Comparison of conventional building and zero energy building.
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Dr. Biswas received his Ph.D. from POSTECH, South Korea.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"194151",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhijit",middleName:null,surname:"Biswas",slug:"abhijit-biswas",fullName:"Abhijit Biswas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194151/images/system/194151.png",biography:"Dr. Abhijit Biswas is a research associate at the Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Pune, in India. His research goal is to design and synthesize highest quality epitaxial heterostructures and superlattices, to play with their internal degrees of freedom to exploit the structure–property relationships, in order to find the next-generation multi-functional materials, in view of applications and of fundamental interest. 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Currently, he is also serving as a reviewer of several reputed peer-review journals.\nDr. Biswas received his B.Sc. in Physics from Kalyani University, followed by M.Sc in Physics (specialization in experimental condensed matter physics) from Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Bombay. His Ph.D., also in experimental condensed matter physics, was awarded by POSTECH, South Korea for his work on the transport phenomena in perovskite oxide thin films. 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Various concerns have been reported related to the environment, economic instability, and energy security, mainly due to the present behaviour of the energy sector and carbon emissions [1]. In today business world, energy becomes a major source of economic growth. A smooth service for residential and commercial buildings involves extensive energy consumption. In this sector, energy consumption is escalating progressively which results in the emission of greenhouse gases. That is why saving energy with a suitable alternative in providing a better lifestyle gets essential. In this regard, the zero energy building is a very useful solution [2]. By integrating energy efficiency in buildings, sustainable development can be brought into the building sector. For achieving the goal of zero energy building, the design should be such that it can optimize maximum outdoor weather conditions [3].
Major reforms are brought into the construction industry for the betterment of the end-users in which zero energy building is one of them. Still, many are unaware of the concept of zero energy building as it is newly emerged area. Zero energy building is a structural element embraced for residential and commercial purposes which fulfilled the energy requirements by their own energy generation. It is very helpful in meeting the comfort requirements of the end-users, fulfilling the growing energy demand and beneficial to reduce the threat to climate changes due to global warming. Moreover, by adapting zero energy building, natural quarries can be saved from getting vanished. Therefore, this chapter discusses why there is a need for zero energy building and how it can bring reforms to real-world problems.
In the current decade, the demand of energy boosts up worldwide to 2.3% compared to the year 2018, making exceptional performance led by a vigorous global economy and high demand of heating and cooling systems in various regions. The highest consumption in the energy sector was made by natural gas due to high demand, posting 45% of the rise. With time, the demand for all the fuels getting increased where fossil fuels have a growth rate of 70%. A double pace was observed in solar energy generations which got increased by 31%, still not enough to meet the higher electricity demand. The increasing energy demand results in high carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions escalated by 1.7% which is 33 Gigatons in the year 2018. Electricity demand increases by 4% in the year 2018 and remains to spot as the fuel of the future. In the total energy consumption, electricity contributes up to 20% [4]. Figure 1 shows the historic and predicted data of world energy consumption.
World energy consumption, 1990–2040 [
Gradually, the energy demand getting increase, due to the global population increase, and the resources get lesser, requires an approach to overcome these phenomena. As a result, zero energy building is the most appropriate to accommodate the increased population and minimize the adverse effects of the energy shortage. In zero energy building, the energy loads are reduced up to a greater extent so that the renewable energy can meet the remaining requirements of the building, thus fulfilling the demand of end-user.
It is of the high interest for construction stakeholders, end-users, and the government that the construction and commissioning process should be energy-efficient and eco-efficient. Due to high energy consumption, the impact on the environment is greater, however, has been overlooked for years [6]. Sun is the energy source from ages for both humans and the other species where greenhouse gases kept the climate mild for living. But with time, these gases are threatening the living, and severe changes have occurred in the atmosphere. Figure 2 shows the intensive amount of harmful gases erupted from a single industrial unit.
Harmful gases emission from industrial unit [
CO2 is one of the most harmful and widespread gases in the greenhouse. The highest level of CO2 is reported in the atmosphere mainly due to the burning of fossil fuels by humans. These gases absorb the solar energy keeping the heat over the earth surroundings instead of allowing it to evade. This phenomenon is known as the greenhouse effect. Climate change not only refers to the rise in the temperature but also to severe weather conditions which directly impacts the population and has other serious consequences as well. CO2 itself responsible for three-quarters of the gas emissions as it remains in the atmosphere for a thousand years [8]. The greenhouse effect is explained in Figure 3.
Green house effect [
The impact of greenhouse gas emissions is directly on the country’s economy, civilization, and the atmosphere. The emission of CO2 to the atmosphere breaks all the record with 410 parts per million thresholds in the world. The cause of this constant expansion is mainly due to human actions that are undermining the climate [10]. It is due to industrial revolution, which is adding CO2 abruptly to the climate. As a result, around 1°C temperature has been increased, and the sea levels are getting higher. The impact of these changes can be seen worldwide. Beside these consequences, high heat waves, heavy rainfall, and the large wildlife distinction are also disrupting the climate, all due to increasing temperature [11]. To portray a true picture of these effects is the current fire issue in the Australia, which occurs due to climate changes and results in assassination the life of many species, humans, and a big burden to the economy.
Reviewing the method of construction in the construction industry, the innovation is lesser compared to other industries. Previously decisions were made to get a construction performed on the lowest initial cost without giving any attention to the limitation of the resources, especially during the operation stage. Progressively, the advancement came in the industry, and the focus was to improve the properties of the available materials for better utilization and cost-efficient. The change in the philosophy of construction industry materializes to build and construct living societies with improved health and environmental conditions [12]. The construction industry has been criticized for being the major contributor to the carbon emission and global warming. Around 10% of worldwide energy is consumed while manufacturing building materials and also generates 40% of the solid waste [13]. The rising energy demand and environmental concerns lead to sustainability by providing the living facilities which minimize the harmful effects and can easily be implemented [14].
