\r\n\tHydroxyapatite (HA) is an important member of the calcium phosphate chemical family. It has been used in several medical applications for the past decades, due to its chemical similarity to the mineral phase of bone and high biocompatibility. Several studies demonstrated that bone mineral presents several ion substitutions, so in order to prepare a synthetic material with an even closer composition to bone mineral, HA has been prepared with the incorporation of several ions like, silicon or fluoride. These ions induced not only structural changes on HA lattice, but also on its biocompatibility. \r\n\tSignificant advances in nanotechnologies resulted in the preparation of HA in different forms, with a wider range of applications, from support to drug and gene delivery. \r\n\tThis book aims to collect the most relevant information regarding HA properties, modifications and its application in the biomedical field.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"6a3c2d529bd0b7fb6d259f00b4562d77",bookSignature:"Dr. Claudia Manuela da Cunha Ferreira Botelho",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8199.jpg",keywords:"Apatite, Chemical and Physical Structure, Hydrothermal Synthesis, Synthesis from Biogenic Sources, Mineralization, Bone Structure, Vascularization, Resorption, Silicon, Improved Bioactivity,Bone Substitute, Drug and Gene Carrier",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 4th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 17th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 17th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 6th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 4th 2020",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"258963",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia Manuela",middleName:null,surname:"Da Cunha Ferreira Botelho",slug:"claudia-manuela-da-cunha-ferreira-botelho",fullName:"Claudia Manuela Da Cunha Ferreira Botelho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258963/images/system/258963.jpg",biography:"Claudia Botelho obtained a PhD in Science Engineering from Porto University, Portugal, in 2005. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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1. Introduction
Banana crops is as old as Indian culture and known to be one of the earliest fruit crops produced by humankind from ancient times in India with extraordinary socio-economic significance, interlink in the social and cultural legacy of the country. It is likewise the fourth most significant food crop after paddy, wheat and maize and forms an important crop for survival of farmers. Considering the wholesome importance of banana, it is so noticeable and well known among the Indians so that it is loved by both poor and rich individuals. It is otherwise called ‘poor man’s apple’ since it is that the most economical among fruit grown up within the country with healthy qualities and wholesome values. The yearly losses of banana in the world are 60–90% [1] and in India 30–40% [2]. The most economically significant pathogen of banana is Fusarium oxysporum species. Fusarium wilt disease was earlier reported from Panama canal of Australia. In India, this disease was first reported by Stover [3] from West Bengal. The Fusarium wilt pathogen survives in soil and penetrates into the roots with the assistance of nematodes, from where it gradually spreads until it achieves the centre of the corm that is the reason the plant showed quick wilting. Purplish darker shading shows up in the xylem vessels and are blocked, external leaves turn yellow and finally breakdown. Soon, only a few of the youngest leaves remain functional. Later the older leaves and pseudostem show yellow and longitudinal part with patches at the leaf edge. The symptoms become evident after 5–6 months of planting and are expressed both externally and internally.
2. Symptoms
The first internal symptoms develop in feeder roots at the primary sites of infection. They progress toward rhizome and are most noticeable where the stele joins the cortex. As the infection in pseudostem is colonized, blackout dark coloured streaks or flecks become apparent on and inside more seasoned leaf sheaths. Eventually, enormous segments of the xylem turn a black red to darker shading. The first external symptoms of Panama disease are a yellowing of the most seasoned leaves or a longitudinal splitting of the lower part of the external leaf sheaths on the pseudostem (Figure 1). This is further trailed by wilting and collapsing of leaves from the petiole base. At initial phases of infection, these leaves stay green. As the disease advances, more tender and young leaves breakdown until the whole plant covering comprises with dead leaves.
Figure 1.
External and internal symptoms of Panama wilt of banana.
At the point when external symptoms are obvious on banana plants, however internal symptoms are missing from the pseudostem, it winds up for critically examine the rhizome. The plant sliced open at soil level to uncover the pseudostem base, and after that pushed over. Diseased plants have a trademark yellow to dim dark discolouration of the internal rhizome, which for the most part begins at the edges and advances inwards. Regularly some parts of the inward rhizome is influenced, yet with movement of the disease the whole internal rhizome winds up influenced. The external rhizome is rarely influenced. The piece of the rhizome that had been pushed over will show yellow strands of the rhizome which are appended to both the top and base portions of the rhizome. At the point when no discolouration is seen inside the rhizome, the outside symptoms are brought about by an option that is other than Foc. In such cases, the internal rhizome may show dark spots rather than the consistent yellow to reddish darker discolouration related with panama wilt.
3. Causal organism
Panama disease is brought about by the soilborne hyphomycete, Fusarium oxysporum Schlect. f. sp. cubense. It is one of more than 100 special forms of F. oxysporum that reason vascular wilt of flowering plants. It contains pathogenic and saprophytic strains that cannot be recognized morphologically. Fungus grow 4–7 mm/day on Potato Dextrose Agar medium at 24°C, with slight to significant fluffy mycelium, and have white to pink pigmentation. Sporodochia are tan to orange, and sclerotia are blue and submerged. Conidia and macroconidia are delivered on extended and unbranched monophialides. Microconidia are 5–16 × 2.4–3.5 μm, one or twocelled, oval to kidney shaped, and are borne in false heads. Macroconidia are 27–55 × 3.3–5.5 μm, four to eight sickle celled formed with foot shaped basal cells. Terminal and intercalary chlamydospores are 7–11 μm size, normally globose and formed independently or two by two in hyphae or conidia (Figure 2). Atypically for the species, chlamydospores are not distributed by isolates of F. oxysporum f. sp. cubense in vegetative compatibility group (VCG) 01214.
Figure 2.
Pure culture and spore of Fusarium oxysporium f. sp. cubense.
Four races of F. oxysporum f. sp. cubense have been revealed, just three of which affect banana (race 3 is a pathogen of Banana). Race 1 caused the pandemics on Gros Michel and furthermore affects the cultivars Maqueño, Silk, Pome, Pisang Awak. Race 2 affects cooking bananas viz., Bluggoe, and some reared tetraploids. Race 4 is most dangerous since it affects race 1 and race 2 powerless clones just as the Cavendish cultivars. Up to this point, it had been accounted for just in subtropical regions where cold weather during winter are believed to be a predisposing factor. In any case, inside the most recent decade, remarkable harm was observed in Cavendish monocultures in tropical South-East Asia. A particular populace of the pathogen, VCG 01213-01216, is responsible for these flareups. Despite the fact that it is as of now limited to Asia and northern Australia, it caused critical disease in the western exchanges because of their dependence on the Cavendish clones. Vegetative or substantial similarity has been utilized widely to describe overall populaces of this pathogen. More than 20 VCGs have been accounted which is a pointer for the incredible genetic diversity that happens inside this taxon.
4. Disease cycle and epidemiology
Beckman and his colleagues considered the internal responses for susceptible banana cultivars to infection by F. oxysporum f. sp. cubense. They observed that race 1 strain of the pathogen produced rich microconidia in xylem vessels of cultivar Gros Michel. These propagules move acropetally in vessels by means of the plant transpirational change which caught at the scalariform parts of the bargains. As the fungus develops, it colonizes inside vessel end within 2–3 days, delivered microconidia on its adaxial side, along these lines empowering the pathogen to travel through another vessel (Figure 3). This procedure proceeded with unabated in Gros Michel, yet stopped in a race1 safe Cavendish cultivar not long after was it immunized. In the later case, gels formed in infected vessels in 24–48 h, followed by the development of vascular parenchyma into vessels after 48–96 h. These pathogen-incited exercises in the host caught spores of the pathogen and precluded it further colonization from claiming the host. At last, the host discharged phenolic aggravates that infused and lignified the blocking structures. Consequently, in a safe cultivar, there is a reasonable and quick coordination of host defences to ensure the systemic colonization of the xylem does not happen.
Figure 3.
Disease cycle of Fusarium oxysporium f. sp. cubense.
Rhizomes (suckers) are utilized generally as vegetative seed pieces for banana cultivation. Since they are generally free of symptoms when they are early infected by F. oxysporum f. sp. cubense, are a typical methods by which this pathogen is spread. The pathogen spreads in soil, running water, farm executes and apparatus. Work in the early trade estates showed that susceptible clones could not be successfully replanted in an infested site for as long as 30 years due to the long term survival of F. oxysporum f. sp. cubense in soil and as a parasite of nonhost weed species. Root tips are the characteristic, starting locales of infection; injured rhizome surfaces are evidently minor infection courts. Much of the time, root-tip infections are halted soon after the pathogen arrives at the xylem, and responsible for the formation of gels, tyloses and vascular breakdown. Macroconidia and chlamydospores are formed on dead or passing on plants. The last propagules are the most significant survival structures of pathogen.
