IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\n
By listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
All three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n
"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
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"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
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In conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n
“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\n
We invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\n
Feel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\n
By listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
All three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n
"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n
"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\n
In conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n
“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\n
We invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\n
Feel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6346",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Machine Learning - Advanced Techniques and Emerging Applications",title:"Machine Learning",subtitle:"Advanced Techniques and Emerging Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The volume of data that is generated, stored, and communicated across different industrial sections, business units, and scientific research communities has been rapidly expanding. The recent developments in cellular telecommunications and distributed/parallel computation technology have enabled real-time collection and processing of the generated data across different sections. On the one hand, the internet of things (IoT) enabled by cellular telecommunication industry connects various types of sensors that can collect heterogeneous data. On the other hand, the recent advances in computational capabilities such as parallel processing in graphical processing units (GPUs) and distributed processing over cloud computing clusters enabled the processing of a vast amount of data. There has been a vital need to discover important patterns and infer trends from a large volume of data (so-called Big Data) to empower data-driven decision-making processes. Tools and techniques have been developed in machine learning to draw insightful conclusions from available data in a structured and automated fashion. Machine learning algorithms are based on concepts and tools developed in several fields including statistics, artificial intelligence, information theory, cognitive science, and control theory. The recent advances in machine learning have had a broad range of applications in different scientific disciplines. This book covers recent advances of machine learning techniques in a broad range of applications in smart cities, automated industry, and emerging businesses.",isbn:"978-1-78923-753-5",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-752-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-418-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69783",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"machine-learning-advanced-techniques-and-emerging-applications",numberOfPages:230,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"0e5c5c718397cebeff96dcb7a35b88f4",bookSignature:"Hamed Farhadi",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6346.jpg",numberOfDownloads:16838,numberOfWosCitations:24,numberOfCrossrefCitations:28,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:48,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:100,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 22nd 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 12th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 8th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 7th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 5th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"171143",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamed",middleName:null,surname:"Farhadi",slug:"hamed-farhadi",fullName:"Hamed Farhadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171143/images/5594_n.jpg",biography:"Hamed Farhadi is a researcher at Ericsson Research, Stockholm, Sweden. He received his PhD degree from KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden in 2014. He was a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA in 2016, and a postdoctoral researcher at Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden in 2015. His research interests mainly lie in statistical signal processing and machine learning for a broad range of applications including wireless healthcare systems, micro-robotic surgery, clinical data analysis, and wireless information networks. He has been the recipient of several academic awards including ICASSP 2014 best student paper award. Dr. Farhadi was the co-chair of IEEE International Symposium on Medical Information and Communication Technology (ISMICT) in 2015.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Royal Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"520",title:"Machine Learning",slug:"computer-and-information-science-artificial-intelligence-machine-learning"}],chapters:[{id:"58659",title:"Hardware Accelerator Design for Machine Learning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72845",slug:"hardware-accelerator-design-for-machine-learning",totalDownloads:2818,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Machine learning is widely used in many modern artificial intelligence applications. Various hardware platforms are implemented to support such applications. Among them, graphics processing unit (GPU) is the most widely used one due to its fast computation speed and compatibility with various algorithms. Field programmable gate arrays (FPGA) show better energy efficiency compared with GPU when computing machine learning algorithm at the cost of low speed. Finally, various application specific integrated circuit (ASIC) architecture is proposed to achieve the best energy efficiency at the cost of less reconfigurability which makes it suitable for special kinds of machine learning algorithms such as a deep convolutional neural network. Finally, analog computing shows a promising methodology to compute large-sized machine learning algorithm due to its low design cost and fast computing speed; however, due to the requirement of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC) in the analog computing, this kind of technique is only applicable to low computation resolution, making it unsuitable for most artificial intelligence (AI) applications.",signatures:"Li Du and Yuan Du",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58659",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58659",authors:[{id:"213244",title:"Dr.",name:"Li",surname:"Du",slug:"li-du",fullName:"Li Du"},{id:"213245",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan",surname:"Du",slug:"yuan-du",fullName:"Yuan Du"}],corrections:null},{id:"57822",title:"Regression Models to Predict Air Pollution from Affordable Data Collections",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71848",slug:"regression-models-to-predict-air-pollution-from-affordable-data-collections",totalDownloads:2048,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Air quality monitoring is key in assuring public health. However, the necessary equipment to accurately measure the criteria pollutants is expensive. Since the countries with more serious problems of air pollution are the less wealthy, this study proposes an affordable method based on machine learning to estimate the concentration of PM2.5. The capital city of Ecuador is used as case study. Several regression models are built from features of different levels of affordability. The first result shows that cheap data collection based on web traffic monitoring enables us to create a model that fairly correlates traffic density with air pollution. Building multiple models according to the hourly occurrence of the pollution peaks seems to increase the accuracy of the estimation, especially in the morning hours. The second result shows that adding meteorological factors allows for a significant improvement of the prediction of PM2.5 concentrations. Nevertheless, the last finding demonstrates that the best predictive model should be based on a hybrid source of data that includes trace gases. Since the sensors to monitor such gases are costly, the last part of the chapter gives some recommendations to get an accurate prediction from models that consider no more than two trace gases.",signatures:"Yves Rybarczyk and Rasa Zalakeviciute",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57822",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57822",authors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"},{id:"213065",title:"Prof.",name:"Rasa",surname:"Zalakeviciute",slug:"rasa-zalakeviciute",fullName:"Rasa Zalakeviciute"}],corrections:null},{id:"61105",title:"Multiple Kernel-Based Multimedia Fusion for Automated Event Detection from Tweets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77178",slug:"multiple-kernel-based-multimedia-fusion-for-automated-event-detection-from-tweets",totalDownloads:944,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A method for detecting hot events such as wildfires is proposed. It uses visual and textual information to improve detection. Starting with picking up tweets having texts and images, it preprocesses the data to eliminate unwanted data, transforms unstructured data into structured data, then extracts features. Text features include term frequency-inverse document frequency. Image features include histogram of oriented gradients, gray-level co-occurrence matrix, color histogram, and scale-invariant feature transform. Next, it inputs the features to the multiple kernel learning (MKL) for fusion to automatically combine both feature types to achieve the best performance. Finally, it does event detection. The method was tested on Brisbane hailstorm 2014 and California wildfires 2017. It was compared with methods that used text only or images only. With the Brisbane hailstorm data, the proposed method achieved the best performance, with a fusion accuracy of 0.93, comparing to 0.89 with text only, and 0.85 with images only. With the California wildfires data, a similar performance was recorded. It has demonstrated that event detection in Twitter is enhanced and improved by combination of multiple features. It has delivered an accurate and effective event detection method for spreading awareness and organizing responses, leading to better disaster management.",signatures:"Suhuai Luo, Samar M. Alqhtani and Jiaming Li",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61105",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61105",authors:[{id:"154835",title:"Dr.",name:"Suhuai",surname:"Luo",slug:"suhuai-luo",fullName:"Suhuai Luo"},{id:"214517",title:"Dr.",name:"Samar",surname:"Alqhtani",slug:"samar-alqhtani",fullName:"Samar Alqhtani"},{id:"214518",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiaming",surname:"Li",slug:"jiaming-li",fullName:"Jiaming Li"}],corrections:null},{id:"58409",title:"Using Sentiment Analysis and Machine Learning Algorithms to Determine Citizens’ Perceptions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72521",slug:"using-sentiment-analysis-and-machine-learning-algorithms-to-determine-citizens-perceptions",totalDownloads:998,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter analyzes the opinions expressed by individuals on four topical Jamaican issues and classifies them by emotions, feelings and polarity. The four trending topics on Twitter analyzed are the decriminalization of marijuana in Jamaica, Kaci Fennell’s placing in Miss Universe, the Riverton Landfill fire and Barack Obama’s working visit to Jamaica. The data pulled from Twitter for each topic was mined using three different classification algorithms to identify the accuracy of the data classified based on the polarity. The classifiers identified which polarity reflected what opinion is more dominant of the three; which are negative, positive or neutral. Sentiment analysis tools classified the opinions of Jamaican Twitter users with over 70% accuracy. Among three classification algorithms used, J48 decision tree received highest accuracy for the four topics tested and maintained the lowest error rate. For the decriminalization of marijuana, Kaci Fennell’s placing in the Miss Universe competition and President Obama’s visit, the accuracy was just over 70% and the mean absolute error (MAE) was less than 0.3. The methodology of the study provides a blueprint which can be utilized by managers and other decision making stakeholders to determine consumers’ perception.",signatures:"Sherrene Bogle",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58409",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58409",authors:[{id:"213588",title:"Dr.",name:"Sherrene",surname:"Bogle",slug:"sherrene-bogle",fullName:"Sherrene Bogle"}],corrections:null},{id:"58745",title:"Overcoming Challenges in Predictive Modeling of Laser-Plasma Interaction Scenarios. The Sinuous Route from Advanced Machine Learning to Deep Learning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72844",slug:"overcoming-challenges-in-predictive-modeling-of-laser-plasma-interaction-scenarios-the-sinuous-route",totalDownloads:1036,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The interaction of ultrashort and intense laser pulses with solid targets and dense plasmas is a rapidly developing area of physics, this being mostly due to the significant advancements in laser technology. There is, thus, a growing interest in diagnosing as accurately as possible the numerous phenomena related to the absorption and reflection of laser radiation. At the same time, envisaged experiments are in high demand of increased accuracy simulation software. As laser-plasma interaction modelings are experiencing a transition from computationally-intensive to data-intensive problems, traditional codes employed so far are starting to show their limitations. It is in this context that predictive modelings of laser-plasma interaction experiments are bound to reshape the definition of simulation software. This chapter focuses an entire class of predictive systems incorporating big data, advanced machine learning algorithms and deep learning, with improved accuracy and speed. Making use of terabytes of already available information (literature as well as simulation and experimental data) these systems enable the discovery and understanding of various physical phenomena occurring during interaction, hence allowing researchers to set up controlled experiments at optimal parameters. A comparative discussion in terms of challenges, advantages, bottlenecks, performances and suitability of laser-plasma interaction predictive systems is ultimately provided.",signatures:"Andreea Mihailescu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58745",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58745",authors:[{id:"211763",title:"Dr.",name:"Andreea",surname:"Mihailescu",slug:"andreea-mihailescu",fullName:"Andreea Mihailescu"}],corrections:null},{id:"60277",title:"Machine Learning Approaches for Spectrum Management in Cognitive Radio Networks",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74599",slug:"machine-learning-approaches-for-spectrum-management-in-cognitive-radio-networks",totalDownloads:1477,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cognitive radio (CR) provides a better way for utilization of spectrum resource by introducing an opportunistic usage of the frequency bands that are not heavily occupied by a licensed spectrum user or a primary user (PU). In cognitive radio, the detection and estimation of PU channel availability (unoccupied spectrum) are the key challenges that need to be overcome in order to prevent the interference with licensed spectrum user and improve spectrum resource utilization efficiency. This chapter focuses on developing new ways for detecting and estimating primary user channel availability based on machine-learning (ML) techniques.",signatures:"Ahmed Mohammed Mikaeil",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60277",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60277",authors:[{id:"200092",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Mohammed Mikaeil",slug:"ahmed-mohammed-mikaeil",fullName:"Ahmed Mohammed Mikaeil"}],corrections:null},{id:"61582",title:"Machine Learning Algorithm for Wireless Indoor Localization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74754",slug:"machine-learning-algorithm-for-wireless-indoor-localization",totalDownloads:1469,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Smartphones equipped with Wi-Fi technology are widely used nowadays. Due to the need for inexpensive indoor positioning systems (IPSs), many researchers have focused on Wi-Fi-based IPSs, which use wireless local area network received signal strength (RSS) data that are collected at distinct locations in indoor environments called reference points. In this study, a new framework based on symmetric Bregman divergence, which incorporates k-nearest neighbor (kNN) classification in signal space, was proposed. The coordinates of the target were determined as a weighted combination of the nearest fingerprints using Jensen-Bregman divergences, which unify the squared Euclidean and Mahalanobis distances with information-theoretic Jensen-Shannon divergence measures. To validate our work, the performance of the proposed algorithm was compared with the probabilistic neural network and multivariate Kullback-Leibler divergence. The distance error for the developed algorithm was less than 1 m.",signatures:"Osamah Ali Abdullah and Ikhlas Abdel-Qader",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61582",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61582",authors:[{id:"213937",title:"Dr.",name:"Osamah",surname:"Abdullah",slug:"osamah-abdullah",fullName:"Osamah Abdullah"},{id:"220906",title:"Prof.",name:"Ikhlas",surname:"Abdel-Qader",slug:"ikhlas-abdel-qader",fullName:"Ikhlas Abdel-Qader"}],corrections:null},{id:"58989",title:"Classification of Malaria-Infected Cells Using Deep Convolutional Neural Networks",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72426",slug:"classification-of-malaria-infected-cells-using-deep-convolutional-neural-networks",totalDownloads:1852,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:25,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by parasites that are transmitted to people through the bites of infected mosquitoes. Automation of the diagnosis process will enable accurate diagnosis of the disease and hence holds the promise of delivering reliable health-care to resource-scarce areas. Machine learning technologies have been used for automated diagnosis of malaria. We present some of our recent progresses on highly accurate classification of malaria-infected cells using deep convolutional neural networks. First, we describe image processing methods used for segmentation of red blood cells from wholeslide images. We then discuss the procedures of compiling a pathologists-curated image dataset for training deep neural network, as well as data augmentation methods used to significantly increase the size of the dataset, in light of the overfitting problem associated with training deep convolutional neural networks. We will then compare the classification accuracies obtained by deep convolutional neural networks through training, validating, and testing with various combinations of the datasets. These datasets include the original dataset and the significantly augmented datasets, which are obtained using direct interpolation, as well as indirect interpolation using automatically extracted features provided by stacked autoencoders. This chapter ends with a discussion of further research.",signatures:"W. David Pan, Yuhang Dong and Dongsheng Wu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58989",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58989",authors:[{id:"214067",title:"Dr.",name:"W. David",surname:"Pan",slug:"w.