated a hybrid electrode of polypyrrole-coated Fe2O3 nanotubes (Fe2O3@PPy) for high-performance electrode for aqueous asymmetric supercapacitor. A thin layer of polypyrrole was coated on Fe2O3 nanotubes by an in situ chemical oxidative polymerization method. Fe2O3@PPy could deliver a capacitance of 530 mF cm−2 at 1 mA cm−2. There is synergistic effect between PPy and Fe2O3, the shell of conducting PPy makes an ease transportation for charge carriers and improves stability of Fe2O3 nanotubes while charging/discharging process. The fabricated asymmetric supercapacitor with Fe2O3@PPy and MnO2 nanotubes could deliver energy density of 51.2 Wh kg−1 at a power density of 285.4 W kg−1 operated at high voltage of 2.0 V. 83.5% capacitance retention was observed over 5000 cycles with the asymmetric supercapacitor.
Schematic illustration of synthesis process of (a) Fe2O3 decorated graphene and (b) ternary Polyaniline/Graphene/Fe2O3 (PGF) composite on carbon cloth. (Reprinted with permission from Ref. [
Electrochemical behavior of the GF-CNT@Fe2O3//GF-CoMoO4 supercapacitor. (a) Full-cell structure. (b) CV curves, (c) rate capability, (d) cycling life, (e) Ragone plot of the asymmetric supercapacitor. Digital photos of the single electrode and full cell are depicted in insets of (c). (Reprinted with permission from Ref. [
Guan et al. [49] have developed an ultrahigh-energy and long-life supercapacitor anode material by coating a thin layer of Fe2O3 on graphite foam-carbon nanotube framework GF-CNT@Fe2O3. GF-CNT@Fe2O3 as anode was also integrated into a full supercapacitor cell with GF-CoMoO4 as cathode. A high energy density of ∼74.7 Wh kg−1 with power density of∼1400 W kg−1 has been obtained from the full device. The device also exhibited exceptional cycle stability, retention of about 95.4% capacitance after 50,000 cycles. These values make it a promising candidate for high performance supercapacitor. Improvement in the electrochemical performance of Fe2O3 based electrode may also be possible by introducing nitrogen in the electrode. In this regard, Zhao et al. [51] have synthesized nitrogen-doped graphene and Fe2O3 composites (NGFeCs) by hydrothermal method. NGFeCs exhibited improved electrochemical performance than GFeCs. The specific capacitance of NGFeCs electrode was determined to be 260.1 F g−1 (150.4 Fg−1 for GFeCs electrode) with current density of 2 A g−1. In addition to above, 82.5% retention in capacitance was observed after 1000 cycles. The improvement in the performance is due to the good electronic conductivity and increased active sites.
Self-assembled α-Fe2O3 mesocrystals/graphene nanohybrids demonstrated a good value of specific capacitance of 306.9 F g−1 at 3 A g−1 in an aqueous electrolyte and in voltage window of 1 V [33]. Porous structure of α-Fe2O3 mesocrystals/graphene nanohybrids with high electrical conductivity can provide fast transportation for electrolyte ions even at high discharge current densities. 2D α-Fe2O3/rGO nanocomposites fabricated by one-pot solvothermal approach exhibited specific capacitance value to be 903 F g−1 calculated at a current density of 1 A g−1 [52]. This value of capacitance was observed superior than α-Fe2O3 nanoplates. In the hybrid composite, α-Fe2O3 nanoplates were encapsulated in rGO nanosheets to form a porous structure. The α-Fe2O3/rGO nanocomposites with high electrical conductivity and 2D nanostructure promote the charge transportation between electrode and electrolyte, hence enhancing the electrochemical performance of the electrode.
Transition metal oxides (RuO2, MnO2, NiO, Fe2O3, Co3O4, etc.) have been used as electrode materials for supercapacitor application because they use rapid reversible redox reactions at the surface of active materials to offer high power density [9, 31, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58]. Amongst the metal oxides, Fe3O4 is a better alternative electrode material for supercapacitor because of its low cost, natural abundance, environmental friendliness, high theoretical specific capacitance (2299 F g−1), large potential window and different valence states [59, 60, 61]. It has been seen in literature that Fe3O4 with various dimensions and morphology shows high value of specific capacitance [62].