The concept of achieving zero net energy consumption and zero carbon emissions of a building is known as zero energy building, also called as a net-zero energy building. Zero energy building generates its energy resources without relying on energy grid supply. The net-zero design principle provides the ease to the building users even in the extreme conditions, the more extreme exposure to the elements the higher energy requires for the comfort [15]. This principle is getting significant attention as developed renewable energy eliminates greenhouse gas emissions [16, 17].
The growth in zero energy building mainly occurs due to advancement in construction technologies and due to the input of academic researchers by collecting and analyzing the accurate energy performance information. Though zero energy building is still not common yet gaining value in developed countries. In the current era, computer models can detect how efficient is the engineering design decisions. With the concept of zero energy building, carbon emissions and fossil fuels dependency can be reduced [15]. The first consideration for zero energy building was made by the US Department of Energy; whereas, the European Union was the first region to mandate zero energy building use [19]. The zero energy building balance concept is described in Figure 4.
Zero energy building balance concept [
In real-world industrial estate, the zero energy building is the next revolution and contest. The construction industry is under pressure to provide efficient, cost-effective, and low energy consumption buildings in lesser time. In energy efficient approaches, zero energy building plays a vital role. A total of 30–40% of energy is utilized by the building sector, and reform in this area is the key step towards the future of sustainability. But this reform cannot be possible without the support of the stakeholders and should have familiarization about such kind of projects [11].
The aim is to construct a zero energy building that utilizes natural resources, lessen the waste, and fully optimize the producible energy. The construction team usually consists of engineers, architects, developers, owners, builders, and the occupants. The approach to constructing a zero energy building is to consider the building as one energy system in which every part should be energy efficient. Only those construction materials, developing systems and assemblies are taken into the account which decreases the energy use and utilizes all the built renewable energy. The building is furnished with the robust thermal envelope, providing a continuous air and moisture barrier, enhancing the effectiveness, and providing a relaxing indoor atmosphere. Site orientation is a critical factor for zero energy building as the moto is to take full benefit of the energy produced by the sun. Preferably, the orientation should be north-south in the Northern Hemisphere, as it lowers the direct sunlight in the summer which reduce the cooling demand and higher the sunlight in the winter to reduce heating demand. The windows should be able to utilize the maximum natural light, control the heat variations, and automatically get darken when hit by the sunlight. Moreover, southern facing windows can prevent the heat in summer and warming up in the winter using shades and louvers. The roof of zero energy building holds the building cool by preventing the heat gained by the solar panels. Thicker and light colour materials are good to keep the roof cool as they oppose the sunlight and improve the indoor conditions. As zero energy building is air tightened, a proper energy recovery ventilation system is provided which keeps the air fresh and reduces the energy losses. It is recommended to keep the connection of zero energy building with the conventional energy source as well just in case of renewable energy cannot fulfill the requirements of the end-user. Also, if the energy generated is in surplus, it can be transferred to the grid so the energy inside the zero energy building should be steady [21]. Figure 5 shows a model of a zero energy building.
Zero energy building [
There are many advantages of the zero energy building, yet everything comes with a downside. The pros and cons of the zero energy building are discussed below:
Due to improved energy efficiency, the cost to the end-user get reduced.
The comfort of zero energy building is more as compared to the conventional building due to the uniform inside atmosphere.
No impact of the external energy crisis to the end-user.
Reduction in monthly living expenses.
Environmentally friendly and reduce the carbon emission.
Higher resale value compared to conventional building.
Less availability of experienced designers to build zero energy building.
The initial cost of zero energy building is higher compared to the conventional building.
Not suitable in the region with cold temperature due to less exposure to the climate.
Limit future ability to respond to global warming due to specific temperature design.
Eventually, every industry contributes to the emission of CO2, and construction industry is not exempted. The best way to reduce CO2 emissions is to avoid the burning of fossil fuels. Just avoiding the burning is not enough as energy is required in all the sectors to perform day to day operation. Here, the importance of the zero energy building emerges as it is the most suitable way to avoid the emission of CO2 and also fulfill the requirements of the end-users by generating their energy. Zero energy building is also known as the zero-carbon building as the emissions of carbon from fossil fuels get balanced with the amount of produced renewable energy [22].
Under crucial circumstances of climate change, the construction industry requires to construct high performance buildings where zero energy buildings are the robust solution as it provides healthy and energy efficient buildings which generates their own energy for usage. With the help of zero energy building, country’s economy will also boost [11]. Climate change and shortage of natural resources is a global issue where adapting zero energy buildings can be restored and lemmatize the hazards.
Cost efficiency of the zero energy building implies the energy cost that is utilized by the building, which is the main concern of most of the end-users. Infrastructural components and high demand costing by utility suppliers often included in energy cost. That is why cost does not only portray the energy consumed vs. energy generated by the building [18]. The main hurdle in endorsing the zero energy building is the initial construction cost which is paid by the investors. Direct and indirect costs are involved in the construction of the zero energy building. Direct cost includes materials cost, labour cost, machinery cost, and other costs which are directly related to construction activities. Indirect cost includes documentation fees, design cost, commission, and other official fees; whereas, the post-construction cost includes operational costs of building utilized in energy development [23, 24, 25].
Usually, people compare the initial construction cost of the zero energy building with the conventional building, which is higher for zero energy building, but the running expense is much lesser as compared to the conventional building. In zero energy building, all the energy demand is fulfilled by the building itself which is more cost-efficient compared to energy generated by the government, as that includes taxes and other hidden costs. It can be concluded that in the long run, zero energy buildings are way more advanced and cost-efficient, compared to conventional buildings.
Zero energy building implies a significant impact on a country’s economy. Every country is struggling to produce a generous amount of energy to meet the requirement of the end-users. But due to limited resources, it is getting difficult and burdened the economy as well. Zero energy building comes as a solution not only to fulfill the energy demand but also stabilize the country’s economy.
There could be one perception that instead of supporting the economy, zero energy building will leave a negative impact on the economy as people will not pay taxes for energy usage. This perception arises because taxes are the main source of income for government and country’s development. The perception can be refused as the government is utilizing more money for energy generation compared to the money getting in return. Zero energy building mainly operates with solar panels to generate energy. Due to this fact, the demand of the solar panels increases, so as its industry and the country’s economy.
