Statewise quinquennial average of area and production of wheat.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1900",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"In Vitro Fertilization - Innovative Clinical and Laboratory Aspects",title:"In Vitro Fertilization",subtitle:"Innovative Clinical and Laboratory Aspects",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The field of In Vitro Fertilization is a relatively new field in medicine, constantly on the move. This field is an exquisite example of the vast power in the complementary use of basic research with clinical practice and opened a new route of great basic and clinical research possibilities. The knowledge base that allowed the accomplishment of the idea of in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer has much developed since. The vast body of research pertaining to this field allowed deepening our understanding in the processes related to reproduction. In this book on in vitro fertilization we present new and interesting updated information in various aspects of this field. This work is a result of collaborative work of an international group of professionals dedicated to contribute to the advancement of our knowledge.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0503-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6962-8",doi:"10.5772/2323",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"in-vitro-fertilization-innovative-clinical-and-laboratory-aspects",numberOfPages:170,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"212b5ed00828501488c8d7025d84a188",bookSignature:"Shevach Friedler",publishedDate:"April 11th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1900.jpg",numberOfDownloads:34286,numberOfWosCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:15,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:31,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 26th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 23rd 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 28th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 27th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 26th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"111647",title:"Prof.",name:"Shevach",middleName:null,surname:"Friedler",slug:"shevach-friedler",fullName:"Shevach Friedler",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/111647/images/3657_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Shevach Friedler is an associate professor at the Sackler School of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University and a senior physician at the Infertility and In-Vitro Fertilization Unit, at Assaf-Harofeh Medical Center, Israel, a university affiliated IVF unit, treating over 1000 IVF/ICSI cycles per year. He is also the director of the male and female infertility clinic of Kupat Cholim Meuchedet, Tel-Aviv. Prof. Friedler obtained his M.D.degree at the Medical faculty of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Following residency in Obstetrics and Gynecology in Jerusalem, he has done fellowship in Reproductive Endocrinology at Stanford University, California, USA. For the last twenty years he works in the field of infertility and in vitro fertilization. His scientific interests include infertility both male and female. He has authored over 85 publications including original articles, case reports, chapters in books and more, dealing with various aspects of infertility treatments, hysteroscopy, several pioneering papers concerning surgical sperm retrieval in azoospermic patients as well as different treatment modalities in in-vitro fertilization especially focusing on means improving implantation.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1071",title:"Urogynecology",slug:"urogynecology"}],chapters:[{id:"35163",title:"The Role of Low-Dose hCG in the Late Follicular Phase of Controlled Ovarian Hyper Stimulation (COH) Protocols",doi:"10.5772/37005",slug:"the-role-of-low-dose-hcg-in-late-follicular-phase-of-controlled-ovarian-hyper-stimulation-coh-protoc",totalDownloads:5469,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Mahnaz Ashrafi and Kiandokht Kiani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/35163",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/35163",authors:[{id:"110824",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahnaz",surname:"Ashrafi",slug:"mahnaz-ashrafi",fullName:"Mahnaz Ashrafi"},{id:"110825",title:"MSc.",name:"Kiandokht",surname:"Kiani",slug:"kiandokht-kiani",fullName:"Kiandokht Kiani"}],corrections:null},{id:"35164",title:"Gene Expression and Premature Progesterone Rise",doi:"10.5772/37474",slug:"gene-expression-and-premature-progesterone-rise",totalDownloads:2612,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Inge Van Vaerenbergh and Christophe Blockeel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/35164",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/35164",authors:[{id:"106422",title:"Dr.",name:"Christophe",surname:"Blockeel",slug:"christophe-blockeel",fullName:"Christophe Blockeel"},{id:"112894",title:"Dr.",name:"Inge",surname:"Van Vaerenbergh",slug:"inge-van-vaerenbergh",fullName:"Inge Van Vaerenbergh"}],corrections:null},{id:"35165",title:"The Role of Ultrasound in the Evaluation of Endometrial Receptivity Following Assisted Reproductive Treatments",doi:"10.5772/38592",slug:"the-role-of-ultrasound-in-the-evaluation-of-endometrial-receptivity-following-assisted-reproductive-",totalDownloads:8206,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Mitko Ivanovski",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/35165",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/35165",authors:[{id:"118205",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mitko",surname:"Ivanovski",slug:"mitko-ivanovski",fullName:"Mitko Ivanovski"}],corrections:null},{id:"35166",title:"Methods for Sperm Selection for In Vitro Fertilization",doi:"10.5772/39049",slug:"methods-of-sperm-selection-for-in-vitro-fertilization",totalDownloads:6451,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Nicolás M. 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The concept of neurorehabilitation is widely accepted in physical therapy, and evaluation and treatment based on this concept are being practiced. What is required in neurorehabilitation research is to analyze the changes and improvements in motor behavior and cognitive and learning abilities and the changes in brain functions that bring about these changes. This will allow us to get closer to the neural mechanisms of rehabilitation effects and is expected to develop effective methods that are more suitable for the subject.
\r\n\r\n\tThe purpose of this book is to provide a broad introduction to neurorehabilitation, from basic research to advanced treatment and science and technology, which is also being developed in the field of physical therapy. This book hopes to cover three topics related to neurorehabilitation and physical therapy (basic research, applied research, and advanced technology).
\r\n\t
The purpose of this chapter is to provide a brief overview of Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) and sexuality, as there is a paucity of this information in the literature. Specific attention is given to sexuality involving the self, others, and interpersonal relationships. Problematic sexual behaviors, legal concerns, and sexual abuse (including victimization and perpetration) are also discussed. Finally, intervention strategies for ASD children, adults, and families are addressed. The overall aim of this chapter is to highlight major themes regarding Autism Spectrum Disorders and sexuality while contributing to the existing literature.
Autism Spectrum Disorders, as currently defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-IV-TR) criteria, include the diagnoses of Autistic Disorder, Asperger’s Disorder and Pervasive Developmental Disorder NOS. The three major diagnostic categories include the following: 1) language impairment, 2) social impairment, and 3) repetitive behaviors/restricted interests, with the impairments present prior to the age of three. Autism has been conceptualized under this diagnostic rubric as a spectrum of disorders with symptoms ranging from severe to minimally impaired [1]. With the advent of the DSM-5, only two major criteria will be included: 1) social communication impairment, and 2) repetitive behaviors/restricted interests. The DSM-5 envisions autism as a unitary diagnosis with multiple levels of symptom severity impairing the ability to function [2]. The DSM-5 will use a system of three modifiers to signify level of severity: Level 1 is characterized for patients requiring support as they display difficulty initiating social situations and demonstrate atypical social responses. Rituals and repetitive behaviors cause significant interference for these individuals. They also resist redirection and attempts to be interrupted when involved in restricted interests or repetitive behaviors. Level 2 is characterized for patients “requiring substantial support,” as they have marked deficits in verbal and nonverbal social communication skills, which are apparent even with supports in place. They demonstrate limited ability to initiate social interaction and have a reduced or abnormal response to social overtures from others. Repetitive behaviors and restricted interests are obvious enough to be noticed by a casual observer. These patients become distressed or frustrated when they are interrupted or redirected. Level 3 is characterized for patients requiring very substantial support, as they have severe deficits in verbal and nonverbal social communication skills. Repetitive behaviors or rituals markedly interfere with functioning in all spheres. They demonstrate marked distress when routines are interrupted, and they are very difficult to redirect [2].
Proposed changes to the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria include the creation of a single broad autism spectrum disorder (ASD) diagnosis that encompasses current specific DSM-IV-TR diagnoses. Further, the proposed DSM-5 criteria reflect the tension between considering core symptoms from a dimensional perspective (i.e., symptoms are distributed in the population and patients are distinguished from unaffected persons by the severity of their symptoms), as opposed to the presence of discrete symptoms reflecting categorical distinctions between affected and unaffected persons [3]. A dimensional approach suggests that the core symptoms are quantitative traits which vary along a continuum and reflect the expression of, and interactions between, commonly occurring genetic variations and effects of environmental factors, whereas categorical approaches favor models attributing risk of illness to large effects of single genes, especially genes involved in brain development or maintenance of synaptic architecture [3]. In fact, the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria may be best represented by an empirically-derived hybrid model that merges the dimensional and categorical aspects of symptoms of autism (i.e., there are threshold values for numbers and severity of symptoms that define a categorical diagnosis of an ASD). From a biological perspective, although symptoms may be viewed along a continuum, the diagnosis of autism implies the altered, albeit subtle, architecture of the brain. The two core symptom domains of DSM-5, whose severity can vary along a continuum, were validated independently and include 1) impaired social communication and interaction (SCI), and 2) restricted, repetitive behavior (RRB) [3,4]. There is still work left to be done with respect to determining the number of criteria that must be satisfied in order to assign an ASD diagnosis. The DSM-5 criteria are clearly being shown as superior to the DSM-IV-TR criteria in terms of specificity. However, a balance must be struck between reducing “false positives,” which maximizes specificity, and assuring that criteria are sufficiently sensitive to capture ASD-affected persons that would benefit from intervention and services. This is an especially big concern among caregivers of persons that would have previously received a diagnosis of Asperger’s disorder and for children and adolescents with poor historical information about early-life symptoms (e.g., children and youth in foster and juvenile justice settings). Inclusion of “subtler” symptoms, such as those reflected in the following items from the Social Responsiveness Scale (© Western Psychological Services), improved the sensitivity of identifying persons with high-functioning ASD (such as persons diagnosed with Asperger’s disorder): impaired social understanding or awareness, literal or pedantic use of language, difficulties in adjusting behavior to various contexts, unusual prosody, and problems with body orientation or social distance [3]. Additional research must be conducted to determine the discriminative diagnostic value should be placed [4].
