\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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\r\n\tThe recent emergence of a novel, pathogenic coronavirus known as Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2, officially COVID-19) and its subsequent rapid spread across the world has put the global health at risk. The ongoing efforts are focused on gaining insights into the epidemiology along with the discovered genome structure and important viral factors of SARS-CoV-2. Biotechnology-based innovative solutions are being sought to develop new rapid methods including point-of-care diagnostics and surveillance technologies to detect SARS-CoV-2 early in order to control the disease and mitigate it in a timely fashion. These efforts have also focused on investigating therapeutics including significant breakthroughs in clinical trials on antiviral drugs and vaccines to alleviate the challenges of COVID-19.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book intends to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in epidemiology, transmission and genome structure along with the latest breakthroughs in diagnostics, therapeutics and vaccines to combat COVID-19.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-627-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-626-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-628-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d834c746c5b159a201a9cdadfc473486",bookSignature:"Dr. Megha Agrawal and Dr. Shyamasri Biswas",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10633.jpg",keywords:"Biological Transmission, Infectious Agent, Viral Protein, Crystal Structure, Sequencing, PCR, Microfluidics, Therapeutics, Anti-viral Drugs, Therapeutic Targets, Vaccines, Protein Engineering",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 14th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 28th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 23rd 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 14th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 13th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"20 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Co-founder and executive publisher of Biotechnology Kiosk, an international scientific magazine in the USA. She held senior academic positions at top-tier US institutions including the University of Florida at Gainesville, Children’s National Medical Center in Washington, and the University of Illinois.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Co-founder and executive publisher of Biotechnology Kiosk and Chairman of USA PRIME BIOTECH. LLC. who worked as a scientist in several labs which include the University of Massachusetts, North Carolina State University and the University of Florida at Gainesville.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"193723",title:"Dr.",name:"Megha",middleName:null,surname:"Agrawal",slug:"megha-agrawal",fullName:"Megha Agrawal",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/193723/images/system/193723.jpg",biography:"Dr. Megha Agrawal is co-founder and executive publisher of Biotechnology Kiosk, an international scientific magazine in the USA. She has held senior academic positions at top-tier US institutions including University of Florida at Gainesville, Children’s National Medical Center in Washington DC and the University of Illinois at Chicago, where she was a research faculty and principal investigator. She received her Ph.D. in Biotechnology from the Indian Institute of Technology at Roorkee, which is one of the premier institutions in India with an outstanding reputation across the globe. Dr. Agrawal’s research has impacted significantly to initiate new areas in neurodegeneration, neuroprotection and novel approaches to treat cerebral stroke related injuries and prevention. She has published in internationally prestigious scientific journals in the field of biotechnology, neuroscience, stroke and molecular biology. Dr. Agrawal also serves as an Associate Editor for the international journal ‘Frontiers in Molecular Bioscience (Molecular Diagnostics and Therapeutics)’, a Nature-Frontier publication. In addition, she is on the editorial board of Drug and Metabolism Reviews and a contributing editor in Vacuum Advances in Biotechnology for Vacuum Technology and Coating Magazine and writes a monthly column in biotechnology.",institutionString:"Biotechnology Kiosk, formerly University of Illinois at Chicago",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Illinois at Chicago",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"329553",title:"Dr.",name:"Shyamasri",middleName:null,surname:"Biswas",slug:"shyamasri-biswas",fullName:"Shyamasri Biswas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329553/images/system/329553.jpg",biography:"Dr Shyamasri Biswas is co-founder and executive publisher of Biotechnology Kiosk. She received her PhD in biotechnology jointly from Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India and University of Potsdam, Germany. During her PhD, she received the prestigious DAAD sandwich research fellowship to carry out her PhD work on a collaborative research project in Germany. After her PhD, she was a scientist in several labs in the United States that include University of Massachusetts, Worcester MA, North Carolina State University and the University of Florida at Gainesville. She has published her research works in numerous prestigious international journals including Nature Structural and Molecular Biology, Biochemistry and Journal of Biological Chemistry to name a few. Dr. Biswas is a contributing editor in Vacuum Advances in Biotechnology for Vacuum Technology & Coating Magazine and writes a monthly column in biotechnology. In addition, she is a reviewer for many biochemistry and biotechnology journals. 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Dental caries is still the most common chronic childhood disease and the primary cause of tooth loss. Over the past 30 years, significant progress has been made in the prevention of dental caries in children and adolescents. While caries has decreased on interproximal surfaces, occlusal pit and fissure caries have increased [1, 2]. In general, research has demonstrated that caries on occlusal and buccal/lingual surfaces account for almost 90% of caries experienced in children and adolescents [3]. The caries process in the first and second molars usually starts soon after eruption. The occlusal surfaces of lateral teeth, especially molars have complicated morphology with many grooves (fissures) and pits on the occlusal surface and on the buccal and palatal surfaces (Figure 1). These molar teeth are considered the most susceptible teeth to dental caries due to the anatomy of the chewing surfaces of these teeth, which unfortunately inhibits protection from saliva and fluoride and instead favours plaque accumulation [4]. Pits and fissures don’t cause caries process. They permit the entrance of microorganisms and food into this sheltered warm moist richly provided incubator and the dental plaque can be expected to form here. They instead provide a sanctuary to those agents, which cause caries. When carbohydrates in food come in contact with the plaque, acidogenic bacteria in the plaque create acid. This acid damages the enamel walls of the pits and fissures and caries results. Therefore, the most decay is concentrated on the occlusal surfaces of posterior molars.
Occlusal morphology of molar teeth
Pits and fissures have variations in their appearance in cross section. They were described based on the alphabetical description of shape. According to Nango (1960) there were 4 types of pits and fissures: V&U type: self cleansing and somewhat caries resistant; U type: narrow slit like opening with a larger base-susceptible to caries and a number of different ranches K type: also very susceptible to caries [5]. These are the sites most susceptible to developing decay [6].
Caries lesions on the occlusal surface of molar tooth
In most cases the shape of the pit or fissure is such that it is impossible to clean, explaining the high susceptibility of pits and fissures to dental caries (Figure 2 and 3). Caries in the pits and fissures follows the direction of enamel rods and characteristically forms a triangular or cone shaped lesion with its apex at the outer surface and its base towards DEJ. Pits and fissures provide greater cavitations than smooth surface caries. Preventive measures for tooth decay include daily tooth brushing, topical fluoride application, chewing gums with xylitol and sealing of fissures which are applied by dental clinicians [7-10].