Uncertainty in foreseeing the energy use in the building sector is due to occupant behaviour which is the most critical factor. Variation in energy usage in buildings has been observed even with the same climate conditions. The comfort level of every human being varies which directly affect the building operations and also increases the energy demand [26].
Humans are spending 90% of their lives in indoors premises for various works or living. Hence, to maintain a healthy lifestyle, safe and comfortable environment in buildings is significant. To provide the comfort and enhancing the condition of a building, almost 40% of the world’s energy is been consumed which results in one-third greenhouse gas emissions mainly associated with the building sector [27, 28].
Besides environmental and economic benefits, zero energy building shows a positive impact on the society as well. Most of the benefits are related to the health of the end-users involved in working or living in the zero energy building. People associated with zero energy building tend to have an increase in brain functioning, getting better sleep at night, and due to low concentration of CO2 and other pollutants, the overall performance also gets an increase. Zero energy building not only focuses on the environmental perspective but also aims to provide a comfortable and healthy lifestyle [29].
In long run, the zero energy building is more cost-efficient compared to conventional building. A life cycle cost analysis (LCC) was performed for 20 years using present worth analysis between conventional building and zero energy building [30]. The comparison is discussed in Table 1.
Activity | Conventional building | Zero energy building |
---|---|---|
Construction cost for building | 30143.50 | 39339.04 |
Cost for home appliances | 203,320 | 2270.04 |
Cost for gas arrangements | 42.06 (natural gas) | 42.06 (biogas) |
Present value of water charge for 20 years | 5.54 | 5.54 |
Present value of electric charge for 20 years | 6820 | — |
Present value of fuel cost for 20 years | 1642.47 | 96.04 |
Present value of home appliances for 20 years | 3949.64 | 3652.55 |
Present value maintenance of building | 3068.19 | 1840.86 |
Present value of total operating maintenance and replacement cost for conventional building | 15485.84 | 5594.98 |
Comparison of conventional building and zero energy building.
From Table 1, it can be observed that although the initial cost of zero energy building is higher compared to conventional building, LCC shows that zero energy building is much more cost-efficient and economic.
High energy consumption is a threat to climate, and the changes occurring are adverse for the life on earth as it is causing global warming. Not only the plants and animals but humans are also getting affected. With time, even the sources are getting shorter for mankind and one day will vanish. To deal with this issue, alternative solutions are required which fulfill the energy demand and have no impact on the environment. In this scenario, the zero energy building emerges as the best available solution to control both the major issues. In the long run, zero energy buildings are more cost-efficient and contribute to the country’s economy as well. Though understanding of zero energy building is still lesser to many but will get a boost as it is in favour of everyone.
The authors would like to thank Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS (UTP) for the support provided for this research.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Mycotoxins are secondary toxic metabolites with a wide variety of chemical structures synthesized by fungi (mold) [1]. Mycotoxins are thought to be a kind of “chemical defense system” to protect mold from insects, microorganisms, nematodes, grazing animals, and humans [2]. Molds reproduce by means of spores, and their small molecular weight spores are easily disseminated to environment by wind. They cannot be affected by the adverse environmental conditions and can be present in the latent state for long periods. Moreover, when the environmental conditions are appropriate, spores return to vegetative form and can form into new mold colonies. Agricultural products can be contaminated with mold in pre-harvest via insect and bird damage and harsh weather condition damage such as hail damage. In addition, selected harvesting method is one of the most important reasons in contamination of the mold to the products. Improper storage, transport, and marketing can also cause the mold growth and synthesis of mycotoxins [3].
Mycotoxin can occur in food and agricultural products via many contamination pathways, at any stage of production, processing, transport, and storage (Figure 1) [4]. Factors that affect mold growth and mycotoxin production are temperature, relative humidity, fungicides and/or fertilizers, interaction between the colonizing toxigenic fungal species, type of subtract and nutritional factors, geographical location, genetic requirements, and insect infestation [5, 6].
Factors affecting mycotoxin occurrence in the food and feed chain [
Approximately 400 fungal secondary metabolites are known to be toxic, and one quarter of agricultural products have been reported to be contaminated with mycotoxins in the world [5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. While a type of mold may form more than one mycotoxin, a mycotoxin can be synthesized by many molds. The most common types of mold which are known to produce mycotoxins are
According to the result of many studies in poultry and mammals, mycotoxins can be carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic, hepatotoxic, nephrotoxic, immunosuppressive, and embryotoxic [11]. The phenomenon of toxicity is called mycotoxicosis occurring after consumption of mycotoxin-contaminated product by human and animal [12].
Especially cereals, grains, nuts, oilseeds, fruits, dried fruits, vegetables, cocoa and coffee beans, wine, beer, herbs, and spices are major mycotoxin vectors since they are consumed by a large mass of people and animals [4]. Mycotoxins cause different degrees of toxicity according to exposure time, mycotoxin amount, physiological state, and sensitivity of the organism in humans and animals.
In addition to risk of public health, mycotoxins generate high level of economical loses for food industry due to reduced crop yields, lost trade revenues (local and international), and livestock illnesses [13, 14]. Elimination of mycotoxin is quite though due to resistant to physical, chemical, and biological methods; however, some of the measures described in the following sections may help to prevent mycotoxin. The methods used for mycotoxin determination are chromatography such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), thin-layer chromatography (TLC), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and also enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) technique and biosensor-based screening methods [15]. Detection is complicated due to limitations in analytical methodology [16]. Therefore, prevention of mold contamination and mycotoxin synthesis is essential for food safety in food industry.
According to the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), 77 countries have established guidance and regulations on mycotoxin in food and feed to control the level of mycotoxin. On the other hand, 13 countries including African countries still do not have specific regulation for food safety [4].