The charge storage mechanism of Fe3O4 was investigated in various aqueous electrolytes such as sodium chloride, potassium hydroxide, sodium sulphate, sodium sulphite and sodium phosphate. Fe3O4 in the Na2SO3 electrolyte demonstrated a higher capacitance of 510 F g−1 with an operating potential of 1.2 V and this value was greater than those of other electrolytes [63]. Two pseudocapacitive mechanisms were purposed for Fe3O4 in the Na2SO3 electrolyte, which are given below
Eq. (7) represents the surface redox reaction of sulphur in the form of sulphate and sulphite anions while Eq. (8) represents the oxidation/reduction reaction between Fe(II) and Fe(III). It was observed that due to the addition of both the EDLC and pseudocapacitor, the capacitance of Fe3O4 in the Na2SO3 electrolyte rises and involves the reduction/oxidation of specially adsorbed sulphite anions as given by the following equations [63].
Many methods have been used to fabricate the Fe3O4 materials for supercapacitor application such as hydrothermal method [64, 65, 66, 67], Electroplating [63], sol-gel method [68], Chemical precipitation method [69], Hydrolysis and annealing process [70], solvothermal method [71], Electrospinning [72], Aerosol method [73]. Reports on different synthesis processes of Fe3O4 based electrodes and their specific capacitance values are given in Table 2.
Electrode | Synthesis process | Electrolyte | Capacitance | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Fe2O3/porous carbon | Hydrothermal | 6 M KOH | 256 F g−1 at 1 A g−1 | [40] |
FeS2 nanosheet@Fe2O3 nanosphere | Hydrothermal | 1 M Li2SO4 | 255 F g−1 at 1 A g−1 | [46] |
α-Fe2O3 nanostructures | Sol–gel route | 0.5 M Na2SO3 | 300 F g−1 at 1 A g−1 | [36] |
Polyaniline/graphene/Fe2O3 composites hydrogel | Microwave irradiation and in-situ polymerization | 1 M H2SO4 | 1124 F g−1 at 0.25 A g−1 | [48] |
α-Fe2O3/rGO | One-pot solvothermal approach | 1 M KOH | 903 F g−1 at 1 A g−1 | [52] |
Polypyrrole-coated Fe2O3 nanotubes | In situ chemical oxidative polymerization method | 1 M Na2SO4 | 530 mF cm−2 at 1 mA cm−2 | [50] |
Porous-Fe2O3@C nanowire | Hydrothermal route | 1 M Na2SO4 | 280 F g−1 at 1 Ag−1 and 241.3 mF cm−2 at 1 mA cm−2 | [42] |
α-Fe2O3/rGO composites | In situ synthesis and mechanical agitation methods | 6 M KOH | 970 F g−1 at 1 A g−1 | [41] |
Porous flowerlikeα-Fe2O3 | Ethylene glycol mediated self-assembly process | 0.5 M Na2SO3 | 127 F g−1 at 1 A g−1 | [37] |
Core-branch Fe2O3@NiO nanorods | Hydrothermal method | 3 M KOH | 800 mF cm−2 at 10 mA cm−2 | [44] |
Electrochemical capacitance of some Fe2O3 based electrodes.
Fe3O4@carbon nanosheet composite synthesized using ammonium ferric citrate precursor and graphene oxide as the structure-directing agent under a hydrothermal process was used as electrode in supercapacitor [59]. Fe3O4@carbon nanosheet composite exhibited a specific capacitance of 586 F g−1 at 0.5 A g−1 in KOH/PVA gel electrolyte. This composite showed excellent energy density of 18.3 Wh kg−1 and power density of 351 W kg−1.
Wang et al. [60] developed a simple route to fabricate the hybrid electrode of Fe3O4-doped porous carbon nanorods (Fe3O4-DCN) supported by three dimensional (3D) kenaf stem-derived macroporous carbon (KSPC) for supercapacitor. The 3D-KSPC/Fe3O4-DCN showed excellent specific capacitance of 285.4 F g−1 at the current density of 1 A g−1 and excellent cyclic stability in 2.0 M KOH electrolyte (Figure 5). Kumar et al. [61] prepared a hybrid electrode of 3D rGO NSs containing Fe3O4 NPs using one-pot microwave approach. The experimental studies showed that the as-synthesized Fe3O4/rGO hybrids were made of faceted Fe3O4 NPs with interconnected network of rGO NSs. The schematic formation mechanism is shown in Figure 6. This material as electrode in supercapacitor exhibited a specific capacitance of 455 F g−1 at the scan rate of 8 mV s−1.
