Annual renewable energy resources and human use of energy.
\r\n\t1. Emphasizing the unique power of the molecular docking method in new drug discovery;
\r\n\t2. Demonstration of how the molecular docking technique has led to the discovery of new molecules in cancer therapy, proteasome, and STAT3 inhibition, and the treatment of Alzheimer's disease;
\r\n\t3. Underlining the importance of molecular docking-based modeling methods in the various branches of biotechnology
\r\n\tWe hope that this book will be a common point where researchers working in the fields of life sciences and drug development will eventually meet.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-468-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-467-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-469-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"8c918a1973786c7059752b28601f1329",bookSignature:"Dr. Erman Salih Istifli",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11451.jpg",keywords:"Protein-Ligand Interaction, Lead Discovery, Molecular Recognition, Enzyme-Ligand Interaction, Mutant Enzymes, Alanine Screening, Proteasome Inhibitors, Signal Transducers, Transcription Activators (STATs), DNA Recognition Motifs, Neoplastic Cells, Amyloid-Beta Proteins",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 3rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 4th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 3rd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 21st 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 20th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A multidisciplinary researcher working in the fields of cytogenetics, molecular genetics, and bioinformatics-based molecular modeling (currently on the structural biology of COVID-19 and the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease). Dr. Istifli previously joined the molecular cytogenetics group at the Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics in Berlin, Germany where he contributed experimentally to the identification of four candidate genes (GRIA2, GLRB, NPY1R, and NPY5R).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"179007",title:"Dr.",name:"Erman Salih",middleName:null,surname:"Istifli",slug:"erman-salih-istifli",fullName:"Erman Salih Istifli",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/179007/images/system/179007.JPG",biography:"Dr. Erman Salih İstifli received his Ph.D. from Biology Department of Cukurova University, Insitute of Science and Letter. In his doctoral study, Dr. İstifli focused on the elucidation of the genotoxic and cytotoxic effects of a commonly used anticancer agent (antifolate) on human lymphocytes. During his period of doctoral research, he joined the molecular cytogenetics group at the Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics in Berlin, Germany, and he focused there on investigating the molecular cytogenetic causes of some human rare diseases. During these studies, he contributed experimentally to the identification of four candidate genes (GRIA2, GLRB, NPY1R, and NPY5R) responsible for intelligence and obesity. He was assigned as an expert and rapporteur on eight candidate projects in the Marie-Sklodowska Curie-Actions Innovative Training Networks in 2016. In 2017, he completed the online theoretical and practical course 'Introduction to Biology - The Secret of Life', run by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) on the edX platform. In April 2019, within the framework of Erasmus+ staff mobility program, he gave seminars on 'DNA microarrays and their use in genotoxicity' at Tirana University in Tirana, Albania. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"68372",title:"Technical Requirements for Connecting Solar Power Plants to Electricity Networks",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88439",slug:"technical-requirements-for-connecting-solar-power-plants-to-electricity-networks",body:'The share of renewable resources for generating electric energy is increasing worldwide to cope with increasing demand. Current generation expansion plans of various countries expect increasing share of renewable energy resources in the electricity generation mix. By 2020, utilities set a target to reach a ratio of 20% renewable energy of the total energy required for electricity generation. Other utilities forecasted a higher share reaching about 50% by 2050. Wind energy and solar energy are the most promising resources and proven to be efficient in real applications with decreasing competitive costs of generated electric energy. The increasing share of renewable energies to be integrated to electric power systems has resulted in technical issues such as power quality requirements, capacity limits, safety measures, security, protection systems, synchronization process, lower system inertia, etc.
Electricity regulator authorities and electric utilities have issued necessary regulation rules for connecting sources of renewable energy to power networks at distribution and transmission levels according to the source capacity. A general overview of grid connection codes for integrating photovoltaic (PV) power plants to grids is presented in [1]. It presents a useful survey of grid codes, regulations, and technical requirements for connecting PV systems to low-voltage and medium-voltage networks, including issues of power quality and anti-islanding. An interesting guide dealing with PV interconnection requirements [2] has been developed and issued by the Interstate Renewable Energy Council, North Carolina Solar Center, USA. The guide covers all steps required for connecting a small-scale renewable energy system to the electricity network, including technical, contractual, rates, and metering issues. PV connection codes to medium-voltage power grid in Germany are discussed in [3]. A comparison of the processes of connecting PV systems in Germany and California is explored in [4]. Standards developed by the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET) named “Code of Practice for Grid Connected Solar Photovoltaic Systems” are available in [5]. In South Africa, the National Energy Regulator has approved the “Grid Connection Code for Renewable Power Plants Connected to the Electricity Transmission System or the Distribution System” as detailed in [6]. Generally, utilities around the world either modify their grid codes to include technical requirements for integrating renewable energy resources to grids or issue separate but complementary codes for renewable resources.
This chapter describes the technical design specifications and criteria, technical terms, and equipment parameters for successful connection and operation of medium- and large-scale solar energy systems to the electricity networks in Egypt. The aim is to provide basic information and background on the technical design specification and criteria, in addition to technical terms and equipment parameters that are required to connect solar power plants to the electricity networks. Connection and successful operation of a solar power plant must satisfy the requirements of the Solar Energy Grid Connection Code (SEGCC) [7], and in the meantime the solar energy producer should comply with the requirements of the Electricity Distribution Code (EDC) [8]/Grid Code (GC) [9], according to the case of connection the MV distribution network/the HV transmission network.
The SEGCC specifies the special requirements for connecting both Medium-Scale Solar Plants (MSSPs) and Large-Scale Solar Plants (LSSPs) to the distribution networks or to the transmission network according to the capacity of the solar power plant. The capacity of MSSPs’ range is from 500 kW to less than 20 MW. The LSSP range is greater than or equal to 20 MW. MSSPs may be connected either to the MV distribution networks or to the HV transmission networks. However, LSSPs are normally connected to the HV or extra-HV transmission networks. Successful integration of a MSSP shall comply with the technical requirements of both the SEGCC and the EDC, when connected to the distribution networks (or the GC when connected to the transmission network level). Similarly, the connection of a LSSP to the HV/EHV transmission networks shall satisfy the technical requirements of both the SEGCC and the GC. Technical requirements and terms stipulated in these codes should be clearly understandable in order to properly implement the rules and procedures of theses codes.
The EDC consists of the technical regulation rules and procedures to control technical and legal relationships between the licensed distribution system operator (DSO) and all users of the distribution network. The GC specifies the rules and procedures in order to control technical and legal relationships between the transmission system operator (TSO) and the users of the transmission network. The aim of the codes is to ascertain the obligations and responsibilities of each partner, i.e., TSO, DSO, and all users, namely, electricity producers, bulk-load customers, MV/LV subscribers, etc. This will result in maintaining optimal power system operation, enhanced system security, and higher reliability.
The stipulated technical specifications of connecting MSSPs and LSSPs to the distribution networks or to the transmission network comprise the permitted limits of voltage and frequency variations in addition to power quality evaluation criteria such as limits of phase unbalance, limits of total and individual harmonic distortions, and limits of flicker severity. Operational limits and capability of solar power plants will be explained and discussed in this chapter.
It is important to mention here that the technical requirements for connecting small-scale photovoltaic (ssPV) systems to the low-voltage distribution networks are specified in the ssPV connection code [10]. Even though the ssPV code is considered to be all the complementary documents that involve compulsory requirements for a LV subscriber seeking installation of ssPV system, the subscriber shall also satisfy the technical requirements of the EDC. For more details, interested readers may refer to [11] for exploring technical background of connecting ssPV systems to LV distribution networks in Egypt.
The remainder of the chapter is structured as follows: Section 2 discusses briefly basic solar energy systems; Section 3 presents the codes of connecting solar power plants to electric grids in Egypt; Section 4 describes the technical requirements and criteria for connecting medium- and large-scale solar parks to the MV distribution networks or to the HV/EHV transmission networks; Section 5 briefly reviews terms and criteria of power quality referred to in the SEGCC; Section 6 presents comparisons of some rules of PV grid connection codes of three countries, namely, the UK, Germany, and Egypt; Section 7 summarizes the main conclusions and recommendations; and the Appendix at the end of the chapter lists the main IEC technical specification standards for solar park grid connection codes.
Solar energy is the radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using solar heating, photovoltaics (PV), concentrated solar power (CSP), solar architecture, and artificial photosynthesis. Solar power is the conversion of the energy from sunlight into electricity, either directly using PV, indirectly using CSP, or a combination. The Sun is 1.3914 million km in diameter, and the radiated electromagnetic energy rate is 3.8 × 1020 MW. Table 1 shows yearly renewable energy (RE) resources and human consumption. Figure 1 shows the world annual solar insolation [12].
Yearly RE resources and human use of energy (EJ) | |
---|---|
Solar energy | 3,850,000 |
Wind energy | 2250 |
Biomass energy (potential) | Circa 200 |
Primary energy use (in year 2016) | Circa 557 |
Electricity generation (in year 2016) | Circa 89 |
Annual renewable energy resources and human use of energy.
Exajoule (EJ) = 1018, J = 278 TWh.
Annual solar insolation worldwide [
As shown in Figure 1, Egypt is one of the countries that possess the highest solar insolation. Figure 2 shows the average direct solar radiation in kWh/m2/day in various regions in Egypt [11]. It can be noted that the southern regions have higher solar radiation than northern coastal regions. The region which has the highest solar radiation (>9.0 kWh/m2/day) is shown in yellow in the figure.
Egypt solar atlas [
Figure 3 shows the existing 1500 MW solar PV power plant located in Tengger Desert in China. It has been considered the largest PV power park in the world until now. Currently, Egypt is constructing a solar power plant of 1800/2000 MW in Benban near Aswan [13]. It will comprise 40 PV stations of about 50 MW each. Figure 4 shows an aerial view of part of the Benban PV solar power park [14]. Upon completion, Benban will be the worlds’ largest PV power plant without energy storage.
1500 MW Tengger Desert solar power plant in China.
Aerial view of under construction Benban PV power plant in Egypt [
Recent high concentration PV system is being developed by the IBM and the Air Light Energy Solutions using a parabolic dish to concentrate sunlight up to 2000 times onto new triple junction solar PV system. Each small (1 × 1 cm) chip can convert 50 W at 80% conversion efficiency, using liquid cooling process. Figure 5 shows the concept of this new PV technology employing a tracking system to follow the sun.
High-concentration PV system [
Figure 6 shows the existing world’s largest CSP plant (Ivanpah) located in California, in the Desert of Nevada in the USA. The installed capacity of this CSP plant is 392 MW [16]. The plant was commissioned in year 2014. Other larger CSP plants are currently under development in different countries. For example, Morocco’s Ouarzazate solar power plant [17] will deliver about 580 MW of power once it is accomplished in year 2020. Also, Dubai authorities approved a CSP project to generate 1000 MW by 2020 and to be upgraded to 5000 MW by 2030.