-david-pan",fullName:"W. David Pan"},{id:"214068",title:"Mr.",name:"Yuhang",surname:"Dong",slug:"yuhang-dong",fullName:"Yuhang Dong"},{id:"214069",title:"Dr.",name:"Dongsheng",surname:"Wu",slug:"dongsheng-wu",fullName:"Dongsheng Wu"}],corrections:null},{id:"58546",title:"Machine Learning in Educational Technology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72906",slug:"machine-learning-in-educational-technology",totalDownloads:2436,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Machine learning is a subset of artificial intelligence (AI) that helps computers or teaching machines learn from all previous data and make intelligent decisions. The machine-learning framework entails capturing and maintaining a rich set of information and transforming it into a structured knowledge base for different uses in various fields. In the field of education, teachers can save time in their non-classroom activities by adopting machine learning. For example, teachers can use virtual assistants who work remotely from the home for their students. This kind of assistance helps to enhance students’ learning experience and can improve progression and student achievement. Machine learning fosters personalized learning in the context of disseminating education. Advances in AI are enabling teachers to gain a better understanding of how their students are progressing with learning. This enables teachers to create customized curriculum that suits the specific needs of the learners. When employed in the context of education, AI can foster intelligence moderation. It is through this platform that the analysis of data by human tutors and moderators is made possible.",signatures:"Ibtehal Talal Nafea",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58546",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58546",authors:[{id:"216001",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibtehal",surname:"Nafea",slug:"ibtehal-nafea",fullName:"Ibtehal Nafea"}],corrections:null},{id:"58319",title:"Sentiment-Based Semantic Rule Learning for Improved Product Recommendations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72514",slug:"sentiment-based-semantic-rule-learning-for-improved-product-recommendations",totalDownloads:842,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Crucial data like product features and opinions that are obtained from consumer online reviews are annotated with the concepts of product review opinion ontology (PROO). The ontology with instance data serves as background knowledge to learn rule-based sentiments that are expressed on product features. These semantic rules are learned on both taxonomical and nontaxonomical relations available in PROO ontology. These rule-based sentiments provide important information of utilizing the relationship among the product features ‘as-a-unit’ to improve the sentiments of the parent features. These parent features are present at the higher level near the root of the ontology. The sentiments of the related product features are also improved. This approach improves the sentiments of the parent features and the related features that eventually improve the aggregated sentiment of the product. The result is either the change in the position of the product in the list of similar products recommended or appears in the recommended list. This helps the user to make correct purchase decisions.",signatures:"Dandibhotla Teja Santosh and Bulusu Vishnu Vardhan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58319",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58319",authors:[{id:"219329",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Teja",surname:"Santosh",slug:"teja-santosh",fullName:"Teja Santosh"}],corrections:null},{id:"58578",title:"A Multilevel Evolutionary Algorithm Applied to the Maximum Satisfiability Problems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72843",slug:"a-multilevel-evolutionary-algorithm-applied-to-the-maximum-satisfiability-problems",totalDownloads:919,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The maximum satisfiability problem that is known to be nondeterministic polynomial (NP) complete plays a central role problem in many applications in the fields of very large-scale integration (VLSI) computer-aided design, computing theory, artificial intelligence, and defense. Given a set of m clauses and n Boolean variables, the maximum satisfiability problem refers to the task of finding an assignment of values to the variables that maximizes the number of satisfied clauses (or minimizes the number of unsatisfied clauses) In this chapter, a multilevel evolutionary algorithm is proposed for the maximum satisfiability problem. The multilevel process works by grouping the variables defining the problem to form clusters, uses the clusters to define a new problem, and is repeated until the problem size falls below some threshold. The coarsest problem is then given an initial assignment of values to variables and the assignment is successively refined on all the problems starting with the coarsest and ending with the original.",signatures:"Noureddine Bouhmala, Kjell Ivar Øvergård and Karina Hjelmervik",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58578",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58578",authors:[{id:"213633",title:"Dr.",name:"Noureddine",surname:"Bouhmala",slug:"noureddine-bouhmala",fullName:"Noureddine Bouhmala"},{id:"221118",title:"Dr.",name:"Karina",surname:"Hjelemrvik",slug:"karina-hjelemrvik",fullName:"Karina Hjelemrvik"},{id:"221119",title:"Prof.",name:"Kjell",surname:"Øvergård",slug:"kjell-overgard",fullName:"Kjell Øvergård"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6655",title:"Medical Internet of Things (m-IoT)",subtitle:"Enabling Technologies and Emerging Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"af6863294c037ec8e4f13785cb65e6fb",slug:"medical-internet-of-things-m-iot-enabling-technologies-and-emerging-applications",bookSignature:"Hamed Farhadi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6655.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"171143",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamed",surname:"Farhadi",slug:"hamed-farhadi",fullName:"Hamed Farhadi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"897",title:"Theory and New Applications of Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2d7c48df7acdee1e198609c98c615049",slug:"theory-and-new-applications-of-swarm-intelligence",bookSignature:"Rafael Parpinelli and Heitor S. 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1. Introduction
Composites are made from at least two constituents that together produce material properties that are different from the properties of those materials on their own. In practice, most composites consist of a bulk material (plastic matrix), and a reinforcement (typically fibers, i.e. carbon fibers), added primarily to increase the strength and stiffness of the material.
While they offer fantastic durability, high specific stiffness, and strength-to-weight ratio, their properties are essentially controlled by those of their constituents, including fiber/matrix interfaces, their volume fraction, and spatial distribution. The remarkable characteristics of fiber-reinforced plastics (FRPs) led to rapid increase of their use. In the aeronautical sector, the use of composites reaches up to 50% of the total weight of a modern commercial aircraft [1]. But, FRPs are not only used in the aeronautic/aerospace sector. Other industries where weight-efficient performance is a key factor, such as the automotive, naval, and wind energy sectors, are likewise increasing the use of composite materials (annual growth rate of 12–14% Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Global demand of carbon fibers over the years [3].
Naturally, the increment in demand and use of composites results in more and more waste being generated throughout the life cycle of these materials; in fact, it is estimated that 30–40% of pristine carbon fibers are wasted during the manufacturing process, and significant amounts of off-cuts, rejects, and put-of-date prepregs are generated, causing a significant negative impact on the environment. The excess of carbon fibers that is generated per year equals about 20–25% of the total amount consumed during 2015 [2]. Evidently, the recycling of composite materials is a high priority.
The recycling of carbon fiber-reinforced plastics (CFRPs) not only makes sense from environmental and economic perspectives but also could be a key in increasing the penetration of these lightweight but expensive materials in high-volume markets such as automotive and aeronautical industry.
The principal waste management options that have been adopted for composites are burying, landfilling, or incinerating. Several European Directives and regulations were implemented in order to make better use of landfills (EU 1999/31/EC) [4]; to reduce waste management (EU 2000/53/EC on End-of-Life vehicles) [5]; to prevent or limit the emission levels produced by incineration plants (Directive 2000/76/EC) [6]; as well as to prevent and remedy the environmental damage (2004/35/EC on Environmental Liability) [7]. To reduce the consumption of natural resources and landfill allocations, recycling composite elements for reusing in different applications is postulated as a promising solution. Because of their high initial cost and energy consumption during manufacture, fibers are the most attractive constituent for recycling. In addition to these economic incentives and compared to the production of virgin materials, recycling will also reduce air, water, pollutant emissions (90–95% of CO2 emissions), as well as energy demand. Therefore, recycling results in a substantial improvement on the environmental impact of composite materials.
The economic costs can be reduced by about 70% (from €30–58/kg to €15–23/kg for carbon fibers) and the energy requirement by nearly 98% (from 55 to 166 kWh/kg to 3–10 kWh/kg), since the majority of energy consumption occurs during production of virgin carbon fibers [8]. Substituting virgin carbon fibers with recycled ones would save enough electricity to power 175,000 homes in a year [9]. However, the amount of composites currently recycled is less than 5% due to their complex composition; the nature of the resin (i.e., thermoset resins have a cross-linked matrix that cannot be simply reprocessed by remelting or remolding); their combination with other materials; and the high variability among waste products [9]. Furthermore, the use of the recycled carbon fibers in industrial applications is currently very limited due to the low quality control of the fibers, i.e., the length, surface quality, and origin of the fibers are difficult to control. In addition, the hierarchical structure of composites is destroyed during recycling; and the resultant laminates composed of recycled fibers present disorientation. Then, these composites do not meet the standards of high-value structural applications.
There are three main general technical approaches to the recovery of the fibers in thermoset-matrix composites: mechanical, thermal, and chemical. The mechanical recycling consists of reducing the size of the scrap composite components by shredding, crushing or milling. Nevertheless, in industry, this technology has not been extensively exploited to treat carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRCs) due to the poor bonding between the recycled fibers and the new resin.
Thermal recycling of composites involves the separation of the matrix from the fibers by applying heat. There are two main types of thermal recycling methods: pyrolysis and fluidized-bed recycling process. In both, the resin is volatilized into lower weight molecules to produce mainly oil and gases, while fibers are recovered, usually with char on their surfaces. These thermal processes have been widely implemented in industry. Among them, pyrolysis is the most widespread technology. Both glass and carbon fiber-reinforced composites can be recycled through pyrolysis. Because of the much higher market value of carbon fibers, pyrolysis of carbon fiber-reinforced composites has higher economic attractiveness. The first continuous pyrolysis recycling line, commercially producing recycled carbon fibers, has been introduced by the company Recycled Carbon Fiber Ltd. (RCF) in 2008 [10]. One of the most famous cases of recycling composites is BMW: up to 95% of the BMW, i3 is recyclable [11]. In Spain, the company Thermal Recycling of Composites (TRC, SL) has technology for the thermochemical recycling of composite materials reinforced with both glass and carbon fibers, with a special recycling line for wind turbine blades [12]. ELG Carbon Fiber (ELG-CF), Coseley, UK, develops a pyrolysis process in which they treat around 24,000 tons per year of carbon fiber waste. The process yields a tough and abrasive cotton-wool-like fuzz of carbon fiber, which maintains 90–95% of its original mechanical properties [13].
The recycling of CFRP waste through pyrolysis poses the additional problem of managing the liquids that are produced in the process, as a consequence of the thermochemical degradation of the resins (usually epoxy) [14]. Therefore, other less expensive alternatives are being studied. In this regard, many researchers have investigated the decomposition of resin matrix and CFRP carbon fiber recovery using chemical treatment to break and degrade the resin. The solvent can be water (hydrolysis) or organic (solvolysis). Solvolysis offers a large number of possibilities, thanks to a wide range of solvents, temperatures, pressures, and catalysts. Depending on the amount of solvent and on the temperature, the fluid can be vapor, liquid, biphasic, or supercritical. The latest have gained much attention since 2000 because characteristics between liquid and gas phases can be achieved through combinations of temperature and pressure, allowing the enhancement of the diffusion effect [15]. The results of recent research on the use of supercritical or subcritical fluids including water and alcohol are very promising [16, 17, 18].
In this chapter, we propose a two-step carbon-fiber recycling process: pyrolysis followed by oxidation. An optimization of the method in terms of sustainability of the technique and the characteristics of the fibers will be carried by performing surface, microstructure, and mechanical testing of the recovered fibers. With respect to mechanical performance, fiber strength distribution and fracture toughness were the properties analyzed. In addition, the remanufacture of laminates by means resin film infusion using the recycled fibers is proposed. The mechanical performance of the resulting laminates will be evaluated and compared to that of pristine ones.
2. Recycling process
A common scrap material from the aeronautic sector was selected for recycling. The recycling steps and process optimization parameters are detailed below.
2.1. Scrap material
The composite material used as the basis for the optimization of the experimental parameters was a scrap (HexPly® F593, supplied by AIRBUS OPERATIONS S.L., Getafe, Spain) composed of a plain woven prepreg made of epoxy resin reinforced with Toray T300/3 k carbon fibers [19] (55–60% carbon fibers [by mass] and 40–45% resin; fiber area weight = 193 g/m2) [20]. The carbon fibers were made of PAN. This process is as follows. First, there is a pre-oxidation treatment under 200–300°C; second, a carbonization in high purity inert gas under 1000–1500°C takes place; third, there is a graphitization under 2500–3000°C; and finally, a sizing.
2.2. Recycling approach
The process used to recover the fibers was pyrolysis. It is a thermochemical decomposition of the organic part of the composite materials at temperatures between 450°C and 700°C in the nearly absence of oxygen. It is widely performed in the industry due to its easy and cheap implementation.