(a) Schematic illustration of the formation process of carbon nanosheet embedded Fe3O4. (Reprinted with permission from Ref. [
Schematic formation mechanism of 3D Fe3O4/rGO hybrids. (Reprinted with permission from Ref. [
Chen et al. [74] fabricated a Fe3O4 film with regularly edge-affected cubic morphology on stainless foil using hydrothermal method and this film was used as electrode for supercapacitor. This film exhibited a specific capacitance of 118.2 F g−1 at the current of 6 mA in Na2SO3 electrolyte and good cycle stability about 88.75% capacitance retention after 500 cycles. Wang et al. [63] prepared the Fe3O4 film by an electroplating method to be used in supercapacitor as electrode. Fe3O4 film demonstrated a specific capacitance of 170 F g−1 in 1 M Na2SO3 electrolyte. Fe3O4 nanoparticles synthesized by sol gel method exhibited a specific capacitance of 185 F g−1 at the current of 1 mA in 3 M KOH electrolyte [68]. Brousse et al. [69] prepared Fe3O4 by chemical precipitation, which demonstrated a specific capacitance of 75 F g−1 in aqueous electrolyte of 0.1 M K2SO4. Liu et al. [64] synthesized Fe3O4 nanorods and carbon coated Fe3O4 nanorods via hydrothermal reaction and subsequent sintering procedure. Fe3O4 nanorods showed a specific capacitance of 208.6 F g−1 while carbon coated Fe3O4 nanorods exhibited a specific capacitance of 275.9 F g−1 at a current density of 0.5 A g−1 in 1 M Na2SO3 aqueous solution.
Guan et al. [65] synthesized carbon nanotube/Fe3O4 (CNT/Fe3O4) nanocomposite by an easy and efficient hydrothermal method. CNT/Fe3O4 nanocomposite showed enhanced specific capacitances of 117.2 F g−1 (which is three times than that of pure Fe3O4) at current density of 10 mA cm−2 in 6 M KOH electrolyte. It also exhibited superior cyclic stability and energy density of 16.2 Wh kg−1. Lin et al. [66] synthesized Fe3O4/GO by using hydrothermal method, which showed a specific capacitance of 661 F g−1 at current density of 1 A g−1 in 1 M KOH electrolyte. Qi et al. [70] prepared the Fe3O4/rGO composites using hydrolysis route and subsequent annealing process for supercapacitor application. The Fe3O4/rGO composite showed specific capacitance of 350.6 F g−1 at 1 mV s−1 in 6 M KOH electrolyte (Table 3).
Electrode | Method | Electrolyte | Specific capacitance | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Fe3O4 thin film | Electroplating | 1 M Na2SO3 | 170 F g−1 | [63] |
Fe3O4 nanoparticles | Sol–gel | 3 M KOH | 185 F g−1 | [68] |
Fe3O4 | Chemical precipitation method | 0.1 M K2SO4 | 75 F g−1 | [69] |
Fe3O4 nanorods | Hydrothermal | 1 M Na2SO3 | 208.6 F g−1 | [64] |
Fe3O4/graphene | Hydrothermal | 1 M KOH | 661 F g−1 | [66] |
Fe3O4/reduced graphene oxide | Hydrolysis and annealing process | 6 M KOH | 350.6 F g−1 | [70] |
Fe3O4/reduced graphene oxide | Solvothermal process | 1 M KOH | 480 F g−1 | [75] |
Fe3O4–carbon nanosheets | Hydrothermal and heat treatment | 1 M Na2SO3 | 163.4 F g−1 | [67] |
Fe3O4 doped double-shelled hollow carbon spheres | Aerosol, spray and in-situ polymerization methods | 6 M KOH | 1153 F g−1 | [76] |
Capacitance of Fe3O4 based electrodes synthesized by different process.