Caries lesion in the fissure of molar tooth
There have been many efforts made within past decades to prevent the development of caries, in particular occlusal caries as it was once generally accepted that pits and fissures of teeth would become infected with bacteria within 10 years of erupting into the mouth [7-10]. G.V. Black, the creator of modern dentistry, informed that more than 40% of caries incidences in permanent teeth occurred in pits and fissures due to being able to retain food and plaque [9].There were many attempts to prevent occlusal caries. Willoughby D. Miller, a pioneer of dentistry, was applying silver nitrate with its antibacterial functions to surfaces of teeth to prevent occlusal caries in early 1905. It was chemically treating the biofilm against both Streptococcus mutans and Actinomyces naeslundii, which are both carious pathogens [7-9, 11]. Silver nitrate, which was also being practiced by H. Klein and J.W. Knutson in the 1940s, was being used in attempt to prevent and arrest occlusal caries [9,12].
In 1955, M.G. Buonocore gave insight to the benefits of etching enamel with phosphoric acid.[7-9] His studies demonstrated that resin could be bonded to enamel through acid etching, increasing adhesion whilst also creating an improved marginal integrity of resin restorative material [7,9]. Later, this bonding system leads to the future successful creation of fissure sealants [8-13].
By the late 1970s and early 1980s the clinical data on sealants and caries prevention was very positive. Studies have continued to demonstrate sealant success. One 4-year study showed an overall 43% decrease in the prevalence of caries effectiveness with significantly better sealant retention on premolars (84%) than molars (30%) [5]. A 7-year study reported 66% complete sealant retention and 14% partial retention [9]. Sealant loss was 20% while there was a 55% reduction in caries rate for the sealed teeth versus the unsealed teeth. One 10-year study showed that for over 8,000 sealants placed on permanent first molars, there was 41% complete sealant retention at 10 years and a 58%–63% retention rate over 7 to 9 years [10].
Pit and fissure sealants proved to be an effective clinical intervention to prevent occlusal caries [13-15]. The aim of fissure sealants is to prevent or arrest the development of dental caries [15]. Preventing tooth decay from the pits and fissures of the teeth is achieved by the fissure sealants blocking these surfaces and therefore stopping food and bacteria from getting stuck in these grooves and fissures [15]. Fissure sealants also provide a smooth surface that is easily accessible for both our natural protective factor, saliva and the toothbrush bristles when cleaning our teeth. Fissure sealing prevents the growth of bacteria in fissures that cause tooth decay. There are several types of materials for fissure sealing.
Fissure sealed with resin based sealant material
Caries in pits and fissures has responded less to routine preventive methods than caries on smooth surfaces. Pit and fissure sealant use is an effective clinical regime available for preventing occlusal caries. The most widely used pit and fissure sealants are based on bis-glycidyl methacrylate (Bis-GMA) resins. These resins were introduced in 1963 as restorative materials. The main types in use are resin-based sealants and glass ionomer cements [16, 17]. Cueto and Buonocore suggested the sealing of pits and fissures with an adhesive resin in 1967 [18,19]. E.I. Cueto created the first sealant material, which was methyl cyanoacrylate [7, 11,19]. However, this material was susceptible to bacterial breakdown over time, therefore was not an acceptable sealing material [18]. Bunonocore made further advances in 1970 by developing bisphenol-a glycidyl dimethacrylate, which is a viscous resin commonly known as BIS-GMA [13]. This material was used as the basis for many resin-based sealant/composite material developments in dentistry, as it is resistant to bacterial breakdown and forms a steady bond with etched enamel [13,19, 30].
A second group of materials used as fissure sealants are the glass ionomer cements (Figure 5). Glass ionomer cement is also the material of choice for fissure sealing. In 1974, glass ionomer cement fissure sealants (GIC) were introduced by J.W. McLean and A.D. Wilson [15,38]. GIC materials bond both to enamel and dentine after being cleaned with polyacrylic acid conditioner [15]. Some other advantages GIC’s have is that they contain fluoride and are less moisture sensitive, with suggestions being made that despite having poor retention, they may prevent occlusal caries even after the sealant has fallen out due to their ability to release fluoride[7,13,14-16].
It has certain advantages over composite resins: less susceptible to moisture, easy handling and long-term release of fluoride ions [20,21]. These are all essential characteristics for materials handled in paediatric dentistry. However, various studies have shown a significantly lower level of retention compared with composite resins [22-25]. Mechanical properties of glass ionomer are significantly weaker than composite resin. Question about preventive effect of glass ionomer still gets controversial answers: Different studies have shown different preventive effects [22, 24, 21,26, 27].
Glass ionomer materials release fluoride over time and have the advantage of being less sensitive to moisture contamination than resin-based materials, making them a potential alternative to resin-based sealants when moisture control is an issue [28,29]. Hybrid materials which incorporate features of both resin and glass ionomer, e.g. polyacid-modified resins (compomers) and resin-modified glass ionomers, have also been developed and used as pit and fissure sealants [30].
Fissure sealed with glass ionomer sealant material
Resin-based fissure sealants are effective at preventing caries on pit and fissure surfaces in children and adolescents. A Cochrane systematic review of 16 trials found that first permanent molar teeth sealed with resin-based sealant had 78% less caries on occlusal surfaces after 2 years and 60% less after 4–4.5 years compared to unsealed molars [31]. Sealant retention is critical to the effectiveness of resin-based sealants and retention has become an important measure of sealant effectiveness. The Cochrane systematic review reported complete sealant retention rates and it ranged from 79% to 92% at 12 months, 71% to 85% at 24 months, 61% to 80% at 36 months, 52% at 48 months, 72% at 54 months and 39% at 9 years [31]. There was evidence of a clear trend for decreasing sealant retention with time. Some other systematic review on sealant effectiveness reported that the caries-preventive effect of sealants was influenced by sealant replacement, with relatively high reductions in caries risk found in those studies in which a sealant replacement strategy had been used [32].
To achieve effective caries prevention on occlusal surfaces, dental sealants should have several properties. Adhesion of material should be perfect during all kind of function and thermal challenges. Dimensional changes of material during setting should be minimal. Complete retention of sealant material in the occlusal fissures depends on the dimensional changes and resistance to wear and fracture. Good preventive effect today means substantial release of fluoride ions.
Glass ionomer cements (GICs) are also proposed for pit and fissure sealant materials. They have several advantages compared to classic resin sealant materials: easy handling, fluoride releasing at a continuous rate and they are not moisture sensitive.
For the best caries preventive effect in the fissures of lateral teeth, material for sealing should have the following properties:
Ideal adhesion of material should be maintained during setting and function, including the challenges of both thermal and mechanical cycling.
Complete retention of the sealant material in the occlusal fissures
Resistance to wear and fracture
Ease to handling and placement
Caries preventive effects
Biocompatibility.
Inclusion of fluoride ions in the material may be beneficial on the prevention of developing carious lesions, and the remineralization of any demineralized enamel adjacent to the sealant [33-37].