Along with the proposed diagnostic criteria, estimates of the prevalence of autism have also changed. Recently, the prevalence estimates of the Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network for children aged 8 years utilized a consistent “records-based” surveillance methodology in 14 sites across the United States, examining both health and education records [5]. The overall estimated 2008 prevalence of autism spectrum disorders was 1 in 88 children, demonstrating a steady increase in prevalence since 2002 [6]. Although the ADDM Network sites are not a nationally representative sample, the methodology used in obtaining prevalence estimates of children aged 8 years has been consistent since the monitoring began, so valid comparisons can be made with earlier years. These comparisons show that the estimated prevalence in 2008 increased by 23% in comparison to 2006, and by 78% when compared to 2002. The increase in prevalence may simply reflect greater awareness and better ascertainment of autism spectrum disorders by health agencies and schools, as suggested in a community mental health surveillance study in England [7]. The England study showed that the prevalence of autism in adults, when properly diagnosed, was approximately the same as in children.
Sexual development is a complex process that includes sexuality in relation to oneself and others. Sexuality encompasses a broad variety of physical, emotional, and social interactions. It includes sexual beliefs, attitudes, knowledge, values, and behavior and concerns the anatomy, physiology, and biochemistry of the sexual response system. Sexuality involves one’s thoughts, feelings, behaviors, relationships, roles, identity, and personality [8].
As with other individuals, those with ASD grow and mature along many developmental lines [9]. The social developmental line includes the development of sexuality, while the physical line includes that of puberty. Sexuality begins in infancy and progresses through adulthood until death. Each life stage brings about physical changes and psychosocial demands that need to be achieved for sexual health to be attained. The capacity for a sexual response, both male and female, has been found as early as in the 24-hour period after birth. The rhythmic manipulation of genitals similar to adult masturbation begins at 2.5 to 3 years of age are a natural form of sexual expression [10]. Also during the first three years of life, a child forms an attachment to his or her parents that is facilitated by physical contact. A stable, secure attachment with parents enhances the possibility of such an attachment when an adult is preparing to meet an intimate partner [10]. Gender identity, i.e. one’s sense of maleness or femaleness, also forms in the first three years of life. A clear, secure gender identity allows for satisfying, intimate adult relationships. Children may display masturbatory behaviors and engage in a variety of sexual play activities that coincide with the development of socially expected norms in the context of natural curiosity about themselves and their environment. Between the ages of 3 to 7, children explore their own body parts, recognize them as male or female, and become interested in the genitals of their peers, leading to sexual play [10]. During the latency years, overt sexual play becomes covert, with children beginning to have experience with masturbation, should libidinal urges occur. As latency-age children segregate along sexual lines, any sexual experiences are usually with those of the same gender [10]. More overt behaviors and interests emerge again in adolescence with the onset of puberty. Reports collected by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in 2000 showed about 52% of males and 48% of females in grades 9 to 12 are engaging in sexual intercourse as reported by Delamater and Friedrich in 2002 [10]. Similar statistics were reported as recently as 2011 by the CDC, with 47.4% of 9-12th graders reporting that they had ever engaged in sexual intercourse [11]. Cultural differences are also apparent among groups regarding premarital intercourse [10].
Pubertal changes can begin as early as 9 years of age or as late as 14 years of age. With the onset of puberty, sexual development moves to the forefront. Puberty, governed by hormonal changes, is defined as the time when a male or female is capable of sexual reproduction. A growth spurt, skeletal changes, increases in muscle and fat tissue, development of breasts, pubic and axillary hair, and the growth of genitalia are all hallmarks of the pubertal process [12]. With the physical maturation of gonads, genitalia and secondary sex characteristics, one’s sexual interest increases. Citing a study by Bancroft and colleagues (2003), Delamater and Friedrich noted that many males begin to masturbate between the ages of 13 and 15, whereas the onset for girls is more varied [10]. As older adolescents and young adults develop, more teens engage in sexual intercourse and develop a sexually active heterosexual lifestyle. Between 5 and 10% of adolescent males, and 6% of adolescent females, experiment with homosexual behavior. This exploration may be a transient experience, or it may develop into an adult homosexual identity [10]. One of the major psychological developmental tasks of later adolescence is to develop a firm sense of identity, of which one’s gender identity is an important aspect [13]. Achieving sexual maturity continues into adulthood with the ability to make informed decisions about one’s partner choice, reproduction, and long-term intimate relationships.
Sexual development is an intricate process that examines sexuality in regard to oneself and others. This process is often thought of in terms of normal development; however the developmentally disabled also go through sexual stages as they physically mature. This concept can be difficult to accept for some providers and caretakers, due to their tendency to view the developmentally disabled as perennial children [14].
For much of our history, the concept that individuals with any disability as sexual beings was unthinkable [15]. Those with developmental disabilities were frequently subjected to involuntary sterilization in the first half of the 20th century. The sexual nature of those with disabilities has been traditionally denied and/or ignored. It has also been viewed similarly with ASD individuals, whose sexuality is further complicated by social communication and language deficits [15]. Only recently has it been acknowledged that persons with ASD have the universal right to learn about relationships, marriage, parenthood, and appropriate sexuality [8]. A major contribution to the field of autism and sexuality is the TEACCH Report published through the United Kingdom [16]. This article, based on the approach and concepts developed by Mesibov and Schopler [17] in the 1980’s, put forth five basic assumptions concerning those with autism and are quoted below.
People with autism of all levels of severity experience sexual drives, behaviors, or feelings with which at some point in their lives they need assistance
Parent involvement and participation is a crucial ingredient in the area of sexual education
Sexual education must be taught in a highly structured, individualized way using concrete strategies with less of an emotional overtone
Sexual behaviors must be an important behavioral priority with less tolerance for deviations in this area due to the stringent expectations of society
Sexual education must be taught in a specific individualized, developmental manner [16]
This report was one of the first to acknowledge that individuals with autism have the same human sexual urges and behaviors as all humans and that those with ASD have the right to express their sexuality to the greatest level possible. These tenets therefore emphasize the need for sexual education for those with ASD, so they can be integrated into our society’s rules concerning what sexual behaviors are considered either appropriate or inappropriate.
Keeping in mind that quite often individuals with ASD may also have an intellectual disability [18], studies of individuals with a disability in general become important for the ASD population as well. The current literature already being conducted for those with disabilities is being applied to the expressed needs for education of those with ASD on how to develop sexual and intimate relationships. One study identified that those under the age of 18 had only limited knowledge about pregnancy and sexual anatomy while most individuals including adults were aspiring to form relationships and marriage [19]. In addition, general reluctance of family members and caregivers to acknowledge and respect the sexual rights of those with an intellectual disability was identified because these concepts created a certain level of anxiety in those family members.
As with others individuals who have a disability, those with an Autism Spectrum Disorder diagnosis possess the right to have a relationship, to marry, and/or to have children. Education about legal rights should be provided to those with ASD and extended especially to those whom they encounter, e.g. teachers, family, policemen, community members, etc. Education and awareness are key factors in the ability to identify violations to individuals’ basic human rights.
Although those with an ASD diagnosis have the right to date, marry and have children, there is a paucity of empirical research on family units and relationships for this particular group. Though some evidence does exist anecdotally, e.g. through blogs and books, this evidence is not scientifically sound. Therefore, future research should generate empirical studies that focus on interpersonal relationships within the family unit and examine which factors or skills may contribute to their success.
The overarching confounding factor for individuals with ASD to develop normative sexual identity, sexual orientation, and sexual behaviors is their core social disability [20] that in turn influences the person’s opportunity and availability for romantic and intimate relationships. While levels of romantic and sexual functioning typically increase with age, a developmental lag was reported for individuals with ASD [21]. In a survey of parents of 38 neurotypically developing adolescents and young adults and 25 adolescents and young adults with ASD, Stokes and colleagues found support for their research hypotheses that individuals with ASD had less access to peers and friends, engaged in more unacceptable behaviors in attempting to initiate romantic relationships, and persisted in their pursuit of the relationship even when non-mutual interests were evident [21]. In 2012, Shandra and Chowdhury conducted a study on the first sexual experiences of adolescent girls with and without disabilities and reported that social isolation (not the adolescents’ impairment) was the primary contributor to difficulties, based on their review of the literature and analyses of a national longitudinal data bank. Results also suggested that having a mild disability increased the likelihood of having sexual intercourse with a stranger for the first time, rather than with a steady dating partner [22].
Several characteristics of those with ASD interfere with the capacity to develop meaningful adult social relationships, which are necessary for developing sexual, intimate relationships. Foremost is the difficulty with social judgment [8], i.e. missing nonverbal communication, poor eye contact, theory of mind problems, and flexibility in response. Lack of experience in peer relationships prevents the development of the common pathway through which adolescents learn about sexuality [23]. Problematic decision-making skills complicate the capacity to maintain the everyday details of a relationship, such as initiating dates, or remembering plans. Lack of flexibility, along with self-absorption, creates significant areas of conflict in a potential relationship. Emotional dysregulation resulting in feelings that are too intense, or perhaps misplaced, together with a lack of awareness of the other’s response can quickly end a relationship. Sensory sensitivities, such as inability to tolerate touch or other physical sensations, sound sensitivities, or food texture issues can cause dating to be fraught with problems [24].