Weather factors like prolonged wet or dry conditions, extremes in temperatures, storm damage and soil conditions like poor soil drainage, aeration, unfavourable chemical or physical conditions also play a major role in influence on the wilt disease [4]. An internal water deficit due to dry conditions or waterlogging promotes expression of symptoms [5]. Temperature is a critical factor in panama wilt development [6]. Peng et al. [7] reported that the growth of Fusarium wilt pathogen is usually maximum at 28°C, and reduced above 33°C and below 17°C.
5. Management strategies for the Panama wilt disease of banana
5.1 Crop rotation
Continuous cultivation of bananas in the field compounds Foc event in the dirt. The spread and survival of this pathogen is mainly depend in the soil and also it can persist in the soil for long term, at the time of conducive environment causes of Fusarium wilt in bananas in severe form [5]. Yield turn as an administration practice, as a rule, is a profoundly effective and naturally friendly methods for control soil-borne diseases. In China, particularly in Panyu, Guangzhou, a region intensely infested by Foc, banana is turned with 2–3 years of economically developed Chinese leek (Allium tuberosum) to control Fusarium wilt [8]. Therefore, Chinese leek becomes a possible way for an ecologically friendly treatment to control Fusarium wilt of banana. Crop rotation is one of the most important cultural practices for reducing the plant pathogens in the soil. Crop rotation like pineapple-banana revolution was found more effective than maize-banana by reducing the Foc incidence in the banana fields.
5.2 Organic amendments
Organic matter management is basic for soil wellbeing and suppressiveness of the pathogens [9]. Albeit natural issues are included through yield buildups and spread harvests, offfield sources eq natural alterations (OAs) are especially significant as they are advanced with specific microorganisms. Yogev et al. [10] demonstrated that fertilizers dependent on plant squander buildups stifled diseases brought about by four different formae speciales of F. oxysporum melonis, basilici, radicis lycopersici, and radicis cucumerinum. Nonetheless, there are significant differences among banana and these yearly crops, regarding trimming cycle, yet in addition in the measure of auxiliary inoculum created per territory. An infected banana plant may created significantly more auxiliary inoculum than these yearly crops. Therefore, the degree of intercession to smother Foc inoculum with use of OAs may be more noteworthy and incorporated with other administration practices like utilization of beneficial and opponent microorganisms. In this sense, the helplessness of F. oxysporum to rivalry for supplements in the dirt may facilitate its concealment if great contenders are set up. For example, Fu et al. [11] revealed the concealment of FW in banana by the nonstop utilization of natural fertilizer. In any case, the effect of OAs on disease concealment may likewise be connected to natural control.
5.3 Application of silicon (Si) and borax (H3BO3): reduce the severity of Panama wilt of banana
Silicon (Si) helps in reducing the severity of a range of infections in specific crops [12]. In addition to the other strategies mentioned for managing banana panama wilt, silicon (Si) application shows potential as part of a novel disease management strategy to avoid Foc infection and assist maintain enough banana output in the future [13]. It has been also reported that Si application suppressed disease in cucurbits caused by foliar and soil-borne pathogens. The obtained resistance of Si amended plants against the fungal pathogen might be due to accumulation of Si in the leaves, thereby, interfering with the pathogen’s penetration as a result of a mechanical barrier. Niwas et al. [14] tested seven micronutrients viz., Calcium nitrate, Ammonium sulphate, Copper sulphate, Potassium chloride, Borax, Ferrous sulphate and Zinc sulphate. Borax @ 500 ppm completely inhibited the growth of F. oxysporum f. sp. cubense followed by zinc sulphate. Johnson et al. [15] also reported similar results on stem rot of groundnut. The micronutrients were used to manage the disease as well as it provided the healthiness of plant and increase the fertility of the soil that’s why the plant was free from the disease or less infected. The mycelial growth of F. oxysporum f. sp. cubense was found low against different micronutrients and finally, it is concluded the borax completely inhibited the growth of F. oxysporum f. sp. cubense in vitro and used for the management of the Fusarium wilt disease of Banana under field conditions.
5.4 Application of phyto-hormones for the induction of resistance against Panama wilt
Plant hormones act as an important regulators in plant-microbe interactions. The impact of key plant hormones on the interaction between Fusarium wilt and host plants was also examined for suppressing the pathogens. Methyl jasmonate (MeJA) activates host defence against a wide range of infections as well as control host defence responses to biotic and abiotic challenges. Reglinski et al. [16] reported that application of MeJA to Pinus radiata seedlings resulted in induced resistance to subsequent wound inoculation with Diplodia pinea. Sun et al. [17] reported that the application of MeJA activated enzymes and reduced the level of H2O2 and malondialdehyde (MDA) in banana plantlets following inoculation with Foc TR4.
5.5 Application of bio-control agent for managing Fusarium wilt of banana
Considering the urgency of Panama disease, biological control offers a complementary disease management approach. However, there has been very little long-term biocontrol effectiveness studies for Fusarium wilt of banana in the field. In recent years, the usage of biocontrol agents (BCAs) has been shown to be an ecofriendly disease management technique. Xue et al. [18] identified one Bacillus spp. isolate as a possible biocontrol agent that plays a key role in the management of banana wilt disease. Despite the limitation of published scientific research on biocontrol, particularly with practical field findings, techniques that may be used to predict biocontrol failures in the field would necessitate a deeper knowledge of these interactions as well as pragmatic assessments of their usefulness. Biological control’s success is determined not just by production techniques, but also by the expenses involved and the presence of effective antagonists. Furthermore, these antagonists must be dry preparations that may be stored for a long term. As field trials reports, soil application of Trichoderma harzianum effectively controlled Fusarium wilt with an efficacy comparable to that of the fungicide carbendazim. Previous reports have also demonstrated that siderophore producing endophytic streptomycetes from banana roots are effective against the Fusarium wilt pathogen and which developed as BCAs against the banana Fusarium disease. Successful inoculation of tissue cultured banana plants with fungal endophytes has been reported by Paparu et al. [19]. Addition of artificial inoculation to tissue cultured banana plantlets resulted in a substantial reduction in the infection and severity of Fusarium wilt disease, as well as increased the plant growth parameters [20]. Application of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) to induce resistance against Fusarium wilt of banana plants. PGPR are considered as the most promising agent for cash crop production and managing soil-borne disease. Several substances produced by PGPR such as antibiotics have been related to pathogen control and indirect promotion of growth in many ways. Considering the employment of elicitors in crop protection is still in the very early stages for the use as a new control method, further research in this area is needed to demonstrate elicitors’ effectiveness in banana wilt disease control.
5.6 Transgenic approaches for developing Fusarium wilt resistant banana
There are Fusarium wilt-resistant banana cultivars, and some have been conventionally developed through various breeding programmes. Now using techniques like particle bombardment or sonication assisted vacuum infiltration of the apical meristem, or using multiple bud clumps followed by Agrobacterium mediated gene transformation, genetic transformation of elite banana cultivars for resistance to Fusarium appears to be a more promising approach to improve disease resistance or tolerance. Testing the efficacy of the altered proteins against the target pathogen, which includes exposing the plants to the pathogen in an appropriate infective unit such as spores, is one of the most important phases in banana genetic engineering for disease resistance. Based on the antifungal activities of thaumatin like proteins are reported as a good candidate for genetic engineering toward production of disease resistant banana plants [21].
5.7 Breeding programme for the development of Fusarium wilt resistant banana
The most common, economical, successful and long-term Foc management method is universally recognized breeding and selection programme for disease tolerance or resistance [22]. Currently, Foc-TR4 resistance screening is mostly done on farmed bananas, but there is not much information on wild banana species. Li et al. [23] used a two step process comprising a combination of greenhouse and field studies which provided a comprehensive and reliable information regarding disease reaction on the evaluated genotypes of banana. To develop a global screening and evaluation protocol is critical for the selection of reliable resistant materials against the Fusarium wilt.
5.8 Somaclonal variations for development of Fusarium wilt resistant banana
Promising Foc resistant or tolerant clones acquired through nonconventional breeding techniques have been proposed as an aid in banana breeding programmes. Shoot tip cultures from banana clones are sensitive and resistant to Foc races 1 and 4 cultivated in vitro in the presence of fusaric acid and fungal crude filtrates to examine under in vivo and in vitro condition. Peroxidase activity was employed as a measure to distinguish between susceptibility and tolerance which was shown to correspond well with the host plant’s field response to infections. At present, attempts to develop new banana genotypes resistant to Fusarium wilt using conventional breeding techniques face significant obstacles mainly because most cultivars of Musa AAA Cavendish subgroup are totally sterile and seedless. Whilst, several resistant clones has been also acquired through somaclonal variation. Wu et al. [24] investigated the utility of in vitro inoculation of rooted banana plantlets grown on modified medium as a reliable and rapid bioassay for resistance to Foc.