Some studies introduced additional treatment to improve mechanical properties of glass ionomer materials. So a few years ago a method of heating the glass ionomer was introduced. Material was heated with 60-70oC metal plates in order to improve the mechanical properties of materials [39]. Sidhu and colleagues have linked the contraction of the material and the loss of water from glass ionomer cement as a reason to improve the properties of materials[40]. Some studies have shown enhanced adhesion of glass ionomer for hard tissues [95].
Another study tried to increase the level of retention of glass ionomer sealants with heating during setting time of materials [41]. The results obtained for the resin sealing group as a control group in this study are consistent with previously published studies and their results [41-44]. Glass ionomer (Fuji VII) on the basis of the results obtained by monitoring of patient showed a relatively low percentage of retention after 12 months. The results did not differ when compared with the results obtained for the retention of classical (chemical) treated glass ionomer cement [45-50].
There is good evidence that teeth sealed very early after eruption require more frequent reapplication of the FS than teeth sealed later [51,52]. Therefore, FS placement may be delayed until the teeth are fully erupted, unless high caries activity is present. Placement of FS even in the absence of regular follow-up is beneficial [53, 54].
Caries prevalence is relatively low in high-income and relatively high in low-and middle-income countries. Children from high-income countries have benefited from the available established caries preventive measures; such as the use of fluoride-containing products and awareness among their parents and caretakers of the importance of keeping tooth surfaces free from plaque [55].
The studies show that sealants work if applied correctly. Sealant success is multifactorial [56, 57]. Technique, fissure morphology, and the characteristics of the sealant contribute to clinical success [58]. When one reviews published sealant data, a basic concept of 5%–10% of sealant loss per year has been seen demonstrated [31, 32]. This data reveal the importance of re-evaluating teeth with sealants on a periodic basis and to reapply if necessary.
Discussion about caries preventive effect of glass ionomer sealants is still controversial: different studies have shown different preventive effects. It was reported that some material remnants in the fissures can maintain caries prevention. The treatment of glass ionomer material with thermo-curing was recently introduced and showed increase of the mechanical properties. Gorseta et al. showed increased bond strength of glass ionomers to hard dental tissues after thermo-curing during material setting [58]. Skrinjaric et al. investigated the retention rate of glass ionomer sealant material thermo-cured during setting time after 1-year clinical trial [41]. Some authors have pointed to the fact that the remains of SIC in the fissures may have some preventive effect in the development of caries [59, 60]. Skrinjaric et al. did not determine SIC remains in fissures. Increased cariostatic effect can be achieved by regular reapplication, but it increases the cost of such preventing procedure [61-64]. The Database Cochane Review could not find a conclusion on a comparison of glass ionomer sealants and resin sealants [63]. Therefore, it is an area that needs further investigation in order to obtain relevant conclusions.
Primary objective of the most studies is to evaluate the effectiveness of pit and fissure sealants in children and adolescents. It is very important that a different background level of caries in the population is related to obtained results. The diagnosis of the surface to be sealed was based on clinical examination in nine studies, one further study used also a DIAGNOdent device [65-68].
Studies which compare the retention of two or more nearly similar type of sealant materials and report the caries rates only on the sealed occlusal surfaces are not relevant. It is important to report on individual level. Information on the caries risk in the study population, the use of fluoridated water, toothpaste and general preventive methods as well as other preventive interventions should be reported in order to facilitate multivariate analysis of risk factors [69].
Comparing glass ionomers to resin sealants, where less than 10% of tooth surfaces had a small dentine caries lesion and most tooth surfaces were reported to be sound. Caries diagnosis of occlusal surfaces can be challenging. In general, using conventional visual, tactile and radiographic methods in occlusal caries lesion diagnosis, it is not accurate enough to identify whether a lesion extends into the dentine or not [70].
New technologies such as DIAGNOdent laser fluorescence devices may be more sensitive in detecting occlusal dentinal caries [71, 72]. However, the likelihood of false-positive diagnoses may increase when using laser-fluorescence compared with visual methods [71]. Regardless of the caries diagnostic method used, the condition of an occlusal surface to be sealed remains, however, in any case somewhat unclear.
Post eruption period of the tooth is most caries susceptible. According to EAPD guidelines, fissure sealant should be placed as soon as possible if there is an indication for placement. However, teeth can be sealed at any age depending on assessment of caries risk factors. [15].
Indications for the use of dental sealants are individual and it depends on patients or teeth that are at high risk of dental caries.
This includes patients with:
Patients with high risk of dental caries
Poor oral hygiene
Deep pits and fissures
Enamel defects or hypomineralisation or hypoplasia
Initial lesion of dental caries
Orthodontics appliances.[73]
Contraindications for the use of dental sealants are individual patients or teeth that are at a low risk of dental caries:
This includes patients with:
Teeth with shallow, self-cleansing fissures
Adequate oral hygiene
A balanced diet with low carbohydrates intake
Partially erupted teeth without adequate moisture control (operators may choose to use GIC in these cases)
Teeth with previously restored pits and fissures.[73]
It includes:
Visual dental examination is the starting point for dental assessment and treatment planning. The assessment of occlusal surfaces is particularly challenging, due to their complex morphology. The basic prerequisites for visual caries detection are clean, dry teeth and good illumination [72, 74, 75].
The difficulty in detecting and correctly assessing occlusal caries by visual examination alone has led to the development of various caries detection methods to refine the diagnostic process, and to enhance the identification of early caries lesions [68, 71, 73]. These methods include dental radiography, light-based technologies e.g. fibre-optic transillumination, quantitative laser fluorescence (DIAGNOdent) or light induced fluorescence (QLF). Given the importance of the visual examination, a system for detailed visual examination of teeth – the International Caries Detection and Assessment System (ICDAS) – has been developed, which promotes the recording of the earliest changes in enamel as well as dentinal caries [76].
Tooth selected for sealing
Cleaning the occlusal surface
There are different approaches for surface cleaning and the way of cleaning pits and fissures before sealing. It may seem to be controversial. Raadal et al. suggested careful removal of pellicle and plaque with pumice in order to achieve optimal acid-etch pattern of the enamel [77]. On the other hand, Harris and Garcia-Godoy keep that the enamel acid etching alone is sufficient for surface cleaning and provided soft plaque removal [78]. The literature is extensive on the effectiveness of different methods for cleaning prior to bonding [15]. Air abrasion also has been suggested for preparation of the occlusal surface before sealant application [79]. In this case a high-speed stream of purified aluminium oxide particles propelled by air pressure is used to clean the tooth surface. They can remove debris and excavate incipient decay in the fissures. A widening of the fissures with rotary instrumentation in order to remove superficial enamel and open the fissure to have the resin penetrate into it has been recommended before etching and sealant application by Waggoner and Siegal. This is known as the invasive pit-and fissure technique [80, 81]. However, although cleaning the fissures with a bur has given superior retention in some studies [82, 83]. There is evidence in other studies that it provides no additional benefit [84]. Furthermore, purpose full removal of enamel or enameloplasty just to widen the base of a fissure in a sound occlusal surface is an invasive technique, which disturbs the equilibrium of the fissure system and exposes a child unnecessarily to the use of a handpiece or air abrasion. It is concluded, therefore, that there is a need for removal of most organic substance in order to obtain sufficient bonding, but that the removal of sound tooth tissue by the use of instruments, such as a bur, is unnecessary and undesirable. There is a significant volume of evidence of high fissure sealants retention without the use of a bur. Hydrogen peroxide (3%) also has been suggested for cleaning the occlusal fissures before etching, but there is no evidence that this improves clinical retention [85].