Many persons with ASD have little self-awareness and as noted above, do not understand their impact on others. Another dimension of this issue is that persons with ASD may have little knowledge about themselves. Part of what helps us create a sense of self is the ability to create an internal autobiography [25]. Persons with ASD have difficulty in this area, as they frequently cannot describe their own emotions or are unaware of what they are feeling (i.e. alexithymia) or have difficulty controlling their emotional responses (i.e. emotion dysregulation). As a result, many with ASD lack the ability to insightfully understand themselves or respond to the social climate in a meaningful way. Self-advocacy, a crucial skill for maintaining one’s function in daily life, is something that can be very difficult for a person with ASD to learn. The ability to maintain personal safety without awareness of the environment or the behaviors of others can pose a significant danger.
Persons with ASD, either as a result of the above difficulties or due to a true lack of social interest, turn away from others into their own world. Self-absorption fosters another type of social disability. Persons with ASD frequently have restricted areas of interest (e.g. computer animation) and may have little to no desire in sharing this interest with others or attending to the interests of others, since there can be a lack of ability to detach from the area of interest without anxiety or distress. The need for sameness and rigidity in daily routines may supersede one’s ability to flexibly respond to another person, e.g. being unable to eat at another restaurant when only two specific restaurants are in that person’s repertoire [26]. The need for aloneness or “down time” may be greater than the need to be with others, which may seriously jeopardize an attempt to relate to others in a more than superficial manner. Sensory sensitivities can create intolerance of what may be considered part of the human experience. For example, sensitivity to sound may prevent a person with ASD from engaging in activities where airplanes may be heard overhead or babies may be heard crying. Also, sensitivity to touch can be especially difficult in relation to others, as those with ASD may not tolerate someone touching their skin or attempting to hug them. This particular sensitivity may also affect the choice of clothes for someone with ASD, who may be unable to wear clothes with sleeves or tags that they feel are restrictive and might lead one to wear socially inappropriate apparel.
Executive function impairments, i.e. impairments in decision-making skills, cognitive flexibility, impulse control, organizational skills, and planning, create another layer of social dysfunction [27]. Awareness of the passage of time may be compromised for someone with ASD, perhaps secondary to their self-absorption, and is an essential component of everyday function. Everyday memory problems or the ability to remember to plan and organize daily life activities can create social havoc. The ability to problem solve, make informed choices, or plan for the future becomes problematic in what is called “context blindness” [27].
All of the above challenges are magnified when a person with ASD attempts to have an intimate emotional and perhaps sexual relationship. Intimacy is the sharing of emotional, cognitive, and physical aspects of oneself with those of another. A prerequisite for intimacy is the establishment of a firm sense of self-identity. Intimacy requires the flexibility to loosen one’s identity in order to feel the pleasure of merging with one’s partner in an emotional and physical connection. For all of the reasons above, a person with ASD may be unable to share with another or may be limited in his or her ability to do so.
RJ is a 28 year-old female with ASD who was attempting to negotiate an intimate relationship with another woman her age that did not have ASD. First of all, RJ explained that a homosexual relationship was better for her than a heterosexual relationship because her partner was more like her than another man would be, and it was already very difficult to consider an intimate relationship, let alone try to understand someone of a different gender. RJ was absorbed in her interest in drawing and hoped to get a job at some point in computer animation. She spent most of the hours in a day drawing when she was not at her part time job at the local animal shelter. When she was drawing, it was fine for her partner to sit next to her, but she didn’t want to be disturbed or touched. She was unable to do something other than drawing in the evening except on Saturdays, when she was able to include her partner in her schedule. Even on Saturday, she needed to find some time to herself because it took too much energy to be with her partner for a full day. When she attempted to do so, she would experience anxiety and frustration which would frequently culminate in an episode of yelling, stamping her feet, and retreating to her room. On Saturdays, when she was attempting to spend time with her partner, RJ was only able to engage in certain activities. Her partner would frequently ask her to go to the movies, while RJ was unable to tolerate the feel of the seat cushions on her skin, the smell of the popcorn, and the loudness of the sound track. RJ could only eat at two restaurants in the neighboring area but preferred to eat at home. RJ could not understand her partner’s frustration with her or her partner’s need for physical affectionate contact. RJ was able to tolerate some sexual contact but avoided it whenever possible, as it was adverse to her but she understood from reading that it was an expected part of a relationship. After several months, RJ’s partner terminated the relationship, much to RJ’s relief. She was very happy to return home to her parents’ house where she could have conversation with them at her initiative, and the expectations for social interaction or disruption of her schedule were minimal. It was comforting to return to her family’s schedule, which she knew well. She did have the insight to know that her parents wouldn’t always be there and knew that she needed to work earnestly to maintain at least some relationship with friends. She understood that even though it may be difficult to do so, she would have to initiate contact and not rely on her friends solely to initiate such contact.
The only significant predictor of romantic functioning among those with ASD is level of social functioning [21]. When meeting someone with ASD, several irregularities are noticeable. Persons with ASD frequently will not look into the eyes of the person with whom they are interacting; instead they may look at their mouths or perhaps even another object in the room [20]. Some of those with ASD would state that looking directly at another’s person’s eyes is extremely anxiety provoking, whereas others with ASD may be disinterested. Personal physical spatial boundaries, which many people take as second nature, are not part of the social make-up in persons with ASD. They may stand too close to a person with whom they may be interacting, or they may seem distant and uninvolved. Those with ASD may not pay attention to socially acceptable standards of personal appearance and may appear unkempt or inappropriately dressed for an occasion, e.g. wearing a casual, comfortable outfit to a formal event. Persons with ASD have a very difficult time engaging another person in conversation, i.e. they have difficulty initiating conversation or maintaining conversation through reciprocal social interaction [26]. A person with ASD may answer questions when asked or begin a scripted monologue that is repetitive in nature about an area of interest, with little to no awareness of the reaction of the person with whom they are interacting. Part of the reason for this lack of awareness is that a person with ASD is frequently unaware of the meaning of nonverbal behavior as a means of communication. The concept of theory of mind states that a person cannot understand the thoughts, intentions, and feelings of others or what another person means during an interaction, other than the concrete nature of the words stated [28]. For example, when a mother asked her child to “go sit in the tub”, the child sat in the tub with all of her clothes on, when the mother of course meant to prepare for a bath. This may seem obvious to most people but might not be so obvious to a person with ASD. As a corollary, a person with ASD frequently cannot read the emotional meaning behind a verbal or nonverbal communication, i.e. interpret social cues [29]. A study by Izuma supports that people with autism lack the ability to take into consideration what others think of them [30]. Partially due to this lack of awareness, someone with ASD may respond in a very blunt or honest way to a statement of another person with whom they are interacting. For example, when asked a question such as “Do you like my new dress?”, the person with ASD might say all the reasons they feel the dress is unattractive, being unaware of the emotional impact such statements might have on the person to whom they are making such comments [31].
Gender identity usually develops in neurotypical children by the age of three [10] with ranges of 3-5 years of age [32]. Gender identity may be more rigid in individuals with ASD [33]. For children with developmental disabilities, gender identity in general likely develops in synchrony with many other developmental delays, especially in language, communication and social relatedness, which in turn influences the child’s ability to mentally represent their own gender either in images or language. There is no current established literature about gender identity development in children with ASD; however, a recent article on gender dysphoria and identity difficulty found that clinics are reporting an overrepresentation of individuals with ASD in their gender identity referrals [33].
Sexual orientation refers to a person’s established patterns of overall attraction to another person, including emotional, romantic, sexual, and behavioral attractions [34] regardless of whether this pattern results in sexual behavior. Research in the last several decades established sexual orientation on a continuum from entirely heterosexual, bisexual, and homosexual to asexual [35-37]. The relatively novel term “sexual fluidity” refers to the situation-dependent flexibility in someone’s sexual responsiveness and may include both hetero- and same-sex experiences [37]. Same-sex behaviors among adolescents are reported between 5-10%, with similar percentages observed in adults [10].
Sexual identity develops normatively in adolescence related to puberty and overall body changes in the context of societal expectations about partner choices. For most adolescents with ASD, this development may occur later than that of their typically developing peers [38] and may include higher percentages of asexuality, but in most aspects of sexual development, the literature identifies similar desires and fantasies [21]. In fact, the literature on sexuality of children and adolescents with developmental disabilities cautions to not erroneously regard people with disabilities as childlike, asexual or as inappropriately sexual [39].
At the same time, several studies were identified by Healy and colleagues [19] that show that people with a disability may hold rather conservative views about their own sexuality related to negative caregiver attitudes toward certain sexual behaviors, including pre-marital sex and homosexual activity. Still, in comparison to caregiving staff, family members may altogether be less inclined to openly discuss issues of sexuality. Family members seemed to prefer low levels of intimacy in the relationships of their child amidst a high acceptance of platonic and non-intimate relationships [40].
Individuals growing up with ASD have the same human needs for intimacy and relationships as anyone [41]. However, the self-identification of these needs may develop later than same age neurotypically developing peers and become expressed differently depending upon the individual’s sexual knowledge, beliefs and values. Understanding of implicit dating rules and the hierarchy of sexual intimacies may become potential barriers for individuals with disabilities in general and particularly for adolescents and adults with ASD. Focus groups have been shown to make a difference in an individual’s understanding, especially with involvement of his or her family and caregivers [19].
Intimacy is the sharing of emotional, cognitive and physical aspects of oneself with those of another. Individuals with ASD often have problems with rigidity and the need for repetition, which may limit the spontaneity and playfulness of sexual contact. Sensitivity to physical contact and inability to tolerate internal sensations created by physical intimacy may also create significant anxiety. The inability to read the thoughts, feelings, or expressed sensations of one’s partner can lead to miscommunication, emotionally or physically painful experiences, and/or shame and guilt. In the context of navigating intimacy, by adulthood there are several options for types of relationships, typically to include living single, cohabitating with one or several others, and living in a marriage/partnership. Currently, many adult individuals with ASD continue to reside with their family of origin. Due to poor social relationships and lack of employment, living with family provides a comfortable social situation, as observed in the case of RJ. There is no need for continual social contact or concern for others, as family already exists as a group.