Ergotism is one of the oldest determined mycotoxicoses (disease) in human and results from consumption of the ergot body in rye or other grains infected by a parasitic fungus of the genus
Mycotoxins can occur in the food in several ways (Figure 1), but technically divided into two groups; first is mold growth as a pathogen plant in field, another one is grow on stored. After plant materials are contaminated with mold spores from soil and air, they easily contaminate other food source, production area, laboratory, and even kitchen of our homes. Certain species of mold are capable of mycotoxin synthesis; therefore, each food contaminated with mold always may not contain mycotoxins. Nevertheless, moldy products are considered to be risky products in terms of mycotoxin.
Mycotoxins appear in almost all kinds of animal feed and products such as wheat bran, noug cake, pea hulls, maize grain, milk and meat, and also human food such as cereal, fruit and vegetables, spice, etc. [5]. Consuming these foods creates serious health risks in human and all animal species. Mycotoxin intake by feed or food causes chronic intoxication rather than acute symptoms. Acute toxicity is observed in high-dose mycotoxin exposure, and symptoms show a rapid effect such as borborygmy, abdominal pain, diarrhea, etc. On the other hand, low-level mycotoxin exposure in long period causes serious impairments in the liver, kidney, and immune system organs and tissues. Therefore, mycotoxin plays a significant role in cancer in these organs [2]. Some important mycotoxin health effects are shown in Figure 2. Toxic effects on humans and animals of important mycotoxins are shown in Table 1 [19].
Aflatoxin (AFL), ochratoxin A (OTA), patulin (PAT), fumonisin (FUM), trichothecenes (TCT), and zearalenone (ZEA) mycotoxin health effects [
Mycotoxins | Genus/species | Major food | Toxic effects and diseases |
---|---|---|---|
Aflatoxin | Cereals, feeds, oilseeds and pulp, coconut | Carcinogenic, hepatotoxicity, teratogenicity, decreasing immune systems, affecting the structure of DNA, hepatitis, bleeding, kidney lesions | |
Fumonisin | Cereals, corn | Encephalomalacia, pulmonary edema, carcinogenic, neurotoxicity, liver damage, heart failure, esophageal cancer in humans | |
Ochratoxin OTA | Cereals, herbs, oil seeds, figs, beef jerky, fruits, and wine | Kidney and liver damage, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, suppression of immune system, carcinogenic | |
Patulin | Silage, wheat, feeds, apples, grapes, peaches, pears, apricots, olives, cereals | Neural syndromes, brain hemorrhage, skin lesions, skin cancer, lung, mutagenicity, antibacterial effect | |
Trichothecenes (T2, DON, DAS, HT2) | Cereals, feeds, silage, legumes, fruits, and vegetables | Immune suppression, cytotoxic, skin necrosis, hemorrhage, anemia, granulocytopenia, oral epithelial lesions, GIS lesions, hematopoietic, alimentary toxic aleukia (ATA), hypotension, coagulopathy | |
Zearalenone | Cereals, corn, silage, timothy grass, fodder | Carcinogenic, hormonal imbalance estrogenic effect, reproductive problems, teratogenic |
Name of some important mycotoxin-producing fungi, susceptible foods, and mycotoxin effects on humans and animals [19].
Mycotoxins have caused many serious outbreaks worldwide. There was an outbreak that occurred in 1967, and 26 people were poisoned because of the consumption of moldy rice for up to 3 weeks in Taiwan [21]. An outbreak of aflatoxicosis affecting humans, reported in India, led to the death of 100 people in 1974 [22]. Another outbreak was reported in India in 1995, affecting 1424 people due to sorghum and maize contaminated with fumonisin [23]. During January–June 2004, an aflatoxicosis outbreak in eastern Kenya resulted in 317 cases and 125 deaths [24].
Mycotoxin contamination in foods and fodder has been becoming a global concern day by day. According to Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) reports, it is estimated that mycotoxin affects nearly 25% of the world’s crop each year and is causing huge agricultural product and industrial losses in billions of dollars [25]. For example, estimated annual loss in the United States is approximately $ 0.5–1.5 billion [19]. The main effects of mycotoxins on national economies can be thought in five ways:
Product yield losses due to toxigenic mold diseases
Decrease in commercial value because of contaminated food and feed
Human and animal health losses due to harmful impacts associated with mycotoxin-contaminated food and fodder consumption
Cost of analysis of mycotoxin
Strategies to control mycotoxin contamination
Economic impacts are felt by agricultural chain such as manufacturer of plant and animal, especially cereal industry, consumers, and briefly all farm-to-fork steps.
Aflatoxins are a group of toxic secondary metabolites of filamentous fungi,
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a natural mycotoxin produced mainly by fungal type of
Fumonisins are generated by various fungal species such as
The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) identified FB1 as possibly carcinogenic to humans (group 2B). Recent studies reported that FB1 causes an increased prevalence of esophageal and liver cancer in humans [59]. Furthermore, this mycotoxin has been found to have toxic effects against several organs (nervous and cardiovascular systems, liver, lung, kidney) in animals [60]. Fumonisins are largely found in corn and corn-based foods and also FB1 in rice, beer, sorghum, cowpea seeds, triticale, beans, asparagus, and soybeans [61].
Zearalenone (ZEA), known as an estrogenic mycotoxin, is a secondary metabolite produced by
Several in vivo studies found that ZEA disrupts hormonal balance due to its similarity to naturally occurring estrogens [64]. The mycotoxin has high affinity for estrogen receptors, causing reproduction and fertility disorders in mammals [65]. In addition, it is known that progressive exposure to endocrine-modulatory compound has been linked with carcinogenesis in human [64]. According to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) report in 2014, the bioavailability of toxin is up to 80% in human and animals such as rats, rabbits, and pigs [66]. Moreover, recent works report ZEA is metabolized in the liver and has shown hepatotoxic, immunotoxic, carcinogenic, and nephrotoxic effect in animal tests [67, 68, 69]. As this mycotoxin possesses such consumer health risks, the European Union (EU) has prescribed the limits of ZEA (20–350 μg/kg) for various processed and unprocessed cereals [66].