The recycling process was done in a thermolysis installation (Figure 2). It consists of a heating system and a gas condensation device [21]. The muffle furnace (1) contains a 9.6 L steel reactor, sealed by a screw-on lid. The flue gases circulate across four condensers (3–6) connected to each other by six cooling pipes. Each condenser allows the collection of distilled oils as cool gases and has four collection holes for the withdrawal of the distilled liquids and a thermometer to measure their temperature. The noncondensable gases are led to a water-cooling tower (7), where the last fraction of the distilled liquids is collected. These gases pass through a set of three filters (8 and 9) to eliminate pollutant gases and solid particles. The gases can then be mixed with air and burned off or collected for analysis. When the thermolysis is complete (the rotameter (10) inside the tubing no longer detects any distillation gas), the reactors are cooled and the thermolytic solid residues removed, which are mainly composed of pieces of dimensions equal to those of the input material but completely black.
Figure 2.
Installation used for the pyrolysis of the carbon fibers [15].
The complete process consists of two steps: a thermolysis or pyrolysis (heat rate of 20°C/min) and a gasification or oxidation (air flow of 5 L/min). In the first one, the separation fiber/resin takes place; on the second stage, there is the removal of the char deposited on the surface of the fibers. However, this second step, if not properly designed, is likely to reduce the mechanical properties of the fibers.
2.3. Process optimization
With the purpose of designing the experimental procedure toward achieving the best recyclability and keeping the original fiber properties as intact as possible, the pyrolysis and oxidation steps were studied and optimized.
The design of the pyrolysis temperature for the degradation of the resin was performed by conducting tests runs at 500, 600, and 700°C for 6 h. Values below 500°C did not effectively remove all the resin; and values higher than 700°C caused a high degradation of the recovered fibers. The temperature of the pyrolysis (P) stage was then set to 500°C, because for 550°C and above, the preliminary thermogravimetric analysis and surface element concentration tests showed the fibers to be damaged.
The optimum oxidation (O) step was determined by varying the oxidation times between 30 and 90 min. This was done with the following objectives: efficiently removing the char on the fiber surface, while maintaining fiber microstructure intact and retaining fiber mechanical properties as much as possible. Section 3 details the results of this optimization study.
3. Recycled fibers
To determine the optimum oxidation time, analyses of fiber surface quality, fiber composition and mechanical properties of the recovered fibers were performed, as described in this section.
3.1. Surface quality
Scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used to evaluate the presence of char on the surface of the recycled fibers and compare with pristine ones. The images of the morphology change of the virgin and the recycled carbon reveal that pristine fibers exhibit a rough and irregular surface, while the recycled fibers are free of resin char, with a much more regular and smooth surface (Figure 3(a)–(d)). Only a few traces of micron-sized resin residues can be seen in few regions on the fiber surface. It can be concluded that, independently the oxidation time, the surface of recycled fibers presented a low amount of residual char and was otherwise clean and showed no evidence of fiber damage. This means that the removal of char from the fiber surface was efficient, and that this process requires only short oxidation times, e.g., 30 min.
Figure 3.
SEM images of the virgin (a) recovered carbon fibers after thermolysis at 500°C and gasification times of 30 min (b), 60 min (c), and 90 min (d).
3.2. Composition
3.2.1. Surface chemistry
The surface chemistry of virgin and recycled carbon fibers was examined by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy by López et al. [20]. As shown in Table 1, the surface of all the examined fibers was composed of carbon (C), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N). While the C content remains practically constant, the O content increases with gasification time and the N content decreases. The increase in the O/C ratio with gasification time is indicative of the degree of fiber oxidation, which can lead to undesirable alterations. The smaller ratio obtained, i.e., the less oxidized recovered fiber (compared to 0.082% of the virgin ones) indicates that the optimum gasification time is 30 min.
Fiber sample
C (at.%)
N (at.%)
O (at.%)
Si (at.%)
O/C (at.%)
Virgin
90.1
1.0
8.9
—
0.082
Recycled: P-500°C
89.3
4.5
6.0
0.1
0.067
Recycled: P-500°C/O-30 min
81.2
7.1
10.0
1.7
0.123
Recycled: P-500°C/O-60 min
83.3
4.6
11.7
0.4
0.140
Table 1.
Surface atomic concentration (at.%) of the recovered fibers obtained at the different gasification times, plus concentrations for pristine fibers.
Virgin: virgin TORAY T300/3 k fibers; values provided by manufacturer TORAY JAPAN [22].
Moreover, according to the thermolytically derived solid residue, 500°C is the condition in which the best atomic surface composition was obtained, due to the smallest quantity of C═O and COOH groups, which suggests the formation of oxygenated compounds on the surface of the solid residue, potentially caused by secondary repolymerization reactions in the gaseous phase.
3.2.2. Crystallite structure
Raman spectra of the surface and transversal section of the carbon fibers (Figure 4) were obtained at room temperature to detect the changes in crystallite structure of the recycled carbon fibers at a penetration depth of the order of 60 nm. Independently of the zone evaluated, all first-order Raman spectra for the recycled carbon fibers exhibited two broad peaks at about 1350 and 1580 cm−1 corresponding to the D and G bands, respectively.
Figure 4.
Raman spectra for the recycled carbon fibers.
The G band is associated with a single crystal of graphite, whereas the D peak is from the structural imperfections created by the attachment of hydroxyl and epoxide groups on the carbon basal plane. The ratio of the intensity of the D and G bands (ID/IG) indicates the measurement of the graphitic plane size, so the lateral crystallite size (La) of the recycled fibers had become smaller [23]. The recycling process generated surface defects caused by the reduced La values through the oxidation effect, as is indicated in Table 2. The general expression that gives the crystallite size form the integrated intensity ratio is given by Ref [24].
Lanm=2.4·10−10·λ14·IDIG−1E1
where λ1 is the laser line wavelength in nanometer units.
Fiber sample
D band position (cm−1)
G band position (cm−1)
ID/IG
La (nm)
P-500°C/O-30 min
1357
1588
0.93
21
P-500°C/O-60 min
1364
1582
0.98
20
P-500°C/O-90 min
1364
1580
0.98
20
Table 2.
Microstructure parameters of the recycled T300 carbon fibers at different gasification times using Raman spectrometer.
The variation of La is generally indicative of a change in material strength. It can be inferred that the larger the reduction in La, the lower the tensile strength of the recycled fibers. Therefore, these results indicate that the lowest reduction in fiber tensile strength is likely to be achieved for an oxidation step of 30 min.
3.3. Mechanical properties
To achieve an objective determination of the optimum oxidation time based on mechanical properties, evaluations of the tensile strength and of the fracture toughness of the recovered fibers were performed.
3.3.1. Fiber tensile strength
The tensile properties of the carbon fibers were determined through tensile tests at a gage length of 20 mm in the fiber tensile tester at room temperature. Each single fiber was directly connected to the mechanical grips and then submitted to uniaxial straining up to failure under stroke control at 1 mm min−1. Then, the natural frequencies were extracted to determine the linear density (using the frequency method according to the ASTM D1577 standard [25]), and subsequently, the cross-section area was calculated with the known fiber density, in order to finally determine the average fiber diameter at 20 mm gage length [26].
During the test, the force-strain curve was recorded. These curves indicate linear and elastic behavior up to failure (Figure 5). The maximum load attained was used to calculate the strength of each individual fiber, and the elastic modulus in the fiber direction was determined from the slope of the stress-strain curve.
Figure 5.
Strain vs. strain relationship for a pristine and recovered carbon fiber at different oxidation times.
The large reductions in tensile strength with increases of the gasification time are attributed to the large number of micropits on the fiber surfaces generated due to the severity of the oxidation. The higher void content also contributes to strength degradation. Overall, the oxidative effect results in a higher amount of surface defects, which leads to a reduction in the tensile strength and lateral crystallite size, as demonstrated above.
The average fiber diameter (D), elastic moduli (E), and tensile strength (σu) of fibers recycled with different gasification times are given in Table 3. It is shown that the decrease in strength is more significant compared to that of the modulus. This is caused by the presence of large number of defects on the thermally oxidized surface of fibers. At 30 min of oxidation time, the modulus seems to be slightly higher than the one of the virgin fibers (+2%). This can be due the presence of a layer of residual matrix or char on the surface of some recycled fibers. The modulus for the recovered fibers drops by about 10% with respect to virgin fibers after 90 min of gasification. With longer oxidation times, the modulus further reduces, which can be attributed to the removal of the amorphous carbon layer resulting from the oxidizing thermal treatment (corroborated with the decrease of the fiber diameter). This is consistent with the finding that heat treatment affects the diameter of the fibers. Consequently, gasification times of 60 min already lead to severe reductions in elastic modulus and tensile strength.
Fiber sample
Diameter D (μm)
Elastic modulus E (GPa)
Tensile strength σu (GPa)
Virgin
7.5 ± 0.2
197 ± 18
3.4 ± 0.4
Recycled: P-500°C/O-30 min
7.2 ± 0.1 (−4%)
200 ± 4 (+2%)
3.0 ± 0.3 (−10%)
Recycled: P-500°C/O-60 min
7.1 ± 0.2 (−5%)
189 ± 9 (−4%)
2.7 ± 0.3 (−20%)
Recycled: P-500°C/O-90 min
6.6 ± 0.6 (−12%)
178 ± 5 (−10%)
2.4 ± 0.4 (−30%)
Table 3.
Average diameter and mechanical properties of the fibers analyzed as function of the oxidation time.
3.3.2. Fiber fracture toughness
In spite of the remarkable specific properties mentioned above, fracture of fiber-reinforced composite materials tends to occur in a brittle way due to their low capacity for plastic deformation and relatively low fracture toughness. In combination with the fiber/matrix interface, fiber fracture plays a role on the ultimate failure stress and energy dissipation mechanisms in brittle unidirectional composites. However, this property is less widely reported owing to the experimental difficulties associated with evaluation fracture in small-diameter fibers.
The methodology used consists on the introduction of artificial notches in the fibers by removing material using a focused ion beam (FIB) (Figure 6) [26, 27, 28]. A fine tungsten pin covered with liquid gallium (Ga) is used as an ion source from which Ga atoms are extracted and ionized via high voltage. This methodology allows precise monitoring of the notch geometry in terms of length, depth, and tip radius.
Figure 6.
Fiber-milling system by focused ion beam (FIB).
Straight and sharp notches perpendicular to the fiber axis were introduced, as shown in Figure 7. The fiber diameter and the notch length of each test specimen were measured with a SEM associated to the FIB apparatus. Once the notch was milled into the fiber, the fibers were submitted to uniaxial loading up to failure in similar form as for the plain tensile strength tests described previously.
Figure 7.
SEM micrographs the milling procedure; (a) original fiber; (b) gallium ions focusing and (c) notched fiber.
The fracture process started from the crack tip induced by FIB milling, and the response was also linear and elastic up to failure. The residual strength of the notched fiber was determined from the failure load and the corresponding area of the cross section of the fiber. The mode-I apparent fracture toughness, KIC, was evaluated from the residual strength based on Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM) postulates. It is assumed that neither the small crack tip radius (≈50 nm) nor the possible material modification induced during the milling will excessively affect the fracture behavior of the fiber, and thus, the result can be considered a good approximation of the real material property. Hence, the failure of the fiber is dictated by
KIC=aDaσ=YaD·σc·πaE2
where KI depends on the specimen geometry, the crack depth, and the far-field stress applied. The parameter Y is a dimensionless stress intensity factor calculated according to the literature that assumes the geometric effects and the elastic anisotropy of the material [29].
The critical energy release rate, or fracture energy, GIc, is computed through Irwin’s equation, assuming the validity of LEFM, as
GIc=KIC2E∗E3
where E* is the effective modulus which is taken as E* = E, assuming plane strain conditions. The calculation of the plastic region length ahead of the crack tip, lp, is based on
lp=12π·KICσ02E4
where σ0 is the average tensile strength of the Weibull statistics given by
F=1−exp−LL0σσ0mE5
The function F above is the cumulative fracture probability function, wherein L is the fiber length, L0 is an arbitrary reference length, and σ0 and m are the characteristic strength and the Weibull modulus of the fiber [26].
The average fracture toughness and fracture energies obtained for virgin and recycled fibers, at different oxidation times, are given in Table 4. The small value of the plastic radius compared to the fiber diameter demonstrates the validity and applicability of LEFM postulates. Very large reductions in fracture toughness and fracture energy (in the order of 50% for KIc and 70% for GIc) result of the recycling process, independently of the oxidation time, and they are presumably affected mostly during the thermolysis step. The operated material modifications that lead to these property reductions are also unclear. Hence, these aspects are under investigation. However, it should be noted that the reduction in fiber fracture toughness is bound to have a limited influence on the fracture of the fiber-reinforced composite ply, as this property (GIcply ≈ 100 kJ/m2) is mostly determined by the fiber/matrix interface behavior.