6. Conclusions
Fusarium wilt is a destructive disease worldwide. It is a soil borne and saprophytic in nature. Once a banana growing area is infected by Foc, it is very difficult for banana cultivation. Sustainable management requires proper know how of disease cycle and impact of weather factors for reducing the impact of Fusarium wilt. Combating the spread of Fusarium wilt is a race against time. To prevent and contain Fusarium wilt, a complementary approach such as exclusion and surveillance must be considered as significant components of integrated disease management strategies [25]. Thus, preventing the spread of Fusarium infection is very decisive for ensuring the continuity of banana production as well as securing the nutritional supply. Management strategies include crop rotation, organic amendments of soil, application of micronutrients like Si and Borax, plant-microbe interaction, induction of systemic resistance MeJA, treatment with bio-control agents like Trichoderma harzianum and PGPR to overcome the threat. Screening of banana genotypes for resistance to Fusarium wilt using in vitro evaluation, mutation and selection along with somaclonal variation which improve breeding efficiency for resistance against Foc. In addition to the these management strategies, various recent technologies introduced may shed some light into the development of Fusarium-resistant banana varieties which finally manage this venerable menace.
\n',keywords:"Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense, Fusarium wilt, banana, sustainable management",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/79683.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/79683.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79683",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79683",totalDownloads:87,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:0,impactScoreQuartile:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"September 18th 2021",dateReviewed:"November 4th 2021",datePrePublished:"February 11th 2022",datePublished:"May 18th 2022",dateFinished:"December 16th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Banana is one of the most important fruit crops. The major losses in banana mainly due to the fungal wilt disease which is caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense. The pathogen is mainly soil bone and saprotrophic in nature that’s why its management is very difficult. The yearly losses of banana by this disease in the world is ranging from 60 to 90% and in India 30–40%. Sustainable management of panama wilt is must to overcome these losses occur in banana. The management strategies for longer duration through crop rotation, organic amendment, application of micronutrient like silicon (Si), borax, host-pathogen interaction, hormonal induction of defence response, biological control, transgenic approach, disease resistance developed by somaclonal variation. These approaches are mainly emphasized for long term management of the panama wilt disease.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79683",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79683",book:{id:"10904",slug:"fusarium-an-overview-of-the-genus"},signatures:"Ram Niwas, Gireesh Chand and Ramesh Nath Gupta",authors:[{id:"423044",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Ram",middleName:null,surname:"Niwas",fullName:"Ram Niwas",slug:"ram-niwas",email:"ramniwas14011994@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"424857",title:"Dr.",name:"Gireesh",middleName:null,surname:"Chand",fullName:"Gireesh Chand",slug:"gireesh-chand",email:"gireesh_76@rediffmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Central Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424858",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramesh Nath",middleName:null,surname:"Gupta",fullName:"Ramesh Nath Gupta",slug:"ramesh-nath-gupta",email:"rameshnathgupta@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Bihar Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Symptoms",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Causal organism",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Disease cycle and epidemiology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Management strategies for the Panama wilt disease of banana",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1 Crop rotation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.2 Organic amendments",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"5.3 Application of silicon (Si) and borax (H3BO3): reduce the severity of Panama wilt of banana",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.4 Application of phyto-hormones for the induction of resistance against Panama wilt",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.5 Application of bio-control agent for managing Fusarium wilt of banana",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.6 Transgenic approaches for developing Fusarium wilt resistant banana",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"5.7 Breeding programme for the development of Fusarium wilt resistant banana",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"5.8 Somaclonal variations for development of Fusarium wilt resistant banana",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Bhuvanendra HK, Udaya Shankar AC, Chandra NS, Ramachandra KK, Shetty HS, Prakash HS. Biochemical characterization of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense isolates from India. African Journal Biotechnology. 2010;9:523-530'},{id:"B2",body:'Thangavelu R, Sundararaju P, Sathiamoorthy S, Reghuchander T, Velazhahan R, Nakkeeran S, et al. Status of Fusarium wilt of banana in India. In: Proceedings of the International Workshop on Banana Fusarium Wilt Disease; 18-20 October; Malaysia. 1999. pp. 58-63'},{id:"B3",body:'Stover RH. Fusarial wilt (Panama Disease) of bananas and other Musa species. Fusarial wilt (Panama disease) of bananas and other Musa species. 1962'},{id:"B4",body:'Brake VM, Pegg KG, Irwin JAG, Chaseling J. The influence of temperature, inoculum level and race of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense on the disease reaction of the banana cv. ‘Cavendish’. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research. 1995;46:673-685'},{id:"B5",body:'Pattison AB, Wright CL, Kukulies TL, Molina AB. Ground cover management alters development of Fusarium wilt symptoms in Ducasse bananas. Australasian Plant Pathology. 2014;43:465-476'},{id:"B6",body:'Rishbeth J. Fusarium wilt of bananas in Jamaica: I. Some observations on the epidemiology of the disease. Annals of Botany. 1955;19(3):293-328'},{id:"B7",body:'Peng HX, Sivasithamparam K, Turner DW. Chlamydospore germination and Fusarium wilt of banana plantlets in suppressive and conducive soils are affected by physical and chemical factors. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 1999;31:1363-1374'},{id:"B8",body:'Zhang N, Wu K, He X, Li SQ, Zhang ZH, Shen B, et al. A new bioorganic fertilizer can effectively control banana wilt by strong colonization with Bacillus subtilis N11. Plant and Soil. 2011;344(1):87-97'},{id:"B9",body:'Noble R. Risks and benefits of soil amendment with composts in relation to plant pathogens. Australasian Plant Pathology. 2011;40:157-167'},{id:"B10",body:'Yogev A, Raviv M, Hadar Y, Cohen R, Katan J. Plant waste-based composts suppressive to diseases caused by pathogenic Fusarium oxysporum. European Journal of Plant Pathology. 2006;116(4):267-278'},{id:"B11",body:'Fu L, Penton CY, Ruan YZ, Shen ZZ, Shen QR. Inducing the rhizosphere microbiome by biofertilizer application to suppress banana Fusarium wilt disease. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 2017;104:39-48'},{id:"B12",body:'Debona D, Rodrigues FA, Datnoff LE. Silicon\'s role in abiotic and biotic plant stresses. Annual Review of Phytopathology. 2017;55:85-107'},{id:"B13",body:'Fortunato AA, Rodrigues FA, Baroni JCP, Soares GCB, Rodriguez MAD, Pereira OL. Silicon suppresses Fusarium wilt development in banana plants. Journal of Phytopathology. 2012;160:674-679'},{id:"B14",body:'Niwas R, Chand G, Azad CS. Evaluation of micronutrients for inhibition of Panama wilt disease pathogen (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense) of Banana. Annals of Plant Protection Sciences. 2019;27(1):81-83'},{id:"B15",body:'Johnson M, Subramanyam K, Balaguravaiah D, Sudheer MJ. Management of stem rot in groundnut through soil amendments. Annals of Plant Protection Sciences. 2003;11(1):83-85'},{id:"B16",body:'Reglinski T, Taylor JT, Chee AA, Northcott G, Spiers M. Biochemical responses to ultraviolet-C radiation and methyl jas- monate in Pinus radiate seedlings that accompany induced resis- tance to Diplodia pinea. Plant Pathology. 2012;62:851-858'},{id:"B17",body:'Sun D, Lu X, Hu Y, Li W, Hong K, Mo Y, et al. Methyl jasmonate induced defense responses increase resistance to Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense race 4 in banana. Scientia Horticulturae. 2013;164:484-491'},{id:"B18",body:'Xue C, Penton CR, Shen Z, Zhang R, Huang Q, Li R, et al. Manipulating the banana rhizosphere microbiome for biological control of Panama disease. Scientific Reports. 2015;5(1):1-11'},{id:"B19",body:'Paparu P, Dubois T, Gold CS, Adipala E, Niere B, Coyne D. Inoculation, colonization and distribution of fungal endophytes in Musa tissue culture plants. Uganda Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 2004;9(1):583-589'},{id:"B20",body:'Jie L, Zifeng W, Lixiang C, Hongming T, Patrik I, Zide J, et al. Artificial inoculation of banana tissue culture plantlets with indigenous endophytes originally derived from native banana plants. Biological Control. 2009;51:427-434'},{id:"B21",body:'Mahdavi F, Sariah M, Maziah M. Expression of rice thaumatin-like protein gene in transgenic banana plants enhances resistance to Fusarium wilt. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology. 2012;166(4):1008-1019'},{id:"B22",body:'Buddenhagen I. Understanding strain diversity in Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense and history of introduction of “Tropical Race 4” to better manage banana production. Acta Horticulture. 2009;828:193-204'},{id:"B23",body:'Li C, Shao J, Wang Y, Li W, Guo D, Yan B. Analysis of banana transcriptome and global gene expression profiles in banana roots in response to infection by race 1 and tropical race 4 of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense. BMC Genomics. 2013;14(1):1-16'},{id:"B24",body:'Wu Y, Yi G, Peng X, Huang B, Liu E, Zhang J. Systemic acquired resistance in Cavendish banana induced by infection with an incompatible strain of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense. Journal of Plant Physiology. 2013;170(11):1039-1046'},{id:"B25",body:'Ploetz RC. Panama disease: A classic and destructive disease of banana. Plant Health Progress. 2000;1(1):10'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ram Niwas",address:"ramniwas14011994@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Department of Plant Pathology, Bihar Agricultural University, India
Department of Plant Pathology, Bihar Agricultural University, India
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1. Introduction
The Mojave Desert occurs across parts of California, Nevada, Utah, and Arizona in the western region of the United States. It is the smallest and driest desert in North America, with annual precipitation varying widely across the region and an average maximum temperature of 36°C in the summer and average minimum temperature of 13°C in the winter [1]. Although it is not the planet’s hottest desert, it does hold the record for the highest land surface temperature ever recorded on Earth (56.7°C), registered at Death Valley National Park in 1913 [2]. The region is ecologically and topographically diverse, with elevations ranging from to −85 to 3,633 meters, and consequently hosts a large number of threatened, endangered, and endemic species. The sunny climate and proximity to national parks and other public lands also attracts human inhabitants. Most of the large cities in the area (e.g., Las Vegas) continue to grow, and anthropogenic developments and recreational activities are increasingly disturbing Mojave Desert ecosystems. Additional stressors on native flora and fauna include invasive species, altered disease dynamics, and increasing wildfire frequency, and populations of many plant and animal species are in decline.