When even possible, marital relationships can be very strained, as the ASD spouse (usually a male) frequently has difficulty interpreting the spouse’s need for emotional attention. Little to no research has been done on the adult lifestyles of higher functioning persons with ASD other than to say that most of them remain in their parents’ home. Most previous research has been with those living in a residential setting. One study whose focus was to survey the gender identity of ASD subjects did ask a question pertaining to marital status. Gilmour and colleagues found that the group, which was atypically more female, did not differ from the control group on the basis of marital status. This result was unexpected and may be specific to the group surveyed of 82 persons with ASD [42]. More research is clearly needed in this area, but attaining accurate statistical data will be difficult, as many high functioning individuals with ASD are undiagnosed or misdiagnosed.
Patient, L is a 35-year-old male engineering student, who was accompanied by his wife for an initial assessment. L’s wife believed that he had Asperger’s disorder. He did not understand why this potential diagnosis would even matter to his wife. A major concern in their marriage was L’s dislike for social situations. His wife worked at a bookstore and was frequently invited to her coworkers’ houses to play games, watch movies, or perhaps have dinner. L would begrudgingly attend but would then sit quietly and not interact with anyone. His wife’s friends would attempt to include him in conversations, but L would frequently give one-word answers and not reciprocate or would engage in a long monologue about his most recent engineering project. He did not understand his wife’s distress at these situations. As a couple, it was their usual routine to have a date on Saturday night consisting of time spent together in an activity, followed by a sexual encounter. L did not understand why his wife would break this routine when she was upset by his lack of social interaction at her co-worker’s home. He would become very angry and frustrated, slamming the door, and breaking small nearby items. His wife encouraged him to come to the appointment as a way for her to begin to understand his behavior and to find ways to cope with him.
For all individuals with disabilities, including ASD, there is an increased risk for physical and sexual abuse. In 2006, Murphy and Elias reported a sexual abuse rate that was 2.2 times higher than that of children without disabilities [39]. In a recent study, caregivers of individuals with autism reported that 16.6% had been sexually abused. Individuals with ASD can be subject to sexual victimization due to their trusting natures, desire to be socially accepted, lack of understanding of the meaning or possible consequences of their behavior, or exposure through internet contacts. Children who experienced sexual abuse were more likely to act out sexually or be sexually abusive toward others [43]. This mindset, although with seemingly honest intentions, places the ASD individual(s) at risk for sexual abuse, due to the lack of available sexual knowledge. Lack of knowledge can contribute to an individual not understanding appropriate boundaries and therefore they may not be able to distinguish when someone is touching them inappropriately. This, coupled with existing social deficits, has resulted in underreported sexual abuse in this population. Therefore, sexual education and public intervention strategies (which will be discussed later in this chapter) are key protective factors and could contribute to healthy sexual development.
A 17-year-old female patient, M, presented for diagnostic evaluation and was diagnosed with ASD. Her cognitive ability was in the low average IQ range. As a student in high school, she was very invested in making friends. She had difficulty managing the intricacies of relationships with other girls in her class, as her hygiene was below average and her clothing choices were not fashionable. M didn’t belong to a specific social group of girls, such as cheerleaders, athletes, “Goths,” etc. and therefore frequently sat by herself in the lunchroom. As she was failing in her social relationships with girls, she thought she would attempt to make friends with some of the boys in her class. She was coached by her younger sister at home (age 15 without ASD). Her sister was actually aware of M’s poor social standing with other girls, as she was frequently asked what was wrong with her older sister by peers. M had previously made positive contact with a boy in her art class, who was drawing a video game character. The art teacher supported this interaction and facilitated their conversations in class. Her contact with another boy, however, was less than positive. He told M that the best way to make friends was to spend time together after school at the park. The boy then made sexual advances, kissing the patient. She was very confused and did not stop his behavior, which led him to attempt to fondle her genital area. The encounter stopped at that point. M did not bring this event to the attention of her parents or sister. Fortunately, in her therapy session, she was able to ask if it was OK for a boy to put his hand in her pants. Clearly, M had not received instruction from her parents about “appropriate touch.” The parents brought this situation to the attention of the school administrators, who reprimanded the boy but could not address it further, as M was older than 16 and it was deemed that she consented to the behavior by not stopping him.
Along with the concerns of interpersonal intimacy and delayed maturity of sexuality, individuals with ASD may have difficulty determining what and where sexual behaviors are appropriate. Permitted behavior is governed by social appropriateness, which is gathered through social cues. With the limited ability to read and understand social cues, those with an ASD diagnosis can fail to discern between acceptable public behavior and acceptable private behavior [44]. A review article by Stokes and Kaur included masturbatory behaviors in public, removing clothing in public, and touching members of the opposite sex, as reported in previous studies, followed sometimes by the rejection of others due to these problematic behaviors [45]. For example, masturbatory activities are often seen in public when anxiety levels have increased. This in turn could potentially lead to legal implications. Among adolescents with ASD, some concerns include inappropriate courting behaviors, such as stalking or touching the person of interest inappropriately, making inappropriate comments, not always understanding the need for privacy such as knocking on doors [45], making threats against the person of interest, or exhibiting obsessive interest in a person [21], which can lead to both interpersonal and legal consequences. Behavioral and educational interventions must be considered in order to serve as a protective buffer against undesired outcomes.
Patient C is a 14-year-old boy diagnosed with autism who had minimal verbal skills. At age 14, he was 6’2” tall. Cognitively, he was functioning at the mild intellectual disability range (IQ ~70). C had no friends. His social judgment was poor, so his parents encouraged his interactions and visits with extended family in an effort to improve his social communication. One of the patient’s areas of interest was wrestling. He would frequently roughhouse with his other male cousins, who were teenagers as well. On one visit, C was watching a wrestling program with his younger cousin, age 4, as the older boys had gone to the movies and C refused to attend. C, not understanding the social implications of his behavior, began to roughhouse with his young cousin. When his mother and aunt entered the room, C was laying on top of his 4-year-old cousin in what was judged to be an attempt by the patient to molest this young child, whereas C thought he had won the wrestling match like the man on television. When asked, C could not adequately explain his behavior, due to his limited verbal skills. His mother was able to reassure the young boy’s mother that C had no sexual intent. However, C and his mother no longer received invitations to visit the home of those relatives.
Masturbation especially in public settings has been the central focus within the developmental disorder literature due to the concerns and personal views of the general public and legal officials. In particular, these groups possess a tendency to label public masturbation as sexual deviancy. This predisposition was greatly reduced when both groups received training on the behaviors of individuals with ASD.
Sexual education is a core ingredient of successful intervention beginning with body anatomy, physiology and personal hygiene, taught in childhood. As the individual with ASD reaches older adolescence and adulthood, social dictates of what is appropriate sexual behavior in public must be carefully taught with video modeling and social stories [23] to prevent problematic outcomes for the person with ASD and those around him or her [21]. As with all stages of development, sexual development may be delayed, while pubertal development may be chronologically on time. The family needs to be educated about teaching sexuality as well in order to facilitate the knowledge of the individual with ASD throughout his or her development [8,44]. Sexual education can also prevent sexual abuse, unwanted pregnancies, and sexually transmitted infections, or STI [8]. A recent article on the sexuality of children and adolescents identified educational needs in the context of parent and health care professionals’ expectations [39]. Likewise, a greater educational need was identified for caregivers of individuals with disabilities to help individual better navigate their social environment with implemented help on a societal and political level [44,46,47]. DeLamater and Friedrich cited the Kaiser Family Foundation (1997), noting that young people especially name mass media as a primary source of information about sex and intimacy over information and education provided by parents or professionals [10]. This is likely even more true currently, with youth having increased access to information via the Internet and the use of personal electronics. In this sense, the use of electronics may become a useful educational medium and perhaps even an interactive tool to facilitate development of socially expected courting and dating behaviors, with the goal of becoming able to establish longer term romantic relationships.
Education about sexuality is critical for the ASD population. Many persons with ASD have the desire to have friendships and intimate relationships; however it is very difficult for them to make the complex emotional distinctions between friendship, kindness, and romantic interest. In a study by Hellemans, the majority of subjects with ASD expressed sexual interest but lacked the appropriate skills and knowledge to have a successful relationship [48]. Their misinterpretations can lead to emotional pain for themselves and possibly inappropriate behaviors toward others [26]. The most common forms of sexuality education for adolescents and young adults occur through conversations with their peers and/or their families. A study by Realmuto and Ruble suggested that typical children learn about sexuality via casual social experiences, including those in the community, family and school settings [49]. Persons with ASD are at a unique disadvantage as they do not initiate or maintain social contacts to acquire such education. Family members approach sexuality in their children with ASD by denying it and not teaching sexuality at all, or by considering that their ASD children can approach sexuality as any other adolescent would [21]. In a study by Stokes and colleagues, 25 subjects with ASD aged 13-36 were compared to a normal control group of the same age; the study found that persons with ASD relied less upon peers and friends for knowledge but relied more on information they learned through reading and other similar activities [21].