It is seen that iron oxides have demonstrated excellent performance in supercapacitor and asymmetric supercapacitor as well [71, 72, 73, 77, 78, 79]. Shi et al. [75] prepared the nanocomposites of Fe3O4 NPs connected to rGO sheets by using a solvothermal process. Fe3O4/rGO nanocomposites were utilized to prepare thin film supercapacitor electrodes by using a spray deposition technique without the addition of insulating binders. It was observed that the Fe3O4/rGO nanocomposite exhibited higher specific capacitance, 480 F g−1 at a discharge current density of 5 A g−1, which is larger than that of pure rGO or pure Fe3O4 NPs. Fe3O4/rGO nanocomposite exhibited energy density of 67 W h kg−1 and power density of 5506 W kg−1. Ultrathin nanoporous Fe3O4–carbon nanosheets synthesized by hydrothermal method demonstrated a specific capacitance of 163.4 F g−1 in 1 M Na2SO3 electrolyte [67].
Mu et al. [80] synthesized Fe3O4 nanosheets on one-dimensional (1D) carbon nanofibers (CNFs) using the electrospinning technique and solvent-thermal process. The Fe3O4/CNFs nanocomposite exhibited a specific capacitance of 135 F g−1 in 1 M Na2SO3 electrolyte. The high capacitance may be due to the improved electrical conductivity of the composite by adding the CNFs in Fe3O4. Li et al. [76] prepared the double-shelled hollow carbon spheres with conductive graphite structure and Fe3O4 species (C-C-Fe3O4) using aerosol, spray, and in-situ polymerization methods. The C-C-Fe3O4 showed remarkable value of specific capacitance to be 1153 F g−1 at current density of 2 A g−1. C-C-Fe3O4 also demonstrated good rate capability, 514 F g−1 at 100 A g−1. The electrode exhibited only 3.3% degradation in the capacitance after 8000 cycles. Energy density of 17–45 W h kg−1 and powder density of 400–8000 W kg−1 were achieved from the C-C-Fe3O4 electrode.
Recent progress on supercapacitor is to increase its specific capacitance, rate capability, cycle life and operating voltage by developing low cost and eco-friendly electrode materials. In this regard, iron oxide may be a suitable candidate with higher value of capacitance as negative electrode for asymmetric supercapacitor to be operated at wide voltage window. Therefore, a lot of work has been carried out on iron oxide based electrode for supercapacitor application. The electrochemical performance of iron oxide based electrodes has been reviewed and discussed in this chapter. It is observed that the synthesis process and morphology of iron oxide play important role in supercapacitor performance. Efforts have been made towards preparing a composite of iron oxide with high conductive materials in order to overcome its poor electrical conductivity. Nanostructure of iron oxide such as nanoparticles could enhance the active sites for electrochemical reactions. Iron oxide nanostructure with carbon can further increase the specific capacitance and energy density of supercapacitor. Synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles/graphene nanocomposite seems to be more effective approach for high performance supercapacitor.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Soifer",authors:[{id:"72613",title:"Prof.",name:"Svetlana",middleName:null,surname:"Khonina",slug:"svetlana-khonina",fullName:"Svetlana Khonina"}]},{id:"30963",doi:"10.5772/34176",title:"Microstructural and Mineralogical Characterization of Clay Stabilized Using Calcium-Based Stabilizers",slug:"microstructural-and-mineralogical-characterization-of-clay-stabilized-using-calcium-based-stabilizer",totalDownloads:6801,totalCrossrefCites:29,totalDimensionsCites:48,abstract:null,book:{id:"1505",slug:"scanning-electron-microscopy",title:"Scanning Electron Microscopy",fullTitle:"Scanning Electron Microscopy"},signatures:"Pranshoo Solanki and Musharraf Zaman",authors:[{id:"20942",title:"Prof.",name:"Pranshoo",middleName:null,surname:"Solanki",slug:"pranshoo-solanki",fullName:"Pranshoo Solanki"},{id:"20945",title:"Prof.",name:"Musharraf",middleName:null,surname:"Zaman",slug:"musharraf-zaman",fullName:"Musharraf Zaman"}]},{id:"49655",doi:"10.5772/61830",title:"Electrical Discharge in Water Treatment Technology for Micropollutant Decomposition",slug:"electrical-discharge-in-water-treatment-technology-for-micropollutant-decomposition",totalDownloads:5019,totalCrossrefCites:32,totalDimensionsCites:44,abstract:"Hazardous micropollutants are increasingly detected worldwide in wastewater treatment plant effluent. As this indicates, their removal is insufficient by means of conventional modern water treatment techniques. In the search for a cost-effective solution, advanced oxidation processes have recently gained more attention since they are the most effective available techniques to decompose biorecalcitrant organics. As a main drawback, however, their energy costs are high up to now, preventing their implementation on large scale. For the specific case of water treatment by means of electrical discharge, further optimization is a complex task due to the wide variety in reactor design and materials, discharge types, and operational parameters. In this chapter, an extended