Ivanpah: the largest CSP plant in the world [
Figure 7 shows the existing world’s largest parabolic-trough solar energy generating systems located in Mojave Desert in California, USA. Its capacity is 354 MW and includes 1600 acres. It was built in stages (1984–1990). The average capacity factor of this solar power plant is about 21%.
Largest parabolic-trough concentrated solar system.
The concept of the solar updraft tower power plant (or solar chimney) [18] is shown in Figure 8. The solar chimney comprises four main parts, namely, the air collector, a tall tower, wind turbines, and an electric generator. The collector is suspended above the ground at a height of 2–20 m surrounding the tower. The solar radiation incident on the collector warms the air beneath the collector and makes it hotter than the outside air. The warmed air is drawn up through the tower, passing the wind turbine which is installed at the bottom of the tower base. The motion of air rotates the turbine and its associated electric generator.
Concept of solar chimney.
Compared to PV systems, the solar chimney has the advantage of the possibility of operation 24 h a day even after sunset, thus overcoming the intermittency drawback of solar power. The available warm air beneath the collector can continuously operate the wind turbine and electric generator at night.
Figures 9 and 10 show the development of global solar energy generation from photovoltaic and concentrated solar power plants, respectively, up to year 2035 [19].
Global energy generation from PV systems [
Global energy generation from CSP plants [
Two codes have been issued in Egypt for connecting solar power plants to electricity networks:
The first one is ssPV code which stipulates the special requirements for the connecting small-scale photovoltaic systems (with rating < 500 kW) to low-voltage distribution networks [10].
The second is the Solar Energy Grid Connection Code (SEGCC) which stipulates the technical requirements for connecting medium-scale (with capacity 500 kW to less than 20 MW) and large-scale (with capacity greater than or equal to 20 MW) solar power plants to the medium-voltage distribution networks or to the transmission grid.
The Grid Code (GC) in Egypt [9] defines the extra-high voltage (EHV) levels to be above 132 kV, the high voltage (HV) from 33 kV up to 132 kV, and medium voltage (MV) from 11 kV up to 22 kV. The solar plant grid connection codes are related to the following codes:
The Electricity Distribution Code (EDC) [8] which sets out the rules and procedures to regulate the relationship between the distribution utilities and users of the electricity distribution networks.
The Egyptian Transmission System Code, commonly known as the “Grid Code” [9]. It sets out technical and legal relationships between the transmission system operator and the users of the transmission grid. The users are electricity production companies, distribution system companies, and bulk customers who are directly supplied from the transmission grid, etc.
In addition to the above codes, there is the “Wind Farm Grid Connection Code” [20] which concerns with the rules and procedures for connecting wind energy conversion systems to the transmission grid. The above five codes are shown in Figure 11. For instance, the wind grid farm connection code and the Grid Code are two complementary codes that should be fulfilled for connecting a wind farm to the transmission system.
Association of various codes in Egypt.
The solar energy code and the Grid Code are two complementary technical documents that should be satisfied for connecting a solar power plant to the grid. The aim of the solar energy grid connection code is to stipulate the technical requirements for connecting solar energy resources either new or modified to the grid, so that security and quality of the grid are guaranteed.
The solar energy grid connection code specifies the special requirements for connecting solar energy plants to the MV distribution networks or HV/EHV transmission network. The technical requirements include permitted limits of voltage and frequency variations in addition to power quality limits such as of phase unbalance limits, harmonic distortion limits, and flicker severity limits. The code specifies also the operational limits of solar power plants to be integrated into the grid, plant capability requirements, active and reactive power control systems, safety measures, protection settings, synchronization, etc. The solar energy connection code shall apply to all medium-scale and large-scale solar power plants (either PV parks or solar thermal power plants) to be connected to the transmission grid. For connecting small-scale PV systems with capacity <500 kW to the LV distribution networks, we refer the reader to the small-scale PV (ssPV) code [10].
The “point of common coupling (PCC)” is a point at which solar power plant is connected to the grid. It is sometimes called the “grid connection point (GCP).” The PCC is usually the connection point at the high-voltage terminals of the generator step-up transformer; it is generally located at the grid side of the isolating switch between the solar power plant and the grid. Normally, the solar energy grid connection code specifies the following technical requirements at the PCC.
The grid-connected solar power plant shall be able to deliver its actual active power when the voltage at the point of common coupling remains within the ranges shown in Table 2. If required by the transmission system operator, the solar plant shall be also capable of automatically disconnecting from the grid at specified voltages.
Range of voltage (pu) | Time of operation |
---|---|
0.85–1.10 | Unlimited |
1.10–1.15 | 30 min |
Range of voltage at the PCC.
In the case of a deviation of the grid frequency from its permissible value, the solar power plant shall perform as follows:
If the frequency is <50 Hz, the solar plant shall continue injecting active power until the frequency reduces below 47.5 Hz.
For over-frequency between 50 and 50.2 Hz, the solar power plant shall maintain the 100% of active power.
If the frequency is >50.2 Hz, the solar power plant shall inject active power up to 51.5 Hz.
The solar power plant shall only be connected to the power grid if the frequency and the voltage at the PCC are within the limits given in Table 3 or as otherwise stated in the Connection Agreement (CA) between the transmission system operator and the owner of solar power plant.
Frequency | 48.0 Hz ≤ f ≤ 51.0 Hz |
Voltage | 0.90 u ≤ U ≤ 1.10 pu |
Limits of voltage and frequency during the start-up of a solar plant.
During the start-up of a solar power plant, the active power increasing rate shall not exceed 10% (of the rated active power of the plant) per minute.
The solar plants connected to the power grid shall endeavor to maintain the quality of the voltage waveform at the PCC. The solar power plants shall comply with the requirements specified in Section 5.3 of the Performance Code of the Grid Code and/or the related part in the Electricity Distribution Code.
The maximum harmonic distortion levels at the PCC which are attributable to the solar power plant shall obey the stipulations in the IEEE Standard 519-1992 as specified in Section 5.3.7 of Performance Code and/or the applicable section in the Electricity Distribution Code.
It is well known that a linear load, such as incandescent lamps or heaters, draws electric current from the source proportional to the applied voltage, while a nonlinear load such as an adjustable-speed drive draws currents apart from the voltage wave. The current of the nonlinear load comprises odd harmonics (third, fifth, seventh, etc.). The distortion effect of the third harmonic component is shown in Figure 12. Components of harmonic currents will interact with source currents, thus causing voltage harmonics. The voltage harmonic components are superimposed on the fundamental voltage component leading to a distorted voltage waveform. It may be mathematically described by the Fourier form Eq. (1):
Effect of the third harmonic.
where
The total harmonic distortion in voltage (THDv) and current (THDi) are defined as follows:
The flow of harmonic currents in electrical equipment can cause problems such as heating of equipment, overloading neutral line, wrong tripping of circuit breakers, increasing skin effect, etc. Hence, electricity codes specify appropriate limitations on the total and individual harmonics in the grids. The solar energy grid connection code defines the limits of the individual and total harmonic distortion of voltage and current waveforms at the PCC as listed in Tables 4–7 in accordance with the IEEE Standard 519-1992. The updated version of this standard (IEEE Standard 519-2014) has introduced new two rows as given in Tables 4 and 7. We recommend using the updated version of the standard.
Level of voltage | Harmonic voltage distortion level (%) | |
---|---|---|
Odd harmonic limits | Total harmonic limits | |
V ≤ 1 kV | 5.0 | 8.0 |
1 kV < V ≤ 69 kV | 3.0 | 5.0 |
69 kV < V ≤ 161 kV | 1.5 | 2.5 |
V > 161 kV | 1.0 | 1.5 |
The first row for (V ≤ 1 kV) has been introduced in the IEEE Standard 519-2014. |
Limits of harmonic voltage distortion.
Short circuit ratio | Maximum integer harmonic current distortion as percentage of IL | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Odd harmonic distortion** | TDD | |||||
ISC/IL | <11 | ≥11 to <17 | ≥17 to<23 | ≥23 to <35 | ≥35 | |
<20* | 4.0 | 2.0 | 1.5 | 0.6 | 0.3 | 5 |
20 < 50 | 7.0 | 3.0 | 2.5 | 1.0 | 0.5 | 8 |
50 < 100 | 10.0 | 4.5 | 4.0 | 1.5 | 0.7 | 12 |
100 < 1000 | 12.0 | 5.5 | 5.0 | 2.0 | 1.0 | 15 |
>1000 | 15.0 | 7.0 | 6.0 | 2.5 | 1.4 | 20 |
Harmonic current distortion for transmission voltage level 69 kV and below.
All power generation equipment is limited to these values of current distortion, regardless of actual ISC/IL.
The limits of even harmonics are 25% of the corresponding limits of odd harmonics listed in the table.
where ISC = the maximum short-circuit current at the PCC; IL = the maximum demand load current (fundamental frequency component) at the PCC.
Short circuit ratio | Maximum integer harmonic current distortion as percentage of IL | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Odd harmonic distortion** | TDD | |||||
ISC/IL | <11 | ≥11 to <17 | ≥17 to <23 | ≥23 to <35 | ≥35 | |
<20* | 2.0 | 1.0 | 0.75 | 0.3 | 0.15 | 2.5 |
20 < 50 | 3.5 | 1.75 | 1.25 | 0.5 | 0.25 | 4 |
50 < 100 | 5.0 | 2.25 | 2.0 | 0.75 | 0.35 | 6 |
100 < 1000 | 6.0 | 2.75 | 2.5 | 1.0 | 0.5 | 7.5 |
>1000 | 7.5 | 3.5 | 3.0 | 1.25 | 0.7 | 10 |
Harmonic current distortion for transmission voltage level above 69 kV up to 161 kV.
All power generation equipment is limited to these values of current distortion, regardless of actual ISC/IL.
The limits of even harmonics are 25% of the corresponding limits of odd harmonics listed in the table.
where, ISC = the maximum short-circuit current at the PCC; IL = the maximum demand load current (fundamental frequency component) at the PCC.
Short circuit ratio | Maximum integer harmonic current distortion as percentage of IL | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Odd harmonic distortion** | TDD | |||||
ISC/IL | <11 | ≥11 to <17 | ≥17 to <23 | ≥23 to <35 | ≥35 | |
<25* | 1.0 | 0.5 | 0.38 | 0.15 | 0.1 | 1.5 |
<50 | 2.0 | 1.0 | 0.75 | 0.3 | 0.15 | 2.5 |
≥50 | 3.0 | 1.5 | 1.15 | 0.45 | 0.22 | 3.75 |
The first row for (<25*) has been added in IEEE Standard 519-2014 |
Harmonic current distortion for transmission voltage level above 161 kV.