Trichothecenes are a large group of mycotoxins produced predominantly by
The mechanism of action of trichothecenes is based on the inhibition of protein synthesis in eukaryotes. This mycotoxin affects peptidyl transferase enzyme binding the 60S ribosomal subunit, thus causing the inhibition of protein translation and ribotoxic stress [75]. Also, Pestka reported these groups of mycotoxins cause immunosuppression or immune stimulation by affecting the leucocytes [76].
The family of trichothecenes has a significant impact on cereal and grain production due to health risk for human consumption, livestock feed, or malting purposes [77, 78]. According to report from the FDA, economic losses associated with mycotoxin ranges from USD 0.5 million to over USD 1.5 billion from aflatoxin (corn and peanuts), fumonisin (corn), and deoxynivalenol (wheat) in the United States. [72]. Hence, control of these mycotoxins is essential for human and animal health and economic reasons.
Deoxynivalenol (DON), known as vomitoxin, is the most commonly detected trichothecenes in grains such as wheat, barley, oats, rye, and corn and less often in rice, sorghum, and triticale [79]. Even though NIV presence of cereals appears generally to be lower than DON [80], it has been reported that the occurrence of NIV in of wheat and barley is as prevalent as that of deoxynivalenol (DON) in Japan [81]. According to animal toxicity studies, NIV shows higher toxicity than DON. The LD50 values for DON and NIV in tests in mice were 78 and 39 mg/kg, respectively, and DON and NIV, similarly to other trichothecenes, show inhibitor effect on cell metabolism such as protein, DNA, and RNA synthesis [82]. In addition, these mycotoxins affect cell division and mitochondrial functions [83, 84, 70]. Both mycotoxins exhibit major symptoms such as abdominal discomfort, diarrhea, vomiting, and inflammation of the throat, weight loss, and anorexia [85].
The World Health Organization (WHO) reported that trichothecenes shows fatal and chronic intoxications on human and livestock and also DON shows teratogenic, neurotoxigenic, and immunosuppressant effects [86].
According to the conducted BIOMIN World Mycotoxin Survey, DON appeared in 81% of livestock feed from 81 countries worldwide followed by fumonisins that were detected in 71% of samples. Therefore, DON is reported as the most common mycotoxin worldwide (https://www.biomin.net/en/biomin-mycotoxin-survey/).
Food safety is a key component in public health issue, and a mycotoxin is a huge food safety risk in developing countries. Prevention is the most important and effective way in reducing fungal growth and mycotoxin production to ensure food safety. The following steps that explain prevention and control of mycotoxin occurrence include good agricultural practices (GAP) in field, control practices of harvesting and storage, physical methods (cleaning, milling, etc.), implementation of biotechnological application, biological control through the use of controlled atmosphere during storage, detoxification/degradation, and fermentation techniques.
Pre-harvesting is considered first and one of the most important stages to prevent mold growth and mycotoxin synthesis. Several strategies are available for the produce of healthy products and reduce the mold formation at pre-harvesting, including selection of plants according to the soil structure and production capacity, use of plant which is resistant to fungi and insects, irrigation time, make fertilization, use of insecticides to prevent insect damage [87].
Harvesting at the appropriate time periods (low moisture and full maturity) is essential for reducing the risk of a mycotoxin contamination since overmaturity creates sensitivity to mold growth. Additionally, suitable harvesting equipment and procedures should be used, and crops should be dried after maturity to both reduce grain moisture to safe levels [88].
The latest technological advances provided new paths in mycotoxin control strategies that include the use of a controlled atmosphere with inhibitory or a protective effect and use of naturally occurring compounds under different conditions and essential oils with antioxidant properties to decrease fungal growth and mycotoxin production in grains during storage [89]. Moreover, these strategies also include using regularly cleaned transport vehicles to prevent cross contamination of products; monitoring of temperature, humidity, aeration and pest infestation periodic during storage [90]; using mold inhibitors (propionic acid) to contaminated food and feed; and application of disinfectant such as sodium hypochlorite to storage area [91].
Some studies have shown that using physical methods (dehulling, washing, sorting, and cleaning of visible moldy seed) reduces different mycotoxin species in foods regardless of grain genre [70]. Scudamore and Pascale et al. [92] and Patel [93] observed a reduction of T-2 (62%) and HT-2 (53%) and DON (50%) in wheat seeds after cleaning. Scudamore and Patel also reported a 32% reduction in fumonisin levels in corn in an industrial enterprise [94]. Moreover, milling is an important effect in the reduction of
One of the best applicable strategies for the prevention of mycotoxin formation is the cultivation of fungal infestation-resistant plants and improvement of the genetic composition to suppress mycotoxin production [96]. The benefits of biotechnological applications were observed with Aflasafe. Aflasafe is a biocontrol product that includes a blend of four fungal species covered over grains which reduce aflatoxigenic fungi that produce AFs in maize and groundnuts (https://aflasafe.com/).
Mycotoxins are resistant to heat and cannot be completely destroyed under normal cooking process. On the other hand, mycotoxin reduction has been determined after heating, and this may be the result of reactions changing the chemical structure [70]. Ryu et al. reported heat treatment (at temperature 120–160°C) causes a reduction between 66 and 83% of ZEN [97]. Scott and Lawrence also reported a reduction of 60–100% of fumonisins with a heat treatment at 190°C (60 min) and 220°C (25 min).
Biological control of mycotoxins via detoxification/degradation offers a promising alternative method [98]. Recently the effectiveness of fermentation for the reduction and elimination of mycotoxins has also been proven. Studies documented in the literature generally show that mycotoxins are reduced by conversion, detoxification, binding, degradation, and decontamination after food fermentation [99]. Modification of the chemical structure of the mycotoxin molecule, removal or detoxification/inactivation, and adhesion to bacterial cell walls provide a reduced toxicity during fermentation [99]. Implementation of these preventive methods cannot solve the problem alone; also it must be an integral part of an integrated food safety management system based on the hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP).