Moisture control
Adequate isolation is the most critical aspect of the sealant application process [78]. Achieving good moisture control is one of the greatest challenges to successful sealant application. Salivary contamination of a tooth surface during or after acid etching will have a key effect on the bond quality between enamel and resin. Salivary contamination, also allows the precipitation of glycoprotein onto the enamel surface greatly decreasing bond strength. If the enamel porosity created by the etching procedure is filled by any kind of liquid, the formation of resin tags in the enamel is blocked or reduced [86, 87]. The circumstances that affect the control of moisture will vary from patient to patient, and may relate to the state of eruption of the tooth, the patient’s ability to co-operate, the materials and equipment available for isolation, or a combination of these factors. The options considered by the Guideline Group for ‘interim’ treatment of teeth for which a sealant was indicated but for which adequate isolation could not be achieved were: resin-based sealant, fluoride varnish and glass ionomer sealant [15].
The rubber dam, when properly placed, provides the best, the safest way of moisture control, and for an operator working alone, it ensures properly isolation from start to finish. In young and partially erupted teeth this is usually not practical. There is evidence of difficulty in securely placing a clamp onto a partially erupted tooth, discomfort during clamp placement and it demands the use of local analgesia in some instances [7, 15]. On the other hand, there is sufficient evidence that careful isolation with cotton rolls gives similar retention results [83]. Cotton roll isolation offers some advantages over rubber dam isolation. No anaesthetic is necessary because no clamps are placed. Cotton rolls can be held in place with either cotton roll holders or fingers. The primary disadvantage to cotton roll isolation is that it is almost a practical necessity that an assistant be used to provide four-handed dentistry [88-90]. The maintenance of a dry field must therefore usually be achieved by the use of cotton rolls and isolation shields, in combination with a thoughtful use of the water spray and evacuation tip. The isolation procedure may frequently be extremely challenging, particularly in the partially erupted teeth or in those children with poor cooperation.
Enamel cleaning\n\t\t\t\t\t\t(Figure 8)
The goal of etching is to produce a dry, uncontaminated and frosted surface [91]. There are various etching materials available, but the most frequently used is orthophosphoric acid, provided that its concentration lies between 30% and 50% by weight. This is available as both a liquid solution and a gel. Small variations in the concentration do not appear to affect the quality of the etched surface [81]. Duggal et al. showed no significant difference in retention of fissure sealant after one year follow-up on second primary and first permanent molars when 15, 30, 45 or 60 seconds etching times were used [92]. Liquid etching, likewise, is often applied by brush or a small cotton pledget. The application of the gel is often done either directly from the gel dispenser with special applicator tips or with a small disposable brush [7].
Etching the occlusal surface
Rinsing and drying
Many of the sealant manufacturers recommend rinsing the tooth for 20 to 30 seconds to remove the etchant. The most important is ensuring that the rinse is long enough to remove all of the etchant from the surface. After drying the tooth with compressed air, the tooth exhibits a chalky, frosted appearance but if still no milky white appearance is seen, the tooth should be re-etched for 15 to 20 seconds [7, 81, 91].
Sealant application (Figure 9)
During sealant application, all the susceptible pits and fissures should be sealed for maximum caries protection. The long-term clinical success of fissure sealants is closely related to their poor handling [93]. The sealant material can be applied to the tooth in a variety of methods. It may be applied with a small brush or on the tip of an explorer. Some common problems occur during sealant application. Small bubbles may form in the sealant material. If these are present, they should be teased out with a brush before polymerization. Many sealant kits have their own dispensers, which directly apply the sealant to the tooth surface. When using a dispenser, the dentist should allow the sealant to flow ahead into the pits and fissures. It reduces air entrapment [7].
Application of glass ionomer fissure sealing material
Application of surface gloss for glass ionomer sealants (Figure 10)
Application of surface gloss
Polymerization of resin sealants or Thermo-curing of glass ionomer sealants (Figure 11)
For light cured sealants, polymerization should be initiated quickly after the sealant is placed on the etched surface to help minimize potential contamination. Some study found that the longer sealants were allowed to sit on the etched surface before being polymerized; the more the sealant penetrated the microporosities, creating longer resin tags, which are critical for micromechanical retention [94]. One of the key factors affecting polymerisation is the light intensity of the dental light curing unit. A Canadian study reported that 12.1% of light curing units tested in a sample of dental practices had intensities that would be considered inadequate (<300 mW/cm2) [70]. Other factors that may influence polymerisation include curing time, distance of the light guide from the material being cured, and thickness, shade and composition of the material being cured.
Thermo-curing with dental light
There are some tips for better fissure sealants:
Cure each surface on the same tooth separately if more than one surface is being sealed
Put the light-curing tip as close as possible to the surface and cure for at least the recommended curing time.
Manufacturer’s instructions for sealant materials and for curing lights should be available for every operator
Check the light output and curing performance of dental curing units in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions
Evaluation of the sealed tooth (Figure 12)
Sealant retention should be checked with a probe after application, and the sealant re-applied, if necessary, repeating each step of the sealant application procedure.
Regular evaluation of sealants for retention is critical to their success. During routine recall examinations, it is necessary to re-evaluate the sealed tooth surface both visually and tactually for loss of material, exposure of voids in the material and caries development. The need for reapplication of sealants is usually highest during the first six months after placement [95]. When sealants are partially lost and require repair, the clinician should vigorously attempt to dislodge the remaining sealant material with an explorer. If it remains intact to probing, there is no need to completely remove the old material before placing the new.
Occlusal view of fissure sealed with nano ionomer cement
One of the major problems when considering the success rates of sealant restorations is the variation in techniques and materials used. Short term studies indicate a high degree of success for sealant restorations [96-105]. However, longer term studies appear to indicate that success is less predictable [106-110].