Fiber sample
a0/D
Apparent fracture toughness KIc (MPa m1/2)
Apparent fracture energy GIc (J m−2)
Irwin plastic radius lp (μm)
Virgin
0.15 ± 0.01
2.4 ± 0.5
24 ± 8
0.19 ± 0.01
Recycled: P-500°C/O-30 min
0.10 ± 0.03
1.2 ± 0.2
8 ± 3
0.15 ± 0.06
Recycled: P-500°C/O-60 min
0.15 ± 0.02
1.2 ± 0.3
7 ± 4
0.20 ± 0.03
Recycled: P-500°C/O-90 min
0.12 ± 0.02
0.9 ± 0.1
4 ± 1
0.15 ± 0.03
Table 4.
Geometry and mechanical properties of the pristine and the recovered fibers for different gasification times.
Given the results achieved in terms of tensile strength and fracture toughness, it can be concluded that the optimal recycling process conditions consist on a thermolysis step at 500°C, for 6 h followed by gasification step for another 30 min. These conditions result in retentions of 100% of fiber elastic modulus and 90% of fiber tensile strength, although the brittleness of the fibers is seriously increased.
4. Remanufacturing of composites
Remanufacturing of unidirectional composites was pursued with the optimal fibers resulting from the optimization of the recycling process (thermolysis at 500°C for 6 h and oxidation at 500°C for 30 min). This section describes the adopted fabrication route and the preliminary evaluation of the mechanical performance of the resulting laminates.
4.1. Resin film infusion of recycled fibers
A tow-spreading technique was used to compact the nearly unidirectional fiber tows in order to obtain a high fiber volume fraction in plies of thin thickness. The fibers passed through a spreading machine, which is equipped with an air duct and rolls (Figure 8). The air pressure can be regulated and flows between two guide rolls, making the tows sag downward toward the air direction. This creates a momentary free tension stage that allows the tow to be spread.
Figure 8.
Tow-spreading equipment.
Afterward, the resin film infusion technique (RFI) was used for manufacturing new laminates. In this way, the recycled fiber tows were laid down next to each other to complete a thin fiber bed layer. The fiber layers were interleaved with layers of semi-solid epoxy resin film Letoxit® LFX 060 [30] for subsequent consolidation. The fibers/resin consolidation is characterized by three major steps: intimate contact, adhesion, and fiber impregnation. The configurations carried out were [2x rCF layer/2x LFX 060 film/ …], with three LFX 060 film epoxy sheets placed on the top and bottom layer (the number of repetitions depends on the desired thickness). The final kit was introduced in a close-mold and cured in a hot-plate press, applying pressure (0.7 MPa) and heat (125°C for 25 min) simultaneously. The steps followed to make a laminate are depicted in Figure 9. It was then confirmed that the degree of resin curing was optimal by means of Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC) tests.
Figure 9.
Staking sequence: (a) recycled carbon fiber layer; (b) LFX 060 film; (c) laminate after 2 h in the thermal plate; and (d) laminate in the close-molding.
4.2. Quality and properties of remanufactured composites
The quality of the composites recycled according to the methodology described above was evaluated by means of ultrasonic C-scan laminates. It was confirmed that the laminates were free of major porous, voids, or delaminations.
Thermogravimetric analyses (TGA) were carried to evaluate the composition of the laminates. It was determined that the nominal fiber volume fraction, Vf, was approximately 50%, a value not far from the typical Vf ≈ 60–65% of high-performance unidirectional composites.
As means of rapidly assessing the mechanical performance of the remanufactured laminates, their interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) was evaluated by means of Short Beam Shear tests. This consists on flexural testing method using a very short beam relative to its thickness in order to promote interlaminar shear failure [31]. According to the test standard ASTM D2344 [32], all specimens (27 × 9 × 4.5 mm3) were loaded in a three-point bending configuration. The interlaminar shear strength was calculated using the equation:
Fsbs=34·Pb·hE6
where P is the maximum applied load, b is the measured specimen width, and h is the measured specimen thickness. The measured average ILSS of the remanufactured laminate was 64.3 ± 1.8 MPa, a value close to the lower bound of typical carbon fiber composite laminates (60–120 MPa). This might be a result of the lower Vf and flexural stiffness but also of the degradation of fiber/matrix interface properties. In fact, this aspect was previously reported in other researcher works [33] and will be investigated by the authors in the future. The interlaminar shear mode of failure confirms that this test is valid in terms of fracture mechanism.
5. Conclusion
This chapter dealt with the study of recycling technologies, of properties of the recovered fibers, and of the composites formed from these fibers. Regarding the recycling methodology, a thermolysis process at 500°C, for 6 h, followed by an oxidation/gasification step in air atmosphere at the same temperature, for 30 min, has been found to constitute the optimum recycling process. The combination of pyrolysis and gasification provides high process reliability, repeatability, product quality, and cost reduction. Moreover, remanufacture of composites was successfully achieved. As a whole, this constitutes a complete process of recycling carbon fibers that significantly reduces the environmental footprint and improves the life cycle of lightweight CFRP structures.
Regarding the properties of the recovered fibers, an oxidation time of 30 min leads to a full retention of elastic modulus and a 90% retention of tensile strength, relatively to pristine fibers. Longer gasification times lead to more significant decreases in these properties and undesirable alterations in the atomic composition of the surface of the fiber (increase of the O/C ratio). Moreover, the fracture toughness of the recycled fibers was found to decrease significantly, independently of the oxidation time. These results still have to be investigated but are judged not to impact the properties of the remanufacture composites.
With respect to the composites remanufacturing process, tow-spreading of the unidirectionally aligned recycled fibers followed by means of resin film infusion is postulated to be an appropriate method in terms of resulting ply thickness, disposition of the fiber, fiber/resin ratio, and porosity control. It provides a potential solution to prepreg production scraps with enhanced quality assurance, resulting in the reduction of toxic emissions. The resulted laminates presented similar fiber content and interlaminar shear properties as compared to the brand new composites.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness for support via the projects HYDTCOMP (MAT2015-69491) and R3FIBER (CTM2013-48887). A.F. gratefully acknowledges the Spanish Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports for financial funding through the FPU Fellowship. C.S.L. acknowledges the support of the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness through the Ramón y Cajal fellowship (grant RYC-2013-14271). The help of Miguel Herráez and Dr. Miguel Castillo in the experimental work is also acknowledged.
\n',keywords:"composites, recycling, pyrolysis, carbon fiber, fracture toughness, resin film infusion",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/59532.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/59532.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59532",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59532",totalDownloads:1696,totalViews:701,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,totalAltmetricsMentions:8,impactScore:4,impactScorePercentile:90,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"October 9th 2017",dateReviewed:"January 23rd 2018",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"July 25th 2018",dateFinished:"February 22nd 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The applications of composite materials are rapidly growing. In the aeronautical sector, composites account for up to 50% of the weight of a modern typical commercial aircraft. However, the amount of composites currently recycled is less than 5% of the total amount produced. With environmental concerns becoming an increasingly influential topic, recyclability of composite materials is a key issue. Furthermore, several related European laws have been passed to minimize the environmental impact of composite structures and to make rational use of landfills. In this chapter, the authors analyze recycling techniques for carbon fiber composites with thermoset polymer matrix. The objective is to reuse the fibers in new, lower cost composites with similar properties. Starting from a pyrolysis step, followed by oxidation, an evaluation of the different parameters of the recycling process has been performed. The characterization of the fibers includes tensile tests, scanning electron microscopy, and Raman spectroscopy. The recycled fibers presented a reduction of their initial tensile strength lower than 10%. Then, remanufacturing of laminates using the recycled fibers was achieved by resin film infusion, obtaining laminates with properties similar to the brand-new composites. These results have the potential to be exploited by the automotive, aeronautical, wind energy, construction, and other sectors.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/59532",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/59532",book:{id:"6572",slug:"recent-developments-in-the-field-of-carbon-fibers"},signatures:"Andrea Fernández, Cláudio S. Lopes, Carlos González and Félix A. López",authors:[{id:"156186",title:"Dr.",name:"Cláudio",middleName:"S.",surname:"Lopes",fullName:"Cláudio Lopes",slug:"claudio-lopes",email:"claudiosaul.lopes@imdea.org",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"225960",title:"Prof.",name:"Félix A.",middleName:null,surname:"López",fullName:"Félix A. López",slug:"felix-a.-lopez",email:"f.lopez@csic.es",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Cenim - Centro Nacional De Investigaciones Metalurgicas",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"225963",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"González",fullName:"Carlos González",slug:"carlos-gonzalez",email:"carlosdaniel.gonzalez@imdea.org",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"225964",title:"MSc.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández",fullName:"Andrea Fernández",slug:"andrea-fernandez",email:"andrea.fernandez@imdea.org",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Recycling process",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Scrap material",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Recycling approach",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Process optimization",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Recycled fibers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1. Surface quality",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2. Composition",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"Table 2.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.3. Mechanical properties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"Table 3.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"Table 4.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14",title:"4. Remanufacturing of composites",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.1. Resin film infusion of recycled fibers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"4.2. Quality and properties of remanufactured composites",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Marsh G. Airbus A350 XWB update. Materials Today. 2010. Available from: https://www.materialstoday.com/composite-applications/features/airbus-a350-xwb-update/'},{id:"B2",body:'ELG Carbon Fibre [Internet]. [cited 2016 Oct 24]. Available from: http://www.elgcf.com/'},{id:"B3",body:'Boeing [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2017 Jun 12]. Available from: Boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine%0A'},{id:"B4",body:'Council Directive. Council directive 1999/31/EC on the landfill. Official Journal of the European Communities. 1999;10:L182/1-L18219'},{id:"B5",body:'European Parliament, Council of the European Union. Directive 2000/53/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 September 2000 on end-of life vehicles—Commission Statements. Official Journal of the European Union. 2000;269(September 2000):34'},{id:"B6",body:'Council Directive. Council directive 2000/76/EC on the Incineration of Waste. Official Journal of the European Communities. 2000;L 332(February 1997):91-111'},{id:"B7",body:'European TEP& TC of. Directive 2004/35/CE of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 April 2004 on environmental liability with regard to the prevention and remedying of environmental damage. Regulation. 2004;2003(807):56-75'},{id:"B8",body:'Oliveux G, Dandy LO, Leeke GA. Current status of recycling of fibre reinforced polymers: Review of technologies, reuse and resulting properties. Progress in Materials Science [Internet]. 2015;72:61-99. Available from: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0079642515000316'},{id:"B9",body:'Roberts T. Rapid growth forecast for carbon fibre market. Reinforced Plastics. 2007;51(2):10-13'},{id:"B10",body:'ELG CArbon Fibre Ltd. [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2018 Jan 3]. Available from: http://www.elgcf.com/home'},{id:"B11",body:'BMW i3 [Internet]. [cited 2018 Jan 3]. Available from: https://secure.bmw.com/com/en/newvehicles/i/i3/2016/showroom/sustainability.html'},{id:"B12",body:'Thermal Recycling of Composites. Available from: http://www.trcsl.com'},{id:"B13",body:'Recycling carbon fibres. Engineering Materials. Available from: http://www.materialsforengineering.co.uk/engineering-materials-features/recycling-carbon-fibre/160324/'},{id:"B14",body:'Yang YX, Boom R, van Heerden I, Kuiper PH, de Wit PH. Recycling of composite materials. Chemical Engineering and Processing. 2012;51:53-68'},{id:"B15",body:'Hyde JR, Lester E, Kingman S, Pickering S, Wong KH. Supercritical propanol, a possible route to composite carbon fibre recovery: A viability study. Composites. Part A, Applied Science and Manufacturing. 2006;37(11):2171-2175'},{id:"B16",body:'Okajima I, Sako T. Recycling of carbon fiber-reinforced plastic using supercritical and subcritical fluids. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management. 2017;19:15-20'},{id:"B17",body:'Oliveux G, Bailleul JL, Le Gal La Salle E. Chemical recycling of glass fibre reinforced composites using subcritical water. Composites: Part A. 2012;43:1809-1818'},{id:"B18",body:'Morin C, Loppinet-Serani A, Cansell F, Aymonier C. Near- and supercritical solvolysis of carbon fibre reinforced polymers (CFRPs) for recycling carbon fibers as a valuable resource: State of the art. Journal of Supercritical Fluids. 2012;66:232-240'},{id:"B19",body:'Torayca. T300 Data Sheet. No CFA-001 [Internet]. 2002;6-7. Available from: www.toraycfa.com/pdfs/T300DataSheet.pdf'},{id:"B20",body:'López FA, Rodríguez O, Alguacil FJ, García-Díaz I, Centeno TA, García-Fierro JL, et al. Recovery of carbon fibres by the thermolysis and gasification of waste prepreg. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis. 2013;104:675-683'},{id:"B21",body:'López FA, Martín MI, Alguacil FJ, Rincón JM, Centeno TA, Romero M. Thermolysis of fibreglass polyester composite and reutilisation of the glass fibre residue to obtain a glass-ceramic material. 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Strength and toughness of structural fibres for composite material reinforcement. Philosophical Transactions. Series A, Mathematical, Physical, and Engineering Sciences. 2016;374:20150274. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2015.0274'},{id:"B27",body:'Kant M, Penumadu D. Fracture behavior of individual carbon fibers in tension using nano-fabricated notches. Composites Science and Technology [Internet]. 2013;89:83-88. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2013.09.020'},{id:"B28",body:'Tanaka F, Okabe T, Okuda H, Kinloch IA, Young RJ. Factors controlling the strength of carbon fibres in tension. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing [Internet]. 2014;57:88-94. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2013.11.007'},{id:"B29",body:'Ogihara S, Imafuku Y, Yamamoto R, Kogo Y. Application of FIB technique to introduction of a notch into a carbon fiber for direct measurement of fracture toughness. Journal of Physics Conference Series. 2009;191:12009'},{id:"B30",body:'Technical data sheet Letoxit LFX 060. 2011;1-5. Available from: www.5M.cz'},{id:"B31",body:'Shah DU, Schubel PJ. On recycled carbon fibre composites manufactured through a liquid composite moulding process. Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites. 2015;35(7):533-540'},{id:"B32",body:'Standard Test Method for Short-Beam Strength of Polymer Matrix Composite Materials and Their Laminates-ASTM D2344'},{id:"B33",body:'Pimenta S, Pinho ST. Recycling carbon fibre reinforced polymers for structural applications: Technology review and market outlook. Waste Management [Internet]. 2011;31(2):378-392. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2010.09.019'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Andrea Fernández",address:null,affiliation:'