overview is given on plasma reactor types, based on their design and materials. Influence of design and materials on energy efficiency is investigated, as well as the influence of operational parameters. The collected data can be used for the optimization of existing reactor types and for development of novel reactors.",book:{id:"5093",slug:"plasma-science-and-technology-progress-in-physical-states-and-chemical-reactions",title:"Plasma Science and Technology",fullTitle:"Plasma Science and Technology - Progress in Physical States and Chemical Reactions"},signatures:"Patrick Vanraes, Anton Y. Nikiforov and Christophe Leys",authors:[{id:"49112",title:"Prof.",name:"Christophe",middleName:null,surname:"Leys",slug:"christophe-leys",fullName:"Christophe Leys"},{id:"176861",title:"Dr.",name:"Anton",middleName:null,surname:"Nikiforov",slug:"anton-nikiforov",fullName:"Anton Nikiforov"},{id:"176862",title:"Mr.",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Vanraes",slug:"patrick-vanraes",fullName:"Patrick Vanraes"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"49562",title:"Laser-Induced Plasma and its Applications",slug:"laser-induced-plasma-and-its-applications",totalDownloads:4793,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"The laser irradiation have shown a range of applications from fabricating, melting, and evaporating nanoparticles to changing their shape, structure, size, and size distribution. Laser induced plasma has used for different diagnostic and technological applications as detection, thin film deposition, and elemental identification. The possible interferences of atomic or molecular species are used to specify organic, inorganic or biological materials which allows critical applications in defense (landmines, explosive, forensic (trace of explosive or organic materials), public health (toxic substances pharmaceutical products), or environment (organic wastes). Laser induced plasma for organic material potentially provide fast sensor systems for explosive trace and pathogen biological agent detection and analysis. The laser ablation process starts with electronic energy absorption (~fs) and ends at particle recondensation (~ms). Then, the ablation process can be governed by thermal, non-thermal processes or a combination of both. There are several types of models, i.e., thermal, mechanical, photophysical, photochemical and defect models, which describe the ablation process by one dominant mechanism only. Plasma ignition process includes bond breaking and plasma shielding during the laser pulse. Bond breaking mechanisms influence the quantity and form of energy (kinetic, ionization and excitation) that atoms and ions can acquire. Plasma expansion depends on the initial mass and energy in the plume. The process is governed by initial plasma properties (electron density, temperature, velocity) after the laser pulse and the expansion medium. During first microsecond after the laser pulse, plume expansion is adiabatic afterwards line radiation becomes the dominant mechanism of energy loss.",book:{id:"5093",slug:"plasma-science-and-technology-progress-in-physical-states-and-chemical-reactions",title:"Plasma Science and Technology",fullTitle:"Plasma Science and Technology - Progress in Physical States and Chemical Reactions"},signatures:"Kashif Chaudhary, Syed Zuhaib Haider Rizvi and Jalil Ali",authors:[{id:"176684",title:"Dr.",name:"Kashif Tufail",middleName:null,surname:"Chaudhary",slug:"kashif-tufail-chaudhary",fullName:"Kashif Tufail Chaudhary"},{id:"176867",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Zuhaib",middleName:null,surname:"Haider Rizivi",slug:"syed-zuhaib-haider-rizivi",fullName:"Syed Zuhaib Haider Rizivi"},{id:"176868",title:"Prof.",name:"Jalil",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"jalil-ali",fullName:"Jalil Ali"}]},{id:"52164",title:"An Overview on Quantum Cascade Lasers: Origins and Development",slug:"an-overview-on-quantum-cascade-lasers-origins-and-development",totalDownloads:3250,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"This chapter presents an introductory review on quantum cascade lasers (QCLs). An overview is prefaced, including a brief description of their beginnings and operating basics. Materials used, as well as growth methods, are also described. The possibility of developing GaN-based QCLs is also shown. Summarizing, the applications of these structures cover a broad range, including spectroscopy, free-space communication, as well as applications to near-space radar and chemical/biological detection. Furthermore, a number of state-of-the-art applications are described in different fields, and finally a brief assessment of the possibilities of volume production and the overall state of the art in QCLs research are elaborated.",book:{id:"5389",slug:"quantum-cascade-lasers",title:"Quantum Cascade Lasers",fullTitle:"Quantum Cascade Lasers"},signatures:"Raúl Pecharromán-Gallego",authors:[{id:"188866",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Pecharromán-Gallego",slug:"raul-pecharroman-gallego",fullName:"Raúl Pecharromán-Gallego"}]},{id:"49526",title:"Focused