All power generation equipment is limited to these values of current distortion, regardless of actual ISC/IL.
The limits of even harmonics are 25% of the corresponding limits of odd harmonics listed in the table.
where, ISC = the maximum short-circuit current at the PCC; IL = the maximum demand load current (fundamental frequency component) at the PCC.
It should be noted that the harmonic distortion level may exceed the levels listed in the above tables for a period no longer than 30 s provided that such increases in harmonic distortion level do not compromise service to the users or cause damage to any equipment in the grid as determined by the TSO.
It should be also noted that the updated version IEEE Standard 519-2014 specifies the width of the window for measuring the harmonics to be 10 cycles in the 50 Hz systems, i.e., 200 ms window, as follows:
For
For
The system owner/operator should limit the line-to-neutral voltage harmonics at the PCC as follows:
The values of the daily 99th percentile very-short time (which is 3 s in the 50 Hz systems) should be <1.5 times the values given in the tables.
The values of the weekly 95th percentile short time (10 min) should be less than the values given in the tables.
For the current harmonic distortion Tables 5–7, the following points are applicable:
The daily 99th percentile very-short time harmonic currents should be <2 times the values listed in the tables.
The weekly 99th percentile short time harmonic currents should be <1.5 times the values given in the tables.
The weekly 95th percentile short time harmonic currents should be less than the values given in the tables.
Table 8 shows the limits of the flicker severity produced by a solar energy power plant at the PCC as per recommendations of the IEC 61000-3-7.
Short-term (10 min) | Pst ≤ 0.35 |
Long-term (2 h) | Plt ≤ 0.25 |
Levels of flicker severity at the PCC.
Voltage flicker at the PCC is produced by voltage variations caused by a load such as an arc furnace when spectral characteristics of the voltage variations is in the range of a fraction of a cycle per second to about one third of the system frequency. It is a characteristic where a high-frequency (
In mathematical form
Intensity of flicker is given by
where
A flicker meter has been developed by the IEC to measure flicker severity in terms of fluctuating voltage magnitude and its corresponding frequency of fluctuations. The meter employs a software technique to convert measured voltage fluctuations to the following statistical quantities:
Short-term flicker severity (PST)
Long-term flicker severity (PLT)
The flicker meter takes measurements automatically at 10-min intervals. The PST is calculated every 10 min. The flicker severity indicator PST which has a value of 1 is the level of visual flicker severity at which 50% of people would perceive flicker in a 60 W incandescent lamb. The long-term flicker severity PLT is a combination of 12 PST measurement values of 10 min each.
The voltage unbalance in the three-phase system is defined as the difference between the highest and lowest line voltage divided by the average line voltage of the system. Solar power plants shall be able to withstand voltage unbalance not exceeding 2% for at least 30 s as stipulated in part 5.3.5 of Section 5 (Performance Code) of the Grid Code and/or the relevant section in the Distribution Code.
A three-phase system is balanced if the three-phase voltages have the same amplitude and are phase-shifted by 120° with respect to each other. Otherwise, the three-phase system is unbalanced. Figure 13 shows the voltage waveforms of an unbalanced three-phase system.
Voltage waveforms of unbalanced three-phase system.
The mathematical relationships between the symmetrical components of system voltages (
According to the EN-50160 and IEC-61000-3-x Standards, the voltage unbalance (V2U) is defined as
The above standards define the following limits of voltage unbalance:
The voltage unbalance is measured as 10-min average value with an instantaneous maximum of 4%. Voltage unbalance may also be defined [21]:
In Eq. (16) only magnitudes are considered.
Subscript e means deviation from average. The causes of unbalance include generators; transformers; unbalanced impedances of long, non-transposed low-voltage lines; unbalanced load currents; single-phase loads on three-phase systems; etc. Unbalance can adversely affect motors and transformers by increasing heat and reducing their efficiencies.
Voltage fluctuations, at the PCC of a solar power plant, can occur due to switching operations inside the solar plant elements such as transformers, capacitor banks, connection circuit, etc., resulting from inrush currents. These voltage fluctuations shall be up to 3% of nominal voltage provided that the fluctuations do not compose any risk to the grid or other connected users in the view of the TSO.
Figure 14 shows the ranges of voltage, frequency, and time periods within which the solar power plant shall continue delivering actual active power to the grid at the PCC. For grid frequencies in the range from 50.2 to 51.5 Hz, the solar power plant should reduce its active output power consistent with Eq. (18) and Figure 15 providing that the voltage is within the range 0.9–1.1 pu:
Voltage, frequency, and time ranges of solar plant operation.
where
Also, in this frequency range (i.e., 50.2–51.5 Hz) and the voltage ranges (0.85–0.9 pu) or (1.1–1.15 pu), the operation with reduced active power shall be limited to 30 min. The increasing or decreasing ramp of power will be performed in steps of a 10% (each) of the maximum power.
Reduction in active power due to over-frequency.
The solar power plant must be able to control reactive power at the PCC in a range of 0.95 lagging power factor to 0.95 leading power at the maximum active power of the plant and in consistent with Figure 16 for the MSSPs and Figure 17 for the LSSPs. The solar power plant must be able to perform reactive power control as follows:
Set-point control of reactive power (
Set-point control of power factor
Fixed power factor
Characteristic: power factor as a function of active power output of the solar power plant, i.e.,
Characteristic: reactive power as a function of voltage, i.e.,
P-Q capability chart for MSSPs.
P-Q capability chart for LSSPs.
The solar power plant must possess an input signal for a set-point value at the PCC in order to control the reactive power or power factor of the plant. It is able to receive the set point within reactive power accuracy of 1 kVAr. The set-point signal will be provided by the TSO through verbal communication or SCADA, whichever is available. The solar power plant must follow the set-point signal of the TSO within 1 min. When the solar power plant operates at an active power output below its rated capacity, it shall be able to be operated in every possible operating point in the P-Q capability chart for plant size MSSP as shown in Figure 16 and LSSP as shown in Figure 17. It should be noted that for LSSPs, even at zero active power output, reactive power injection at the PCC shall fully correspond to the P-Q capability chart taking into account the power requirements of auxiliary services, transformers’ losses, and solar plant cabling.
The maximum values of the capacitive and inductive reactive power in Figures 16 and 17 are calculated from the nominal generation capacity of the solar power plant and the power factor limit of 0.95 leading and lagging. Using capacitors and/or reactors to meet the requirements of the P-Q chart at the PCC is acceptable.
The SEGCC stipulates that, in case of a grid fault, the grid-connected solar power plant has to remain connected to the grid when the positive-sequence voltage at the PCC is above the curve shown in Figure 18. This defines the ability of the solar power plant to ride through the grid fault without disconnection from the grid. If all line-to-line voltages are below the curve shown in Figure 18, the solar power plant shall disconnect from the grid.
Low voltage ride-through curve of solar plants.
During this temporary voltage sag, the solar power plant must satisfy the following reactive power (or reactive current) requirement: in the case of a three-phase fault, the solar power plant must be able to inject reactive current in accordance with the curve shown in Figure 19, and satisfying Eqs. (19) and (20) for the time period of 250 ms started at the beginning of the fault and continue until clearing the fault.
Requirement of reactive current injection during the fault (k = 2).
Figure 19 shows the minimum reactive current required for the solar power plant during the fault. It is represented as the ratio of the reactive current to the nominal plant reactive current against the voltage drop which is represented as the ratio of the actual voltage to the nominal voltage at the PCC. All currents and voltages are in pu.
The following Eqs. (19) and (20) describe the required injected current during the fault:
If
If
If
If
where
In Eq. (19), the factor k shall be adjustable within the range of 0–4. In the case of unsymmetrical faults, it is not permitted to feed reactive currents to the grid during a fault which will cause rise to voltages higher than 110% of the nominal voltage at the PCC in the non-faulty phases. After fault clearance, the active power output from the solar power plant must reach the same value as that of pre-fault value within a period of 10 s after clearing the fault, and the reactive power consumption of the solar power plant must be less than or equal to the reactive power consumption before occurrence of the fault.
Solar energy grid connection codes may be issued as national standards in various countries or by transmission and distribution system operators [22]. These solar energy grid connection codes may be included in the relevant codes or issued separately as a complementary part. For example, the German Association of Energy and Water Industries issued new grid codes for integration of generating power plants to medium-voltage networks. Directives have been released in Germany for connecting electric generation power plants to medium-voltage and low-voltage grids [3]. The directives were based on the results of developing the German Grid Code for integrating renewable power plants into the high-voltage electricity grid [23]. The scope of the directives includes wind power plants, hydroelectric plants, PV solar generating systems, and combined heat and power plants.
In the UK, the Operations Directorate of Energy Networks Association has issued the Engineering Recommendation G83 [24] titled “Recommendations for connecting small-scale type tested embedded generators (up to 16 A/phase, i.e., 11.04 kW three-phase) in parallel with LV distribution systems.” The Engineering Recommendation G59 [25] deals with generating plants greater than 11.04 kW up to 50 kW (three-phase). The rules of these engineering recommendations are applicable to all generation power plants irrespective of the type of electric generator and equipment employed for converting energy source into electricity.
The technical and design criteria required for connecting all types of distributed generation power plant are generally set out in the “Distribution Planning and Connection Code” of the UK distribution code [26] and in the “Connection Conditions Code” of the UK Grid Code [27].
In the USA, code standards, guides, and rules for PV systems are available [28, 29, 30, 31, 32]. The IEEE has issued a number of standards for integration of distributed energy resources (DERs) into power grids. The IEEE-1547 Standard series concerns with connecting DERs, including PV systems, among others, to electric power systems. The IEEE-2030 series of standards is issued to help implement communications and information technologies to enhance integration of DER with the grid. The National Electrical Code (NEC) Article 690 addresses safety standards for installing PV systems. Other NEC articles may also be applicable to PV installations. The Underwriters Laboratories (UL) Standard-1741 concerns with DER equipment including inverters, converters, and controllers. Standards and technical requirements for solar equipment, installation, etc. are available as guides for states and municipalities [28]. A joint report produced by the North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) and the California Independent System Operator (CAISO) provides information to maintain power system reliability while integrating variable energy resources, mainly wind and PV systems [29]. Large PV power plants are normally connected to the transmission grid [30]. Recently in 2019, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) published two useful guide books for DER interconnection including current practices and emerging solutions [31] and permitting guide book for small solar systems [32].
As discussed in detail in previous sections of this book chapter, electricity authorities in Egypt have issued complementary documents to the Grid Code and distribution code for connecting solar systems to grids.
Comparisons of some rules in PV grid connection codes of Germany [1, 3, 22], the UK [1, 22], [24, 25, 26, 27], the USA [28, 29, 30, 31, 32], and Egypt [7, 8, 9, 10, 11], [33] are presented here. The comparisons include power and frequency control rules and reactive power control rules. Detailed comparisons are available in [1, 3, 22].