Institute IMDEA Materials, Spain
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Cláudio S. Lopes",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Materials Science, E.T.S. de Ingenieros de Caminos, Spain
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Félix A. López",address:"f.lopez@csic.es",affiliation:'
Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Metalúrgicas (CENIM-CSIC), Spain
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"6572",type:"book",title:"Recent Developments in the Field of Carbon Fibers",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Developments in the Field of Carbon Fibers",slug:"recent-developments-in-the-field-of-carbon-fibers",publishedDate:"July 25th 2018",bookSignature:"Rita Khanna and Romina Cayumil",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6572.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78923-519-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-518-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-562-2",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",numberOfWosCitations:24,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"19010",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Khanna",slug:"rita-khanna",fullName:"Rita Khanna"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"218189",title:"Dr.",name:"Romina",middleName:null,surname:"Cayumil",slug:"romina-cayumil",fullName:"Romina Cayumil"},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"156"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"60758",type:"chapter",title:"Introductory Chapter: Recycling and Reuse of End-of-Life Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymers",slug:"introductory-chapter-recycling-and-reuse-of-end-of-life-carbon-fibre-reinforced-polymers",totalDownloads:1111,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Rita Khanna",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"19010",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Khanna",fullName:"Rita Khanna",slug:"rita-khanna"}]},{id:"59030",type:"chapter",title:"Functional Materials for Construction Application Based on Classical and Nano Composites: Production and Properties",slug:"functional-materials-for-construction-application-based-on-classical-and-nano-composites-production-",totalDownloads:1014,totalCrossrefCites:4,signatures:"Aleksandr Evhenovych Kolosov and Elena Petryvna Kolosova",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"230798",title:"Prof.",name:"Aleksandr",middleName:"Evhenovych",surname:"Kolosov",fullName:"Aleksandr Kolosov",slug:"aleksandr-kolosov"},{id:"230800",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Kolosova",fullName:"Elena Kolosova",slug:"elena-kolosova"}]},{id:"59427",type:"chapter",title:"Design, Fabrication and Application of Multi-Scale, Multi- Functional Nanostructured Carbon Fibers",slug:"design-fabrication-and-application-of-multi-scale-multi-functional-nanostructured-carbon-fibers",totalDownloads:1278,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Yang Liu, Chao Zhang and Xinyu Zhang",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"235145",title:"Dr.",name:"Yang",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Yang Liu",slug:"yang-liu"},{id:"241489",title:"Prof.",name:"Chao",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Chao Zhang",slug:"chao-zhang"},{id:"241490",title:"Prof.",name:"Xinyu",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Xinyu Zhang",slug:"xinyu-zhang"}]},{id:"59637",type:"chapter",title:"3D Woven Composites: From Weaving to Manufacturing",slug:"3d-woven-composites-from-weaving-to-manufacturing",totalDownloads:2010,totalCrossrefCites:4,signatures:"Hassan M. El-Dessouky and Mohamed N. 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1. Introduction
Among abiotic stresses, drought is widely spread and strengthens from year to year all over the world. The stressful influence of drought conditions causes changes in morphological, physiological, and metabolical processes of plants that decrease the productivity and the quality of agricultural crops after all [1]. Molecular indicator of water stress is, first of all, speeded accumulation of active forms of oxygen that leads to the development of water stress, the change of chlorophylls structure, the decrease of photosynthetic pigments and metabolites, and the damage of plants cells [2, 3, 4, 5]. Phenolic compounds and flavonoids are the most important and widely spread secondary products of plants. These metabolites enlarge enzymic antioxidant system and possess essential potential to decrease and prevent the cell damage [6]. Mineral elements are not only used as structural components, but also play an important role in the enzymes activity, osmotic pressure control for the cells’ turgor and growth, take part in acid-base and water-salt metabolism [7, 8, 9]. Increased stability to drought mostly depends on the mineral composition of the plants [10, 11].
The most important and actual problem of genetic-breeding research studies is to determine the crops that are stable to drought. Metabolomic approach is a new direction of molecular-genetic research studies to identify the changes in plants under the influence of adverse environmental factors and to assess their nutritional value. Though, nowadays, the use of this approach remains a little used and poorly studied direction of breeding.
The fundamental knowledge about the characteristics of the leaves, seeds, and flour is crucial for the promotion of the crop for use in the food industry. The Amaranthus tricolor L.(cv. Valentina) leaf extracts do not only have beautiful crimson color, they also contain a large number of biologically active substances and can be used for tea drinks preparation. Amaranth gluten-free flour can be used for dietary bakery. This study is a first step toward a more efficient and successful application of amaranth as a commercially available pseudo-grain crop.
A. tricolor L. and Amaranthus cruentus L. species have been introduced and successfully grown in the Central region of Russia. However, during summer months, the dry period affects the productivity of these species negatively. Based on the foregoing, the present research work was also planned to evaluate and study the mechanisms of drought resistance of two species of amaranth under the conditions of artificial abiotic stress caused by drought.
2. Studies results
2.1 Studies place, objects, and methods
A vegetative experiment was conducted with amaranth species A. tricolor L. cv. Valentina (vegetable, red-colored cultivar, with the leaves and seeds having nutritional value for human organisms) and A. cruentus L. cv. Krepysh (grain, green-colored cultivar with the seeds having nutritional value for human organisms) in 2020–2021 in the department of gene pool and plant bioresources of the Federal Horticultural Research Center for Breeding, Agrotechnology and Nursery (FHRCBAN), Moscow. The plants of both species were placed outdoors with artificial protection from precipitation. The climate of the study site is moderately continental, the height above sea level is 168 m, the coordinates are 55° 7 ́27 ̋ north latitude, 37° 56́ 55 ̋. The amaranth plants were grown by seedlings and transplanted into plastic pots (250 and 175 mm in diameter and height, respectively) one plant per a pot. Totally 40 pots were planted, 20 pieces of each species: 10 control plants and 10 drought-affected ones.
The pots were filled with a mixture of peat and sand (5:1) with a drainage layer at the bottom. In the pots with the control samples, the humidity of the substrate for the plants was maintained at the level of 45–50%. Soil moisture was determined using soil moisture meter MC-7828 SOIL. All the plants were grown for 2 months in well-watered conditions in natural light (Figure 1). The average day/night temperature, relative humidity, and the day length during the experimental period were 17.2°C/11.7°C, 64%, and 17 h, respectively. After 2 months of growth, the degree of stress from drought was determined according to the moisture content in the soil. The watering of the experimental plants was stopped until the signs of wilting. The duration of the soil drought period was 7 days. The plants were examined when the soil moisture dropped till 20–25%.
Figure 1.
General view of control plants A. tricolor L. cv. Valentina and A. cruentus L. cv. Krepysh and drought-prone plants.
The biochemical research studies were held in the Laboratory of Physiology and Biochemistry of FHRCBAN.
The understudied parameters included the laboratory studies of the leaves (microscopy of cross sections of the leaf blade, photosynthetic pigments content, antioxidant activity, phenolic compounds sum, ash composition seeds, and quality content of the leaves’ main metabolites). The leaves’ microscopy and ash composition were determined on analytical REM JEOL JSM-6010 LA (JEOL Ltd., Japan). Photosynthetic pigments Chl a and b and total carotenoids (Car) were studied on spectrophotometer Helios Υ UV–vis (USA) in accordance with the method [12]. Total phenolic amount was determined with Folin–Ciocalteu reagent in accordance with the method [13] and tоtal antioxidant capacity, the scavenging activity for the 2, 2-dipheny l-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical was determined in accordance with the method [14].
Metabolites quality composition contained in leaf extracts was analyzed on JEOL JMS-Q1050GC (JEOL Ltd., Japan) via the method of gas chromate-mass-spectrometry in accordance with the method [15].
2.2 Biomineralization of amaranth leaves
An important morphological feature of A. tricolor L. cv. Valentina is biomineralization—the presence of multiple crystals in the leaf tissue. In the leaves of A. cruentus L. cv. Krepysh, the crystals were not found. The round spiked crystals (metabolic products) are often located on the transverse sections of the leaf of A. tricolor L. cv. Valentina between the adaxial and abaxial sides (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
The protrusions of crystals (a) and Mineral inclusions in the cross-section leaves Amaranthus tricolor cv. Valentina.
The local energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS) analysis showed that the inclusions contained four elements. The main element was Ca (5.9–8.3 mass %); K (0.34–0.38 mass%); Mg and P—0.03–0.07 mass %. The combination of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and EDS was a convenient method for determining the microstructure in the cross section of the leaves of Amarantus L. X-rays showing the location of all the elements are presented in Figure 3. K, P, and Mg are evenly distributed around the mineral inclusions. Ca is concentrated in the crystal. The SEM/EDX results allowed determining the concentration and distribution of elements in the mineral inclusions in the leaves of A. tricolor L. cv. Valentina. Calcium oxalate (Ca) crystals are found in many plant species and in most organs and tissues of photosynthetic organisms [16, 17, 18, 19]. The modern research studies say that Ca2+ is a key element of signaling pathways and is mobilized during the adaptation process to biotic and abiotic stresses [20, 21, 22].
Figure 3.
Mineral inclusions in the cross section of amaranth leaves and EDS crystal alalysis. SEM micrographs and corresponding EDX spectra of elements in the cross-section leaves Amaranthus tricolor cv. Valentina., sample 2000 X. The energy spectrum of the X-rays character emitted from the element of K, P and Ca.
Calcium is involved in regulating metabolic processes, plant growth and development [23]. Under drought stress, Ca is an integral part of the recovery process after stress exposure, regulating the plasma membrane enzyme adenosinetriphosphatase, which is required to pump back nutrients lost during cell damage [24].
2.3 Effects of drought on influence on photosynthetic pigments synthesis
The content analysis of chlorophylls and carotenoids in the amaranth leaves showed that some changes were associated with drought (Figure 4). An increase of Chl a, b and Car was observed in the leaves of drought-affected amaranth species. In the leaves of A. tricolor L. cv. Valentina, the content of Chl a doubled; on the other hand, a slight decrease in the content of Chl b was noted. In the leaves of A. cruentus L. cv. Krepysh, the content of Chl b increased slightly in comparison with the content of Chl a. The content of carotenoids in the amaranth leaves increased in the conditions of moisture deficiency: in the leaves of A. tricolor L., it increased 2.5 times, and in the leaves of A. cruentus L.—1.5–2.0 times compared with the control. These results are consistent with the data received from the testing on Choy sum in the dry season [25], which reported an increase in total carotenoid content under drought stress.
Figure 4.
The content of chlorophyll a (Cla), chlorophyll b (Clb) and carotenoids (Car) in the leaves of amaranth (C4) under stress conditions of drought. Data are the mean ± SE of three replicates.
A high correlation was found between Chl a and Car (r = 0.985) and Chl b and Car (r = 0.977) in the leaves of A. tricolor L. and A. cruentus L., respectively. The observed changes in photosynthetic pigments of the leaves in drought are probably associated with free-radical-induced oxidation of Chl pigment [26], the destruction of some chloroplasts, and an increase in the activity of Chl catabolizing enzyme of chlorophyllase [27]. The increase in chlorophyll concentration under drought stress can be determined as an indicator of the plant tissues’ resistance to abiotic stress under the drought conditions, which is fully consistent with the data of Jain et al., [28], who reported similar observations. Carotenoids are involved in drought stress resistance due to their ability to capture singlet oxygen. They can also inhibit lipid peroxidation and superoxide formation by dehydrating factors. Carotenoids and beta-carotene may play the main protective role in photosynthetic tissue as they directly help plants resist drought [29].
2.4 Effects of drought on influence on antioxidant activity and phenol compounds sum accumulation
The ability of amaranth leaf extracts to absorb DPPH + free radicals, which is used as a measure of total antioxidant activity (TAA), and total phenol content (TPC) are shown in Table 1. The antioxidant activity of the water extracts of A. tricolor L. leaves was significantly higher than that of A. cruentus L. leaves. The antioxidant activity of the alcohol solution differed slightly between the types of amaranth. In the conditions of water deficiency in the leaves of both types of amaranth, the antioxidant activity of water and alcohol extracts increases by 1.5–2.5 times. Antioxidant activity plays a crucial role in maintaining the balance between free radical synthesis and capture [30, 31, 32]. With a lack of water, the total content of phenols in the leaves of both types of amaranth increases by three times. The variation coefficient of the antioxidant activity and the total amount of phenolic compounds was low, which indicates the relative homogeneity of the data obtained. A high correlation was established between the antioxidant activity of water and alcohol extracts and the TPC content in the leaves of both amaranth species (r = 0.77, r = 0.91), respectively.