Ion Beams (FIB) — Novel Methodologies and Recent Applications for Multidisciplinary Sciences",slug:"focused-ion-beams-fib-novel-methodologies-and-recent-applications-for-multidisciplinary-sciences",totalDownloads:4321,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Considered as the newest field of electron microscopy, focused ion beam (FIB) technologies are used in many fields of science for site-specific analysis, imaging, milling, deposition, micromachining, and manipulation. Dual-beam platforms, combining a high-resolution scanning electron microscope (HR-SEM) and an FIB column, additionally equipped with precursor-based gas injection systems (GIS), micromanipulators, and chemical analysis tools (such as energy-dispersive spectra (EDS) or wavelength-dispersive spectra (WDS)), serve as multifunctional tools for direct lithography in terms of nano-machining and nano-prototyping, while advanced specimen preparation for transmission electron microscopy (TEM) can practically be carried out with ultrahigh precision. Especially, when hard materials and material systems with hard substrates are concerned, FIB is the only technique for site-specific micro- and nanostructuring. Moreover, FIB sectioning and sampling techniques are frequently used for revealing the structural and morphological distribution of material systems with three-dimensional (3D) network at micro-/nanoscale.This book chapter includes many examples on conventional and novel processes of FIB technologies, ranging from analysis of semiconductors to electron tomography-based imaging of hard materials such as nanoporous ceramics and composites. In addition, recent studies concerning the active use of dual-beam platforms are mentioned",book:{id:"5075",slug:"modern-electron-microscopy-in-physical-and-life-sciences",title:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences",fullTitle:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences"},signatures:"Meltem Sezen",authors:[{id:"176338",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Meltem",middleName:null,surname:"Sezen",slug:"meltem-sezen",fullName:"Meltem Sezen"}]},{id:"50866",title:"Effects of Different Laser Pulse Regimes (Nanosecond, Picosecond and Femtosecond) on the Ablation of Materials for Production of Nanoparticles in Liquid Solution",slug:"effects-of-different-laser-pulse-regimes-nanosecond-picosecond-and-femtosecond-on-the-ablation-of-ma",totalDownloads:6101,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:35,abstract:"Ultra-short laser pulse interaction with materials has received much attention from researchers in micro- and nanomachining, especially for the generation of nanoparticles in liquid environments, because of the straightforward method and direct application for organic solvents. In addition, the colloidal nanoparticles produced by laser ablation have very high purity—they are free from surfactants and reaction products or by-products. In this chapter, nanosecond, picosecond and femtosecond laser pulse durations are compared in laser material processing. Due to the unique properties of the short and ultra-short laser pulse durations in material processing, they are more apparent in the production of precision material processing and generation of nanoparticles in liquid environments.",book:{id:"5236",slug:"high-energy-and-short-pulse-lasers",title:"High Energy and Short Pulse Lasers",fullTitle:"High Energy and Short Pulse Lasers"},signatures:"Abubaker Hassan Hamad",authors:[{id:"183494",title:"Dr.",name:"Abubaker",middleName:"Hassan",surname:"Hamad",slug:"abubaker-hamad",fullName:"Abubaker Hamad"}]},{id:"49537",title:"Electron Diffraction",slug:"electron-diffraction",totalDownloads:10150,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:"Electron microscopes are usually supplied with equipment for obtaining diffraction patterns and micrographs from the same area of a specimen and the best results are attained if the complete use is to be made of these combined facilities. Electron diffraction patterns are used to obtain quantitative data including phase identification, orientation relationship and crystal defects in materials, etc. At first, a general introduction including a geometrical and quantitative approach to electron diffraction from a crystalline specimen, the reciprocal lattice and electron diffraction in the electron microscope are presented. The scattering process by an individual atom as well as a crystal, the Bragg law, Laue conditions and structure factor are also discussed. Types of diffraction patterns such as ring pattern, spot pattern and Kikuchi pattern, and general and unique indexing diffraction patterns are explained. The procedure for indexing simple, complicated and imperfect patterns as well as Kikuchi lines and a combination of Kikuchi lines and spots is outlined. The known and unknown materials are identified by indexing patterns. Practical comparisons between various methods of analysing diffraction patterns are also described. The basic diffraction patterns and the fine structure in the patterns including specimen tilting