HACCP is a food management system where food safety is addressed through the analysis, control, and monitoring of physical, chemical, and biological hazards from raw material manufacturing, supply, and handling to production, distribution, and consumption of the finished product [100]. The National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods (NACMCF) published a guideline about HACCP containing seven basic principles, decision tree, and all plans in 1992 [101]. Implementation of HACCP is an effective strategy for prevention, control, and periodic monitoring of mycotoxin in all stages from field to the consumer. There are 12 successive steps recommended to implementation of HACCP system. Previous HACCP studies can be researched to set up tasks from 1 to 5 that specify each food process, and tasks required for mycotoxin control begin at 6 (Principle 1).
Establish the HACCP team.
Describe the product.
Identify the product’s intended use.
Draw up the commodity flow diagram.
Confirm the flow diagram on-site.
Identify and analyze hazard(s) (Principle 1).
Determine the critical control points (CCPs) (Principle 2).
Establish critical limits for each (CCP) (Principle 3).
Establish a monitoring procedure (Principle 4).
Establish corrective action (Principle 5).
Verify the HACCP plan (Principle 6).
Keep record (Principle 7).
Crops and tolerated levels of mycotoxins (μgkg−1) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Country | Mycotoxins | Rice | Maize | Spices | Fruit juices |
Brazil | AFB1/AFG1 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 |
China | AFB1 | 10 | 20 | — | — |
France | FB1 | 1000 | 1000 | — | — |
Hungary | Total AF OTA | 50 5 | 50 5 | - - | - - |
Japan | AFB1 Patulin | 10 | 10 | 10 | — |
The United States | Total AF Patulin | 20 - | 20 - | 20 - | - 50 |
Turkey | AFB1 Patulin | 2 - | 2 - | 5 - | - - |
Global regulation of mycotoxin contamination in agricultural products [103].
Microbiological and/or chemical tests can be used to confirm which product is meeting CCP.
Asking questions especially to CCP employees.
Internal or external audit by independent person to check whether HACCP system is being implemented.
Step/CCP | Hazard analysis | Monitoring | Corrective action | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hazard | Control | Critical limit | Monitoring | Frequency | ||
Pre-harvest/ growing | Low soil moisture leading to plant stress during kernel development | Irrigate | Lower limit of critical water activity (aw) (check with your agronomist/extension staff for an exact value) | Measure soil moisture and record | Weekly on Monday morning | Additional irrigation; record amounts |
Insufficient soil nutrients leading to plant stress during kernel development | Fertilize | N, P, and K applications as recommended for hybrid by local agronomists (insert the values) | Fertilizer applied (appropriate for soil type and hybrid); amounts and type recorded | As recommended for hybrid | Additional fertilizer; record amounts added | |
Insect attack leading to damaged kernels | Integrated pest management (IPM) plan | Insect population within acceptable limits as determined by control program | Visual inspection and sample, with results recorded | Weekly | Apply pesticide in accordance with IPM plan | |
Harvest | Damage to kernels from harvester | Harvest when kernels are dry | Moisture content ≤14% | Measure and record grain moisture | Prior to harvest | Delay harvest till kernels are dried enough |
Storage | Excessive moisture content of kernels | Do not store until kernels are dry | Moisture content ≤14% | Measure and record grain moisture | Immediately prior to storage | Dry mechanically |
Insect attack, allowing fungi to penetrate kernels | IPM plan | No evidence of insect or rodent infestation using inspection protocols specified in IPM plan | Visual inspection with results recorded | Weekly | Apply pest control methods in accordance with IPM plan | |
High ambient humidity and temperature | Aerate grain to control temperature and humidity | Temperature and humidity within limits recommended in industry literature | Measure and record humidity, ambient temperature, and airflow | Daily during storage | Adjust aeration time of day or airflow to achieve desired temperature and humidity |
HACCP plan of maize [102].
Mycotoxin is a well-known food safety risk, which is a threat to human and livestock health, and has high economic significance in food industry. Recently, the food industry has become aware of the new term modified mycotoxins introduced by Rychlik et al. (masked mycotoxin) [104]. Food safety risk has risen since masked mycotoxins which pose many difficulties including the unknown occurrence/co-occurrence of these compounds and their toxicological properties. In addition, Lorenz et al. reported that the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has taken into account efforts to address this emerging issue in food safety by developing strategies on how to evaluate potential added health risk due to the occurrence of modified mycotoxins [104].
Mycotoxigenic molds are difficult to prevent and control due to their widespread presence in nature. Prevention of mycotoxin synthesis in all stages of food processing is an essential point for public health and economic reasons. Many practices used for prevention of mycotoxin include good agricultural practices (GAP) in field, control practices of harvesting and storage, physical methods (cleaning, milling, etc.), implementation of biotechnological application, biological control through the use of controlled atmosphere during storage, detoxification/degradation, and fermentation techniques.
Meanwhile a number of techniques for mycotoxin control and management prove to be quite costly and/or unenforceable in some cases. On the other hand, using fermentation process for appropriate process has been recommended for mycotoxin reduction by Adebiyi et al. [99]. In the future, more emphasis should be given to nanotechnology and genetic engineering practices in the development of durable product types to ensure food safety.
In addition to these applications, food safety management systems such as HACCP, GAP, and good manufacturing practices (GMP) should be integrated at all stages of production, transport, and storage, in order to minimize contamination in food industry. Also fairly new food safety system including threat assessment critical control points (TACCP), vulnerability critical control points (VACCP), and hazard analysis and risk-based preventive controls (HARPC) should be investigated and implemented to ensure an effective control system.