Samples
Determined indicators
AAA
AAM
TPS
A. tricolor L., control V %
24.11 ± 1.87 7.75
16.26 ± 0.65 0.43
2.28 ± 0.37 16.06
A. tricolor L. drought V %
66.82 ± 1.36 2.03
27.08 ± 0.87 3.24
6.61 ± 0.56 8.59
A. cruentus L. control V %
1.35 ± 0.21 14.93
16.08 ± 0.24 1.53
1.15 ± 0.07 6.09
A. cruentus L. drought V %
7.71 ± 1.01 13.56
26.05 ± 0.56 2.15
3.19 ± 0.45 14.18
Table 1.
The effect of drought stress on the antioxidant activity of water (ААА) and methanol (ААМ) extracts, expressed in %, and the total content of polyphenols (TРС), expressed in mg equivalent of gallic acid (mg/g TW) in the leaves of Amaranthus species.
Hence, the leaf mass of A. tricolor L. can be considered as a source of plant antioxidants that can normalize the ability of the human body to counteract free radicals caused by stress.
2.5 The influence of drought on the contents of metabolites in the leaves of A. tricolor L. (cv. Valentina) и A. cruentus L. (cv. Krepysh)
Forty-three secondary metabolites were totally determined in ethanol extracts of amaranth leaves. Forty-two substances were identified in the leaves of A. tricolor L. (cv. Valentina) and 35 metabolites in the leaves of A. cruentus L. (cv. Krepysh) (Table 2). Among nine compounds that possess antimicrobial characteristics, five belong to organic acids—Lactic acid, Pyruvic acid, Glyoxylic acid, Acetamide, Malic acid, and Tartaric acid; one to sugar alcohol—Glycerol; one to amide—Acetamide; and one to phenolic compounds—Benzoic acid. The content of Lactic acid, Benzoic acid, Malic acid, and Mannonic acid is 40, 6, 2, and 1.5 times higher in the leaves of cv. Valentina, than in the leaves of cv. Krepysh, respectively. Glyoxylic acid is found only in the leaves of green-colored amaranth; Acetamide is only in the leaves of red amaranth. Other organic acids are represented by the following compounds: Butanoic scid, Clycolic acid, Oxalic acid, 2-Butanedioic acid, Monoethyl malonic acid, Succinic acid, Glyceric acid, 2-Oxopentanoic acid, Malonic acid, 2.3.4.-Trihydroxybutiric acid, Arabinoic acid, Ketosuccinic acid, Fumaric acid, 2-Propenoic acid, and Citric acid. The phenolic compounds are presented by Caffeic acid, Vanillic acid, and Cinnamic acid. The following compounds were also detected: glycoside Apigenin, keto-acid—1.2-Ketoglutaric acid, sugar acid—Myo-inositol; 4 aminoacids—Lauric acid, Myristic acid, Palmitic acid, and Stearic acid (only in the leaves of cv. Valentina). Under drought conditions, the following compounds were synthesized in a significantly larger amount in the leaves of A. tricolor L. cv. Valentina: Mannonic acid—by 70 times; Myo-inositol—by 40 times; Caffeic acid—by 23 times; Tartaric acid—by 15 times; Clycerol—by 7 times; L-Proline and Serine—by 4 times; and Glycolic acid, Oxalic acid, and Lactic acid—by 2–3 times. The differences in the synthesis of these compounds were less obvious in the leaves of A. cruentus L. (cv. Krepysh). Our results are consistent with earlier findings that the accumulation of Proline and other amino acids increases with water potential decrease in the leaves [33, 34]. Myo-inositol is necessary for absolutely everyone for the synthesis of the substances involved in the transmission of intracellular signals from receptors. It is a vitamin-like substance that affects metabolism and normalizes the levels of sugar and insulin in the blood. It increases the sensitivity of body cells to hormones, supports hormonal balance, and stimulates the proper functioning of the hormone insulin and the stabilization of carbohydrate metabolism [35]. The present study confirmed that the leaves of cv. Valentina and Krepysh are the sources of biologically active compounds and have an enriched antioxidant profile.
N
Тmin
Metabolite
Peak height, % of scale cv.Valentina cv,Krepysh
Biological characteristic
1
10:20
Lactic acid
15–8
0.3–0.2
Antimicrobial 93
2
10:23
Butanoic scid
1.4–0.5
1.2–0.3
Organic acid
3
10:27
Clycolic acid
5–15
5–7
Organic acid
4
10:28
Oxalic acid
10–15
8–5
Organic acid
5
10:42
Pyruvic acid
0.2–0.2
0.3–1.2
Antimicrobial 118
6
10:49
2-Butanedioic acid
0.2–1.5
0.1–7
Organic acid
7
11:00
L-Alanine
1.5–4
1.2–1.8
Amino acid
8
11:29
Monoethyl malonic acid
8–10
5–10
Organic acid
9
12:16
Glyoxylic acid
—
2.5–3
Antimicrobial 78
10
13:23
Acetamide
0.8–0
—
Antimicrobial 40
11
13:43
Glycerol
8–60
8–70
Antimicrobial 77
12
14.04
Succinic acid
11–15
3–4
Organic acid
13
14:23
Glyceric acid
40–13
13–7
Organic acid
14
15:03
Glycine
0.4–3
0.2–1.5
Amino acid
15
15:24
2-Oxopentanoic acid
2–3.2
8–10
Organic acid
16
15:29
Malonic acid
6–7
2–3
Organic acid
17
16:27
Malic acid
14–27
8–19
Antimicrobial 96
18
16:40
L-5-Oxoproline
1.5–2
1.2–2
Amino acid derivative
19
16:48
L-Proline
5–20
4–11
Amino acid
20
17:30
2.3.4.-Trihydroxybutiric acid
22–43
—
Organic acid
21
17:54
1. 2-Ketoglutaric acid
0.2–0.4
—
Keto acid
22
18:14
Arabinoic acid
0.3–0.25
0.3–0.3
Organic acid
23
18:16
Ketosuccinic acid
11–8
—
Organic acid
24
18.24
Lauric acid
0.2–0.4
0.1
Saturated fatty acid
25
19:33
Vanillic acid
2–2.5
—
Phenolic acid
26
19:37
Benzoic acid
3–4.1
0.5–1.6
Antimicrobial 60
27
16.46
Fumaric acid
0.1–0.5
—
Organic acid
28
16:58
Serine
2.5–11
3–8
Amino acid
29
25:00
2-Propenoic acid
0.1–0.3
—
Organic acid
30
20:08
Adenine
1–4
1–2.5
Amino acid
31
20:21
Citric acid
15–40
8–15
Organic acid
32
21:48
Cinnamic acid
2.5–2.8
1.2–1.0
Phenolic acid
33
22:24
Myristic acid
4–13
4–10
Saturated fatty acid
34
22:26
Acrylic acid
8–10
6–10
Antimicrobial 44
35
22:30
Palmitic Acid
0.1
0.05–0.1
Saturated fatty acid
36
22:46
Tartaric acid
4–62
3–15
Antimicrobial 126
37
22:48
Caffeic acid
1.2–28
0.2–0.8
Phenolic acid
38
23:17
Apigenin
0.4–1.2
—
Glycosides
39
23:31
Myo-inositol
10–40
11–15
Sucar acid
40
24:19
Stearic acid
1–1.4
—
Saturated fatty acid
41
34:14
Mannonic acid
10–70
8–30
Organic acid
Table 2.
Metabolites discovered in ethanol extracts of Amaranthus L. leaves.
2.6 The ash residue comparative composition of A. tricolor L. (Valentina cultivar) and A. cruentus L. (Krepysh cultivar) amaranth seeds
The content (in mass %) of 11 main elements that make up the mineral part of amaranth seeds was studied (Table 3). The ash composition of the seeds varies significantly. The descending series of the elements accumulation is the following:
Mineral Elements
Amaranthus tricolor L. cv. Valentina
Amaranthus cruentus L. cv. Krepysh
x¯. ±Sx
min-max
V,%
x¯. ±Sx
min-max
V,%
K
8.94 ± 0.20
7.78–9.07
13.35
15.78 ± 0.19
11.71–13.32
17.75
P
9.67 ± 0.08
8.49–9.98
8.82
14.38 ± 0.15
13.29–14.87
27.78
Ca
17.83 ± 0.08
16.71–18.08
13.39
11.54 ± 0.12
9.76–14.37
29.85
Mo
2.54 ± 0.04
2.12–3.35
17.62
3.43 ± 0.04
3.21–4.86
45.16
Mg
7.33 ± 0.42
6.31–8.89
13.09
5.76 ± 0.22
4.06–6.06
38.21
S
1.84 ± 0.20
1.08–2.35
19.45
2.23 ± 1.04
1.49–2.41
38.60
Si
0.48 ± 0.07
0.41–0.64
20.68
0.21 ± 0.08
0.17–0.37
22.97
Mn
0.17 ± 0.11
0.12–0.21
27.81
0.19 ± 0.08
0.10–0.29
54.20
Fe
0.23 ± 0.04
0.18–0.36
36.38
0.23 ± 0.03
0.13–0.39
58.40
Zn
0.21 ± 0.06
0.17–0.34
30.35
0.26 ± 0.08
0.17–0.24
29.45
Se
0.41 ± 0.06
0.37–0.54
29.45
0.35 ± 0.06
0.27–0.44
31.18
∑
49.65
54,36
Table 3.
Mineral (ash) composition of Amaranthus L. seeds, mass %, X̅ (2020–2021).
Notice: *significant at P < 0.05.
A. tricolor L. – Ca > P > K > Mg > Mo > S > Si > Se > Fe > Zn > Mn.
A. cruentus L. – K > P > Ca > Mg > Mo > S > Se > Zn > Fe > Si > Mn.
At the same time, the main proportion of ash elements in the seeds of A. tricolor L. is Ca, and in the seeds of A. cruentus L.—K.
Ca is the main ash element in the seeds of A. tricolor L., and its portion is 17.83 mass %. The proportion of Ca in the seeds of A. cruentus L. is less, and its portion is 11.54 mass %. Ca is a part of coenzymes and cell nuclei, it is involved in the most important processes for human organisms, such as metabolism, immunity, regeneration, and others [36]. The proportion of K in the seeds of A. cruentus L. is 1.8, and the proportion of P is 1.5 times higher than that in the seeds of A. tricolor L. The macroelement K is responsible for regulating the majority of metabolic reactions occurring in living organisms. It controls osmotic pressure, transmembrane potential, charge equilibrium, cathode-anion balance, pH—everything that makes up the homeostasis of cells and tissues [37]. In the human body, P is a part of DNA and RNA, phospholipids, phosphate esters, nucleoside phosphates—ATP, ADP, NATP, where it performs a structural and metabolic function [38].
The content of Mg and Mo in the seeds of A. tricolor L. (7.33 and 2.54 mass %) differs slightly from the content in the seeds of A. cruentus L. (5.76 and 3.43 mass %). In the human body, Mg is necessary for the processes of regeneration and renewal of cells, tissues, and organs. It activates a large number of enzymes involved in the assimilation of CO2 and nitrogen. In cytosol, Mg balances organic compounds (groups of sugars, nucleotides, organic and amino acids). Mg is necessary to maintain cathodic-anionic balance and regulate pH [39]. Mo is an important element in the diet, catalyzes the reactions of oxygen transfer from substrates or to substrates, using water as a donor or acceptor of oxygen, is a part of enzymes [40]. The content of trace elements S, Mn, Fe, and Zn in amaranth seeds of the studied cultivars differs slightly (Table 2).
S is a biogenic element in the composition of proteins and glutathione, has antioxidant activity, provides the process of energy transfer in the cell by transferring electrons, participates in the transfer and fixation of methyl groups, the formation of covalent, hydrogen, and mercaptide bonds, provides the transfer of genetic information. Mn is a cofactor and activator of many enzymes (pyruvate kinase, decarboxylase, siperoxide dismutase), participates in the synthesis of glycoproteins and proteoglycans, has antioxidant activity.
In active centers (hemoproteins and iron-sulfur proteins), Fe determines the structure and activity of space and participates in redox reactions. Organic Fe is a necessary compound for the human body. This element is part of catalytic centers of many redox enzymes. Zn stabilizes the structure of molecules, plays an important role in the metabolism of DNA and RNA, in protein synthesis and cell division, in the processes of signaling within the cell [41, 42, 43].
Si is not only the basis of the framework element of tissues, but also controls a number of biological and chemical processes in a living organism, increases the resistance of a living organism to the effects of biogenic and abiogenic stressors, is a necessary trace element that is part of active centers in the form of selenocysteine animoacystide [44]. The concentration of Si in A. tricolor L. seeds is two times more than that in the seeds of A. cruentus L.
The minerals found in amaranth seeds are important for meeting human dietary needs and can make a significant contribution to recommended diets.