The main reason for the active power control is to ensure a stable frequency. Table 9 summarizes the comparison between active power and frequency control rules in the relevant PV grid connection codes of the four countries, the UK, Germany, the USA, and Egypt.
Code | Requirements in the code |
---|---|
UK Distribution Code | Be able to control the active power for frequency regulations (installed capacity 50 MW) |
Germany grid codes for connecting PV systems to the medium-voltage power grid | Be capable of operation at reduced power output (if PCC rated voltage 10 kV) In above system frequency of 50.2 Hz, all generators have to reduce their output power with a gradient of 40%/Hz of the instantaneous available power The output power of the generator is only allowed to increase again as soon as the frequency reduces below 50.05 Hz |
CAISO, USA | It is required that the solar plant be capable of providing a frequency response with 5 and 3% droop settings through its governor-like control loop. The definition of the PV plant droop control is the same as that of conventional generating units: The dead band of the droop curve is ±36 mHz |
Egyptian Solar Energy Plants Grid Connection Code | For grid frequencies in the range from 50.2 to 51.5 Hz, the solar plant has to reduce active power (installed capacity from 500 to 50 MW) The output power must be reduced by Δ The output power is allowed to increase again as soon as the frequency is below 50.2 Hz |
Comparison of active power and frequency control.
Consumption and generation of reactive power must be matched in order to maintain a stable system voltage. Table 10 presents comparison of reactive power control requirements in PV grid connection codes.
Code | Requirements in the code |
---|---|
Germany grid codes for connecting PV systems to the medium-voltage power grid | In the event of voltage drop of more than 10% the reactive current contribution of at least 2% of the rated current per percent of the voltage drop, the facility must be capable of feeding the required reactive power within 20 ms |
USA: requirements for reactive power control of PV power plants | FERC Order 661-A may be applied to PV power plants, and the required power factor range is ±0.95 measured at the Point of Interconnection (POI). It is also required that the PV power plant be capable of providing sufficient dynamic voltage support to guarantee reliability and safety of the system CAISO reactive power requirement stipulates a voltage operation window for PV power plants to provide reactive power at 0.95 pf lagging when voltage level at the POI is within 0.95–1 pu. Also, the PV plant should be able to absorb reactive power at 0.95 pf leading when voltage level at the POI is within the range of 1–1.05 pu |
Egyptian Solar Energy Plants Grid Connection Code | For three-phase faults, the solar power plant must inject reactive current for a time period of 250 ms after the beginning of the fault until fault clearance For unsymmetrical faults, it is not permissible that during the duration of the fault, reactive currents be fed into the grid which will give rise to voltages higher than 110% nominal voltage in non-faulty phases at the grid connection point Reactive power of the solar power plant must be equal to or below the consumption of reactive power before the fault |
Egyptian Technical Requirements for Connecting Small-Scale PV (ssPV) Systems to Low-Voltage Distribution Networks | “Power factor: The ssPV shall not inject reactive power into the utility network, while the drain of reactive power shall be limited to a power factor of 0.9. This limit applies unless otherwise agreed upon with the utility.” The ssPV consumes reactive power |
Comparison of reactive power control.
This chapter has explored technical design specifications, criteria, technical terms, and equipment parameters required to connect Medium-Scale and Large-Scale Solar Plants (MSSP and LSSP) to the electricity networks. The specifications, terms, and parameters have been extracted from the connection code of the MSSP and LSSP, Electricity Distribution Code, and Grid Code. Technical background of these specifications has been discussed in detail. Comparisons of some important rules in the PV grid connection codes of the UK, Germany, the USA, and Egypt have been described. The technical specifications and design criteria presented here are of great importance for planning, design, installations, testing, commissioning and operation, and engineers working in the field of connecting MSSP and LSSP systems to the transmission or distribution grids.
It is recommended to refer to the full versions of the concerned codes to comply with detailed grid connection requirements and successful operation of the solar power systems. Academic researchers are advised to follow the requirements of utility codes in performing research works related to integrating solar power plants into grids.
In the stages of designing, manufacturing, and installation of the solar power plant components, relevant international standards must be satisfied. As an example in Egypt, various IEC standards used for these purposes are listed in Table 11. All components shall meet the ranges and the operational requirements stipulated in the MSSP and LSSP solar plant connection codes. The solar power plant should be equipped with a synchronizing unit with a proper phase-locked loop to keep the inverter synchronized with the grid to deliver the right amount of power within permissible operational frequency and voltage variations. The rating and short-circuit duties of the switchgear shall comply with the Grid Code requirements. The power transformer efficiency shall be greater than or equal to 96%.
Solar plant components | IEC standards |
---|---|
Power transformer | IEC Standard 60076 IEC Standard 60085 for electrical insulation and IEC Standard 60214 for tap changer |
AC switchgear | IEC Standard 62271 |
Inverter | IEC Standard 62109-2 IEC Standard 62116 |
Cabling and accessories in the site | IEC Standard 60227 series for LV (below 1 kV) IEC Standard 60502 series for HV installations |
All relevant components | IEC Standard 60068-2 series for basic environmental tests, at least for IEC Standard 60068-2/1 cold, /2 dry, /14 change of temperature, and /30 damp heat |
Site implementation | IEC Standard 60,364 series |
IEC standards for components of solar power plants in Egypt.
To enable visibility and control, the solar power plant shall be equipped with monitoring and security facilities having remote access communications means. The remote monitoring and controlling, telecommunications equipment, and the communication links shall comply with the requirements of the Grid Code and the distribution code as requirements of relevant case. The SEGCC contains details of specifications of real-time data, measuring, monitoring, and control equipment. The measurements include active power (kW), reactive power (kVAr), active energy (kWh), reactive energy (kVArh), voltages, currents, frequency, solar irradiance, temperature, and voltage and current harmonic distortions (THDv and THDi). The solar power plant shall provide all status signals, including transformer tap position, circuit breakers, disconnectors and earth switches, telecommunication alarms, protection signals at the grid side, inverter, etc. Also, set points of active power, reactive power, or power factor shall be indicated.
Technology solutions which shall be implemented in measuring, monitoring, and control of the solar power plants are described in detail in the SEGCC. The grid protection settings in the solar plants must comply with the requirements stipulated in the SEGCC, unless otherwise agreed with the transmission system operator. At the PCC, the grid protections shall be in compliance with the protection code of the Grid Code [9].
Soybean [
Soybeans typically possess protein and oil contents of approximately 40 and 20%, respectively. This composition gives the possibility for a broad variety of applications such as feed, biodiesel, edible oils, and other food products. Commercially, soybean can be categorized as (i) commodity type, mainly used for oil and animal feed, and (ii) food type soybean, mainly used for human consumption. One important application of soybean is its use in animal feed. Approximately 85% of the soybean is crushed into oil and meal. The greatest part of the meal is used as protein source in animal feed, Approximately 6% of the produced soybean is directly used for food purposes [5]. When soybean is exclusively used for consumption by the farm animals, nutritionally, it should have at least 36% protein to meet part of their daily requirement for protein. The food-type soybean, on the other hand, contains protein higher than feed-grade soybean; it usually ranges between 40 and 45%. It helps in making better quality soy-based food products. Usually, food-grade soybeans are used for production of soy milk, tofu or soy paneer, soy sprouts, and other soy-based food items.
\nGlobally soybean meal accounts for 63% of all the protein sources in animal feed. Next to the soybean meal, soybean oil obtained after crushing is refined and used as cooking oils and salad oils, and they can also find their use in mayonnaise and butter substitute. Soybean oil is refined and lecithin is obtained as a main by-product. Lecithins are found in many products such as in chocolate, margarine, and emulsifying agents [6]. Furthermore, the unraveling of the health and nutritional benefits of soybean contributed to increased interest for soybeans destined for food production, the so-called food-grade soybeans. Hence, the breeding of cultivars with enhanced food-grade traits is gaining great importance [7]. Soy foods available in the market can be divided in traditional and non-traditional soy foods. Traditional soy foods includes edamame (green vegetable soybeans), soy milk (a drink produced by soaking and grinding soybeans, boiling the mixture, and filtering out remaining particulates), tofu (soybean curd), tempeh (made of whole cooked soybeans), miso (fermented soup-based paste), soy sauce, okara, natto (fermented whole soybeans), and soy sprouts. They originated from Asia where soybean has been grown for centuries before its introduction to the rest of the world. Non-traditional foods are, for instance, soy yoghurt, soy cheese, pudding, snacks, etc. [6]. Soy food available in the market is classified into two groups based on the soybean seed size. Soy foods made of large seeds (>20 g/100 seeds) include tofu, edamame, miso, and soy milk. Soy foods made of small seeds (<12 g/100 seeds) include natto, soy sauce, tempeh, and bean sprouts.
\nSoybean seed needs to satisfy specific physical and chemical requirements for soy food production. In addition to seed size, visual appearance such as uniformity of seed size and shape with light-colored hilum and yellow seed coat without physical damage such as mottling, splits, shriveling, purple stain, and insect damage are the main consideration of food-grade soybeans [8]. It is reported that the seed size uniformity affected water absorption and the quality of the final soy product [9]. Shrunken or discolored seeds were undesirable due to the consumer requirements [10]. Stone seeds that do not absorb water during soaking cause serious problems for food processing as it affects the texture and consistency of the soy products particularly for fermented soy food such as natto [11]. Seeds with harder texture have higher calcium content and absorb less water [12]. Seed’s hardness could be estimated by the seed swell ratio that was related to seed weight or water volume change before and after soaking [13]. High water absorption was required to obtain soft steamed seeds [14]. Thus, soybean seeds with rapid and high water uptake are preferred by processors in order to provide more products per unit of time [9]. However, seed composition requirements vary according to the type of soy food. Soybean seeds with high protein content (>45%), low oil content, high sucrose content, and low oligosaccharides (raffinose and stachyose) content are suitable for making tofu. For soy food such as natto made through short fermentation process, soybean seed with a high carbohydrate content are preferred for the purpose of getting a quick conversion to simple sugars [10].
\nLike other plants, soybean too synthesizes a range of secondary metabolites for their adaptation and self-protection, called anti-nutritional factor (ANF). From nutritional point of view, the ANF is considered as harmful and toxic, as it interferes with normal growth, reproduction, and health. Therefore, soybean, in general, and food-grade soybeans, in particular, are expected to be free from anti-nutritional factors or allergens that may cause harm to the consumers. Soybean contains several anti-nutritional factors among which trypsin inhibitor (TI) and phytase are the most important ones. Kunitz trypsin inhibitor (KTI), which constitutes more than 80% of the total TI, is primarily responsible for improper digestibility of soybean, if consumed unprocessed. Although KTI is heat labile, yet heat inactivation process is neither fully effective nor economic. Genetic elimination of KTI is the most effective way of making soybean free from KTI [15].