When considering education about sexuality, three content areas need to be included: 1) basic facts and accurate information, 2) formation of individual values with consideration of family values, and 3) application of sexuality to relationships and social situations [15]. More specifically, basic biology of the sexual organs and how they function for males and females, maintenance of hygiene, prevention of pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases, methods of birth control, how to initiate and maintain intimate sexual relationships, how to prevent unwanted sexual contact, the role of masturbation as a normal sexual bodily function and its social implications, as well as reproductive and parenting rights. What is most essential is to maintain a consistent focus on the social component of sexual behavior [8]. Due to theory of mind deficits, a person with ASD may be unable to understand the actions, feelings and intentions of others, such as not recognizing obvious clues of disinterest and being inappropriately persistent in pursuing a desired person. The person with ASD must learn how to initiate romantic relationships, understand dating behaviors, know appropriate physical boundaries, develop listening skills, and understand the meaning of consensual sexual activity [8]. Frequently, booster sessions are recommended as an individual grows and develops and has the need for additional information and skills or reinforcement of principles already learned that may have been forgotten [8].
Deciding who should teach a person with ASD about sexuality can be confusing. A team approach may be most successful. Parents and caregivers usually provide primary instruction but may need the support of a formal sexual education program provided by the school system. Parents provide the foundation for the development of the child’s sexuality by modeling relationships in the home. The family’s moral values, culture, religion, and other beliefs are clearly a major part of sexuality education. An IEP team can designate a specific component of the health curriculum to sexuality that must be geared to the child’s cognitive, emotional, and social level of development. Such a plan should be revisited and revised as a child/adolescent matures with the need for more information, skills, and attitudes [8].
Several models and approaches to sexuality education for those with ASD have been published. One model from a research study in Israel provided treatment through ten bi-weekly sessions, each devoted to topics that included establishment of self-identity, acceptance of one’s disability, independence in social life, establishment of friendship and intimate relationships, sexual knowledge and development, and safety skills [50]. The aims of the group were to 1) discuss attitudes and feelings, 2) provide information, 3) advise parents on how to help children manage their sexuality, and 4) encourage independence in their children. The overarching principles of this group treatment were to 1) develop an appropriate self-concept, 2) find a similar social group, 3) develop relations based on equality and reciprocity, and 4) prevent abusive relations, with all of these aims potentially leading to satisfactory intimate romantic relationships. The most improvement in this study was shown in social development and the development of a clearer concept of friendship.
H is a 19-year-old female who recently began attending community college. She has an above average IQ and good facility with language. She was able to manage some friendships in high school by being the manager of one of the girls’ sports teams. The girls on the team were kind to her and included her in team activities, encouraged by the team’s coach. H also belonged to the Anime club and had some friends there. The structured schedule of high school, along with the academic supports provided by her Individualized education plan, coaching and encouragement from her parents, enabled her success. H was having a difficult transition to college with no friends, no academic supports, and a less structured schedule. She attended a session provided by the disability services department and sat next to a boy several years older than she with a similar disability, who initiated and maintained a conversation. H was aware that he was a stranger and was careful in the information she provided. He asked her to meet for lunch at the cafeteria several times. H’s mother wanted to meet him because she was unsure of her daughter’s social judgment. With her parent’s approval and her mother’s coaching about dating, they went to a movie. Their relationship slowly progressed over the last six months beyond the handholding stage to the first kiss. H’s boyfriend was able to allow her to manage the relationship to assist H in dealing with the anxiety that this relationship had created for her, though she was beginning to increasingly enjoy their time together.
Another intervention that shows promise is the development of Social Stories™ by Carol Gray [51] which can be tailored to each child or adult and written in the person’s perspective, so it can be used to prepare persons for dealing with friendships, managing intimacy, and improving safety [23]. Video modeling is another technique where a student watches a video where peers or others demonstrate appropriate behavior. The student then models the behavior he or she just viewed. Video modeling, by providing some distance, helps relieve some anxiety during a practice phase before trying a real time interaction [23].
Concepts from other treatment centers have added to sexuality education. Two precepts from the Devereaux Centers for Autism emphasize that 1) parents are the best sexual educators and 2) it is normal and natural for every person with a body to express their sexuality regardless of their disability [44]. The Benhaven residential program for those with autism emphasizes 1) the need to teach students socially acceptable sexual behavior appropriate for both childhood and adulthood 2) no disapproval of masturbation when done in socially appropriate situations as it may be the only sexual satisfaction some individuals with autism may experience and 3) do not encourage behavior beyond which an individual is capable or that will lead to frustration and disappointment [44].
It is helpful to consider the basic learning needs of those with ASD in general and apply them to sexuality education [26].
Use of visual aids, role play
Use of concrete, specific examples instead of abstract concepts
Dividing large blocks of information into smaller, sequential segments
Allowing time for comments and questions
Keeping brief any discussions of feelings so as not to confuse or overwhelm
Provide overviews and structure to the lesson
Include specific problem solving strategies and examples
Especially when considering sexuality education in those with lower functioning ASD, the capacity to make sexually-related decisions must be considered. A study of four adults with moderate intellectual disability (not autism) focused on improving capacity to make sexuality related decisions [52]. Treatment was rendered on a 1:1 basis for 20 sessions. The article by Dukes and colleagues emphasizes that in order to provide valid consent to sexual contact, the person with a disability requires knowledge about sexuality and the understanding of the concept of what is and is not voluntary [52]. Consent must also be individualized and situation specific for decision-making associated with sexual contact. This intervention focused on sexual safety practices, knowledge of the physical self, knowledge of sexual functioning, and knowledge of choices and consequences in sexual matters. The study noted the need for booster sessions, as the memory of topics covered waned with time, perhaps secondary to little opportunity to utilize the information learned [52]. A survey of the sexual behavior of 89 adults with autism living in group homes in North Carolina found that the majority of individuals were engaging in some form of sexual behavior [53], with masturbation being the most common sexual behavior. One third of the residents did have other oriented sexual behavior, which mostly consisted of holding hands, touching, and kissing. One third of the residents did not masturbate at all. A major concern with lower functioning individuals is the inappropriate expression of sexual behaviors in a socially unacceptable manner [53].
To improve decision-making related to sexuality in individuals with an intellectual disability, Dukes and McGuire adapted successfully a sexual education program for individuals with special needs called Living Your Life [52]. Possibly such a program could also further be adapted to the specific knowledge and needs of individuals with ASD. In their 2010 article, Travers and Tincani identified Body Awareness, Social Development, Romantic Relationships and Intimacy, Masturbation and Modifying Behavior to Meet Social Norms, and Reproductive and Parenting Rights of Individuals with ASD as crucial components of sexuality education for individuals with ASD [8]. These authors also identified the need for professionals to address sexuality education in an open, confident, and objective manner in a collaborative effort with the individual with ASD and their family.
The TEACCH program [54] has explicit guidelines for teaching sexuality education to the lower functioning person with ASD [16]. An important component is taking an individualized developmental approach, with the goal of matching teaching programs to level of function and development of long range goals (e.g. capacity to have a romantic relationship versus ability to enjoy masturbation in a socially acceptable manner). Another concept is that sexuality cannot be taught in isolation but must be considered in the context of other skills, such as one’s ability to verbally communicate or one’s cognitive ability, The most basic skill is the ability to have discriminate learning, for example, knowing where and when to touch others or masturbate, and can be taught from a behavioral perspective, with rewards for appropriate behavior. Environmental supports to reinforce appropriate behaviors can be very useful, and environmental changes (e.g. wearing a belt to help prevent a young man from masturbating in public) may allow for intervention prior to a behavior occurring, as slowing down the behavior provides more time to intervene. The next level beyond discriminate learning is managing personal hygiene, followed by understanding body parts and their functions. The highest level is a complete sex education program, including development of sexual relationships with others.
Social skills groups and meet-ups for older adolescents and young adults are essential to continue to build on social skills and allow for facilitated interaction [55]. A recent study with adolescents and young adults with ASD by Stokes and colleagues found that one’s level of social functioning predicted romantic functioning [21]. The development of social interaction skills will help promote interest in developing meaningful relationships with others that in turn may lead to intimate relationships and ultimately more independent living arrangements. Equally important are the development of emotion regulation and self-esteem skills that will help to navigate difficulties and changes within significant relationships. In their 2006 article, Murphy and Elias [39] described how children and adolescents with disabilities generally have fewer skills and opportunities to engage in social interactions that could lead potentially into intimate relationships. In particular, this important article emphasizes particular skills that are often amiss for individuals with disabilities, Abilities, especially the ability to make eye contact, develop appropriate greetings, recognize personal space, and interpret nonverbal communication, that apply to individuals with ASD [39].
Based on previous studies, and addressing the gap in identified interventions specific to the sexual development of individuals with ASD, a current intervention program called Growing Up Aware is in the process of being developed at Columbia University [14]. The first research component attempted to better understand how parents teach their children with ASD about sexuality. Results of the study showed that the majority of parents indicated a strong interest in learning how to better communicate with their children about sexual and reproductive health [14]. This is met currently by insufficient availability of materials for parents. Many clinical providers appear under-equipped, with normative knowledge and skills themselves about how to address questions of parents regarding their child’s changing sexual development based on parental perception. Clinicians need to become better equipped to help families with unusual or inappropriate sexual development.
Medication side effects that were not troubling to a child with ASD may cause significant distress in an adult with ASD by decreasing sexual desire or interfering with sexual potency [56]. Self-injury may result if appropriate instruction about masturbation is not provided. Medications such as fluoxetine or sertraline (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) are frequently prescribed for persons with ASD to help with anxiety or repetitive behaviors. This group of medications can cause a decrease in sexual desire or make it much more difficult to attain an orgasm. Since masturbation is one of the most frequent sexual behaviors within the ASD population, unintentional self-injury may result from prolonged attempts to reach orgasm. Appropriate instruction in masturbatory behaviors may be necessary in order to prevent self-injury [46]. Alternately, a medication with sexual side effects may be beneficial for a patient who has anxiety and/or excessive inappropriate sexual behaviors by decreasing sexual desire [57] and enhancing the effectiveness of behavioral interventions.