2.7 Biologically active components of the studied cultivars of Amaranthus L.
The previous studies of the extracts from cv. Valentina fresh leaves detected the following physiologically active substances with antioxidant activity: Amarantin—1.5 mg/g, Ascorbic acid—150–170 mg/100 g, simple phenols and phenolcarboxylic acids, Chlorogenic, Ferulic, Gallic acids, and Arbutin—2.05, 0.01, 1.51, and 473 mg/g, respectively. All metabolites are biologically active substances [45]. Phenolic acids and Betacyanin (Amarantin) are characterized by antibacterial [46, 47, 48], antimycotic, anti-inflammatory, and wound-healing properties. Ferulic acid has radioprotective properties, glycosylated hydroquinone Arbutin exhibits antioxidant activity [48]. The pigment Amarantin is a multifunctional pigment of red-colored amaranth leaves. Amarantin is a nitrogenous heterocyclic compound that has a strong physiological effect on living organisms. The study of the biochemical properties of Amarantin extracted from the leaves of the red-colored cv. Valentina revealed the following physiological activities: antibacterial, antimycotic, antioxidant, antitumor. The extracts from fresh and dried leaves of cv. Valentina stimulated the growing activity of vegetable seeds, which allows its extracts to be used in phytobiology for stimulation of seeds and sprouts (in the concentration of 10-4, 10-5 M) [49]. The mechanism of antioxidant activity of Amarantin is associated with its ability to neutralize the superoxide radical and inhibit lipid peroxidation. This allows the leaves to be used to obtain Amarantin extract as a dietary supplement and a phytopreparation.
Under the conditions of drought and high solar radiation, the content of Amarantin in the leaves of cv. Valentina decreases to 40%. The received data indicate that Amarantin performs an important protective function of the photosynthetic apparatus in the plant [50, 51]. The advantage of Amarantin as a water-soluble antioxidant is its rapid synthesis (within 4 hours) after the cessation of drought. The data obtained by us and investigated in the literature data indicate an important role of Amarantin in photosynthetic, metabolic, and protective reactions of an amaranth plant.
Consequently, the data found in literary sources and the results received by us prove that A. tricolor L. cv. Valentina is not only highly drought-tolerant, but is also a promising, reproducible source of antioxidants and can be used to create functional foods and phytobiological preparations. The presence of potential antinutrients may limit the use of amaranth in a human diet. To inactivate or reduce these antinutrients, various pretreatment methods are used, such as heat treatment, extrusion, etc. Therefore, further profiling of the metabolomic profile is necessary to improve the nutritional properties of the food product.
3. Conclusions
In the present study, the representatives of species C4 (amaranth) A. tricolor L. cv. Valentina and A. cruentus L. cv. Krepysh have observed several adaptive responses to drought stress under the conditions of water deficit. The features of specific changes in photosynthetic pigments, antioxidant activity, the amount of phenolic compounds, and the composition of metabolites in the leaves were revealed. The increase in the content of phenolic compounds, the total antioxidant activity allowed the plants to survive in adverse environmental conditions. The greatest adaptive potential to drought stress, taking into account the complex of studied physiological and biochemical parameters, was demonstrated by amaranth of cv. Valentina. A. tricolor L. cv. Valentina used in the present study can be further investigated as a promising cultivar that can accelerate the breeding for drought tolerance in amaranth.
The leaves of A. tricolor L. cv. Valentina contain a sufficient amount of nutraceuticals, phytopigments, and phytochemicals, and the seeds contain a set of macro- and microelements. The leaves of amaranth cv. Valentina can also be used to produce juice as a source of potential nutritional value, phytopigments, antioxidants, flavonoids, phenols, and ascorbic acid in the diet. The present study showed that the cultivars are the sources of biologically active compounds and have an enriched antioxidant profile. The leaves of amaranth A. tricolor cv. Valentina contain a sufficient amount of nutraceuticals, phytopigments, phytochemicals, and the seeds contain a set of macro- and microelements. Valentine’s amaranth leaves can also be used to produce juice as a source of potential nutritional value, phytopigments, antioxidants, flavonoids, phenols, and ascorbic acid in the diet. The increased level of the essential macro- and microelements such as Ca, K, P, Mg, Mo, S stipulates the perspective of the functional products creation on the base of the seeds of the studied amaranth (cv. Valentina and Krepysh). The mineral elements concentration in different organs of the plant and their influence on the human life activity are an actual (global) problem, as the deficit of macro- and microelements in the industrial food stuff is extremely huge and dangerous for the human health, because the major part of food stuff is depleted in mineral substances.
The present study showed that the A. tricolor L. cv. Valentina and A. cruentus L. cv. Krepysh are sources of biologically active compounds and have an enriched antioxidant profile. Recently, the demand for healthy food has increased substantially due to the fact that the link between the health and the consumed products has been shown. In addition to high nutritional value, pseudocereal plants, which include amaranth, contain a large amount of biologically active substances necessary for health. The high protein content of amaranth seeds is characterized by a well-balanced amino acid profile. Seeds are a good source of unsaturated fatty acids, dietary fiber, and essential trace elements. In addition, they contain a wide variety of biologically active compounds. Due to the lack of gluten, these pseudocereals are also interesting ingredients for gluten-free products. Currently, the gluten-free food market is expanding rapidly due to the increasing prevalence of gluten-related diseases such as celiac disease, i.e., gluten intolerance. Amaranth seeds can be used to produce new products, as well as to be an additive to enrich traditional food. Red-colored amaranth leaves can be used to make herbal teas and natural food dyes. The detailed fundamental knowledge of the composition and properties of amaranth seeds is crucial for their introduction into industrial production.
Acknowledgments
The reported study was funded by RFBR and BRFBR, project number 20-516-00012. The reported study was also funded by BRFFR-project number B20R-298.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"amaranth, leaves, photosynthetic pigments, low-molecular-weight metabolites, ash composition of seeds",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/80236.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/80236.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80236",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80236",totalDownloads:47,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"December 23rd 2021",datePrePublished:"January 28th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"January 27th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The Federal Research Center of Vegetable Growing has developed the cultivars Valentina (Amaranthus tricolor L.) and Krepysh (Amaranthus cruentus L.), which are successfully grown in several regions of Russia. The dry periods observed in recent years have a negative impact on the development of plants. The red-colored vegetable cultivar demonstrated a higher level of adaptability to drought than the green-colored grain cultivar. It was found that only in the leaves of cv. Valentina multiple spiked crystals consisting of four elements were formed, the predominant proportion belonged to Ca (38.59), then P (0.48), Mg (0.25), and K (0.16) followed, weight%, respectively. Under the conditions of moisture deficiency, the antioxidant activity of water and ethanol extracts in the leaves of both types of amaranth increased from 1.5 to 2.5 times. It was established that under drought conditions, the carbohydrate metabolism and the synthesis of secondary metabolites change. The leaves of the new cultivar of amaranth Valentina are a promising and reproducible source of antioxidants and can be used to create phytobiological preparations. The increased level of the main macro- and microelements—Ca, K, P, Mg, Mo, S and Cl in the seeds of cv. Valentina and Krepysh makes these cultivars promising for use in the food industry.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/80236",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/80236",signatures:"Svetlana Motyleva, Murat Gins, Valentina Gins, Nikolay Tetyannikov, Ivan Kulikov, Ludmila Kabashnikova, Daria Panischeva, Maria Mertvischeva and Irina Domanskaya",book:{id:"11354",type:"book",title:"Pseudocereals",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Pseudocereals",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Viduranga Y. Waisundara",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11354.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-181-4",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-180-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-182-1",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. 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Federal Horticultural Research Center for Breeding, Agrotechnology and Nursery, Russia
Institute of Biophysics and Cell Engineering of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Belarus
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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
Wellcome Trust (Funding available only to Wellcome-funded researchers/grantees)
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Itina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6059.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"13419",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatiana",middleName:null,surname:"Itina",slug:"tatiana-itina",fullName:"Tatiana Itina"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1356",title:"Lasers",subtitle:"Applications in Science and Industry",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"71521c09ad4508038619e4e9b58bbae0",slug:"lasers-applications-in-science-and-industry",bookSignature:"Krzysztof Jakubczak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1356.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"13731",title:"Dr",name:"Krzysztof",middleName:null,surname:"Jakubczak",slug:"krzysztof-jakubczak",fullName:"Krzysztof Jakubczak"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:3,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"56938",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70676",title:"Matrix-Assisted Pulsed Laser Evaporation of Organic Thin Films: Applications in Biology and Chemical Sensors",slug:"matrix-assisted-pulsed-laser-evaporation-of-organic-thin-films-applications-in-biology-and-chemical-",totalDownloads:1247,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Polymer and biomolecule processing for medical and electronics applications, i.e. the fabrication of sensors and biosensors, microarrays, or lab on chip devices is a cornerstone field which shows great promise. Laser based thin film deposition techniques such as pulsed laser deposition or matrix-assisted pulsed laser evaporation (MAPLE) are competing with conventional methods for integrating new materials with tailored properties for novel technological developments. Successful polymer and protein thin film deposition requires several key elements for depositing viable and functional thin films, i.e. the characteristics of the laser depositing system, the choice of targets and receiver substrates, etc. This chapter reviews the following topics: brief presentation of the MAPLE process including several examples of polymer materials deposited by MAPLE, thus illustrating the potential of the technique as a gentle laser-assisted deposition method. In particular, the “synthesis” of new materials, their analysis and correlation of the bulk and interface properties to its bio-environment shall be discussed as a method to tackle some bioengineering issues. We will also focus on recent breakthroughs of the MAPLE technique for the fabrication of functional devices, i.e. sensor devices based either on chemoresponsive polymers or on proteins.",book:{id:"6059",slug:"laser-ablation-from-fundamentals-to-applications",title:"Laser Ablation",fullTitle:"Laser Ablation - From Fundamentals to Applications"},signatures:"Alexandra Palla Papavlu, Valentina Dinca, Mihaela Filipescu and\nMaria Dinescu",authors:[{id:"32241",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Dinescu",slug:"maria-dinescu",fullName:"Maria Dinescu"},{id:"176781",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Dinca",slug:"valentina-dinca",fullName:"Valentina Dinca"},{id:"206985",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alexandra",middleName:null,surname:"Palla Papavlu",slug:"alexandra-palla-papavlu",fullName:"Alexandra Palla Papavlu"},{id:"207048",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihaela",middleName:null,surname:"Filipescu",slug:"mihaela-filipescu",fullName:"Mihaela Filipescu"}]},{id:"24748",doi:"10.5772/24134",title:"Deconvolution of Long-Pulse Lidar Profiles",slug:"deconvolution-of-long-pulse-lidar-profiles",totalDownloads:2164,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"1356",slug:"lasers-applications-in-science-and-industry",title:"Lasers",fullTitle:"Lasers - Applications in Science and Industry"},signatures:"Ljuan L. Gurdev, Tanja N. Dreischuh and Dimitar V. Stoyanov",authors:[{id:"55686",title:"Dr.",name:"Ljuan",middleName:null,surname:"Gurdev",slug:"ljuan-gurdev",fullName:"Ljuan Gurdev"},{id:"61273",title:"Dr.",name:"Tanja",middleName:null,surname:"Dreischuh",slug:"tanja-dreischuh",fullName:"Tanja Dreischuh"},{id:"61274",title:"Prof.",name:"Dimitar",middleName:"Vassilev",surname:"Stoyanov",slug:"dimitar-stoyanov",fullName:"Dimitar Stoyanov"}]},{id:"24745",doi:"10.5772/24024",title:"Laser Pulse Application in IVF",slug:"laser-pulse-application-in-ivf",totalDownloads:4055,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"1356",slug:"lasers-applications-in-science-and-industry",title:"Lasers",fullTitle:"Lasers - Applications in Science and Industry"},signatures:"Carrie Bedient, Pallavi Khanna and Nina Desai",authors:[{id:"55004",title:"Dr.",name:"Nina",middleName:null,surname:"Desai",slug:"nina-desai",fullName:"Nina Desai"},{id:"127713",title:"Dr.",name:"Carrie",middleName:null,surname:"Bedient",slug:"carrie-bedient",fullName:"Carrie Bedient"},{id:"127714",title:"Dr.",name:"Pallavi",middleName:null,surname:"Khanna",slug:"pallavi-khanna",fullName:"Pallavi Khanna"}]},{id:"68795",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88860",title:"Preparation, Characterization, and Applications of Carbonaceous Mesophase: A Review",slug:"preparation-characterization-and-applications-of-carbonaceous-mesophase-a-review",totalDownloads:1350,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Carbonaceous mesophase with a nematic