\nSoybean seeds contain phosphorus in the form of inositol hexaphosphate commonly known as phytate [16]. Besides sequestering inorganic phosphate, phytate may also chelate divalent cations such as Fe, thereby decreasing their availability. It also contributes toward water pollution by eutrophication as the phosphate-rich waste discharges into water bodies. So, reduction of seed phytase can enhance mineral and protein bioavailability in soybean. Microarray-based gene expression profiling of phytic acid biosynthesis pathway indicated stepwise regulation of eight genes, viz. myo-inositol-3-phosphatesynthaes (MIPS), inositol phosphate kinase (IPK1–4), etc. Gene silencing constructs were used to silence
Vast areas of agricultural soils are contaminated with Cadmium (Cd) through the use of super phosphate fertilizers, sewage sludge, and inputs from the mining and smelting industries [18]. Cadmium (Cd) is a highly toxic element for human beings because of its extremely long biological half-life. Soybeans grown in cadmium-contaminated soil take up cadmium by roots and translocate into aerial organs, where it affects photosynthesis and consequently root and shoot growth. Many soybean cultivars can accumulate high Cd concentration in seed when grown on Cd-polluted soil [19, 20]. Consumption of food containing excessive Cd leads to a risk of chronic toxicity. In humans, it can damage kidneys, causing a loss of calcium and associated osteoporosis [21]. To reduce the health risk, it is desirable to limit the concentration of Cd in crops used for human consumption. Due to growing concern about safety of foods and human health, the Codex Alimentarius Commission of Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization (FAO/WHO) has proposed an upper limit of 0.2 mg kg−1 for Cd concentration in soybean grain [22]. However, a large-scale survey of agricultural products revealed that the Cd concentration of 16.7% of soybean seeds exceeded the international allowable limit of 0.2 mg kg−1, which is much higher than that of other upland crops [23]. Cultivars with reduced uptake of Cd are needed for human consumption. Cd uptake depends both on the Cd concentration in the soil and on the characteristics of the specific cultivars. Breeding cultivar with reduced Cd is an attractive method for changing the element profile of crops as the benefit will persist in the seed that can reduce the requirement for other management practices [24].
\nSoybean contains about 40% protein and is noteworthy as it is the most complete vegetable protein [25]. Concretely, with exception of sulfur-containing amino acids such as methionine, the amino acid pattern of soybean resembles the pattern derived from high-quality animal protein sources [25]. In fact, soybean protein can even enhance the nutritional quality of other vegetable protein. Protein sources that are deficient in some amino acids can be complemented by soybean. Soybean is rich in lysine, tryptophan, threonine, isoleucine, and valine and therefore complements well with cereal grains that are deficient in those amino acids [26]. By ultracentrifugation studies, four different fractions have been revealed, with approximate Svedberg coefficients of 2S, 7S, 11S, and 15S [6]. The 2S fraction contains from 8 to 22% of the extractable soybean protein. It consists of several enzymes, including the trypsin inhibitors, Bowman-Birk and Kunitz inhibitors [6]. Trypsin inhibitors inhibit the protein-cleavage effect of proteases (such as trypsin) affecting the digestibility and leading to growth depression in animals. Therefore, soybean meal needs first to be heated in order to inactivate the trypsin inhibitors. However, trypsin inhibitors have been found to be powerful anti-carcinogenic agents in humans and therefore they can be considered as functional components of soybeans [27].
\nMore than 70% of the soybean seed storage protein is composed of 7S β-conglycinin and 11S glycinin. The 7S fraction makes up 35% of the extractable soybean protein. The quantity and the quality of the protein in the seed are the major biochemical components influencing the quality of tofu and other soy food products [28]. The mean glycinin to β-conglycinin protein ratio is known to influence the protein quality of soybeans, and greatly affects the functional properties of food products made from soybeans [29, 30]. Glycinin and β-conglycinin also differ in amino acid composition, with glycinin being higher in sulfur (S), containing amino acids that account for 3–4.5% of the total amino acid residues [31]. G1, G2, and G7 glycinin subunits contain a higher amount of methionine (6–7 per subunit) compared to G3, G4, and G5 glycinin subunits, which contain 5, 2, and 4 methionine residues per subunit, respectively [31]. By comparison, β-conglycinin is devoid of methionine [32, 33] and β-conglycinin contains a major allergen in its subunit [34]. Increased glycinin content in soybean protein is an important trait for increasing the concentration of the S-containing amino acids [35]. Because glycinin and β-conglycinin have a great impact on the nutritional value and quality of soybean products, these two storage proteins have been extensively studied and targeted for genetic manipulation in breeding programs. Soybean mutant genotypes differing in seed storage glycinin and β-conglycinin subunit composition were developed and tested for their effects on tofu quality [30]. It was shown that group IIb (A3) glycinin played the major role in contributing to tofu firmness with any coagulant, while the group IIa (A4) subunit could have a negative effect on tofu quality. Yu et al. [36] reported that soybean cultivars with 7S α′ and 11 S a4 nulls always make firm tofu than the check cultivar Harovinton. The hardness of gels from glycinin decreased in the order of group IIa, IIb, and I [37, 38]. Protein subunit composition also affects the quality and stability of soymilk [39].
\nOther soybean seed proteins include lipoxygenase and lectins. The lipoxygenase enzyme constitutes about 1–2% of the soybean protein. The lipoxygenase enzyme generates a grassy-beany flavor when it oxidizes fats and is not preferred by consumers in some countries. It is possible to avoid the oxidation of the fats by heat inactivation of the lipoxygenase enzyme; however, this is cost-ineffective and leads to insolubilization of proteins. Therefore, the genetic elimination of the lipoxygenase is preferred in order to reduce the beany flavor. Genotypic variation and the influence of growing environment on lipoxygenase accumulation in soybean seed are well documented in the literature [2, 26]. Lipoxygenase 1, 2, and 3 null germplasm lines were developed and showed that the grassy-beany flavor was eliminated [40]. Triple-null soybeans can be used for edible soy products, such as soymilk and tofu [40]. Similarly, saponins and isoflavones may also be the cause of undesirable taste in soy products although this is not well documented yet. The breeding of cultivars with low isoflavones and saponins is possible [2]. The 11S fraction comprises 31–52% of the extractable soybean proteins [6]. The 11S fraction is responsible for the gelling character of tofu, and hence, the proportion of this fraction compared to 7S plays an important role in tofu firmness [2]. The 15 S fraction comprises about 5% of the total extractable protein. It is only poorly characterized and is thought to be composed of polymers of the other soybean proteins [6].
\nDry soybeans contain on average 35% of carbohydrates, which can be divided into soluble and insoluble carbohydrates [27]. Soybean seeds possess 15–20 different soluble carbohydrates that makes up approximately 15–25% of dry weight [41]. Sucrose, raffinose, and stachyose are the most relevant soluble carbohydrates for breeding of food-grade soybean. Sucrose in dry soybean seeds is found in contents of typically 5.5% [27]. Sucrose is important for improving taste in soybean-based products. The oligosaccharides raffinose and stachyose typically constitute about 0.9 and 3.5% of dry soybean seeds, respectively [27]. The seed coat of soybeans contains a major part of insoluble carbohydrates such as cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, and a trace amount of starch [27]. Consumers, especially in countries where fermented and vegetable soybean are not in vogue, may be skeptical toward the use of soy products because of flatulence and poor digestibility. These effects are caused by oligosaccharides, stachyose and raffinose. Humans and monogastric animals do not possess the enzyme called α-galactosidase necessary for hydrolyzing the linkages present in these oligosaccharides, so they cannot be digested when consumed. Intact oligosaccharides reach the lower intestine and undergo anaerobic fermentation by bacteria with gas expulsion (H2, CO2, and traces of CH4), causing the flatus effect and sometimes diarrhea and abdominal pain. Although raffinose and stachyose can be reduced to an extent by soaking or boiling, genetic reduction is one of the prime plant breeding objectives.
\nThe major components of crude soybean oil are triglycerides. After refinement of the oil, soybean oil is composed of 99% of triglycerides. Triglycerides are neutral lipids composed of one glycerol linking three fatty acids [27]. The saturated fatty acids in soybean oil are palmitic acid (16:0) and stearic acid (18:0), with average concentrations of about 11 and 4% (relative to the oil), respectively, and they are useful in making low trans-fat margarines. Soybean oil contains an average of 22% monounsaturated fatty acid, oleic acid (18:1). Monounsaturated fatty acids are healthy and have good oil stability [42]. Soybean oil possesses the two polyunsaturated fatty acids: linoleic acid (18:2), an omega-6 fatty acid, and linolenic acid (18:3), an omega-3 fatty acid [26]. They can be found in average concentrations of 53 and 8% of the oil, for linoleic and linolenic acid, respectively. Low (reduced) linolenic soybeans have half the linolenic acid level of standard soybeans, which reduces the need for hydrogenation, a process used in converting vegetable oils to margarine that results in the production of unhealthy trans fatty acids.
\nSoybean crude oil is also shown to consist of phospholipids, unsaponifiable material, free fatty acids, and metals. Unsaponifiable material consists of tocopherols, phytosterols, and hydrocarbons [27]. Tocopherols and phytosterols are considered as functional components. Soybean oil provides an additional benefit due to presence of enriched amounts of α-tocopherol or natural vitamin E. Oils containing low contents of linolenic acid (18:3) have been shown to contain high amount of α-tocopherol and results in lowered amount of ϒ-tocopherol [5].
\nSoybeans contain water-soluble and oil-soluble vitamins. The water-soluble vitamins such as vitamin B1 (thiamin), vitamin B2 (riboflavin), vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid), and vitamin B6 (niacin) and the oil-soluble vitamins vitamin A and vitamin E (tocopherols) are present in soybean. Vitamin A mainly exists in the form of β-carotene in immature and germinated seeds, whereas it is present in negligible amount in mature seeds [27]. Most of the minerals are found in the meal fraction rather than in the soybean oil fraction. Dry soybean seeds contain on an average concentration ranging from 0.2 to 2.1% major minerals such as potassium, which is present in the highest concentration followed by phosphorus, magnesium, sulfur, calcium, chloride, and sodium [27]. Minor minerals found in soybeans include silicon, iron, zinc, manganese, copper, molybdenum, fluorine, chromium, selenium, cobalt, cadmium, lead, arsenic, mercury, and iodine [27].