There are many important reasons for promoting sexuality education for those with ASD including the following: 1) prevention of sexual abuse, 2) preventing inappropriate sexual behavior toward others, 3) promoting health and hygiene and preventing sexually transmitted disease and pregnancy, 4) facilitating the development of intimate relationships, and 5) preventing self-injury [8]. A basic tenet is that sexuality education for persons with ASD must be geared to their particular level of cognitive, emotional, and social functioning and is most effective when it is highly individualized. Those with ASD have a right to have a sexual life, a right to receive guidance and support, and they need assistance in expressing sexuality in an acceptable way to those in their environment [8].
Public intervention strategies should primarily focus on educating the community about the behaviors and traits common to persons with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Education has been shown to foster tolerance and understanding. In addition to this, education tends to spawn advocacy, thereby facilitating the needed changes in existing policies and law. In particular, advocates of those with ASD have the greatest opportunity to teach others about this population by modeling how best to support persons with ASD in the community.
Particular attention should be given to law enforcement, judicial systems and other populations that traditionally have minimal contact with individuals with ASD [7]. Educational efforts should include a discussion of basic symptomatology, behavioral interventions and treatments. Efforts should also be made to dispel myths, misconceptions and assumptions about those with ASD [58]. In addition, education should include information about potential risks to this population and the available programs and systems that are in place to provide protection for the ASD population [44].
In summary, our literature review and ample experiences of the families in our clinical practice show that, while every person has the innate basis for developing sexuality in a multitude of expressions and experiences, individuals with disabilities (and especially individuals with an Autism Spectrum Disorder) most often require additional education and help to become able to express their sexuality in a socially appropriate way. While most neurotypically developing peers form intimate relationships beginning in adolescence and into adulthood, along a variety of experiences from dating to partnering in committed relationships, many individuals with an Autism Spectrum Disorder remain living with their family of origin into their adulthood and have significant difficulty navigating the social expectations surrounding relationships. Their difficulty may pertain to recognizing their own needs and wants, as well as to recognizing their partner’s wishes coupled with more inexperience than their peers in this arena. Individuals with ASD and their parents and caregivers frequently identify this difficulty when directly asked about it. Sexuality education in a supportive format that includes the individual’s family and their particular values and background will be most effective. Interventions need to be individualized with a long-range goal that matches the cognitive, social, and emotional developmental level of the person with ASD. As the prevalence of persons with ASD increases in our society, we are more than ever called to support their ability to mature into adults capable of functioning in all areas of life, including sexuality and intimacy.
Cereals play a pivotal role to satisfy the global food demand of growing population, particularly in developing nations where cereal-based production system is the only predominant source of nutrition and calorie intake [1, 2]. The nutri-rich cereal is grown in diversified environments; globally wheat occupies around 217 million hectares holding the position of highest acreage among all crops with an annual production hovering around 731 million tonnes [3]. Wheat (
India, being blessed and enriched with a diverse agroecological condition, ensuring food and nutrition security to a majority of the Indian population through production and steady supply particularly in the recent past, is the second largest producer of wheat worldwide [4, 5, 6]. The crop has been under cultivation in about 30 million hectares (14% of global area) to produce the all-time highest output of 99.70 million tonnes of wheat (13.64% of world production) with a record average productivity of 3371 kg/ha [7]. Having a significant share in consumption of food basket with a 36% share in the total food grains produced from India and ensuring not only food security but also nutrition security, wheat is extensively procured by the government and distributed to a majority of the population; it ensures not only food security but also nutrition security. The cereal is one of the cheapest sources of energy, provides a major share of protein (20%) and calorie intake (19%) from consumption. Wheat is accessible across the country and consumed as various processed forms from prehistoric times [4].
After independence, India was net deficit in food production and had to import wheat for domestic consumption. During 1966–1967, India adopted new strategy which led the ‘Green Revolution’, especially in the production of wheat and rice. Coordinated research and several developmental and food security-based programmes in various phases have made the nation to progress closer towards ‘food and nutrition for all’ by achieving record and surplus production of wheat. After the Green Revolution, the nation has maintained strategic distance from famine even during unfavorable weather conditions. The impact of the All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on wheat improvement is explicit and contributed significantly to the nation’s food security [8].
The All India Coordinated Wheat Improvement Project (AICWIP) was started in 1965 at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi, the nodal centre of the coordinated research. The AICWIP is one of the largest crop improvement network projects which set the dawn for the ‘Green Revolution’ in India. Under this project, several high-yielding wheat varieties have been developed which became extensively popular and adopted by the farming community. For instance, C 306, HD 2009, WL 711, UP 262, HUW 234, HD 2189, WH 147, Lok 1, HI 617 (Sujata), HD 2285, HD 2329, PBW 343, Raj 3765, PBW 502, HD 2733, HD 2967, HD 3086, DBW 17, PBW 550, GW 273, GW 322 and GW 496 in bread wheat and Raj 1555, PBW 34, HI 8498 and PDW 233 in durum wheat were developed and became the popular deliverables of the project. Apart from the aforementioned varieties, viz., NP 4, Kalyansona, Sonalika, Sharbati Sonora, WL 711, HD 1220, HD 1931 ‘SIB’, HD 2009, HD 2172, UP 262, etc., developed through the AICWIP were also cultivated beyond national borders. Several changes happened post inception of the AICWIP, and during 2017, the project has been renamed as the All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on Wheat and Barley with ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research as its headquarter based at Karnal (Haryana). It is a premier organization under the aegis of ICAR coordinating the multidisciplinary and multilocation testing of varieties in different AICRP centres across the different ecosystems for enhancing and sustaining the wheat production [8]. At present, there are 29 funded centres located in different agroclimatic regions across the country supporting the multidisciplinary research. The project, hitherto, has contributed in the release of around 448 high-yielding improved wheat varieties comprising bread, durum and dicoccum wheat. Over the years, prominent improvements have been made in the development arena post inception of the coordinated project (Figure 1).
Major developments in the country post inception of the AICRP.
Since the establishment of the AICRP, the productivity of wheat has increased by 2.5-folds (308%: +2.54 tonnes/ha) as furnished in Figure 2. A decadal analysis of productivity growth across major food commodities indicates that wheat production growth has outperformed rice and pulses for the past 5 decades since 1950. Overall scenario indicated that wheat production has grown at 4.72 percent per annum since 1950, the highest among other food grains [9].
Productivity trend in Indian wheat pre- and post-AICRP.
In India wheat crop is cultivated in
State/UT | Area (million ha) | Change (%) | Production (million tonnes) | Change (%) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2008–2009 to 2012–2013 | 2013–2014 to 2017–2018 | 2008–2009 to 2012–2013 | 2013–2014 to 2017–2018 | |||
Assam | 0.05 | 0.02 | −52.35 | 0.06 | 0.03 | −43.40 |
Bihar | 2.16 | 2.08 | −3.57 | 4.63 | 4.86 | 4.98 |
Chhattisgarh | 0.10 | 0.10 | 0.59 | 0.12 | 0.14 | 13.22 |
Gujarat | 1.12 | 1.09 | −2.85 | 3.20 | 3.22 | 0.60 |
Haryana | 2.50 | 2.55 | 2.21 | 11.35 | 11.24 | −0.93 |
Himachal Pradesh | 0.36 | 0.34 | −4.26 | 0.53 | 0.66 | 24.79 |
Jammu and Kashmir | 0.29 | 0.29 | 1.83 | 0.44 | 0.48 | 10.52 |
Jharkhand | 0.12 | 0.19 | 50.99 | 0.22 | 0.38 | 70.04 |
Karnataka | 0.25 | 0.19 | −25.30 | 0.23 | 0.20 | −13.23 |
Madhya Pradesh | 4.52 | 5.73 | 26.76 | 9.45 | 16.32 | 72.72 |
Maharashtra | 1.01 | 1.05 | 4.79 | 1.61 | 1.48 | −8.27 |
Punjab | 3.52 | 3.51 | −0.40 | 16.25 | 16.61 | 2.21 |
Rajasthan | 2.63 | 2.98 | 12.99 | 8.12 | 9.31 | 14.62 |
Uttar Pradesh | 9.66 | 9.75 | 0.94 | 29.33 | 27.93 | −4.77 |
Uttarakhand | 0.38 | 0.34 | −9.89 | 0.85 | 0.81 | −4.64 |
West Bengal | 0.32 | 0.29 | −8.33 | 0.85 | 0.80 | −5.94 |
Others | 0.04 | 0.04 | −20.64 | 0.12 | 0.12 | −3.54 |
All India | 29.04 | 30.54 | 5.16 | 87.39 | 94.57 | 8.22 |
Statewise quinquennial average of area and production of wheat.
State/UT | 2008–2009 to 2012–2013 | 2013–2014 to 2017–2018 | Change (%) |
---|---|---|---|
India | 3009 | 3100 | 3.03 |
Punjab | 4617 | 4738 | 2.61 |
Haryana | 4544 | 4407 | −3.01 |
Others | 3083 | 3331 | 8.05 |
Rajasthan | 3038 | 3133 | 3.12 |
Gujarat | 2845 | 2922 | 2.69 |
Uttar Pradesh | 2724 | 2867 | 5.23 |
Madhya Pradesh | 2698 | 2843 | 5.38 |
West Bengal | 2241 | 2754 | 22.90 |
Uttarakhand | 2144 | 2375 | 10.76 |
Bihar | 2091 | 2339 | 11.87 |
Jharkhand | 1790 | 2005 | 12.01 |
Himachal Pradesh | 1602 | 1911 | 19.28 |
Jammu and Kashmir | 1511 | 1656 | 9.58 |
Maharashtra | 1466 | 1400 | −4.53 |
Assam | 1180 | 1373 | 16.39 |
Chhattisgarh | 1149 | 1328 | 15.59 |
Karnataka | 914 | 1057 | 15.64 |
Statewise quinquennial average of wheat yield (kg/ha).