As a patchwork of unique habitats and extreme conditions, the Mojave Desert supports a diverse flora of about three thousand plant species [3]. The number and geological distribution of plants within this landscape is determined by the interaction of many factors such as elevation, precipitation, temperature, soil properties and disturbance. Many Mojave plant species are both regionally endemic, found nowhere else on earth, and locally endemic, restricted to a specific geographic area within the Mojave Desert. Additionally, some species can be defined as rare, having either a narrow geographical range, specialized habitat requirements, or a small population size [4]. Although a species may be considered endemic but not rare, and vice versa, both endemic and/or rare species exhibit attributes which make them more vulnerable to extinction [5]. Consequently, conservation efforts are necessary in some instances to preserve genetic and species diversity as well as ecosystem structure and function [3]. Given the number of endemic and rare species, and their unique habitat requirements, land managers face a daunting task in the Mojave Desert. The United States Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973 provided a critical boost to conservation efforts. This legislation was designed to identify and protect plant and animal species facing imminent extinction, and covers species, subspecies, and distinct population segments [6]. The Mojave Desert contains 24 plant species listed as threatened or endangered under the ESA (Table 1), many of which are also listed under some level of conservation concern by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature [7].
Scientific Name
Common Name
Family
US ESA Status
Nature Serve Status
State(s) of occurrence
Arctomecon humilis Coville
Dwarf Bear-poppy
Papaveraceae
E
G1
Utah
Arenaria ursina B.L. Rob.
Bear Valley Sandwort
Caryophyllaceae
T
G1
California
Astragalus albens Greene
Cushenbury Milkvetch
Fabaceae
E
G1
California
Astragalus ampullarioides Sheldon
Shivwits Milkvetch
Fabaceae
E
G1
Utah
Astragalus holmgreniorum Barneby
Holmgren’s Milkvetch
Fabaceae
E
G1
Arizona, Utah
Astragalus jaegerianus Munz
Lane Mountain Milkvetch
Fabaceae
E
G2
California
Astragalus lentiginosus Douglas var. coachellae Barneby
Enceliopsis nudicaulis (A. Gray) A. Nelson var. corrugata Cronquist
Ash Meadows Sunray
Asteraceae
T
T1
Nevada
Erigeron parishii A. Gray
Parish’s Daisy
Asteraceae
T
G2
California
Eriogonum kennedyi Porter ex S. Watson var. austromontanum Munz & I. M. Johnst.
Southern Mountain Buckwheat
Polygonaceae
T
T2
California
Eriogonum ovalifolium Nutt. var. vineum (Small) A. Nelson
Cushenbury Buckwheat
Polygonaceae
E
T1
California
Grindelia fraxinipratensis Reveal & Beatley
Ash Meadows Gumweed
Asteraceae
T
G2
Nevada
Ivesia kingii S. Watson var. eremica (Coville) Ertter
Ash Meadows Ivesia
Rosaceae
T
T1
Nevada
Lesquerella kingii S. Watson ssp. bernardina (Munz) Munz
San Bernardino Mountains Bladderpod
Brassicaceae
E
T1
California
Mentzelia leucophylla Brandegee
Ash Meadows Blazingstar
Loasaceae
T
G1
Nevada
Nitrophila mohavensis Munz & J. C. Roos
Amargosa Niterwort
Chenopodiaceae
E
G1
California, Nevada
Oxytheca parishii Parry var. goodmaniana Ertter
Cushenbury Oxytheca
Polygonaceae
E
T1
California
Pediocactus sileri (Engelm. ex J.M. Coult.) L.D. Benson
Siler Pincushion Cactus
Cactaceae
T
G2
Arizona, Utah
Sphaeralcea gierischii N.D. Atwood & S.L. Welsh
Gierisch’s Globemallow
Malvaceae
E
G1
Arizona, Utah
Swallenia alexandrae (Swallen) Söderst. & Decker
Eureka Dune Grass
Poaceae
E
G2
California
Table 1.
Name, family, and location of Mojave Desert plants listed as threatened (T) or endangered (E) under the United States Endangered Species Act (ESA).
Global conservation status rank according to NatureServe: GX/TX = presumed extinct, GH/TH = possibly extinct, G1/T1 = critically imperiled, G2/T2 = imperiled, G3/T3 = vulnerable, G4/T4 = apparently secure, G5/T5 = secure.
These 24 listed plants species encompass four states and nine plants families, illustrating the starkly different geographical reaches of the Mojave Desert. They can be further subdivided to exemplify one or more of the three criteria for rarity [4] and/or specific forms of endemism [8]. First, all the listed species have a narrow geographic range, some restricted to soils derived from specific geological formations and some endemic to regional biodiversity hotspots. For example, the seven species from Nevada are all found within the confines of Ash Meadows National Wildlife Refuge and land immediately adjacent (Figure 1). This 24,000-acre spring-fed alkaline wetland and alkaline desert upland has the highest concentration of endemic species in the United States [9, 10]. Second, all the listed species have highly specialized habitat requirements ranging from eolian dunes of Coachella Valley, California to gypsum outcrops associated with the Harrisburg Member of the Kaibab Formation in northern Mohave County, Arizona. Edaphic endemism (influenced by soils; [8]) is a strong theme running through the Mojave ESA listed species with alkaline-wetland, calcium-carbonate, gypsum, and granite endemism represented. Three listed species from the San Bernardino Mountains in California are restricted to “pebble plains” named for the layer of orange quartzite pebbles that are pushed to the clay soil surface by freezing and thawing [11]. Third, many of the listed species have small or disjointed populations, such as Lane Mountain Milkvetch (Astragalus jaegerianus). This species is known from only 4 disjunct populations and is threatened by recreational off-highway vehicle (OHV) use and military activity. Although threats to the 24 ESA listed Mojave Desert plant species are many, climate change remains a ubiquitous concern.
Figure 1.
Illustration panel by Tiffany J. Pereira portraying the federally threatened and endangered plants of Ash Meadows National Wildlife Refuge, a vulnerable biodiversity hotspot in Nevada, USA. From left to right: Centaurium namophilum, Astragalus phoenix, Enceliopsis nudicaulis var. corrugata, Grindelia fraxinipratensis, Ivesia kingii var. eremica, and Mentzelia leucophylla. Not pictured: Nitrophila mohavensis.