Recent study by Gorseta et al. investigated retention of Glass Carbomer fissure sealant after six and twelve months of clinical trial [111]. Glass Carbomer is relatively new material developed from glass ionomer (GIC) and contains nano-sized powder particles and fluorapatite. Advantages of Glass Carbomer comparing to GIC are better mechanical properties and command setting through application of heat. Materials included forty eight teeth with well-delineated fissure morphology divided in two groups which were sealed with Glass Carbomer Sealant (Glass Carbomer Products, Netherlands) and Helioseal F (Vivadent, Liechtenstein) using split mouth design. Investigated materials were placed and set according to manufacturer’s instruction using dental light Bluephase 16i (Vivadent, Liechtenstein) (Figure 10). Teeth in group A were sealed with Glass Carbomer material and in group B with Helioseal F. Evaluation criteria (Kilpatrick et al.) for retention of sealant was classified as: type 1: intact sealant; type 2: 1/3 of sealant missing; type 3: 2/3 of sealant missing; and type 4: whole sealant missing. Presence of new caries lesions was evaluated in two categories: 1-absent; 2-present.
Gorseta et al. used replicas for evaluation of fissure sealant retention rate. The impressions with polyvinylxyloxane impression material of Glass Carbomer-sealed teeth were taken in order to obtain replicas of occlusal surfaces (Figure 14). For that purpose, impression was taken and poured in acrylic resin (Citofix Kit, Struers) (Figure 13). The obtained replicas were analysed with SEM (Figure 15, 16).
Impression of occlusal surface of molar
Replicas of occlusal surface of molar
Obtained data were statistically analyzed using non-parametric Mann-Whitney test.
Results showed that retention rate in-group A and B were 100% after six months of clinical service. There were no secondary caries lesions in either group. Results showed that complete retention in group A and B were 75% after 12 months of clinical service. There were two new caries lesions in each group. Mann-Whitney U test doesn’t reveal significant statistical difference between groups. Glass Carbomer sealant material showed comparable retention rate to resin based sealant material and can also be recommended for every day practice [111].
In some studies which found statistically significantly more caries in group with glass ionomer sealed teeth at 36-48 months than in group with resin sealed teeth, the complete retention for resin sealants was about 80%, and for glass ionomers was very low (3%) [112, 113, 114].
Studies published by Karlzén-Reuterving and Williams reported similar retention rate did not show a difference between the materials in caries incidence [115, 116]. In next two studies, glass ionomers sealing were reported to be more effective regarding caries prevention [117, 118]. They reported retention of both sealant materials as low (resin-based sealants 28% to 40% and glass ionomers in 21% to 40% after 36 months). Conditioning with 10% polyacrylic acid as well as heating lamp polymerization during curing of cement had no effect on the level of retention of the tested glass ionomer cement (Fuji VII). Similar studies have been done in other parts of Europe, and all with the record of low retention rate of glass ionomer sealants, or the value does not significantly deviate from those of the observed in our study. The two-year Finnish study published the complete retention of polyalcenoic cement at 26% of the sealed teeth compared with 82% fully retained fissure sealants of bis-GMA materials [50].
SEM analysis of glass ionomer sealant
SEM analysis of glass ionomer sealant-higher magnification
After 28 months, Poulsen et al [45] have noted retention of Fuji III of less than 10%, and Pardi et al [46] only 3.5%. After nine months Weerheijm et al. [60] showed an overall retention of Fuji IX in the amount of 51% and only 15% for Fuji III. The incidence of new carious lesions in the group of sealing with glass ionomer cements was not statistically significant. The duration of study is only one year because of the small percentage of retention rate of glass ionomer sealants. Regardless of what is known that the most people prefer chewing on the right side, a control group of sealants (Helioseal F) placed on the right side of the jaw showed a high percentage of retention of 80%.
Sidhu et al. studied contraction SIC after heating [40]. They concluded that the degree of contraction of the material depends on the porosity within the SIC. These dimensional changes can affect not only the marginal integrity between the enamel and the material, but also compromise the quality of adhesion between the glass ionomer and enamel. As the viscosity of glass ionomers used for sealing fissures greater than the viscosity of the resin sealants, Simonsen, McLean recommend use SIC only fissure having a diameter greater than 100 microns [119]. Also, solutions and gels for fluoridation may affect the surface SIC causing greater roughness [120]. This may induce microfractures on the surface of the material, then the fractures in the material and chained lead to loss of retention of material in the fissure.
The study of Pardi analyzed following sealant materials: flowable resin composite (Revolution), resin-modified glass ionomer (Vitremer) and compomer (DyractFlow) [121]. All occlusal surfaces were conditioned with 37% phosphoric acid. After 2 years, sealants were totally retained on 76% of the teeth sealed with Revolution, on 58% of teeth sealed with Dyract Flow and on 47% of the occlusal surfaces sealed with Vitremer. Recent studies comparing resins to resin-modified glass ionomers at 36 months, reported clearly better complete retention rates for resins (94%) than for resin-modified glass ionomers (5%) [122,123].
There might be many different causes behind the inconsistent results between the studies comparing resin-based materials to glass ionomers as sealants. Therefore, conclusion cannot be drawn based only on retention rate of material as sealants. However, information about caries prevalence in population is very important as diet and oral hygiene [122, 123].
Recent studies showed that the level of retention of glass ionomer sealants treated by heating during setting time is considerably lower than retention of conventional composite resin for sealing. Reduced time manipulation and adhesion of glass ionomer material for the wet surface of the tooth, unequivocally favours glass ionomer material as the material of choice for sealing partially erupted molars [124-130]. This procedure is especially warranted in high caries risk patients, uncooperative patients and those with special needs [121].
Griffin et al. evaluated the effectiveness of sealants in managing caries lesions in a meta-analysis, and found their effectiveness in preventing dentin caries to be in the range of 62% to 100% (median 74% for all; 83% for non-cavitated and 65% for cavitated lesions). They recommended the placement of sealants to arrest lesions in the early carious stages and also to surfaces where caries status is uncertain. The progression of non-cavitated occlusal lesions was slow also for surfaces that were not sealed indicating that such surfaces could either be monitored or sealed. Invasive treatment methods were not recommended [124, 126-131].
Sealant maintenance is an integrated part of the sealant approach – all sealed surfaces should be regularly monitored clinically and radiographically [132-133]. Bitewing radiographs are suggested to be taken at a frequency consistent with the patient’s risk status especially in cases where there has been doubt about the surface caries status prior to sealant application [124]. Defective or lost sealants should be reapplied in order to maintain the marginal integrity of sealants.
A fissure sealant is a material that is placed in the pits and fissures of teeth in order to prevent or arrest the development of dental caries. As the integrity and retention of a sealant is considered crucial to the success of sealants in the long-term, resin based is the material of choice. Sealing over incipient caries lesions is both effective and practical – the dental profession should be encouraged to use sealants more in an interceptive manner rather than in a preventive or operative manner.) They recommended the placement of sealants to arrest lesions in the early carious stages and also to surfaces where caries status is uncertain. The progression of non-cavitated occlusal lesions was slow also for surfaces that were not sealed indicating that such surfaces could either be monitored or sealed.