The production of wheat has also showed an increasing trend, from 87.39 to 94.57 million tonnes from 2012–2013 to 2017–2018 with a magnitude of 7.18 million tonnes (8.22%). The major source of this increase in production is mainly attributed to expansion in area followed by marginal increase in productivity. Uttar Pradesh still holds the position of largest producer in the country accounting for about 28 million tonnes which is roughly 30% of the total production. Around 85 million tonnes (90%) of wheat has been produced from traditional wheat-growing regions such as Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan [10]. The maximum quantum jump has been noticed in Madhya Pradesh and Jharkhand which almost doubled their production from 9.45–16.32 million tonnes to 0.22–0.38 million tonnes. However, 1.4 million tonnes reduction was noticed in Uttar Pradesh during the same period which is a matter of serious concern.
The national productivity trend for wheat showed a marginal improvement, which has increased from 3009 kg/ha to 3100 kg/ha from 2012–2013 to 2017–2018 (Table 2). This rise in productivity is due to adoption of high-yielding varieties coupled with other inputs. The traditional wheat-growing states Punjab and Haryana have highest productivity than the national productivity [10]. The maximum increase in productivity has been observed in nontraditional wheat-growing states like West Bengal (23%), Himachal Pradesh (19.28%) and Assam (16.39%). However, the productivity of Haryana has declined which pose a serious matter of concern.
Quinquennial data on wheat area, production and yield for India indicates that there is a variation in crop acreage that declined to 29.58 million hectare (Figure 3). However, the production of wheat has increased significantly from 95.85 to 99.70 million tonnes. Increase in production was largely attributed to rise in productivity levels registered across the wheat-growing regions.
Quinquennial scenario in area, production and yield of wheat.
Wheat is one of the predominant staple foods and a main cereal crop of many diets around the world. Table 3 furnishes the current scenario of area, production and yield of wheat in the world. Globally wheat is cultivated in an area about 220 million hectares with a record production of 763.06 million tonnes of grain. Maximum area under wheat is in India (14%), followed by Russia (12.43%), China (11.14%) and the USA (6.90%) which altogether accounts for about 45% of global area. However, China is the major producer of wheat with a record production of 136 million tonnes, followed by India (98.51mt), Russia (85mt) and the USA (47.35mt). Around 449 million tonnes (58%) of wheat has been produced from traditional wheat-growing countries like China, India, Russia, the USA, Canada, Ukraine and Pakistan. The average yield per hectare is maximum in New Zealand (10 tonnes/ha), followed by Zambia (7 tonnes/ha) and Mexico (6 tonnes/ha). However, the average wheat yield in major wheat-growing countries is significantly low, and only China has maximum yield (5.48 tonnes/ha) followed by Ukraine, India and the USA. Despite India’s productivity being on par with the world average, the per day productivity is relatively high (20 kg/day) in comparison to other countries, viz. the USA, Uzbekistan, Hungary, Poland, Italy, Bulgaria and Romania, which predominantly cultivates winter wheat with crop cycle hovering around 275 days. However, in India, in comparison to its competing country, China, the per day productivity is almost the same. It should be noted that the winter wheat-cultivating countries do not deal with any other crop in a year, while in India, in which spring wheat cultivation occurs around 150 days duration, farmers has the choice to grow at the maximum two sole crops apart from wheat [8].
Countries | Area (million ha) | Production (million tonnes) | Yield (tonnes/ha) |
---|---|---|---|
China | 24.51 (11.14) | 134.33 (17.60) | 5.48 |
India | 29.58 (14.00) | 99.70 (12.91) | 3.37 |
Russia | 27.34 (12.43) | 84.99 (11.14) | 3.11 |
USA | 15.19 (6.90) | 47.35 (6.21) | 3.12 |
Canada | 8.98 (4.08) | 29.98 (3.93) | 3.34 |
Ukraine | 6.64 (3.02) | 26.98 (3.54) | 4.06 |
Pakistan | 8.97 (4.08) | 26.67 (3.50) | 2.97 |
Australia | 12.25 (5.57) | 21.30 (2.79) | 1.74 |
Turkey | 7.8 (3.55) | 21.00 (2.75) | 2.69 |
Kazakhstan | 11.91 (5.41) | 14.80 (1.93) | 1.24 |
World | 220 | 763.06 | 3.47 |
Area, production and yield of major wheat-producing countries (2017–2018).
Note: Figure within parenthesis indicates the percent to world.
The global wheat production has increased around 7 million tonnes (0.9%) in the year 2017–2018 in comparison to its past. The major source for the increase in production is mainly attributed to increase in productivity followed by marginal increase in area in major wheat-growing countries (Figure 4).
Annual growth in area, production and yield (2017–2018 over 2016–2017).
At the national level, there is a shift in area, production and yield under wheat during 2008–2009 to 2012–2013 vis-à-vis 2013–2014 to 2017–2018. Currently, wheat acreage is around 30 million hectares. Comparing the past two periods, the change was more prominent in wheat production, followed by area and yield (Tables 1 and 2). The average change in production was around 9%. The country on an average produced 7.3 million tonnes more than the past period. The major wheat-growing states like Punjab, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan have witnessed positive change in area and yield and production [6]. Surprisingly, Jharkhand registered positive change in area, yield and production, while Haryana and Uttar Pradesh, the major traditional wheat-growing states, witnessed a negative change in production due to negative change in yield. Regional disparities in area and yield had a significant impact on the wheat production. Average production in Madhya Pradesh showed an increase by 6.87 million tonnes, followed by Rajasthan (1.2 million tonnes). However, the production has declined in Uttar Pradesh (1.41 million tonnes) and Haryana (0.11 million tonnes).
Statewise comparison of area and production for 2017–2018 shows that Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana were the major contributors to the national production (Figure 5). However, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh retained the status of higher productivity for many years. The scope for additional production of these states has been limited due to stagnation of wheat acreage and yield. This indicates that these states almost reached their saturation in wheat cultivation and production. Potential exists for states like Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh to explore for additional wheat production in the coming years. Area under these states has to increase in yield at farmers’ field so as to attain higher production. The current production from these states is around 29 million tonnes which has to be doubled by 2050 with an overall production target of 140 million tonnes [11, 12, 13].
Statewise comparison of wheat area and production (2017–2018).
Production constraints are manifold and vary from crop to crop and between regions. Burgeoning population vis-à-vis increasing demand for food; growing competition for cultivable land, irrigation water and energy; intensive cropping especially in the Indo-Gangetic Plains resulting in irrational use of resources; pest-environment interaction; reduction of natural resource base; declining total factor productivity; and yield plateau (Figure 6) are the prominent challenges put forth against crop production [11, 12, 13, 14]. Wheat production not only faces the above routine challenges, but the intensity gets magnified in the context of climate change owing to its vulnerability [15, 16, 17, 18].
Production challenges in Indian setting.
In India a significant part of wheat area is under heat stress, and Gangetic plains and central and peninsular India are the most heat-stressed regions, whereas it is moderate in northwestern parts of Indo-Gangetic Plains [19]. Variability in climate is also one of the biggest environmental threats to Indian agriculture, potentially impacting the wheat production and security. In India, it has been predicted that with every rise in 1°C temperature, the wheat production will be decreased by 4–6 million tonnes. Rainfed wheat will experience a reduction in yield with 9–25% profit loss for every 2–3.5°C rise in temperature [20].
After the Green Revolution, the productivity of wheat has been significantly increased with the increase in input usage, plant protection chemicals and irrigated areas. The excessive use of fertilizer, chemicals and irrigation has degraded the fertility of the soil and also caused a reduction in groundwater table. The monocropping system led to deterioration in soil quality. If the current trend continues, the country will face a serious problem in utilization of scarce natural resources.
In India about 4.5 million hectares salt affected area is under wheat cultivation posing a major problem for canal irrigated areas [21]. Even though soil amendments and proper drainage are the more constructive solution, pace of reclamation is not substantial. This will significantly reduce the wheat yield.
As year passes, the pests of wheat have developed some resistance even though controlled under contingent situation. If not, a new range of pests and diseases have been emerging putting a serious constraint on the wheat productivity.
Adoption system and germplasm dissemination in India have been made in formal (organized) and informal (unorganized) ways [22]. Even though new improved varieties are developed and made available to farmers by NARS around, 80% of all seeds are saved by the farmers [19]. Further, a majority of farmers in India have lack of awareness of improved wheat varieties due to weak linkages [19]. The development and diffusion of improved varieties are crucial for achieving target production of wheat.
Volatility in prices of agricultural commodities has received considerable attention in the recent past among producers, consumers and policy makers. Price fluctuations create an uncertain farming situation threatening wheat production and have a negative impact on the welfare of wheat growers. Further, volatility in prices of wheat in international market hinders the smooth flow of trade across nations.
Over the years, a visible declining trend in farm holding size has been observed and is another major concern for the nation as a whole. This is caused by fragmentation of farmland owing to nuclear family system and decline in cultivable area due to urbanization. Estimate from the agricultural census (2010–2011) reports that the average operational holding in India was 1.16 ha. Among major wheat-growing states, average operational holding was highest in the case of Punjab (3.77 ha) and lowest in Bihar (0.39 ha). Declining farm size and conversion of farmland to residential area are the major setbacks with respect to food production in general and wheat production in particular.