There has been multi-decadal warming across the Earth’s surface, with each of the previous three decades experiencing progressively warmer temperatures than any preceding decade since 1850 [12]. Ecoregions defined by climatic extremes, such as deserts, are particularly vulnerable to climate change. On a global scale, deserts have experienced faster warming and drying over the last 50 years when compared to other regions [13, 14], and this is projected to continue [15]. Desert dwelling species may be directly impacted by thermal or hydric stress, or indirectly via altered habitats, species interactions, or disease dynamics. Several studies have documented negative effects from increasing temperatures on desert wildlife species, including birds [16, 17], mammals [18], invertebrates [19], and reptiles [20]. Studies focused on desert plants have predicted species range shifts in response to climate change [21], and potential changes in vegetation community composition as a result of altered summer precipitation patterns [22]. Climate change impacts are projected to be particularly severe in the southwestern region of the United States, where the Mojave Desert occurs, and resident plants will have to cope with prolonged drought, fewer frost days, warmer temperatures, and an increase in extreme weather events [23, 24, 25]. Many species may not be able to survive in such highly transformed environments. Climate change has emerged as one of the greatest threats to biodiversity, with potential to hasten species extinctions, elevating the need to understand how threatened and endangered species may be affected [26]. Management actions have traditionally focused on the establishment of protected areas to conserve habitat and halt species decline, but the efficacy of these strategies is questionable under predicted future climatic regimes [27]. One way to better integrate climate change considerations into management planning for imperiled plant species is to conduct climate change vulnerability assessments (CCVAs).
Vulnerability assessments offer a standardized approach for measuring climate change sensitivity that is efficient, repeatable, and directly comparable among different species. Vulnerability can be defined as the degree to which a species is susceptible to climate change, taking into consideration the magnitude of predicted change where the species occurs and the adaptive capacity of the species [28]. Species within an area or ecoregion can be ranked according to their expected sensitivity to changing climatic conditions [29]. A CCVA can be conducted using several different methods, such as a correlative, mechanistic, or trait-based approach, or a combination of several of these types of models. Correlative approaches have frequently been used for plants, but a trait-based approach is best for rapid assessment of a larger number of species [30]. A trait-based method identifies and scores attributes of a species that are relevant to avoiding or tolerating climate change, such as dispersal ability or sensitivity to temperature or precipitation changes. A species’ overall vulnerability to climate change is represented by the sum of these scores. Here we utilize a trait-based approach to assess climate change vulnerability of threatened and endangered plants in the Mojave Desert, and provide suggestions for incorporating these considerations into management actions and conservation planning efforts.
2. Methods
We accessed the United States Fish and Wildlife Service’s (USFWS) website to obtain the most up to date list of plant species identified as threatened or endangered under the ESA [31]. This list was reduced to only those species occurring in the Mojave Desert, as defined by the EPA Level III Ecoregions [32]. We overlaid spatial data of plant species distribution with a boundary of the selected ecoregion? (Mojave Basin and Range) to verify species occurrence, which resulted in 24 plant species in the Mojave Desert listed as threatened or endangered (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Plant species listed as threatened or endangered under the United States Endangered Species Act in the Mojave Desert.
We used NatureServe’s Climate Change Vulnerability Index (https://www.natureserve.org/conservation-tools/climate-change-vulnerability-index, last accessed 19 Nov 2020) to investigate the susceptibility of Mojave Desert listed plants to climate change (CCVI) [33]. This index incorporated future climate projections, along with data for each species related to natural history, current distribution, and ecological associations, to predict range contraction and/or population extirpations. The CCVI used a total of 24 factors in several categories to assess the three major elements of vulnerability; exposure to climate change (direct and indirect), sensitivity, and species-specific adaptive capacity. We reviewed information about the species and entered a score for each factor according to guidance and criteria set by the CCVI [33]. Direct climate exposure was calculated by estimating projected temperature and moisture change within the assessment area, while indirect exposure was assessed by evaluating future distribution relative to barriers that may restrict a species ability to shift its’ range. Mid-century (2040–2069) climate projections were used based on an ensemble-average of general circulation models and a medium emissions scenario [33]. For sensitivity and adaptive capacity, we evaluated a variety of factors including dispersal capability, reliance on specific thermal or hydrological conditions, dependence on disturbance regime or snow/ice cover, restriction to uncommon habitat types or landscape features, reliance on interspecific interactions, and genetic variation. For each sensitivity factor, we assigned a score of decrease, somewhat decrease, neutral, somewhat increase, increase, or greatly increase vulnerability to climate change. A score of unknown was given when information was lacking for a particular factor. Although some sensitivity factors were optional, the CCVI required a minimum number of factors (10) in order to avoid a determination of insufficient evidence [33].
Each species was assigned one of the following five categories based on CCVI scores: extremely vulnerable, highly vulnerable, moderately vulnerable, less vulnerable, and insufficient evidence (Table 2). The CCVI also calculated a categorical confidence estimate (very low, low, high, very high) for each species ranking, which was based on certainty in the factor values as represented by the frequency of multiple categories of vulnerability being selected for a given factor.
Extremely Vulnerable (EV): Abundance and/or range extent within geographical area assessed extremely likely to substantially decrease or disappear by 2050.
Highly Vulnerable (HV): Abundance and/or range extent within geographical area assessed likely to decrease significantly by 2050.
Moderately Vulnerable (MV): Abundance and/or range extent within geographical area assessed likely to decrease by 2050.
Less Vulnerable (LV): Available evidence does not suggest that abundance and/or range extent within the geographical area assessed will change (increase/decrease) substantially by 2050. Actual range boundaries may change.
Insufficient Evidence (IE): Information about a species’ vulnerability is inadequate to calculate an index score.
Table 2.
Climate Change Vulnerability Index Score Descriptions [33].
3. Results
The majority of the species assessed (N = 21, 88%) were found to be moderately, highly, or extremely vulnerable to climate change (Figure 3). Five species (21%) were extremely vulnerable to climate change, six species (25%) were highly vulnerable, and ten species (42%) were moderately vulnerable to climate change (Figure 3). Only three species were determined to be less vulnerable to climate change and no species received a score of insufficient evidence. The confidence estimate for each species score was very high, indicating a large degree of certainty in the vulnerability ranking.
Figure 3.
Proportion of Mojave Desert listed plants categorized by the following climate change vulnerability indices: EV = extremely vulnerable, HV = highly vulnerable, MV = moderately vulnerable, LS = less vulnerable. N is the number of species within each category, out of 24 species total.
Among key factors, limited dispersal capability increased climate change vulnerability for almost every species assessed (N = 23), with the one exception being the only grass species, Eureka Dune Grass (Swallenia alexandrae), which is wind pollinated (Table 3). Likewise, natural or anthropogenic barriers that may impede range shifts, increased or somewhat increased climate change vulnerability for the majority of plant species assessed (N = 22, Table 3). Physical habitat, or restriction to uncommon geological formations or substrates, also emerged as one of the most important factors in our assessment, as it somewhat increased or increased vulnerability for most species (N = 22). The potential for climate change mitigation projects (e.g., alternative energy facilities) also somewhat increased vulnerability for many species (N = 15, Table 3), which is not surprising given that these desert plants inhabit areas often identified as prime locations for solar energy projects. Additionally, physiological hydrological niche was a key factor affecting vulnerability ranking in many species (N = 9), with species reliant on a particular hydrologic regime (e.g., desert springs) being assessed as more vulnerable than species not dependent on these habitats. Competition from other native or non-native species favored by climate change somewhat increased vulnerability for roughly half of the species assessed (N = 11). Genetic variation appeared to be a less important factor (N = 1), similar to reproductive system which somewhat increased vulnerability in only a few species (N = 6, Table 3).
hydroelectric development, mining, power line construction, recreational development (e.g., ski resorts), recreational OHV use, urban development
Eureka Dune Grass
LV
Natural barriers, physical habitat
Yes
recreational OHV use and activities
Table 3.
Climate change vulnerability index score for threatened and endangered plants in the Mojave Desert (EV = extremely vulnerable, HV=highly vulnerable, MV = moderately vulnerable, LV = less vulnerable).
Key factors contributing to vulnerability for each species. Factors related to indirect climate exposure include natural and anthropogenic barriers that restrict species movement in response to changing climatic conditions, and the degree to which the species may be affected by climate change mitigation actions (ie, placement of solar arrays in desert plant habitat). All other listed key factors relate to species sensitivity and adaptive capacity. Dispersal refers to the ability to move through unsuitable habitat, while physiological hydrological niche pertains to plant species dependent upon a narrowly defined water source (e.g., desert springs). Physical habitat refers to a species dependence upon a particular uncommon landscape or geological feature (e.g., gypsiferous soils). Pollinators relates to pollination strategy (e.g., dependence on only one pollinator may increase vulnerability), while competition identifies species that may be outcompeted by another species (native or non-native) favored by climate change. Reproductive system serves as a measure of genetic diversity in plants where genetic information is lacking, and genetic variation serves as a proxy for a species capacity to adapt to novel conditions. Protection area status is indicated by whether or not a species occurs exclusively or primarily in a protected area (e.g., wildlife refuge, park, area of environmental concern). Non-climate related anthropogenic stressors that are negatively affecting plant populations are also displayed.