Paris Agreement adopted in 2015 sets the goal that the increase in average temperature in the world from the industrial revolution by 2030 should be kept less than 2 K. However, due to the increase in the averaged concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere to 410 ppmV in December 2019 [1], CO2 reduction or utilization technologies to recycle CO2 are urgently required.
There are six vital CO2 conversions: chemical conversions, electrochemical reductions, biological conversions, reforming, inorganic conversions, and photochemical reductions [2, 3]. Recently, artificial photosynthesis or the photochemical reduction of CO2 to fuel has become an attractive route due to its economically and environmentally friendly behavior [2].
The application of CO2 as a raw material can produce chemicals and energy to diminish the CO2 accumulation in the atmosphere [2]. If we consider energy producing possibilities, one possibility is the photochemical conversion of CO2 into value-added chemicals which could be used as fuel [4].
The most widely used photocatalyst for the photocatalytic reactions is TiO2 due to its availability, chemical stability, low cost, and resistance to corrosion [5]. It is well known that CO2 can be reduced into fuels, e.g., CO, CH4, CH3OH, H2, etc. by using TiO2 as the photocatalyst under ultraviolet (UV) light illumination [6, 7, 8, 9]. However, pure TiO2 has the limitation. It is only active when irradiated by UV light, which is not effective under sunlight. Since the solar spectrum only consists of about 4% of UV light, sunlight is not able to active the TiO2 effectively for photocatalytic reaction. In addition, TiO2 has a high electron/hole pair recombination rate compared to the rate of chemical interaction with the absorbed species for redox reactions [10].
Recently, studies on CO2 photochemical reduction by TiO2 have been carried out from the viewpoint of performance promotion by extending absorption wavelength toward visible region. It was reported that a transition metal doping is useful technique for extending the absorbance of TiO2 into the visible region [11, 12, 13, 14, 15]. Noble metal doping such as Pt, Pd, Au and Ag [11], Au, Pd-three dimensionally ordered macroporous TiO2 [12], composition materials formed by GaP and TiO2 [13], nanocomposite CdS/TiO2 combining two different band gap photocatalysts [14], and carbon-based AgBr nanocomposited TiO2 [15], had been attempted to overcome the shortcomings of the pure TiO2. They could improve the CO2 reduction performance; however, the concentrations in the products achieved in all the attempts so far were still low, ranging from 1 to 150 μmol/g-cat [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16].
Though various metals have been used for doping [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16], Cu is considered as a favorite candidate. Cu can extend the absorption band to 600–800 nm [17, 18], which covers the whole visible light range. Cu-decorated TiO2 nanorod thin film performed 10 times yield as large as TiO2 for C2H5OH production [19]. Cu-loaded N/TiO2 also showed the good performance which yielded eight times as large as TiO2 for CH4 production [20]. Noble metals such as Pt and Au are too expensive to be used in industrial scale. Therefore, Cu is the best candidate because of its high efficiency and low cost compared to noble metals. Due to its availability as well as above described characteristics, Cu is selected as the dopant in this study.
Since a reductant is necessary for CO2 reduction to produce fuel; H2O and H2 are usually used as reductants according to the review papers [7, 9]. To promote the CO2 reduction performance of photocatalyst, it is important to select the optimum reductant which provides the proton (H+) for the reaction scheme of CO2 reduction with H2O is as follows [21, 22, 23]:
<Photocatalytic reaction>
<Oxidization>
<Reduction>
The reaction scheme of CO2 reduction with H2 is as follows [24]:
<Photocatalytic reaction>
<Oxidization>
<Reduction>
The reaction scheme to reduce CO2 with NH3 can be summarized as shown below [24, 25]:
<Photocatalytic reaction>
<Oxidization>
<Reduction>
There are some reports on CO2 reduction with either H2O or H2 [7, 9]. However, the effect of using H2O and H2 or NH3 together as reductants is not investigated well. Though a few studies using pure TiO2 under CO2/H2/H2O condition were reported [24, 26], the effect of ratio of CO2, H2 and H2O or NH3 as well as the effect of Cu doping with TiO2 on CO2 reduction performance of photocatalyst were not investigated previously.
Consequently, the purpose of this chapter is to clarify the effect of molar ratio of CO2 to H2O and H2 or NH3 on the performance of CO2 reduction with Cu/TiO2. The CO2 reduction performance with H2O and H2 or NH3 using Cu/TiO2 coated on netlike glass fiber as photocatalyst under the condition of illuminating Xe lamp with or without UV light was investigated. Cu is loaded on TiO2-coated netlike glass fiber by pulse arc plasma method which can emit nanosized Cu particles by applying high electron potential difference. The amount of loaded Cu can be controlled by the pulse number. Cu/TiO2 prepared was characterized by Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Electron Probe Micro Analyzer (EPMA), Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM), Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrometry (EDX), and Electron Energy Loss Spectrum (EELS) analysis. The CO2 reduction performance with H2O and H2 or NH3 under the condition of illuminating Xe lamp with or without UV light was investigated. The molar ratio of CO2/H2/H2O was changed for 1:1:1, 1:0.5:1, 1:1:0.5, 1:0.5:0.5 to clarify the optimum combination of CO2/H2/H2O for CO2 reduction with Cu/TiO2. According to the reaction scheme to reduce CO2 with H2O or NH3 as shown above, the theoretical molar ratio of CO2/H2O to produce CO or CH4 is 1:1 or 1:4, respectively, while that of CO2/NH3 to produce CO or CH4 is 3:2, 3:8, respectively. Therefore, this study assumes that the molar ratio of CO2/NH3/H2O = 3:2:3 and 3:8:12 are theoretical molar ratio to produce CO and CH4, respectively. Moreover, the effect of overlapping two layers of Cu/TiO2-coated netlike glass fiber on CO2 reduction performance with H2 and H2O was investigated.