liquid crystal structure possesses an easily graphitizable characteristic and can be used as a promising raw material to prepare anisotropic carbon and graphite materials with high performance and multifunction. Therefore, the carbonaceous mesophase occupies a pivotal and irreplaceable position in many frontier and cutting-edge fields. The controllable preparation and characterization of carbonaceous mesophase derived from a model molecule (i.e., naphthalene) are presented, especially the formation, development, and transformation of anisotropic liquid crystalline mesophase in the synthetic naphthalene pitch during the process of liquid-phase carbonization (350–450°C). The increasing applications of naphthalene-based carbonaceous mesophase as an ideal precursor material for fabricating representative advanced carbon materials with high added value (e.g., mesophase pitch-derived coke, mesocarbon microbeads, mesophase pitch-based carbon foam, high-modulus mesophase pitch-based carbon fibers, and high-thermal-conductivity carbon-based composites, etc.) are reviewed in detail in this chapter.",book:{id:"7965",slug:"liquid-crystals-and-display-technology",title:"Liquid Crystals and Display Technology",fullTitle:"Liquid Crystals and Display Technology"},signatures:"Guanming Yuan and Zhengwei Cui",authors:[{id:"308403",title:"Prof.",name:"Guanming",middleName:null,surname:"Yuan",slug:"guanming-yuan",fullName:"Guanming Yuan"},{id:"309210",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhengwei",middleName:null,surname:"Cui",slug:"zhengwei-cui",fullName:"Zhengwei Cui"}]},{id:"24737",doi:"10.5772/24285",title:"Production of Optical Coatings Resistant to Damage by Petawatt Class Laser Pulses",slug:"production-of-optical-coatings-resistant-to-damage-by-petawatt-class-laser-pulses",totalDownloads:3245,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:null,book:{id:"1356",slug:"lasers-applications-in-science-and-industry",title:"Lasers",fullTitle:"Lasers - Applications in Science and Industry"},signatures:"John Bellum, Patrick Rambo, Jens Schwarz, Ian Smith, Mark Kimmel, Damon Kletecka and Briggs Atherton",authors:[{id:"56477",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:"C.",surname:"Bellum",slug:"john-bellum",fullName:"John Bellum"},{id:"120423",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Rambo",slug:"patrick-rambo",fullName:"Patrick Rambo"},{id:"120424",title:"Dr.",name:"Jens",middleName:null,surname:"Schwarz",slug:"jens-schwarz",fullName:"Jens Schwarz"},{id:"120425",title:"Mr.",name:"Ian",middleName:null,surname:"Smith",slug:"ian-smith",fullName:"Ian Smith"},{id:"120426",title:"Mr.",name:"Mark",middleName:null,surname:"Kimmel",slug:"mark-kimmel",fullName:"Mark Kimmel"},{id:"120427",title:"Mr.",name:"Damon",middleName:null,surname:"Kletecka",slug:"damon-kletecka",fullName:"Damon Kletecka"},{id:"120428",title:"Dr.",name:"Briggs",middleName:null,surname:"Atherton",slug:"briggs-atherton",fullName:"Briggs Atherton"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71926",title:"An Overview of Polymer-Dispersed Liquid Crystals Composite Films and Their Applications",slug:"an-overview-of-polymer-dispersed-liquid-crystals-composite-films-and-their-applications",totalDownloads:1185,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Inherent and incredible properties of liquid crystals (LC) such as optical and dielectric anisotropy make them special candidates for flat-panel display devices; bi-stable reflective displays; high-definition spatial light modulators; switchable windows; haze-free normal- and reverse-mode light shutter devices; projectors; optical, thermal and strain sensors; tuneable lenses; etc. Non-linear response of LC material to the applied electric field is very useful in the above-mentioned applications. When a low molecular weight LC material is doped in a high molecular weight polymer matrix to obtain polymer-dispersed liquid crystal (PDLC) films, it offers flexibility and mechanical strength (structural stabilization) to the composite films—PDLC devices. Depending upon the concentration of monomer/polymer, these composite films are classified as polymer-stabilized liquid crystal (PSLC), PDLC and holographic PDLC (HPDLC) films. Depending upon the process conditions, we get phase-separated randomly dispersed micron-sized LC droplets in a continuous polymer matrix. These nematic LC droplets exhibit light scattering transmission properties depending on their orientation, which can be controlled by external electric field. This chapter gives deep insight about operating principle, phase separation techniques involved, alignment of LC and controlling LC droplet morphology of PDLC films to obtain desired properties. In order to improve the optical efficiency and to obtain the desired result from PDLC films, various guest entities such as dye and nanomaterials are doped in the host LC material. This chapter also accounts for various possible LC dopants desired for improving the electro-optic (EO) and dielectric properties of PDLC devices. Various applications of PDLC composite films are also described in this chapter.",book:{id:"7965",slug:"liquid-crystals-and-display-technology",title:"Liquid Crystals and Display Technology",fullTitle:"Liquid Crystals and Display Technology"},signatures:"Anuja Katariya Jain and Rajendra R. Deshmukh",authors:[{id:"34437",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajendrasing",middleName:"Rajesing",surname:"Deshmukh",slug:"rajendrasing-deshmukh",fullName:"Rajendrasing Deshmukh"},{id:"318245",title:"Dr.",name:"Anuja",middleName:null,surname:"Katariya-Jain",slug:"anuja-katariya-jain",fullName:"Anuja Katariya-Jain"}]},{id:"71353",title:"Cholesteric Liquid Crystal Polyesteramides: Non-Viral Vectors",slug:"cholesteric-liquid-crystal-polyesteramides-non-viral-vectors",totalDownloads:597,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Polyesteramides PNOBDME (C34H38N2O6)n, Poly[oxy(1,2-dodecane)-oxy-carbonyl-1,4-phenylene-amine-carbonyl-1,4-phenylene-carbonyl-amine-1,4-phenylene-carbonyl], and PNOBEE (C26H22N2O6)n, Poly[oxy(1,2-butylene)-oxy-carbonyl-1,4-phenylene-amine-carbonyl-1,4-phenylene-carbonyl-amine-1,4-phenylene-carbonyl], have been designed and synthesized as cholesteric liquid crystals (LCs)—through a condensation reaction between 4- 4′-(terephthaloyl-diaminedibenzoic chloride) (NOBC) and racemic glycol, DL-1,2-dodecanediol or DL-1,2-butanediol, respectively—as chemical modifications of multifunctional cholesteric LC polyesters, involving new properties but holding the precursor helical macromolecular structures. The new compounds have been characterized by 1H and 13C-NMR, COSY and HSQC, exhibiting two 1H-independent sets of signals observed for each enantiomer, attributed to two diastereomeric conformers, gg and gt, of the torsion containing the asymmetric carbon atom in the spacer. They have also been characterized by x-ray diffraction with synchrotron radiation source. Thermal behaviour of the new compounds is studied by thermogravimetric (TG) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis. The substitution of the ester groups in the mesogen by amide groups causes an increase of thermal stability with respect to the precursors. Optical rotatory dispersion (ORD) is evaluated. Morphology of powdered PNOBDME exhibits spherical clusters of about 5 μm in diameter homogeneously dispersed. Molecular models show helical polymeric chains with stereoregular head-tail, isotactic structure, explained as due to the higher reactivity of the primary hydroxyl with respect to the secondary one in the glycol through the polycondensation reaction. Besides being biocompatible, these synthetic polyesteramides have proved to act as non-viral vectors in gene therapy and be able to transfect DNA to the nucleus cell. Similar new cationic cholesteric liquid crystal polyesters have also been synthesized in our laboratory.",book:{id:"7965",slug:"liquid-crystals-and-display-technology",title:"Liquid Crystals and Display Technology",fullTitle:"Liquid Crystals and Display Technology"},signatures:"Mercedes Pérez Méndez and José Fayos Alcañiz",authors:[{id:"205972",title:"Dr.",name:"Mercedes",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez Méndez",slug:"mercedes-perez-mendez",fullName:"Mercedes Pérez Méndez"},{id:"316150",title:"Prof.",name:"José",middleName:null,surname:"Fayos Alcañíz",slug:"jose-fayos-alcaniz",fullName:"José Fayos Alcañíz"}]},{id:"72382",title:"Introductory Chapter: Nematic Liquid Crystals",slug:"introductory-chapter-nematic-liquid-crystals",totalDownloads:657,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"7965",slug:"liquid-crystals-and-display-technology",title:"Liquid Crystals and Display Technology",fullTitle:"Liquid Crystals and Display Technology"},signatures:"Irina Carlescu",authors:[{id:"258032",title:"Prof.",name:"Irina",middleName:null,surname:"Carlescu",slug:"irina-carlescu",fullName:"Irina Carlescu"}]},{id:"57062",title:"Optical Properties of Complex Oxide Thin Films Obtained by Pulsed Laser Deposition",slug:"optical-properties-of-complex-oxide-thin-films-obtained-by-pulsed-laser-deposition",totalDownloads:1527,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The market for thin films of complex oxides obtained by different deposition techniques is increasing exponentially in last decades due to large variety of possible application such as high-efficient solar cell, optoelectronic devices, etc. pulsed laser deposition (PLD) is a versatile growth technique and recently became more attractive for industrial applications due to the possibility to obtain crystalline thin films on a large area. Laser processing techniques were successfully used to obtain thin films with good optical properties starting from simple oxides, such as Sm2O3, ZrO2, etc., to more complex lead-free materials: SrxBa1−xNb2O6 (SBN) and Na1/2Bi1/2TiO3−x%BaTiO3, or superconductive oxide YBa2Cu3O7−δ. When oxide thin films are designated for electronic and optoelectronic devices or for solar cells, the optical properties and the thickness must be well known. For this purpose, the spectroscopic ellipsometry technique was developed. Ellipsometry is a powerful technique to determine the optical properties of thin films especially when the thicknesses of thin films are in a nanometer range.",book:{id:"6059",slug:"laser-ablation-from-fundamentals-to-applications",title:"Laser Ablation",fullTitle:"Laser Ablation - From Fundamentals to Applications"},signatures:"Valentin Ion, Andreea Andrei, Maria Dinescu and Nicu Doinel\nScarisoreanu",authors:[{id:"32241",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Dinescu",slug:"maria-dinescu",fullName:"Maria Dinescu"},{id:"156567",title:"MSc.",name:"Andreea",middleName:null,surname:"Andrei",slug:"andreea-andrei",fullName:"Andreea Andrei"},{id:"181341",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentin",middleName:null,surname:"Ion",slug:"valentin-ion",fullName:"Valentin Ion"},{id:"181362",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicu D.",middleName:null,surname:"Scarisoreanu",slug:"nicu-d.-scarisoreanu",fullName:"Nicu D. Scarisoreanu"}]},{id:"56891",title:"Multi-Beam Multi-Target Pulsed Laser Deposition of AZO Films with Polymer Nanoparticles for Thermoelectric Energy Harvesters",slug:"multi-beam-multi-target-pulsed-laser-deposition-of-azo-films-with-polymer-nanoparticles-for-thermoel",totalDownloads:1389,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In comparison with metallic thermoelectric films, oxide films with artificial nanodefects have been seldom studied. And there has been no report on the incorporation of island-shaped organic nanoparticles. We describe a new approach to introduce nanometer-sized phonon scatterers in aluminum-doped ZnO (AZO) thermoelectric thin films–concurrent multi-beam multi-target-pulsed laser deposition and the matrix-assisted pulsed laser evaporation (MBMT-PLD/MAPLE). The approach was used to make nanocomposite thin films of AZO matrix with evenly dispersed poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) nanoparticles. The introduction of the nanoparticles enhanced phonon scattering with consequent decrease of thermal conductivity by 20%. The electrical conductivity did not decrease after the addition of the second phase, as it would be predicted by Wiedemann-Franz law, but improved by 350% over pure AZO film. The thermoelectric figure of merit of the nanocomposite film became twice that of the pure AZO film. Taking advantage of room-temperature deposition, optimized AZO nanocomposite films are expected to be used in real applications, such as thin film modules deposited on flexible polymeric substrates for ubiquitous harvesting of the waste heat.",book:{id:"6059",slug:"laser-ablation-from-fundamentals-to-applications",title:"Laser Ablation",fullTitle:"Laser Ablation - From Fundamentals to Applications"},signatures:"Abdalla M. Darwish, Sergey S. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:48,paginationItems:[{id:"81799",title:"Cross Talk of Purinergic and Immune Signaling: Implication in Inflammatory and Pathogenic Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104978",signatures:"Richa Rai",slug:"cross-talk-of-purinergic-and-immune-signaling-implication-in-inflammatory-and-pathogenic-diseases",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81764",title:"Involvement of the Purinergic System in Cell Death in Models of Retinopathies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103935",signatures:"Douglas Penaforte Cruz, Marinna Garcia Repossi and Lucianne Fragel Madeira",slug:"involvement-of-the-purinergic-system-in-cell-death-in-models-of-retinopathies",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81756",title:"Alteration of Cytokines Level and Oxidative Stress Parameters in COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104950",signatures:"Marija Petrusevska, Emilija Atanasovska, Dragica Zendelovska, Aleksandar Eftimov and Katerina Spasovska",slug:"alteration-of-cytokines-level-and-oxidative-stress-parameters-in-covid-19",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"81681",title:"Immunomodulatory Effects of a M2-Conditioned Medium (PRS® CK STORM): Theory on the Possible Complex Mechanism of Action through Anti-Inflammatory Modulation of the TLR System and the Purinergic System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104486",signatures:"Juan Pedro Lapuente",slug:"immunomodulatory-effects-of-a-m2-conditioned-medium-prs-ck-storm-theory-on-the-possible-complex-mech",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:27,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science and Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013. She relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the National Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to October 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is currently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology – Kandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI) Ambassador to Sri Lanka.",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. 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He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. 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After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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