experiments, orientation relationship determination, phase identification, twinning, second phases, crystallographic information, dislocation, preferred orientation and texture, extra spots and streaks are described in detail. Finally, electron diffraction patterns of new materials are investigated.",book:{id:"5075",slug:"modern-electron-microscopy-in-physical-and-life-sciences",title:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences",fullTitle:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences"},signatures:"Mohsen Asadi Asadabad and Mohammad Jafari Eskandari",authors:[{id:"176352",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohsen",middleName:null,surname:"Asadi Asadabad",slug:"mohsen-asadi-asadabad",fullName:"Mohsen Asadi Asadabad"},{id:"177600",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Jafari Eskandari",slug:"mohammad-jafari-eskandari",fullName:"Mohammad Jafari Eskandari"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"20",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82973",title:"Compact Incoherent Multidimensional Imaging Systems Using Static Diffractive Coded Apertures",slug:"compact-incoherent-multidimensional-imaging-systems-using-static-diffractive-coded-apertures",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105864",abstract:"Incoherent holographic imaging technologies, in general, involve multiple optical components for beam splitting—combining and shaping—and in most cases, require an active optical device such as a spatial light modulator (SLM) for generating multiple phase-shifted holograms in time. The above requirements made the realization of holography-based products expensive, heavy, large, and slow. To successfully transfer the holography capabilities discussed in research articles to products, it is necessary to find methods to simplify holography architectures. In this book chapter, two important incoherent holography techniques, namely interference-based Fresnel incoherent correlation holography (FINCH) and interferenceless coded aperture correlation holography (I-COACH), have been successfully simplified in space and time using advanced manufacturing methods and nonlinear reconstruction, respectively. Both techniques have been realized in compact optical architectures using a single static diffractive optical element manufactured using lithography technologies. Randomly multiplexed diffractive lenses were manufactured using electron beam lithography for FINCH. A quasi-random lens and a mask containing a quasi-random array of pinholes were manufactured using electron beam lithography and photolithography, respectively, for I-COACH. In both cases, the compactification has been achieved without sacrificing the performances. The design, fabrication, and experiments of FINCH and I-COACH with static diffractive optical elements are presented in details.",book:{id:"11860",title:"Holography - Recent Advances and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11860.jpg"},signatures:"Vijayakumar Anand, Soon Hock Ng, Tomas Katkus, Daniel Smith, Vinoth Balasubramani, Denver P. Linklater, Pierre J. Magistretti, Christian Depeursinge, Elena P. Ivanova and Saulius Juodkazis"},{id:"82958",title:"Electromagnetic Relations between Materials and Fields for Microwave Chemistry",slug:"electromagnetic-relations-between-materials-and-fields-for-microwave-chemistry",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106257",abstract:"We consider the application of microwave energy to a material. The effects of the electromagnetic field on the material and of the material on the electromagnetic field will be described, focusing on the dielectric relaxation phenomenon of the liquid. The dielectric permittivity of mixtures is discussed by extending Debye relaxation to explain how the material behaves with respect to an electric field. We will also consider the energy that the electric field imparts to the material, both thermally and nonthermally. We will develop this relation and describe what form it should take if there is a nonthermal effect in the chemical reaction field under microwave irradiation.",book:{id:"11494",title:"Electric Field in Advancing Science and Technology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11494.jpg"},signatures:"Sugiyama Jun-ichi, Sugiyama Hayato, Sato Chika and Morizumi Maki"},{id:"82961",title:"Mixed Reality Applications in Business Contexts",slug:"mixed-reality-applications-in-business-contexts",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106582",abstract:"Mixed reality is becoming increasingly relevant in business. In the corporate environment, such as logistics or maintenance, the use of data glasses allows extensive possibilities for process optimization and quality assurance. In the area of construction, virtual models either as augmentation of reality or mapped in virtual reality offer new approaches to experience ability. The goal of this paper is to show the manifold possibilities of mixed reality in the enterprise environment. For this purpose, selected application scenarios with corresponding realization stages will