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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They were derived from erbium-doped fiber amplifiers, which are still important component for telecommunications. Since discovery, fiber laser has become a natural choice for many uses, primarily because of the physical characteristics of fiber waveguide structure. Their rapid progress may show how excellent they really are. Although fiber lasers are today widely used in various research and industrial areas, one of the most meaningful applications of fiber laser technology has been through its use in medicine. A wide variety of wavelengths generated by fiber lasers as well as the diversity of physical mechanisms employed in pulse generation also additionally underpins the flexibility of fiber laser technology. This study is devoted to background technology of fiber lasers in the light of medical applications. Basic physics and theories of optical fibers and their important properties are introduced.",book:{id:"6467",slug:"optical-amplifiers-a-few-different-dimensions",title:"Optical Amplifiers",fullTitle:"Optical Amplifiers - A Few Different Dimensions"},signatures:"Amira Tandirovic Gursel",authors:[{id:"240070",title:"Dr.",name:"Amira",middleName:null,surname:"Tandirovic Gursel",slug:"amira-tandirovic-gursel",fullName:"Amira Tandirovic Gursel"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"63129",title:"Laser Ablation Technique for Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticle in Liquid",slug:"laser-ablation-technique-for-synthesis-of-metal-nanoparticle-in-liquid",totalDownloads:2550,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Recently, the synthesis and application of metal and ceramic nanoparticle are significant subject in science and engineering. 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The analytical performance of such techniques, challenges related to calibration, and strategies to improve sensitivity are discussed. In addition, the processes involved in data acquisition and imaging for acquiring the elemental spatial distribution are highlighted, and some representative examples in environmental, biological, medical, and forensic researches are presented.",book:{id:"10481",slug:"practical-applications-of-laser-ablation",title:"Practical Applications of Laser Ablation",fullTitle:"Practical Applications of Laser Ablation"},signatures:"Renata S. Amais, Danielle S. Francischini, Pedro S. Moreau and Marco A.Z. Arruda",authors:[{id:"327464",title:"Prof.",name:"Marco A.Z.",middleName:null,surname:"Arruda",slug:"marco-a.z.-arruda",fullName:"Marco A.Z. 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Moreau"}]},{id:"59750",title:"Quantum Dot-Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers (QD-SOA): Dynamics and Applications",slug:"quantum-dot-semiconductor-optical-amplifiers-qd-soa-dynamics-and-applications",totalDownloads:1356,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Quantum dot-semiconductor optical amplifiers (QD-SOA) attracted strong interest for applications in optical communications and in all-optical signal processing due to their high operation rate, strong nonlinearity, small gain recovery time of about few picoseconds, broadband gain, low injection current and low noise figure (NF). In this chapter, we present the theoretical investigation of the gain recovery time acceleration in DQ SOA; the specific features of the cross gain modulation (XGM) in QD-SOA; the influence of the optical injection on the dynamics of QD-SOA based on the QD in a well (QDWELL) structure. We describe the following applications of QD-SOA: the all-optical ultra-wideband (UWB) pulse generation based on the Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI) with a QD-SOA; the ultra-fast all-optical signal processor based on QD-SOA-MZI; the ultra-fast all-optical memory based on QD-SOA. The contents of the chapter are mainly based on the original results.",book:{id:"6467",slug:"optical-amplifiers-a-few-different-dimensions",title:"Optical Amplifiers",fullTitle:"Optical Amplifiers - A Few Different Dimensions"},signatures:"Yossef Ben Ezra and Boris I. Lembrikov",authors:[{id:"2302",title:"Prof.",name:"Yossef",middleName:null,surname:"Ben-Ezra",slug:"yossef-ben-ezra",fullName:"Yossef Ben-Ezra"},{id:"2359",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris I.",middleName:"I.",surname:"Lembrikov",slug:"boris-i.-lembrikov",fullName:"Boris I. Lembrikov"}]},{id:"73390",title:"Laser Machining",slug:"laser-machining",totalDownloads:544,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The increasing demands of materials with superior properties are given priority by most of the industries in recent years due to their higher performance levels. Machining of hard materials is a challenging task since it involves higher cutting forces and rapid tool wear. This leads to complexity in shaping these difficult-to machine materials such as advanced composite and ceramics. There have been many alternative techniques developed to overcome the shortcomings of conventional machining processes. Laser beam machining (LBM) is one of the advanced noncontact machining processes that employ monochromatic light with high frequency for machining using thermal energy. The highly energized photos are focused on a material cause heating, melting and vaporizes the material which is effectively used to remove unwanted portion of a material. Due to higher coherency of laser beam, materials can be machined very precisely than conventional machining processes. Generally, the laser-based material processing is suitable for a brittle type of material with minimum conductivity. However, this laser machining can be used for all kinds of materials in most cases. This chapter provides the principle of laser and its types, mechanism of material removal using laser, applications, advantages, and limitations of LBM.",book:{id:"10481",slug:"practical-applications-of-laser-ablation",title:"Practical Applications of Laser Ablation",fullTitle:"Practical Applications of Laser Ablation"},signatures:"Natarajan Jeyaprakash, Che-Hua Yang and Manickam Bhuvanesh Kumar",authors:[{id:"32620",title:"Prof.",name:"Che-Hua",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"che-hua-yang",fullName:"Che-Hua Yang"},{id:"319416",title:"Dr.",name:"Jeyaprakash",middleName:null,surname:"Natarajan",slug:"jeyaprakash-natarajan",fullName:"Jeyaprakash Natarajan"},{id:"329306",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhuvanesh Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"M",slug:"bhuvanesh-kumar-m",fullName:"Bhuvanesh Kumar M"}]},{id:"63522",title:"Nonlinear Optical Response of Noble Metal Nanoparticles",slug:"nonlinear-optical-response-of-noble-metal-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:1420,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"The special nonlinear optical response of noble metal nanoparticles (MNPs) when exposed to intense laser radiation has induced novel applications in nonlinear spectroscopy, optoelectronics, and optical switchers and limiters. In this chapter, recent results on the nonlinear optical properties of MNPs (including gold, silver, palladium, and platinum) have been discussed. Some specific optical nonlinear properties, such as nonlinear refraction, saturable absorption and reverse saturable absorption, two-photon absorption, and optical limiting, for femtosecond, picosecond, and nanosecond laser pulses, have been covered.",book:{id:"7349",slug:"laser-technology-and-its-applications",title:"Laser Technology and its Applications",fullTitle:"Laser Technology and its Applications"},signatures:"Yachen Gao and Deigui Kong",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"226",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261",scope:"Modern physiology requires a comprehensive understanding of the integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, including the cooperation between structure and function at the cellular and molecular levels governed by gene and protein expression. While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. Furthermore, in this manner, understanding the systemic interaction between the cardiovascular and nervous systems has become more important than ever as human populations' life prolongation, aging and mechanisms of cellular oxidative signaling are utilised for sustaining life. \r\nAltogether, physiological research enables our identification of distinct and precise points of transition from health to the development of multimorbidity throughout the inevitable aging disorders (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, heart failure, peptic ulcer, inflammatory bowel disease, age-related macular degeneration, cancer). With consideration of all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, gut, skeletal and smooth muscle, liver, pancreas, kidney, eye) and the interactions thereof, this Physiology Series will address the goals of resolving (1) Aging physiology and chronic disease progression (2) Examination of key cellular pathways as they relate to calcium, oxidative stress, and electrical signaling, and (3) how changes in plasma membrane produced by lipid peroxidation products can affect aging physiology, covering new research in the area of cell, human, plant and animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/10.