The five species classified as extremely vulnerable occurred in the same geographic area (southwest Utah and northwest Arizona, Figure 2). Among species classified as highly vulnerable (N = 6), five of these were located primarily in a protected area at Ash Meadows National Wildlife Refuge in Nevada (Table 3). Species classified as less vulnerable (N = 3) also included one that inhabited a protected area (Table 3). Roughly 38% of the species assessed (N = 9) were located exclusively or primarily on lands under protection status, with seven species endemic to Ash Meadows National Wildlife Refuge in Nevada, one species occurring in Death Valley National Park in California, and one species in Zion National Park in Utah. In addition to climate change, many plant species were also found to be threatened by other anthropogenic factors such as agriculture, grazing, groundwater pumping, invasive species, mining, recreational off-highway vehicle (OHV) use and activities, and urban development (Table 3).
4. Discussion
Our results suggest that climate change may pose additional threats, or exacerbate current stressors, for threatened and endangered plants in the Mojave Desert. Many listed plants are rare species characterized by relatively narrow ecological niches, small population sizes and restricted geographic ranges [34]. Although these traits may contribute to a species decline in a world increasingly influenced by human activity, these factors alone do not determine likelihood of extinction. Numerous species that were once locally common or abundant (e.g., elephants, lemurs, orangutans) have become endangered due to hunting, habitat loss, agriculture, or other human endeavors. Rarity may have been a contributing factor, but Mojave Desert listed plants became threatened or endangered primarily because of anthropogenic stressors. Climate change has not been considered in measures of extinction risk in the past, and this phenomenon has the potential to accelerate extinction processes for species already struggling to persist. For example, the five plant species classified as extremely vulnerable by our CCVI (Dwarf Bear-poppy, Shivwits Milkvetch, Holmgren’s Milkvetch, Siler Pincushion Cactus, Gierisch’s Globemallow) occur only in a small geographic area located in southern Utah and northern Arizona. Climate change is projected to be particularly severe for this part of the Mojave Desert, with a 2.2°C–4.4°C increase in annual temperature predicted by the end of the century (2070–2099) and a 30% reduction in snowpack, which functions as the regions’ main source of water [35].
Although Shivwits Milkvetch occurs predominantly in a protected area (Zion National Park), the remaining four plants categorized as extremely vulnerable do not. These species are habitat specialists restricted to gypsiferous soils located largely on federally managed public lands where populations are also threatened by recreation, grazing, and gypsum mining. One frequent suggestion for managing imperiled species under climate change is to reduce existing threats in order to increase resilience to climate change [36]. Threats could be minimized by placing core habitat areas under protection status, which has been successful in recovery efforts for another listed plant in the Mojave Desert, the Eureka Dune Grass. The species was recently down listed from endangered to threatened, mainly as a result of habitat areas becoming part of Death Valley National Park which prohibits OHV use in Eureka Dunes [37]. This strategy may not be effective throughout the Mojave Desert, however, as listed plant species in Ash Meadows National Wildlife Refuge continue to decline despite similar protection status [38]. Endemic species in this refuge rely upon rare, wet microhabitats sustained by desert springs or shallow groundwater, which are vulnerable to groundwater pumping and drought. Groundwater pumping is very likely to increase throughout the Mojave Desert as droughts become more frequent and dry conditions are intensified by climate change, and the future of many Ash Meadows species remains uncertain.
Similar to other studies related to CCVAs of imperiled plants, our vulnerability scores were strongly associated with two analogous factors, natural or anthropogenic barriers and dispersal ability. In highly urbanized and densely populated regions of California, anthropogenic barriers limited the dispersal capability of 63% of plant species assessed [39]. A lack of topographical variation presented a bigger challenge in other regions, as plant species inhabiting areas of topographical homogeneity may experience climate change effects sooner since they are unable to move up or down in elevation [40]. For plants in relatively flat regions of the United States, such as Illinois, latitudinal migration may be the only effective survival mechanism, which will require assisted migration as individuals will not be able to disperse through highly urbanized areas [40]. In contrast, the Mojave Desert is relatively undeveloped and topographically diverse, thus offers opportunities for plants to shift to higher elevations and more mesic microhabitats. Hot, dry desert valleys and other areas of unsuitable habitat may present similar barriers to dispersal, however. Some of the plant species assessed here could be good candidates for assisted migration, assuming appropriate substrates and ecological conditions (e.g., pollinators, hydrological regimes) are available on the landscape and successful restoration techniques are established.
5. Conclusion
Information produced by the CCVA can be used to identify threatened and endangered plants most vulnerable to climate change in the Mojave Desert. Species vulnerability assessments break down the complexity of climate change impacts on overall biodiversity, and facilitate the integration of societal, economic, and other environmental concerns into conservation planning efforts. Our assessments also identified knowledge gaps for each species, which promotes the development and testing of new hypotheses about climatic tolerances. Furthermore, the identification of particular traits that make a species vulnerable allow for targeted management actions. Recovery and management plans for threatened or endangered species can be updated to include climate change vulnerability and its implications, which may necessitate the inclusion of different stakeholders or increased frequency of monitoring to detect distribution shifts. The Mojave Desert is a unique ecoregion beloved by many and there is still much uncertainty related to the magnitude and extent of global atmospheric and climatic change. Our hope is that results presented here contribute to the larger body of knowledge for the region, and aid in better stewardship of these irreplaceable ecological systems and inhabitants.
Acknowledgments
The findings and conclusions in this article are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent the views of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service or the U.S. Bureau of Land Management. We thank Gary Reese and Cayenne Engel from the Nevada Division of Forestry for their conscientious review and helpful comments which greatly improved the manuscript.
\n',keywords:"threatened species, climate change, Mojave Desert, vulnerability assessment, conservation management, endemic species, biodiversity",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74841.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/74841.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74841",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74841",totalDownloads:352,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"August 5th 2020",dateReviewed:"December 28th 2020",datePrePublished:"January 19th 2021",datePublished:"April 28th 2021",dateFinished:"January 18th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The Mojave Desert in the southwestern United States is one of the hottest and driest areas of North America. Climate change is likely to exacerbate these conditions. The region is home to many endemic plant species, including 24 federally threatened species. The impact of climate change factors on these sensitive Mojave Desert species is relatively unknown. Here we used a climate change vulnerability assessment to determine which imperiled plants may be most affected by changing climatic conditions. We evaluated the vulnerability of each species under future climate scenarios and calculated scores using metrics such as exposure, sensitivity, niche breadth, and dispersal capability. We found that most listed plant species were vulnerable to climate change, with 21% (N = 5) classified as extremely vulnerable, 25% (N = 6) classified as highly vulnerable, and 42% (N = 10) classified as moderately vulnerable. Contributing factors most frequently associated with vulnerability included various barriers to migration, high habitat specificity, and species sensitivity to changes in hydrological patterns. Many of these species are already threatened by ongoing anthropogenic stressors such as urban growth and associated developments, and these results suggest that climate change will pose additional challenges for conservation and management. Natural resource managers can use the vulnerability ranking and contributing factors identified from these analyses to inform ecological decisions related to threatened plants throughout desert regions.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74841",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74841",signatures:"Jennifer Wilkening, Lara Kobelt and Tiffany J. Pereira",book:{id:"9694",type:"book",title:"Endangered Plants",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Endangered Plants",slug:"endangered-plants",publishedDate:"April 28th 2021",bookSignature:"Sanjeet Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9694.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83962-894-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-893-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-899-3",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"258148",title:"Dr.",name:"Sanjeet",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"sanjeet-kumar",fullName:"Sanjeet Kumar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"328737",title:"Dr.",name:"Jennifer",middleName:null,surname:"Wilkening",fullName:"Jennifer Wilkening",slug:"jennifer-wilkening",email:"jennifer_wilkening@fws.gov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"United States Fish and Wildlife Service",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"342346",title:"Ms.",name:"Lara",middleName:null,surname:"Kobelt",fullName:"Lara Kobelt",slug:"lara-kobelt",email:"lkobelt@blm.gov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Bureau of Land Management",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"342347",title:"MSc.",name:"Tiffany J.",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",fullName:"Tiffany J. Pereira",slug:"tiffany-j.-pereira",email:"tiffany.pereira@dri.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Desert Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'US Climate Summaries Mojave Desert [Internet]. 2020. Available from: https://www.usclimatedata.com/ [Accessed December 2020]'},{id:"B2",body:'World Meteorological Organization. World: Highest Temperature [Internet]. 2020. Available from: https://wmo.asu.edu/content/world-highest-temperature [Accessed October 2020]'},{id:"B3",body:'Walker LR, Landau FH. 2018. A natural history of the Mojave Desert. 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Desert Research Institute, USA