A major concern among policy makers is the declining total factor productivity over the years owing to stagnating yield levels with increased use of inputs and resource services. It is a major concern in the intensive cropping areas wherein rice-wheat is widely under cultivation. This can be countered by adoption of improved technologies coupled with the use of optimal resources.
The constraints in wheat production are region-specific (Table 4), and it requires setting research priorities to address them. Rust, infestation of weeds such as
Zone | Major production constraints |
---|---|
Northern hills zone | Lack of accessibility of seed of newly released variety, |
Northwestern plains zone | High cost of inputs, low price of wheat, erratic power supply, |
Northeastern plains zone | Small land holdings, inadequacy of seeds of newly released variety, lack of information among the farmers about recently developed new technologies, late sowing, temperature fluctuations during growth, high-priced inputs, poor quality of seeds, non-availability of labour, low organic matter in the soil, non-availability of farm machinery |
Central zone | Non-availability of labour, imbalanced use of fertilizer, high temperature at maturity, limited accessibility to seed of newly released variety, temperature fluctuation during crop growth, high cost of inputs, lack of irrigation facilities, small land holding, decline in water table, untimely rain |
Peninsular zone | Low price of wheat, irregular power supply, high cost of inputs, non-availability of labour, non-availability of electricity, higher rate of custom hiring, untimely rain, lack of facilities of canal irrigation, poor accessibility to seeds of newly released variety, temperature fluctuation during crop growth |
Zone-wise production constraints in wheat.
With a limited scope for increasing the crop acreage besides the production threats and challenges at the forefront [12, 13], the production target has been fixed at 140 mt by 2050 (Figure 7) [11]. Under stable wheat acreage and given the optimistic production target, the existing average yield has to be increased from 33 to 47 Qtls/ha by 2050. Concerted research should focus to break the yield barriers in gradual manner and develop genotypes tailored for specific wheat-growing regions.
Existing production and target for 2050.
The following are the strategies set for increasing the crop productivity to achieve the set target of 140 million tonnes [9, 23, 24]:
Improvement of wheat under conventional methods
Exploitation of heterosis for developing the hybrids
Pre-breeding programme by broadening the varieties’ genetic base
Capitalizing exotic germplasm and extensive utilization
Precision phenotyping of germplasm
Mining novel alleles for genes of known function
Production of segregating populations for lines of interest identified in primary germplasm screens
Use of existing landrace x elite segregating populations to identify QTL controlling traits of interest
Production of NILs for QTL and allelic variants
Assessing agronomic performance of NILs
Development of informative genetic markers and their use in commercial wheat breeding programmes
Development of new plant types
Desired canopy structure
Rapid leaf area development
Rapid nutrient uptake
Increasing lodging resistance (robust stem)
Biotechnological interventions
Marker-assisted breeding
Wheat genome sequence and associated genomic tools
Allele mining on the basis of probing germplasm sets for specific gene sequences
Innumerable new molecular markers in genomic regions of choice to facilitate large-scale cloning of new genes
A plethora of approaches for understanding the function of each and every gene
Understanding temporal and tissue-specific gene expression in response to developmental and environmental cues
Uncovering molecular basis of complex adaptation syndromes including tolerance to various abiotic stresses
Designing of a genome-wide perfect marker system based on SNPs in entire gene space of the species
Potential of wheat transgenics and possibilities of greater public acceptance
Functional characterization of genome
Tackling disease resistance
Tackling abiotic stress-climate change
Resource management
Quality improvement
Policy reorientation [6]
Price policy
Seed policy
Credit policy
Institutional innovations like e-National Agriculture Market
Extension: transfer of technology
Economic assessment of various improved technologies for upscaling and outscaling
Promotion of resource conservation technologies [25]
Awareness among farmers of new improved varieties and production technologies for yield as well as income enhancement [26, 27]
Wheat atlas: creation and updating regional-level database on parameters like area, production, yield, yield gaps and input usage.
Analysis of benefit-cost ratio (BCR) in wheat production and development
Access to critical inputs for timely sowing like improved seeds particularly in eastern UP, Bihar, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh; access to fertilizers, irrigation water and farm machinery [28]
Infrastructure development (roads, storage structures, market)
Agriculture transformation is of utmost importance for regional development. Cutting-edge research involving multidiscipline is the need of the hour and is expected to develop superior genotypes breaking the yield barrier. Despite being cost-intensive, development is mandatory which warrants for higher public and private investment in R&D. In addition, productivity has to be increased through massive efforts from extension personnel who serve as change agents among the farming community. A reorientation in price policy (fair price system benefiting both producers and consumers, deficient payment system to producers for difference between the market and procurement price and cash transfers to producers under colossal loss), seed policy (quality seed production and ensuring its availability for all) and credit policy (timely distribution with minimum administrative work) is highly required to support the existing production system and to carry forward. Increased access to input and output markets, revamped distributions systems, investment in rural infrastructures and skilling of the rural labour force will help immensely to increase the crop productivity. On the whole, a synergy between research-extension-policy-institutions will play an impending role to achieve the desired level of production as well as to ensure food security for future generation. The realization of the expected increase in production in agriculture will only be possible with high efficiency, high quality, resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses and by offering them to the service of the farmer by improving the stable varieties in breeding programmes.
IntechOpen aims to ensure that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. To that end we maintain a flexible Copyright Policy guaranteeing that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their Work.
',metaTitle:"Publication Agreement - Journals",metaDescription:"IntechOpen aims to ensure that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/publication-agreement-journals",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Journal Article:
\\n\\n1. DEFINITIONS
\\n\\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Article who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author. Co-Author: All other Authors of the Article besides the Corresponding Author. IntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Journal.
\\n\\nJournal: The publication as a collection of Articles compiled by IntechOpen .
\\n\\nArticle: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\\n\\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\\n\\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\\n\\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to publish, communicate to the public, reproduce, republish, transmit, sell, distribute and otherwise use and make available the Article in whole, partial or adapted from and/or incorporated in or in conjunction with other works, in electronic and print editions of the Publication and in derivative works and on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen, throughout the world, in all languages, and in all media and formats now known or later developed.
\\n\\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to create and store electronic archival copies of the Article, including the right to deposit the Article in open access digital repositories.
\\n\\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to license others to reproduce, translate, republish, transmit and distribute the Article in whole, partial or adapted from and/or incorporated in or in conjunction with other works under the condition that the Corresponding Author and each Co-Author is attributed (currently this is carried out by publishing the Article under a Creative Commons 4.0 International Licence).
\\n\\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\\n\\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Article but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Article as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world. The Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Article and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Article.
\\n\\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\\n\\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Article as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Article arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\\n\\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\\n\\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Article, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Journal in which the Article has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Journal in which the Article has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re publishing the Article.
\\n\\n3.2 When submitting the Article, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\\n\\n• Comply with all instructions and guidelines provided by IntechOpen;
\\n\\n• Produce the Article with all due skill, care and diligence, and in accordance with good scientific practice;
\\n\\n• Submit all the corrections in due time as defined during the publishing process schedule.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Article Processing Charge.
\\n\\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\\n\\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Article worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\\n\\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\\n\\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\\n\\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Article does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Article contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Article is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Article has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a Journal or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication
\\n\\nAgreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Article to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Article was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Article on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\\n\\n5. TERMINATION
\\n\\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\\n\\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Article attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\\n\\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Article and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Article is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Article,
\\n\\nIntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\\n\\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\\n\\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\\n\\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\\n\\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Journal Article:
\n\n1. DEFINITIONS
\n\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Article who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author. Co-Author: All other Authors of the Article besides the Corresponding Author. IntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Journal.
\n\nJournal: The publication as a collection of Articles compiled by IntechOpen .
\n\nArticle: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\n\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\n\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to publish, communicate to the public, reproduce, republish, transmit, sell, distribute and otherwise use and make available the Article in whole, partial or adapted from and/or incorporated in or in conjunction with other works, in electronic and print editions of the Publication and in derivative works and on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen, throughout the world, in all languages, and in all media and formats now known or later developed.
\n\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to create and store electronic archival copies of the Article, including the right to deposit the Article in open access digital repositories.
\n\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to license others to reproduce, translate, republish, transmit and distribute the Article in whole, partial or adapted from and/or incorporated in or in conjunction with other works under the condition that the Corresponding Author and each Co-Author is attributed (currently this is carried out by publishing the Article under a Creative Commons 4.0 International Licence).
\n\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\n\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Article but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Article as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world. The Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Article and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Article.
\n\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\n\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Article as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Article arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\n\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Article, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Journal in which the Article has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Journal in which the Article has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re publishing the Article.
\n\n3.2 When submitting the Article, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\n\n• Comply with all instructions and guidelines provided by IntechOpen;
\n\n• Produce the Article with all due skill, care and diligence, and in accordance with good scientific practice;
\n\n• Submit all the corrections in due time as defined during the publishing process schedule.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Article Processing Charge.
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Article worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\n\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Article does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Article contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Article is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Article has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a Journal or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication
\n\nAgreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Article to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Article was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Article on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n5. TERMINATION
\n\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\n\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Article attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Article and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Article is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Article,
\n\nIntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\n\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\n\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\n\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
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He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"17",type:"subseries",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11413,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",slug:"attilio-rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",slug:"yanfei-(jacob)-qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:17,paginationItems:[{id:"81647",title:"Diabetes and Epigenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104653",signatures:"Rasha A. 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