The combination of sol–gel and dip-coating process was used for preparing TiO2 film. TiO2 sol solution was made by mixing [(CH3)2CHO]4Ti (purity of 95 wt%, Nacalai Tesque Co.) of 0.3 mol, anhydrous C2H5OH (purity of 99.5 wt%, Nacalai Tesque Co.) of 2.4 mol, distilled water of 0.3 mol, and HCl (purity of 35 wt%, Nacalai Tesque Co.) of 0.1 mol. Netlike glass fiber was cut like a disc, and its diameter and thickness were 50 mm and 1 mm, respectively. The netlike glass fiber disc was dipped into TiO2 sol solution at the speed of 1.5 mm/s and pulled up at the fixed speed of 0.2 mm/s. Then, it was dried out and fired under the controlled firing temperature (FT) and firing duration time (FD), resulting that TiO2 film was fastened on the netlike glass fiber. FT and FD were set at 623 K and 180 s, respectively. Cu was loaded on TiO2 film by pulse arc plasma method. The pulse arc plasma gun device (ULVAC, Inc., ARL-300) having Cu electrode whose diameter was 10 mm was applied for Cu loading. After the netlike glass fiber coated with TiO2 was set in chamber of the pulse arc plasma gun device which was vacuumed, the nanosized Cu particles were emitted from Cu electrode with applying the electrical potential difference of 200 V. The pulse arc plasma gun can evaporate Cu particle over the target in the circle area whose diameter is 100 mm when the distance between Cu electrode and the target is 160 mm. Since the difference between Cu electrode and TiO2 film was 150 nm in the present study, Cu particle can be evaporated over TiO2 film uniformly. The amount of loaded Cu was controlled by the pulse number. In the present study, the pulse number was set at 100. Since the netlike glass fiber is transparent, the light can pass through the netlike glass fiber. The present study has also investigated if two layers of two Cu/TiO2 coated on netlike glass fiber put on the top of the other (with certain distance, i.e., overlapping), what impact/improvement would be on the CO2 reduction performance. The overlapping two layers of Cu/TiO2 coated on netlike glass fiber is expected to utilize the light effectively as well as to increase the amount of photocatalyst used for CO2 reduction.
The structure and crystallization characteristics of Cu/TiO2 film were evaluated by SEM (JXS-8530F, JEOL Ltd.), EPMA (JXA-8530F, JEOL Ltd.), TEM (JEM-2100/HK, JEOL Ltd.), EDX (JEM-2100F/HK, JEOL Ltd.), and EELS (JEM-ARM2007 Cold, JEOL Ltd.). Since these measurement instruments use electron for analysis, the sample should be an electron conductor. Since netlike glass disc was not an electron for analysis, the carbon vapor deposition was conducted by the dedicated device (JEE-420, JEOL Ltd.) for Cu/TiO2 coated on netlike glass disc before analysis. The thickness of carbon deposited on sample was approximately 20–30 nm.
The electron probe emits the electrons to the sample under the acceleration voltage of 15 kV and the current of 3.0 × 10−8 A, when the surface structure of sample is analyzed by SEM. The characteristic X-ray is detected by EPMA at the same time, resulting that the concentration of channel element is analyzed according to the relationship between the characteristic X-ray energy and the atomic number. The spatial resolutions of SEM and EPMA are 10 μm. The EPMA analysis helps not only to understand the coating state of prepared photocatalyst but also to measure the amount of doped metal within TiO2 film on the base material.
The electron probe emits the electron to the sample under the acceleration voltage of 200 kV, when the inner structure of sample is analyzed by TEM. The size, thickness, and structure of loaded Cu were evaluated. The characteristic X-ray is detected by EDX at the same time, resulting that the concentration distribution of chemical element toward thickness direction of the sample is analyzed. In the present study, the concentration distribution of Ti and Cu were analyzed.
EELS can be applied not only for element detection but also determination of oxidization states of some transition metals. The EELS characterization was performed by JEM-ARM200F equipped with GIF Quantum having 2048 ch. The dispersion of 0.5 eV/ch can be achieved for the full width at half maximum of the zero loss peak.
Figure 1 [27, 28] shows the experimental set-up of the reactor composing of stainless tube (100 mm (H.) × 50 mm (I.D.)), Cu/TiO2 film coated on netlike glass disc (50 mm (D.) × 1 mm (t.)) located on the Teflon cylinder (50 mm (H.) × 50 mm (D.)), a quartz glass disc (84 mm (D.) × 10 mm (t.)), a sharp cut filter cutting off the light whose wavelength is below 400 nm (SCF-49.5C-42 L, SIGMA KOKI CO. LTD.), a 150 W Xe lamp (L2175, Hamamatsu Photonics K. K.), mass flow controller, and CO2 gas cylinder. The volume of reactor to charge CO2 is 1.3 × 10−4 m3. The light of Xe lamp which is located inside the stainless tube illuminates Cu/TiO2 film coated on the netlike glass disc through the sharp cut filter and the quartz glass disc that are at the top of the stainless tube. The wavelength of light from Xe lamp is ranged from 185 to 2000 nm. Since the sharp cut filter can remove UV components of the light from the Xe lamp, the wavelength of light from Xe lamp is ranged from 401 to 2000 nm with the filter. Figure 2 [29] shows the performance of the sharp cut filter to cut off the wavelength is below 400 nm. The average light intensity of Xe lamp without and with the sharp cut filter is 58.2 and 33.8 mW/cm2, respectively.
Schematic drawing of CO2 reduction experimental set-up (left: CO2/H2/H2O system; right: CO2/NH3/H2O system).
Light transmittance data of sharp cut filter.
In the CO2 reduction experiment with H2 and H2O, CO2 gas with the purity of 99.9 vol% which were controlled by mass flow controller was mixed in the buffer chamber and introduced into the reactor which was pre-vacuumed by a vacuum pump. The mixing ratio of CO2 and H2 was confirmed by TCD gas chromatograph (Micro GC CP4900, GL Science) before introducing into the reactor. After confirming the mixing ratio of CO2 and H2, the distilled water was injected into the reactor through a gas sampling tap by syringe and Xe lamp illumination was turned on the same time. The amount of injected water was measured and controlled by the syringe. The injected water vaporized completely in the reactor. The molar ratio of CO2/H2/H2O was set at 1:1:1, 1:0.5:1, 1:1:0.5, 1:0.5:0.5. Due to the heat of Xe lamp, the temperature in reactor was attained at 343 K within an hour and kept an approximately 343 K during the experiment.
In the CO2 reduction experiment with NH3 and H2O, after purging the reactor with CO2 gas of 99.9 vol% purity introduced in the reactor, which was pre-vacuumed by a vacuum pump, for 15 minutes, the valves located at the inlet and the outlet of reactor were closed. After confirming the pressure and gas temperature in the reactor at 0.1 MPa and 298 K, respectively, the NH3 aqueous solution (NH3; 50 vol%), which was changed according to the planed molar ratio, was injected into the reactor through gas sampling tap, and Xe lamp illumination was turned on the same time. The NH3 aqueous solution injected was vaporized completely in the reactor. Due to the heat of Xe lamp, the temperature in the reactor was attained at 343 K within an hour and kept at approximately 343 K during the experiment. The molar ratio of CO2/NH3/H2O was set at 1:1:1, 1:0.5:1, 1:1:0.5, 1:0.5:0.5, 3:2:3, 3:8:12, respectively. The gas in the reactor was sampled every 24 hours during the experiment. The gas samples were analyzed by FID gas chromatograph (GC353B, GL Science). Minimum resolution of FID gas chromatograph and methanizer is 1 ppmV.