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Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
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Adsorption kinetics is one of the main factors that must be understood before the applicability of any adsorbent. In every adsorption process, linear or non-linear analysis of the kinetics is applied. The goodness of fit index (coefficient of correlation or sum of squares) is applied to access the best model. The usage of linear or non-linear from of the adsorption kinetics has an impact on the distribution of error function. Almost in every adsorption study, linear forms have been used to conclude the best kinetic model that influence the adsorption mechanism—which might be an error. Therefore, this review highlights the mistakes in the usage of linear and non-linear models. The applicability of the adsorption kinetics in wastewater treatment is also illuminated.",book:{id:"7486",slug:"advanced-sorption-process-applications",title:"Advanced Sorption Process Applications",fullTitle:"Advanced Sorption Process Applications"},signatures:"George William Kajjumba, Serkan Emik, Atakan Öngen, H. 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De Oliveira, D.A.C. Albuquerque, T.G.S. Cruz, F.M. Yamaji and F.L. Leite",authors:[{id:"1164",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabio",middleName:"Lima",surname:"Leite",slug:"fabio-leite",fullName:"Fabio Leite"},{id:"136651",title:"MSc.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"De Oliveira",slug:"ricardo-de-oliveira",fullName:"Ricardo De Oliveira"},{id:"136652",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Diego",middleName:"Aparecido Carvalho",surname:"Albuquerque",slug:"diego-albuquerque",fullName:"Diego Albuquerque"},{id:"136653",title:"Prof.",name:"Tersio",middleName:null,surname:"Cruz",slug:"tersio-cruz",fullName:"Tersio Cruz"},{id:"136657",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"Yamaji",slug:"fabio-yamaji",fullName:"Fabio Yamaji"}]},{id:"62303",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79374",title:"Modified Titanium Dioxide for Photocatalytic Applications",slug:"modified-titanium-dioxide-for-photocatalytic-applications",totalDownloads:4038,totalCrossrefCites:37,totalDimensionsCites:83,abstract:"Titanium dioxide (TiO2) has been widely used as a photocatalyst in many environmental and energy applications due to its efficient photoactivity, high stability, low cost, and safety to the environment and humans. However, its large band gap energy, ca. 3.2 eV limits its absorption of solar radiation to the UV light range which accounts for only about 5% of the solar spectrum. Furthermore, the photocatalytic activity of TiO2 is also limited by the rapid recombination of the photogenerated electron-hole pairs. When used in water treatment applications, TiO2 has a poor affinity toward organic pollutants, especially hydrophobic organic pollutants. Several strategies have been employed to reduce its band gap energy, its electron-hole recombination rates as well as enhance its absorption of organic pollutants. In this chapter, we review some of the most recent works that have employed the doping, decoration, and structural modification of TiO2 particles for applications in photocatalysis. Additionally, we discuss the effectiveness of these dopants and/or modifiers in enhancing TiO2 photoactivity as well as some perspective on the future of TiO2 photocatalysis.",book:{id:"7478",slug:"photocatalysts-applications-and-attributes",title:"Photocatalysts",fullTitle:"Photocatalysts - Applications and Attributes"},signatures:"John Moma and Jeffrey Baloyi",authors:[{id:"250026",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Moma",slug:"john-moma",fullName:"John Moma"},{id:"250963",title:"Mr.",name:"Jeffrey",middleName:null,surname:"Baloyi",slug:"jeffrey-baloyi",fullName:"Jeffrey Baloyi"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"68496",title:"Moisture Sorption Isotherms and Isotherm Model Performance Evaluation for Food and Agricultural Products",slug:"moisture-sorption-isotherms-and-isotherm-model-performance-evaluation-for-food-and-agricultural-prod",totalDownloads:2001,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Moisture sorption characteristics of agricultural and food products play important roles in such technological processes as drying, handling, packaging, storage, mixing, freeze-drying and other processes that require the prediction of food stability, shelf life, glass transition and estimation of drying time and texture and prevention of deteriorative reactions. They are useful in the computation of thermodynamic energies of moisture in the products. An understanding of moisture sorption phenomena in products, moisture sorption isotherm (MSI) determination techniques and moisture sorption isotherm model evaluation procedures would be useful in the development or selection, modeling and controlling as well as optimization of appropriate processes to make for enhanced efficiency. The phenomena addressed in this chapter are equilibrium moisture content (EMC)-water activity (aw) relationships and MSI types, temperature influence on isotherms and occurrence of moisture sorption hysteresis. MSI measurement techniques highlighted are the gravimetric, vapor pressure manometric (VPM), hygrometric and inverse gas chromatographic and the use of AquaLab equipment. Commonly used moisture sorption isotherm models (BET, GAB, modified GAB, Hailwood-Horrobin, modified Hailwood-Horrobin, modified Halsey, modified Henderson, modified Chung-Pfost and modified Oswin) were selected, and their evaluation procedures using moisture sorption data were outlined. Static gravimetric technique involving the use of saturated salt solution appears to be the most widely used and recommended method of determining the EMC of agricultural and food products. Most of the MSI models can be fitted to moisture sorption data thorough linearization by logarithmic transformation, while others can be solved using such expression as second-order polynomial. Model goodness of fit can be determined using standard (SE) error of estimate, coefficient of determination (R2), mean relative percentage deviation (P) and fraction explained variation (FEV). The acceptance of a model depends on the nature of its residual plots. A model is considered acceptable if the residual plots show uniform scatter around the horizontal value of zero showing no systemic tendency towards a clear pattern. A model is better than another model if it has lower SE, lower P, higher R2 and higher FEV. Although it appears as if a generalized MSI model is yet to exist, it is recommended that the Ngoddy-Bakker-Arkema (NBA) model should be given thorough going and extensive testing on the MSI of different categories of food as it could prove true to its generalized model posture due to the fundamental nature of its derivation.",book:{id:"8012",slug:"sorption-in-2020s",title:"Sorption in 2020s",fullTitle:"Sorption in 2020s"},signatures:"Ndubisi A. Aviara",authors:[{id:"303694",title:"Prof.",name:"Ndubisi",middleName:null,surname:"Aviara",slug:"ndubisi-aviara",fullName:"Ndubisi Aviara"}]},{id:"63788",title:"Disinfection Methods",slug:"disinfection-methods",totalDownloads:3236,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Water must be made safe to drink, and an important step in ensuring water safety is disinfection. Disinfectants are added to water to kill disease-causing microorganisms. Ground water sources can be disinfected by “The Water Treatment Rule,” which requires public water systems for disinfection. Chlorination, ozone, ultraviolet light, and chloramines are primary methods for disinfection. However, potassium permanganate, photocatalytic disinfection, nanofiltration, and chlorine dioxide can also be used. Organic material is naturally present in water. Certain forms of chlorine can react with these organic materials and result in the formation of harmful by-products; the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has anticipated maximum levels for these contaminants.",book:{id:"7478",slug:"photocatalysts-applications-and-attributes",title:"Photocatalysts",fullTitle:"Photocatalysts - Applications and Attributes"},signatures:"Muhammad Saqib Ishaq, Zobia Afsheen, Amjad Khan and Amjad\nKhan",authors:[{id:"228353",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saqib",middleName:null,surname:"Ishaq",slug:"muhammad-saqib-ishaq",fullName:"Muhammad Saqib Ishaq"},{id:"246559",title:"Dr.",name:"Zobia",middleName:null,surname:"Afsheen",slug:"zobia-afsheen",fullName:"Zobia Afsheen"},{id:"246561",title:"Mr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"amjad-khan",fullName:"Amjad Khan"},{id:"271289",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"amjad-khan",fullName:"Amjad Khan"}]},{id:"41887",title:"Microbial Techniques for Hydrocarbon Exploration",slug:"microbial-techniques-for-hydrocarbon-exploration",totalDownloads:6618,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"2351",slug:"hydrocarbon",title:"Hydrocarbon",fullTitle:"Hydrocarbon"},signatures:"M.A. Rasheed, D.J. Patil and A.M. Dayal",authors:[{id:"143475",title:"Dr",name:"Mohammed Abdul",middleName:null,surname:"Rasheed",slug:"mohammed-abdul-rasheed",fullName:"Mohammed Abdul Rasheed"},{id:"144630",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayal",middleName:null,surname:"Anurodh",slug:"dayal-anurodh",fullName:"Dayal Anurodh"}]},{id:"58999",title:"The DFT+U: Approaches, Accuracy, and Applications",slug:"the-dft-u-approaches-accuracy-and-applications",totalDownloads:4543,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:45,abstract:"This chapter introduces the Hubbard model and its applicability as a corrective tool for accurate modeling of the electronic properties of various classes of systems. The attainment of a correct description of electronic structure is critical for predicting further electronic-related properties, including intermolecular interactions and formation energies. The chapter begins with an introduction to the formulation of density functional theory (DFT) functionals, while addressing the origin of bandgap problem with correlated materials. Then, the corrective approaches proposed to solve the DFT bandgap problem are reviewed, while comparing them in terms of accuracy and computational cost. The Hubbard model will then offer a simple approach to correctly describe the behavior of highly correlated materials, known as the Mott insulators. Based on Hubbard model, DFT+U scheme is built, which is computationally convenient for accurate calculations of electronic structures. Later in this chapter, the computational and semiempirical methods of optimizing the value of the Coulomb interaction potential (U) are discussed, while evaluating the conditions under which it can be most predictive. The chapter focuses on highlighting the use of U to correct the description of the physical properties, by reviewing the results of case studies presented in literature for various classes of materials.",book:{id:"6193",slug:"density-functional-calculations-recent-progresses-of-theory-and-application",title:"Density Functional Calculations",fullTitle:"Density Functional Calculations - Recent Progresses of Theory and Application"},signatures:"Sarah A. Tolba, Kareem M. Gameel, Basant A. Ali, Hossam A.\nAlmossalami and Nageh K. Allam",authors:[{id:"175824",title:"Dr.",name:"Nageh",middleName:"K.",surname:"Allam",slug:"nageh-allam",fullName:"Nageh Allam"},{id:"398157",title:"Dr.",name:"Sarah A.",middleName:null,surname:"Tolba",slug:"sarah-a.-tolba",fullName:"Sarah A. Tolba"},{id:"398158",title:"Dr.",name:"Kareem M.",middleName:null,surname:"Gameel",slug:"kareem-m.-gameel",fullName:"Kareem M. Gameel"},{id:"398162",title:"Dr.",name:"Basant A.",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"basant-a.-ali",fullName:"Basant A. Ali"},{id:"398163",title:"Dr.",name:"Hossam A.",middleName:null,surname:"Almossalami",slug:"hossam-a.-almossalami",fullName:"Hossam A. Almossalami"}]},{id:"40233",title:"Ammonia as a Hydrogen Source for Fuel Cells: A Review",slug:"ammonia-as-a-hydrogen-source-for-fuel-cells-a-review",totalDownloads:9336,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:40,abstract:null,book:{id:"2795",slug:"hydrogen-energy-challenges-and-perspectives",title:"Hydrogen Energy",fullTitle:"Hydrogen Energy - Challenges and Perspectives"},signatures:"Denver Cheddie",authors:[{id:"141157",title:"Dr.",name:"Denver",middleName:null,surname:"Cheddie",slug:"denver-cheddie",fullName:"Denver Cheddie"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"86",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81713",title:"Transition Metals-Based Metal-Organic Frameworks, Synthesis, and Environmental Applications",slug:"transition-metals-based-metal-organic-frameworks-synthesis-and-environmental-applications",totalDownloads:41,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104294",abstract:"This work illustrates examples of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) derived from transition metals and their environmental applications in areas of catalysis, sorption, and hydrogen evolution. Explanation of some of the techniques employed for their synthesis has been discussed. On the other hand, the advantages of the use of hybrid materials such as the metal-organic frameworks are exposed in this book as well a detailed description of the different linkers and metals used for the synthesis of this kind of porous materials going through the methodologies and techniques utilized by different authors to obtain good-quality crystalline applicable materials. Adjustments of linker geometry, length, ratio, and the functional group can tune the size, shape, and internal surface property of an MOF for a targeted application. The uses of MOFs are exploring new different areas of chemistry such as catalysis, adsorption, carrier systems, hydrogen evolution, photocatalysis, and more. Different examples of MOFs from Scandium to Zinc are well described in this book, and finally, a brief description of some common environmental applications such as metals and azo dyes sorption, hydrogen evolution, and catalyst in the transesterification process of vegetable oils to produce biodiesel is explored and commented.",book:{id:"11216",title:"Sorption - From Fundamentals to Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11216.jpg"},signatures:"Lidia E. Chiñas-Rojas, Guadalupe Vivar-Vera, Yafeth F. Cruz-Martínez, Seth Limón Colohua, José María Rivera and Eric Houbron"},{id:"81332",title:"Adsorption of Chromium from an Aqueous Solution onto Chitosan Beads Modified with Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate (SDS)",slug:"adsorption-of-chromium-from-an-aqueous-solution-onto-chitosan-beads-modified-with-sodium-dodecyl-sul",totalDownloads:25,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104093",abstract:"The goal of this research is to make chitosan beads that have been treated with sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) to remove chromium (Cr) from an aqueous solution effectively. The successful synthesis of the SDS-chitosan was proven through characterization, which were carried out using by scanning electron microscopy–energy dispersive X–ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The adsorption of Cr on the SDS material was investigated by varying experimental conditions such as pH, contact time and adsorbent dosage. The maximum adsorption capacity of SDS-chitosan for Cr(III) was estimated to be 3.42 mg·g−1 and 3.23 mg·g−1 for Cr(VI). Based on the results of adsorption kinetics and isothermal models, the adsorption process conform to the pseudo-second-order and Langmuir isotherm models. This indicates that the adsorption of Cr on SDS-chitosan is mainly dominated by chemical adsorption and monolayer reaction. In addition, according to thermodynamic analyses, the adsorption of Cr is an endothermic reaction. These results show that the new adsorbent has obvious application prospect for removing Cr.",book:{id:"11216",title:"Sorption - From Fundamentals to Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11216.jpg"},signatures:"Naoki Kano, Zou Ming, David Eva Vanessa Anak and Muhammad Nabil Md Sari"},{id:"81111",title:"Coconut Shell Charcoal Adsorption to Remove Methyl Orange in Aqueous Solutions",slug:"coconut-shell-charcoal-adsorption-to-remove-methyl-orange-in-aqueous-solutions",totalDownloads:34,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102898",abstract:"Activated charcoal was prepared and characterized from residues of coconut peel (CACC) to remove by adsorption the Methyl Orange (AM) dye in aqueous solution. The charcoal was activated with phosphoric acid. The morphology and structure of the pores of the carbon obtained were analyzed by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and a surface analyzer. The adsorption data were evaluated by the BET, Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms, finding the Langmuir type I model. The surface area of the activated carbon was 526 m2/g with a pore volume of 0.234 cm3/g and an average pore diameter of 1.78 nm, according to BET, which indicates the presence of micropores. The calculated thermodynamic parameters showed that the adsorption of the AM dye in CACC is a spontaneous process at room temperature and that physisorption and chemisorption are probably involved. The adsorption tests were followed by UV–visible spectrophotometry. The effects of the adsorbate concentration (AM) and the heat treatment (450–500°C) with an air atmosphere were investigated, keeping constant the stirring time and the H3PO4/sample weight ratio. The results obtained indicate that the activated carbon obtained could be used as an alternative low-cost adsorbent in the removal of AM from effluents in aqueous solution.",book:{id:"11216",title:"Sorption - From Fundamentals to Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11216.jpg"},signatures:"Isabel Cristina Páez-Pumar Romer, Isabella Victoria Plazola Santana, Rosa María Rodríguez Bengoechea and Miguel Manuel Pérez Hernández"},{id:"80319",title:"Sorption Isotherms and Some Functional Properties of Cowpea Varieties Flour",slug:"sorption-isotherms-and-some-functional-properties-of-cowpea-varieties-flour",totalDownloads:58,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101902",abstract:"In sub-Sahara, preservation of processed cowpea flour remained a challenge, and there are no standard isotherm conditions for drying cowpea flour. This study aims to define the optimum isotherm conditions for cowpea flour and assess their functional properties. Adsorption isotherms of three varieties of cowpea at temperatures 30, 40, and 50°C and in each case with six different applications depending on the constant relative humidity of the medium were executed. Water and oil absorption capacities including swelling index were determined. Results show that water content at equilibrium is inversely proportional to the temperature, and at the same temperature, the water content increases when water activity augments. The adsorption isotherms are of type II according to the fitted BET and GAB models. The absorption capacities ranged from 1.06 ± 0.01, 1.08 ± 0.02, and 1.09 ± 0.01(mL/g), respectively, for CS133, CS032, and control. However, the swelling index was significantly separated (P < 0.05). The adsorption isotherm curve of the sample CS032 at 50°C shows a stronger correlation (R2 = 0.9274) than the other varieties regardless of the mathematical isotherm model used. It can be concluded that depending on some functional properties of cowpea variety flour, these varieties seemed to behave separately vis-a-vis their sorption isotherm.",book:{id:"11216",title:"Sorption - From Fundamentals to Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11216.jpg"},signatures:"Issoufou Amadou"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:4},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. 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