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 14th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:11,editor:{id:"35854",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Brzozowski",slug:"tomasz-brzozowski",fullName:"Tomasz Brzozowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35854/images/system/35854.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Thomas Brzozowski works as a professor of Human Physiology and is currently Chairman at the Department of Physiology and is V-Dean of the Medical Faculty at Jagiellonian University Medical College, Cracow, Poland. His primary area of interest is physiology and pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with the major focus on the mechanism of GI mucosal defense, protection, and ulcer healing. He was a postdoctoral NIH fellow at the University of California and the Gastroenterology VA Medical Center, Irvine, Long Beach, CA, USA, and at the Gastroenterology Clinics Erlangen-Nuremberg and Munster in Germany. He has published 290 original articles in some of the most prestigious scientific journals and seven book chapters on the pathophysiology of the GI tract, gastroprotection, ulcer healing, drug therapy of peptic ulcers, hormonal regulation of the gut, and inflammatory bowel disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jagiellonian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"10",title:"Animal Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}},{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"332229",title:"Prof.",name:"Jen-Tsung",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"jen-tsung-chen",fullName:"Jen-Tsung Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332229/images/system/332229.png",biography:"Dr. Jen-Tsung Chen is currently a professor at the National University of Kaohsiung, Taiwan. He teaches cell biology, genomics, proteomics, medicinal plant biotechnology, and plant tissue culture. Dr. Chen\\'s research interests include bioactive compounds, chromatography techniques, in vitro culture, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, and plant biotechnology. He has published more than ninety scientific papers and serves as an editorial board member for Plant Methods, Biomolecules, and International Journal of Molecular Sciences.",institutionString:"National University of Kaohsiung",institution:{name:"National University of Kaohsiung",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:43,paginationItems:[{id:"81796",title:"Apoptosis-Related Diseases and Peroxisomes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105052",signatures:"Meimei Wang, Yakun Liu, Ni Chen, Juan Wang and Ye Zhao",slug:"apoptosis-related-diseases-and-peroxisomes",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"The Metabolic Role of Peroxisome in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81723",title:"Peroxisomal Modulation as Therapeutic Alternative for Tackling Multiple Cancers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104873",signatures:"Shazia Usmani, Shadma Wahab, Abdul Hafeez, Shabana Khatoon and Syed Misbahul Hasan",slug:"peroxisomal-modulation-as-therapeutic-alternative-for-tackling-multiple-cancers",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"The Metabolic Role of Peroxisome in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81638",title:"Aging and Neuropsychiatric Disease: A General Overview of Prevalence and Trends",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103102",signatures:"Jelena Milić",slug:"aging-and-neuropsychiatric-disease-a-general-overview-of-prevalence-and-trends",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81566",title:"New and Emerging Technologies for Integrative Ambulatory Autonomic Assessment and Intervention as a Catalyst in the Synergy of Remote Geocoded Biosensing, Algorithmic Networked Cloud Computing, Deep Learning, and Regenerative/Biomic Medicine: Further Real",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104092",signatures:"Robert L. Drury",slug:"new-and-emerging-technologies-for-integrative-ambulatory-autonomic-assessment-and-intervention-as-a-",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Autonomic Nervous System - Special Interest Topics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10835.jpg",subseries:{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7264",title:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7264.jpg",slug:"calcium-and-signal-transduction",publishedDate:"October 24th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"John N. Buchholz and Erik J. Behringer",hash:"e373a3d1123dbd45fddf75d90e3e7c38",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",editors:[{id:"89438",title:"Dr.",name:"John N.",middleName:null,surname:"Buchholz",slug:"john-n.-buchholz",fullName:"John N. Buchholz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89438/images/6463_n.jpg",biography:"Full Professor and Vice Chair, Division of Pharmacology, Loma Linda University, School of Medicine. He received his B.S. Degree in Biology at La Sierra University, Riverside California (1980) and a PhD in Pharmacology from Loma Linda University School of Medicine (1988). Post-Doctoral Fellow at University of California, Irvine, College of Medicine 1989-1992 with a focus on autonomic nerve function in blood vessels and the impact of aging on the function of these nerves and overall blood vessel function. Twenty years of research funding and served on NIH R01 review panels, Editor-In-Chief of Edorium Journal of Aging Research. Serves as a peer reviewer for biomedical journals. Military Reserve Officer serving with the 100 Support Command, 100 Troop Command, 40 Infantry Division, CA National Guard.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Loma Linda University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6925",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6925.jpg",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum",publishedDate:"April 17th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Angel Català",hash:"a9e90d2dbdbc46128dfe7dac9f87c6b4",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",editors:[{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6924",title:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6924.jpg",slug:"adenosine-triphosphate-in-health-and-disease",publishedDate:"April 24th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Gyula Mozsik",hash:"04106c232a3c68fec07ba7cf00d2522d",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",editors:[{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. 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He\nreceived a short-term scholarship to carry out his post-doctoral\nstudies abroad, from Japan International Cooperation Agency\n(JICA), in coordination with the Egyptian government. Dr.\nShalaby speaks fluent English and his native Arabic. He has 77\ninternationally published research papers, has attended 15 international conferences, and has contributed to 18 international books and chapters.\nDr. Shalaby works as a reviewer on over one hundred international journals and is\non the editorial board of more than twenty-five international journals. 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