\nFunctional components of soybeans include isoflavones, saponins, lecithin, trypsin inhibitors, lectins, oligosaccharides, tocopherols, and phytosterols [27]. Presence of such biological ingredient creates interest to consider soybean food products as functional foods, i.e., foods that contain biological components that deliver special health benefits, e.g., anticancer, hypocholesteromic, and antioxidative effects to the consumer [26]. Isoflavones are phytoestrogens and are known to have positive health effects such as the reduction of the risks for coronary heart disease, osteoporosis, certain types of cancer, and the moderation of postmenopausal symptoms in women [43]. Soybean possesses 0.1–0.4% of isoflavones on a dry weight basis; hence, soybean possesses the highest amount of isoflavones compared to all other crops [27]. The isoflavone concentration varies considerably depending upon the genotype and environmental conditions. It is thought that isoflavones are mainly responsible for most of the health benefits from soybean-based foods. Therefore, they gained more and more attention from the scientific world [27], and research on breeding for enhanced isoflavone content is increasing. Refined soybean oil possesses about 1000–2000 mg/kg. Tocopherol exists in four isomers, three of them being α-, ϒ-, and δ-isomers that are present in soybean oil. α-tocopherol (natural vitamin E) in soybean is the leading commercial source of this vitamin. Tocopherols protect the polyunsaturated fatty acids from oxidation; hence, they are antioxidants and used in pharmaceutical applications [42].
\nSoybeans with large seed size and high protein levels are primarily used for soymilk and tofu production. Other traditional food from soybean includes tempeh, miso, soy sauce, okara, soynuts, soy milk, yoghurt, meat, and cheese alternatives. Tofu is perhaps the most widely consumed soy food in the world. Tofu is naturally processed and it retains a good amount of nutrients and phytochemicals such as the isoflavones [5]. Tofu typically contains 7.8% protein and 4.2% lipid on a wet basis [5]. It has a relatively low carbohydrate and fiber content, making it easier to digest. There are two main types of tofu: silken, or soft tofu and hard tofu. They are made by soaking whole soybeans and grinding them into a slurry with water. The slurry is cooked to form soymilk and a coagulant is added. The most commonly used coagulants are magnesium chloride, calcium sulfate, or glucono-D-lactone; the coagulants can be used purely or in combinations to achieve different flavor or textural characteristics. Heating is also usually applied in order to facilitate the coagulation. The result of the coagulation is that after a few minutes, the soymilk begins to curdle and large white clouds of tofu curd are formed. The water in the curds are then removed and placing the tofu curd in cloth-lined forming boxes where pressure is applied from the top results in the formation of hard tofu. Silken tofu in comparison to hard tofu is not pressed and is often coagulated in the container in which it is to be sold. [2].
\nThe popularity of soymilk has expanded from Asia to the U.S. and Europe since the 1980s. Traditionally, it is made from whole beans in the same way as the first few steps of tofu manufacture. This soy milk contains nutrients, saponins, isoflavones, and other soluble components of the soybean from which the soy milk is made. Some manufacturers add isoflavones back into the soy milk in order to make health claims about the product. Additionally, soymilks are also fortified with vitamins and minerals, such as β-carotene and calcium or docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), an omega-3 fatty acid [2]. However, beverage-quality soy milks available in the market are usually prepared from soy protein isolate, to which sugars, fats, and carbohydrates are added to improve flavor and generate a nutritional profile similar to that of cow’s milk [2].
\nVegetable soybean consists of the whole soybean picked at the R6-R7 stage and seeds are bigger and sweeter. At this stage, the soybean has a firm texture, contains a high level of sucrose, chlorophyll, and is at its peak of green maturity. The harvested pod can be left entire or be shucked into individual beans. After being blanched and frozen, the soybean can be sold as “edamame,” referring to the entire pod, or “mukimame,” referring to individual beans [2]. Nutritionally, it is highly rich in protein (11–16%), monounsaturated fatty acid, vitamin C, fiber, iron, zinc, calcium, phosphorous, folate, magnesium, potassium, tocopherol, and anticancer isoflavones [44]. It also has a pleasant flavor and soft texture and is easier to cook. Cooked vegetable soybean has the highest net protein utilization value (NPU: ratio of amino acid converted to protein) among all soy products. Vegetable soybean also has 60% more calcium and twice the phosphorus and potassium levels of green peas, which is India’s most commonly consumed fresh legume (https://www.gov.uk/government/case-studies/dfid\n\n). The vegetable soybean, in general, carries a flavor, called “beany flavor” or “grassy flavor.” Genotypes with high levels of sucrose, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, and alanine are found to have acceptable taste [44]. Biochemical analysis has established that production of “beany flavor” in soybean or soy-based products is primarily due to the lipoxygenase or the oxidative rancidity of unsaturated fatty acids [45]. Plant lipids are sequentially degraded into volatile and nonvolatile compounds by a series of enzymes via the lipoxygenase pathway, which catalyzes the hydroperoxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids to form the aldehyde and alcohols that are responsible for the grassy-beany flavor [46].
Breeding for food-grade soybeans with unique seed composition has focused on a specific nutritional trait of the soybean seed. Examples of such varieties are given according to the fraction from which the targeted trait origins. Food-grade soybean that targets a specific trait such as varieties high in total protein content, high in β-conglycinin, low in lipoxygenase, high in specific amino acids such as lysine, methionine, and threonine, and low in allergenic proteins [13]. High-protein soybeans (>43%) are used for tofu, soymilk, soy sauce, beverages, baked goods, pudding, cheese, and meat analogs. The breeding of food-grade soybeans can be classified into three major categories: the breeding of large-seeded soybeans, the breeding of small-seeded soybeans, and the breeding of soybean with unique seed composition [13].
\nBy targeting specific traits, soybean breeders try to develop soybeans with good yield and quality [5]. Large-seeded soybeans are bred for tofu, soymilk, miso, edamame, and soynuts [13]. An important factor for the breeding of tofu soybeans is the tofu yield, which is defined as the weight of fresh tofu produced from a unit of harvested soybean. Seed size and seed appearance are also of importance for tofu soybeans. Tofu soybeans are larger than 20 g/100-seeds [13]. It is possible to produce good quality tofu with dark hilum beans but this requires prior dehulling of the beans and careful soymilk filtration [5]. In order to avoid these additional processing steps, soybeans with a yellow cotyledon, yellow seed coat, and clear hilum are preferred. Moreover, a thin but strong seed coat that is free from cracking and discoloration is desirable [13]. Soybean seeds with high protein content exceeding 45% on dry matter basis and improved ratio of 11S/7S is desirable for tofu soybeans as this enhances tofu yield and gelling characteristics, respectively [5]. A high protein/oil ratio provides a higher tofu yield and firmer texture; therefore, low oil content is preferred. Moreover, tofu soybeans should have high water uptake, a low calcium content, and a high germination rate. The carbohydrate content and composition influence the taste of tofu and soymilk [13]. High total sugar content (above 8% on dry matter basis) [5], high sucrose, low raffinose, and low stachyose are highly desirable for tofu and soymilk [13]. Examples of tofu and soymilk varieties: Black Kato, Toyopro, Grande, Proto (from Minnesota), Vinton-81, HP 204, IA1007, IA1008 (from Iowa), and Harovinton [13, 47].
\nVegetable soybean varieties should meet certain requirements such as sweeter seeds with thin seed coat and large seed size (>30 g/100-seeds dry weight) [13]. As the pods are eaten directly, genotypes with sparse gray pubescence with green and thin seed coat are preferred [13]. Moreover, edamame cultivars should possess as less as possible of one-seeded pods as they require greater effort to shell by consumers. Those cultivars with genetically “stay green” and delayed yellowing toward maturity make it possible for growers to have extended harvest period closer to maturity. Vegetable-type soybean should possess important nutritional traits such as high content of sugar (sucrose and maltose) and free amino acids to impart sweet and delicious taste. Sucrose is primarily responsible for the sweetness of vegetable soybeans, where sucrose content is preferably higher than 10% on dry matter basis. Certain free amino acids, such as glutamic acids, are major contributors to the taste of vegetable soybeans [13].
\n\n
It is reported that the Asian small-seeded lines exhibited high diversity indices than the U.S. lines for seed hardness, calcium content, and stone seed rate. In addition, the average genetic diversity of the U.S. small-seeded soybeans (1.48) was lower than that of Asian small-seeded soybeans (1.57), suggesting narrower genetic base in the U.S. lines. Seed uniformity, hardness, protein, and calcium content appeared to be relatively high in diversity index for both the U.S. and the Asian large-seeded lines. The U.S. small-seeded soybeans were desirable for natto production because of their softer texture with higher water absorption capacity and lower stone seed ratio. However, the Asian large-seeded soybeans had a lower stone seed ratio and a higher water absorption capacity. Therefore, using the Asian large-seeded genotypes may potentially improve seed quality for tofu and soymilk [48]. Therefore, the Asian soybean gene pool may serve as valuable genetic source for increasing protein content of the U.S. food-grade soybeans.
\nAvailability of genetic variability for soybean food-grade traits offers scope to improve through breeding. Breeding cultivated soybean varieties with high protein or high oil are an extremely important and promising objective. High protein and low oil content add nutritional value to soy foods. Germplasms that cover a wide range in protein content (33.1–55.9%) and oil content (13.6–23.6%) are available for breeders to modify the seed/oil ratio in the breeding program. The negative correlation between protein and oil facilitates the development of high protein and low oil lines. High protein content is generally associated with low yield, which makes the development of lines that combine high protein and high yield difficult. However, high yield is mostly achieved by selection for moderately high protein content (43–45%) [13]. Seed protein and oil content are two valuable quality traits controlled by multiple genes in soybean. The phenotypic range of protein content of soybean has been reported to be 34.1–56.8% of seed dry mass, and oil content ranged from 8.3 to 27.9% [49], suggesting that there is great potential for genetic improvement of soybean seed protein and oil content. The negative correlation between oil and protein content makes improvement of both traits simultaneously a challenging task using conventional breeding [50]. Therefore, the identification of molecular markers associated with quantitative trait loci (QTLs) controlling protein and oil content is a prerequisite for breaking the negative correlations between both traits [51].
\nIn the SoyBase database, 241 QTLs for protein content and 315 QTLs for oil content were reported and found to be distributed over 20 soybean chromosomes [52]. A majority of these QTLs were mapped by linkage mapping based on bi-parental populations and limited by the relatively small phenotypic variation and by the fact that only two alleles per locus can be studied simultaneously. The broad chromosome regions of QTLs make it difficult to identify putative candidate genes of interest [53]. With the advancement of genetic map construction, the availability of a well-annotated reference genome, resources for association mapping, and whole-genome resequencing (WGRS) data, a large number of QTLs for seed protein content have been identified (Table 1).