be shown and analyzed regarding their added value.",book:{id:"11860",title:"Holography - Recent Advances and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11860.jpg"},signatures:"Anett Mehler-Bicher, Lothar Steiger and Dirk Weitzel"},{id:"82951",title:"Decoupling Techniques for Coupled PDE Models in Fluid Dynamics",slug:"decoupling-techniques-for-coupled-pde-models-in-fluid-dynamics",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105997",abstract:"We review decoupling techniques for coupled PDE models in fluid dynamics. In particular, we are interested in the coupled models for fluid flow interacting with porous media flow and the fluid structure interaction (FSI) models. For coupled models for fluid flow interacting with porous media flow, we present decoupled preconditioning techniques, two-level and multilevel methods, Newton-type linearization-based two-level and multilevel algorithms, and partitioned time-stepping methods. The main theory and some numerical experiments are given to illustrate the effectiveness and efficiency of these methods. For the FSI models, partitioned time-stepping algorithms and a multirate time-stepping algorithm are carefully studied and analyzed. Numerical experiments are presented to highlight the advantages of these methods.",book:{id:"11862",title:"The Essence of Large-Eddy Simulations",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11862.jpg"},signatures:"Mingchao Cai, Mo Mu and Lian Zhang"},{id:"82787",title:"Spinor Fields",slug:"spinor-fields",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105569",abstract:"A spinor representation of the generalized energy-momentum density 4-vector is proposed, and examples of such representations for various particles and fields are given. This representation corresponds to the classical representation of the particle’s own rotation, which is described by the diagonal matrix of the moment of inertia. The concept of self-angular rotation of a particle is defined as a spatial characteristic of the field, at each point of which there is a local vortex rotation with an angular velocity Ω – a spinor field. The matrix representation of the vortex rotation Ω (spinor) and the values of the components of such a representation are derived from the matrix representation of the Lorentz transformation. The traditional concept of spin-orbit interaction, as the interaction of the magnetic moment of a particle with the magnetic field of orbital motion, is presented as the interaction of a charged particle with a spinor field. Solutions to the problems of particle motion in an external spinor field in the case of a hydrogen-like atom and planetary motion, splitting of the electron energy levels of an atom in an external magnetic field, deflection of a photon by the gravitational field, and representations in metric spaces are presented.",book:{id:"11496",title:"Quantum Field Theory",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11496.jpg"},signatures:"Vahram Mekhitarian"},{id:"82739",title:"Experimental Breeder Reactor II",slug:"experimental-breeder-reactor-ii",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105800",abstract:"The Experimental Breeder Reactor II (EBR-II) operated from 1964 to 1994. EBR-II was a sodium-cooled fast reactor operating at 69 MWth producing 19 MWe. Rather than using a loop approach for the coolant, EBR-II used a pool arrangement where the reactor core, primary coolant piping, and primary reactor coolant pumps were contained within the pool of sodium. Also contained within the pool was a heat exchanger where primary coolant, which is radioactive, transferred heat to secondary, nonradioactive, sodium. The nuclear power plant included a sodium boiler building where heat from the secondary sodium generated superheated steam, which was delivered to a turbine/generator for electricity production. EBR-II fuel was metallic uranium alloyed with various metals providing significant performance and safety enhancements over oxide fuel. The most significant EBR-II experiments occurred in April 1986. Relying on inherent physical properties of the reactor, two experiments were performed subjecting the reactor to loss of primary coolant flow without reactor SCRAM and loss of the secondary system heat removal without reactor SCRAM. In both experiments, the reactor experienced no damage. This chapter provides a description of the most important design features of EBR-II along with a summary of the landmark reactor safety experiments.",book:{id:"10982",title:"Nuclear Reactors - Spacecraft Propulsion, Research Reactors, and Reactor Analysis Topics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10982.jpg"},signatures:"Chad L. Pope, Ryan Stewart and Edward Lum"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:41},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. 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She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. 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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. 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