\nSeed protein | \n20, 15, 18 | \nAkond et al. [54]; Diers et al. [55]; Nichols et al. [56]; Brummer et al. [57]; Lee et al. [58]; Sebolt et al. [59]; Chung et al. [60]; Fasoula et al. [61]; Panthee et al. [62]; Lu et al. [63]; Pathan et al. [53]; Wang et al. [64]; Phansak et al. [65]; Hwang et al. [50]; Vaughn et al. [66]; Sonah et al. [67]; Bandillo et al. [68]; Valliyodan et al. [69]; Zhou et al. [70]; Tajuddin et al. [71] | \n
5, 6, 8 | \nHyten et al. [72]; Pathan et al. [53], Sonah et al. [67]; Bandillo et al. [68] | \n|
10, 14 | \nWang et al. [64]; Phansak et al. [65] | \n|
13, 03, 17, 12, 11 | \nZhou et al. [70] | \n|
Sucrose and oligosaccharides content | \n5, 7, 8, 11, 13, 18, 16, 19, 20 | \nMaughan et al. [73]; Kim et al. [74]; Kim et al. [75]; Alkond et al. [76], Cicek [77]; Clevinger [78]; Maroof et al. [79]; Feng et al. [80]; Zeng et al. [81]; Wang et al. [82] | \n
Major QTLs for seed protein, sucrose and oligosaccharide content reported in soybean.
Several genome-wide association studies [50, 66, 68] and QTL analysis [53, 56] have shown similar QTL genomic loci (e.g., Chrs20, 15, and 5) for protein and oil indicating negative pleiotropic effect or linkage (larger LD). The QTL on Chr20 was most likely in the genomic region of 29.8–31.6 Mbp that was supported by integrating GWAS, transcriptome, and QTL mapping analysis (Table 1) [68]. It was observed that the gene order was conserved and 18 identified genes were tandemly duplicated on Chr10 and showed similar gene ontology [83]. Three putative candidate genes were identified on Chr20 and suggested that these non-duplicated genes might be related to protein content [68]. Similarly, Chr15 QTL (38.1–39.7 Mbp) showed an inversely duplicated genomic block on Chr8. The QTL on Chr15 comprises 18 putative genes, 13 of which were duplicated with similar gene function. Syntenic analysis provided a basis for divergence of QTL regions that took place during recent genome duplication and suggested the retention or loss of several genes that might be responsible for oil content and protein in soybean. In addition to pleiotropic effects of protein on oil and yield, variation in seed protein concentration significantly affects seed size, crop growth, and development [84]. High-protein genotypes showed lower leaf area and harvest index when compared with high-yielding genotypes. While high-protein small seed showed higher leaf area at the beginning of seed fill, more canopy biomass production, and low levels of assimilate per seed [84]. Therefore, breaking the undesirable genetic linkage between protein, oil, and yield related loci through repetitive recombination and random mating is necessary.
\nConsumers have preference for firmer tofu texture that partly depends upon the protein composition. The genotypic variation in this trait is partly due to the ratio of 11S-to-7S protein fraction in the seed. The 11S fraction generally possesses greater gelling potential than 7S; hence, high 11S-to-7S ratio is desirable as it results into harder than those with low ratio. The 11S-to-7S ratio is reported to range from 0.3 to 4.9. However, genotypes with same 11S-to-7S ratio do not always result in the same firmness because of different 11S subunit composition. In general, a high 11S-to-7S ratio as well as suitable 11S composition is of importance for good tofu firmness.
\nThe selection and manipulation of specific subunit composition will play a major role in the development of improved protein quality. Molecular markers linked to the various subunit of glycinin and β-conglycinin have been reported previously. PCR-based markers were reported for the identification of β-conglycinin genes [85, 86]. An RFLP marker associated with the
Functional markers (FMs) have advantages over the linked markers, because their polymorphic sites have been derived from the genes involved in phenotypic trait variation [92]. Glycinin genes have high degree of conservation within the subgenus
Besides breeding for increased protein content, protein composition is important for its nutritional value. Based on solubility properties, globulins and albumins are two major components of dicot seed storage protein, and soybean primarily belongs to the globulin (~70%) family [96]. The soybean globulins (glycinin and β-conglycinin) are relatively low in sulfur-containing amino acids methionine (Met) and cysteine (Cys) as well as threonine (Thr) and lysine (Lys) [97]. Increasing the soybean storage protein content of seed along with improving the ratio of glycinin to β-conglycinin is of great potential for food grade soybean improvement [98, 99]. Therefore, besides increased protein content, enhancing sulfur containing amino acids (Met, Thr, Cys, and Lys) would improve the nutritional value. More than 70% of the essential amino acid enriched meal is used in the feed industry [97, 100]. Although soybean cultivars with improved protein content have been successfully developed, only a few studies have been conducted to identify genomic regions controlling amino acid composition. The difficulty in breeding for improved amino acids could be due to lack of genetic variability, lack of high throughput, and cost-effective phenotyping platform to screen a large number of samples for amino acids. Panthee et al. [99] identified QTL for essential amino acids in a F6-derived recombinant inbred population. In another study, a major QTL for essential amino acids and crude protein was identified on Chr20 [97]. Moreover, negative correlations of crude protein with Lys and Thr and a positive correlation between Thr with Lys were also observed [97]. Among the essential amino acids, Met, Lys, and Thr are synthesized from a common precursor aspartate; thus, they are strongly correlated. Krishnan et al. [101] introgressed leginsulin (Cys-rich protein) and a high protein trait from an Asian soybean germplasm, PI 427138, into North American experimental line (LD00–3309). While they were successful in introgressing leginsulin and improving protein content, the overall concentration of sulfur-containing amino acids was not changed compared to parental lines.
\nSeed protein content and composition are dependent on the genetic background of an elite parent that plays an important role in the expression of a newly introgressed allele because of complex epistatic interactions [102]. It has been found that most of the QTLs affecting seed protein and yield and yield-related components were detectable only in one of the parental genetic backgrounds (GBs) in introgression lines of reciprocal crosses [103]. The high protein allele within a different genetic background resulted into reduced Thr and Lys content [103]. The high protein allele from Danbaekkong on Chr20 has been demonstrated to increase seed protein content in several maturity groups (III–VIII) in various genetic backgrounds with little drag on seed yield [104]. On the other hand, yield drag was observed for the protein QTL alleles on Chr20 from other sources, including wild
The integration of genomic tools and breeding practices are the core components of genomics-assisted breeding (GAB) for developing improved cultivars for any given trait. Near-isogenic lines (NILs) can be developed for major QTL (e.g., protein QTL on Chr20) by backcross breeding. Using NILs, the effect of a QTL and the phenotype it produces (i.e., protein or amino acid content) can be estimated precisely without the confounding effects of differences in genetic backgrounds. Additionally, developing NILs in a range of maturity groups is desirable to study the effect of environment and maturity on seed protein content. Marker-assisted backcrossing selection approach was utilized to produce a NIL-(cgy-2–NIL)-containing mutant cgy-2 allele, responsible for the absence of allergenic α-subunit of β-conglycinin [110]. It is also possible to incorporate multiple genes/QTL into elite lines in a cyclic forward crossing scheme and employing marker-assisted recurrent selection (MARS) as an effective approach [111, 112]. Recurrent selection was effectively utilized for increased gain yield, protein, oil, and oleic acid content [111, 113, 114]. Furthermore, the next-generation sequencing (NGS) data can be used effectively for genomic selection (GS) to identify desirable parents and progenies. Jarquin et al. [115] assessed the genomic and phenotypic data of over 9000 accessions and developed genomic predication models to evaluate the genetic value for protein, oil, and yield traits. Similarly, genomics-assisted haplotype analysis is a promising approach if the information of a major QTL is available and that can be applied to select desirable haplotype blocks for parental selection and crossing by design [116].
\nIn order to widen the genetic base, it may be necessary to utilize wild species accessions as introgression libraries as well as developing interspecific populations. On the other hand, elite cultivars and landraces can be used to develop mapping populations, and training populations [114]. Wild soybean (
Breeders aim to increase the sucrose content in soybean seeds which contribute to the sweet taste of soy foods, especially for tofu, soy milk, and edamame. The sucrose content in soybeans ranges from 1.5 to 10.2%, and germplasm with even higher content, 13.6%, has been identified [13]. Varieties that target a specific component of the carbohydrate fraction are varieties high in sucrose content and varieties low in oligosaccharides [13]. Compared to conventional soybeans, high-sucrose soybeans contain 40% more sucrose but 90% less stachyose and raffinose. High-sucrose soybeans are used to produce tofu, soymilk, beverages, baked goods, puddings, cheese, and meat analogs [13]. The genotypic correlation between sucrose and 100-seed weight is positive and significant, as well as the genotypic correlation of 1000-seed weight with protein. Moreover, the heritability for 1000-seed weight is high. Hence, the breeding program selection on 100-seed weight would result in a good response on relative protein and sucrose content.
\nStachyose and raffinose are not readily digestible and cause flatulence when soy foods are consumed. Therefore, breeders aim to develop soybean seeds with reduced oligosaccharide content. Stachyose and raffinose content among soybean germplasm range from 1.4 to 6.7%, and 0.1 to 2.1%, respectively. Breeding lines with less than 1% stachyose and raffinose have been developed [13]. Soybean germplasm “V99–5089” was developed with high sucrose, low raffinose, and low stachyose content to use as a parent in food-grade soybean breeding programs [118]. The genetic variability of seed sugars has significant allelic difference in the genes controlling the biosynthetic enzymes. QTL mapping of soluble sugars in soybean seed were reported and of which 28 were for seed sucrose (Table 1). These 28 QTLs were mapped on LGs A1 and E; 3 QTLs on A2, I, and F, and 3 QTLs on L, M, and B1 [73], two QTLs on L, D1b, 7 QTLs on L [74], and B2, D1B, E, H, J [75]. The genomic regions associated with sucrose, raffinose, and stachyose were identified in segregating F2–10 RILs [74].
\nAlkond et al. [76] reported 14 significant QTLs associated with sucrose and oligosaccharides that were mapped on 8 different linkage groups (LGs) and chromosomes (Chr). Seven QTL were identified for raffinose content on LGs D1a (Chr1), N (Chr3), C2 (Chr6), K (Chr9), B2 (Chr14), and J (Chr16). Four QTL for stachyose content were identified on LG D1a (Chr1), C2 (Chr6), H (Chr12), and B2 (Chr14) [76]. Three QTL for seed sucrose content were identified on LGs N (Chr3), K (Chr9), and E (Chr15). The region of Chr15 (LG E) that has been reported to be associated with sucrose was detected by others [73, 75, 77, 78], but the position of the QTL was different [76]. The two of the regions underlying seed sucrose QTLs identified on LG N (Chr3) and K (Chr9) are additions to the loci previously reported on LGs D1b (Chr2), A1 (Chr5), M (Chr7), A2 (Chr8), B1 (Chr11), H (Chr12), F (Chr13), G (Chr18), J (Chr16), L (Chr19), and I (Chr20) [73, 75, 77, 78]. The selection for beneficial alleles of these QTLs could facilitate breeding strategies to develop soybean lines with higher concentrations of sucrose and lower levels of raffinose and stachyose.
\nNormal soybean seeds contain three lipoxygenase isozymes that are responsible for the grassy beany flavor and bitter taste of soy food. Research is being conducted for the genetic elimination of lipoxygenase from soybean seeds to reduce undesirable flavors in soy food products. Soybean seed lipoxygenase exists in three isozymic forms, namely lipoxygenase-1, −2, and −3 controlled by single dominant genes, viz.
Soybean cultivars with good isoflavone content are desirable as it contributes health benefits. High-isoflavone soybeans contain more than 0.4% isoflavones compared to levels of 0.15–0.25% for traditional soybean varieties [13]. Isoflavone content is influenced by genetic factors and environmental factors such as temperature and irrigation during seed maturation [13]. For instance, the total isoflavone content of soybean seeds appears to be negatively related to growth temperature [5]. Understanding the genetic regulation of this pathway may be necessary for obtaining cultivars with good isoflavone levels. Interest has been put in the phenylpropanoid synthetic pathway which is catalyzed in its first step by isoflavone synthase (IFS). Two genes for IFS have been identified in soybean. Furthermore, negative correlation has been found between total isoflavone content and linolenic acid (18:3) concentration. Other data suggest negative correlation between isoflavone content and protein content [5]. QTLs affecting isoflavones were identified using recombinant inbred line population and found five QTLs contributed to the concentration of isoflavones, having single or multiple additive effects on isoflavone component traits [123]. Similarly, six QTLs were identified using the linkage map constructed with specific length amplified fragment sequencing, of which one major QTL (qIF20-2) contributed to a majority of isoflavone components across various environments and explained a high amount of phenotypic variance (8.7–35.3%) [124]. Akond et al. [125] identified QTL controlling isoflavone content in a set of recombinant inbred line (RIL) populations of soybean derived from “MD96–5722” by “Spencer” cultivars. Wide variations were found for seed concentrations of daidzein, glycitein, genistein, and total isoflavones among RIL populations. Three QTLs were identified on three different linkage groups (LG). One QTL that controlled daidzein content was identified on LG A1 (Chr 5) and two QTLs that underlay glycitein content were identified on LG K (Chr 9) and LG B2 (Chr 14). Identified QTLs could be used to develop soybean with preferable isoflavone concentrations in the seeds through MAS.
\nIncreasing the seed oil concentration has been a breeding goal for centuries. The ancestor of the domesticated soybean used to have small, hard, black seeds with low oil content, high protein content, and low yield. It is known that an increase in oil content is positively correlated with yield and negatively correlated with protein content. Selection for yield, agronomic characteristics and seed quality, large yellow seeds with typical averages of 20% oil and 40% protein were obtained. However, soybean is appreciated for its high protein meal and versatile vegetable oils; therefore, breeders mostly prefer to obtain modest gains in oil and yield without substantial loss in protein concentration [42]. Breeding for oil quality such as with reduced saturated fatty acids are prime focus as it is responsible for elevating cholesterol. The saturated fatty acids present in soybean oil are palmitic acid, 16:0, and stearic acid, 18:0. Especially, palmitic acid is a health concern as it is correlated to cardiovascular disease. It has been suggested that saturated fatty acids should be kept below 7–10% on a daily basis [42]. Soybean oil contains the monounsaturated fatty acid, oleic acid, 18:1. The oxidative stability of the soybean oil is enhanced by increasing three times higher the concentration of monounsaturated fatty acid such as oleic (18:1) than the normal content which is about 22%. Therefore, breeders target a concentration of 18:1 of about 65–75% of total lipid in soybean. By the means of genetic engineering, 18:1 levels of about 80% total lipid have been achieved [42]. In general, soybean varieties with unique fatty acid composition such as high oleic acid content, high stearic acid content, low linolenic acid content, or low palmitic acid content are preferred [13].
\nAssessment of agronomic traits has been used to evaluate phenotypic diversity in 20,570 Chinese soybean accessions and it was reported that seed coat color had the highest diversity index among the qualitative traits [126]. Plant’s height had the most variation among quantitative traits, and followed by seed size, protein content, growth period, and oil content. The seed size of those accessions ranged from smaller than 2 to as large as 46 g/100-seeds. The protein content ranged from 30 to 53%; and oil content ranged from 10 to 25%. The variances of seed size, protein content, and oil content of the U.S. cultivars were lower than the Chinese cultivars [127]. The Southern U.S. soybeans were more variable in oil and protein contents and less variable in seed size than the Northern U.S. soybeans. The food-grade soybean breeding aims to increase the nutritional content and quality of protein and oil [128]. Greater genetic diversity of protein content, seed hardness, calcium content, and seed size uniformity than other quality traits in both small and large-seeded genotypes were evaluated [128]. The U.S. soybean genotypes with small seed were more diverse and exhibited higher swell ratio and oil content but lower stone seed ratio and protein content than the Asian accessions [128]. Among the large-seeded accessions, the U.S. genotypes had higher stone seed ratio and oil content but lower swell ratio and protein content, and were less diverse than the Asian genotypes [128]. The characterization of diverse food grade soybeans will facilitate parent selection in specialty soybean breeding [1].
\nSoybean germplasm PI542044, also known as Kunitz soybean, contains the null allele of KTI, i.e., kti that encodes a truncated protein and it was developed in a backcross program involving Williams 82 and PI157440 [129]. Introgression of kti is complicated by a number of factors viz., (i) kti being recessive in inheritance, each conventional backcross generation would be requiring selfing followed by estimation of KTI content in the seeds so as to identify a target plant. However, three recessive null alleles, viz. Kunitz trypsin inhibitor, soybean agglutinin, and P34 allergen null were stacked in the background of “Williams 82” and were termed as “Triple Null” [130]. Three SSR markers, viz. Satt228, Satt409, and Satt429 have been reported to be closely linked (0–10 cM) with the null allele of Kunitz trypsin inhibitor [131]. These SSR markers was also validated in the mapping population generated using Indian soybean genotypes as the recipient parent (
Based on the importance of soybean as a staple food crop, the development of low Cd soybean cultivars should be a priority. The genetic variability for Cd accumulation within a species provides an opportunity to select soybean genotypes with low Cd concentration. In soybean grain, Cd concentration was found to be controlled by a single gene, with low Cd dominant in the crosses studied [134]. Lines with the low Cd trait had restricted root-to-shoot translocation, which limited the Cd accumulation in the grain. Genetic variability in soybean [19, 135] has been reported. An understanding of genetics and heritability of the Cd accumulation is essential in designing the breeding strategy to incorporate gene(s) controlling low Cd accumulation in modern cultivars. However, identifying low Cd phenotypes by analysis of the grain is challenging due to the high cost of analysis [136]. Developing inexpensive methods would assist in transferring the low Cd accumulation traits with other desirable traits.
\nMarker-assisted selection (MAS) could be an alternative to phenotypic selection. In soybean, DNA markers linked to low Cd accumulation were identified using RIL population (
Breeding for soybean seed composition traits is a complicated process; fortunately, ample genomic resources and tools are now available to soybean breeders/researchers for dissection of seed composition traits. The combination of conventional breeding strategy and genomic approaches will help to identify genomic loci, haplotypes, and FMs in breeding for improvement of seed composition traits. For improvement of protein, the major protein QTL, which was repeatedly mapped on Chr20, Chr15, and Chr18, may facilitate breeders to select parental lines and consider them for crossing schemes or introgression into locally adapted superior yielding cultivars through genomics-assisted breeding and MAS. Issues related to protein increase without yield drag, pleiotropic effects, and background/allelic effects could be addressed via screening diverse germplasm, considering wild soybean alleles for introgression, undertaking genomics-assisted breeding, precise high-throughput phenotyping, mutational breeding, and genome editing through Crisp/Cas. Integrating these aspects will extend our current genetic and genomic portfolio far beyond that of traditional breeding. Finally, when a cultivar with improved food-grade characteristics is developed, a further step is the evaluation of the quality of the product obtained from this cultivar. This is important as the success of a food-grade soybean cultivar is determined by the preferences of the consumers.
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',metaTitle:"Publication Agreement - Monograph",metaDescription:"IntechOpen aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our authors. For that matter, we uphold a flexible copyright policy meaning that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and authors retain exclusive copyright to their work.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/publication-agreement-monograph",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"When submitting a manuscript, the Author is required to accept the Terms and Conditions set out in our Publication Agreement – Monographs/Compacts as follows:
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\\n\\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
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\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2018-09-11
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'When submitting a manuscript, the Author is required to accept the Terms and Conditions set out in our Publication Agreement – Monographs/Compacts as follows:
\n\nCORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\nSubject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
\n\nThe foregoing licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Publication Agreement for any reason.
\n\nThe Author, on his or her own behalf and on behalf of any of the Co-Authors, reserves the following rights in the Work but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Work as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
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\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
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Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"22",type:"subseries",title:"Applied Intelligence",keywords:"Machine Learning, Intelligence Algorithms, Data Science, Artificial Intelligence, Applications on Applied Intelligence",scope:"This field is the key in the current industrial revolution (Industry 4.0), where the new models and developments are based on the knowledge generation on applied intelligence. The motor of the society is the industry and the research of this topic has to be empowered in order to increase and improve the quality of our lives.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11418,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"13633",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhamid",middleName:null,surname:"Mellouk",slug:"abdelhamid-mellouk",fullName:"Abdelhamid Mellouk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13633/images/1567_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Paris 12 Val de Marne University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"109268",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Ataby",slug:"ali-al-ataby",fullName:"Ali Al-Ataby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109268/images/7410_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Liverpool",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"3807",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmelo",middleName:"Jose Albanez",surname:"Bastos-Filho",slug:"carmelo-bastos-filho",fullName:"Carmelo Bastos-Filho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3807/images/624_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Pernambuco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"38850",title:"Dr.",name:"Efren",middleName:null,surname:"Gorrostieta Hurtado",slug:"efren-gorrostieta-hurtado",fullName:"Efren Gorrostieta Hurtado",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/38850/images/system/38850.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"239041",title:"Prof.",name:"Yang",middleName:null,surname:"Yi",slug:"yang-yi",fullName:"Yang Yi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/239041/images/system/239041.jpeg",institutionString:"Virginia Tech",institution:{name:"Virginia Tech",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{id:"81321",title:"Velocity Planning via Model-Based Reinforcement Learning: Demonstrating Results on PILCO for One-Dimensional Linear Motion with Bounded Acceleration",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103690",signatures:"Hsuan-Cheng Liao, Han-Jung Chou and Jing-Sin Liu",slug:"velocity-planning-via-model-based-reinforcement-learning-demonstrating-results-on-pilco-for-one-dime",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Applied Intelligence - 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