Figure 3 shows SEM image of Cu/TiO2 film coated on netlike glass disc [28]. The SEM image was taken at 1500 times magnification. Figure 4 shows EPMA image of Cu/TiO2 film coated on netlike glass disc [28]. EPMA analysis was carried out for SEM images taken by 1500 times magnification. In EPMA image, the concentration of each element in observation area is indicated by the different colors. Light colors, for example, white, pink, and red indicate that the amount of element is large, while dark colors like black and blue indicate that the amount of element is small.
SEM image of Cu/TiO2 film coated on netlike glass disc.
EPMA image of Cu/TiO2 film coated on netlike glass disc.
From these figures, it can be observed that TiO2 film was coated on netlike glass fiber. During firing process, the temperature profile of TiO2 solution adhered on the netlike glass disc was not even due to the different thermal conductivities of Ti and SiO2. Their thermal conductivities of Ti and SiO2 at 600 K are 19.4 and 1.8 W/(m·K) [30], respectively. Due to thermal expansion and shrinkage around netlike glass fiber, it can be considered that thermal crack is formed on the TiO2 film.
In addition, it is observed from Figure 4 that nanosized Cu particles are loaded on TiO2 uniformly, resulted from that the pulse arc plasma method can emit nanosized Cu particles.
To evaluate the amount of loaded Cu within TiO2 film quantitatively, the observation area, which is the center of netlike glass disc, of diameter of 300 μm is analyzed by EPMA. The ratio of Cu to Ti is counted by averaging the data obtained in this area. As a result, the weight percentages of elements of Cu and Ti in the Cu/TiO2 film are 0.6 and 99.4 wt%, respectively.
Figures 5 and 6 show TEM and EDX images of Cu/TiO2 film, respectively [27]. ESX analysis was carried out using TEM image taken by 150,000 times magnification. According to Figure 6, it is observed that Cu particles are distributed in TiO2 film. Though many Cu particles are loaded on the upside of TiO2 film, it is not confirmed that the Cu layer is formed.
TEM image of Cu/TiO2 film.
EDX images of Cu/TiO2 film.
Figure 7 shows EELS spectra of Cu in Cu/TiO2 film [27]. From this figure, the peaks at around 932 and 952 eV can be observed. Compared to the report investigating peaks of Cu, Cu2O, and CuO [31], the EELS spectra of Cu2O matches with Figure 7. Therefore, Cu in Cu/TiO2 prepared in this study exists as Cu+ ion in Cu2O. It was reported that the heterojunctions between CuO and TiO2 contributed to the promotion of the photoactivity [32]. In addition, it was reported that Cu+ was more active than Cu2+ [33]. Therefore, it is expected that Cu+ would play a role to enhance the CO2 reduction performance in this study. Figure 8 shows EELS spectra of TiO2 referred from EELS data base [34]. Comparing Figure 8 with Figure 7, EELS spectra of TiO2 is very different from EELS spectra of Cu in Cu/TiO2.
EELS spectra of Cu in Cu/TiO2.
EELS spectra of TiO2 referred from EELS data base [34].
Figures 9 and 10 show the concentration changes of CO and CH4 produced in the reactor along the time under the illumination of Xe lamp with UV light, respectively. Figures 11 and 12 show the molar quantities of CO and CH4 per weight of photocatalyst in the reactor along the time under the illumination of Xe lamp with UV light, respectively. The amount of Cu/TiO2 is 0.2 g. In this experiment, a blank test, that was running the same experiment without illumination of Xe lamp, had been carried out to set up a reference case. No fuel was produced in the blank test as expected.
Change of concentration of CO with time for several molar ratios of CO2/H2/H2O under illumination condition with UV light.
Change of concentration of CH4 with time for several molar ratios of CO2/H2/H2O under illumination condition with UV light.
Change of molar quantity of CO per unit weight of photocatalyst with time for several molar ratios of CO2/H2/H2O under illumination condition with UV light.
Change of molar quantity of CH4 per unit weight of photocatalyst with time for several molar ratios of CO2/H2/H2O under illumination condition with UV light.
According to Figures 9–12, the CO2 reduction performance is the highest for the molar ratio of CO2/H2/H2O = 1:0.5:0.5. Since the reaction scheme of CO2/H2/H2O is not fully understood, this study refers to the reaction scheme of CO2/H2O and CO2/H2 as shown by Eqs. (1)–(12). It is known from the reaction scheme that the theoretical molar ratio of CO2/H2O and CO2/H2 to produce CO is 1:1. On the other hand, the theoretical molar ratio of CO2/H2O and CO2/H2 to produce CO is 1:4. Since the molar ratio of CO2/H2/H2O = 1:0.5:0.5 can be regarded as the molar ratio of CO2/total reductants = 1:1, it is believed that the results of this study follow the reaction scheme presented in Eqs. (1)–(12). Comparing the CO production with the CH4 production, CO is produced first. According to Eq. (5), it is believed that some CO might be converted into CH4. Therefore, the start of CH4 production is slower than that of CO production. Producing CH4 needs four times H+ and electrons as many as producing CO needs. Therefore, it is revealed that the optimum molar ratio of CO2/H2/H2O is decided by the CO production scheme. Though CO decreases after reaching the peak, CH4 increases gradually.
According to Hinojosa-Reyes et al. [35], TiO2 and Cu2O formation leads to the photocatalytic activity since Cu2O is a semiconductor with small band gap energy. In addition, Cu performs to avoid the electron and hole recombination and promotes the charge transfer. In this study, it seems that the effect of Cu and Cu2O on photoactivity is performed.
Figures 13 and 14 show the concentration changes of CO produced and the molar quantity of CO per weight of photocatalyst in the reactor under the illumination of Xe lamp without UV light, respectively. In this experiment, CO is the only fuel produced from the reactions.
Change of concentration of CO with time for several molar ratios of CO2/H2/H2O under illumination condition without UV light.
Change of molar quantity of CO per unit weight of photocatalyst with time for several molar ratios of CO2/H2/H2O under illumination condition without UV light.
According to Figures 13 and 14, the CO2 reduction performance is also the highest for the molar ratio of CO2/H2/H2O = 1:0.5:0.5 in this case. It is considered that the same reaction mechanism as mentioned above is conducted. The CO2 reduction performance of Cu/TiO2 under the illumination condition without UV light is lower than that under the illumination condition with UV light. Therefore, it can be claimed that Cu/TiO2 obtains the main photoenergy from UV light.
Figures 15 and 16 show the concentration change of CO and CH4 produced in the reactor under the illumination of Xe lamp with UV light, with two Cu/TiO2 films coated on netlike glass discs overlapped, respectively. The photocatalyst is coated on both upper and lower surfaces of the top disc and only the upper surface of the bottom disc.
Change of concentration of CO for Cu/TiO2 overlapped with time for several molar ratios of CO2/H2/H2O under illumination condition with UV light.
Change of concentration of CH4 for Cu/TiO2 overlapped with time for several molar ratios of CO2/H2/H2O under illumination condition with UV light.
Figures 17 and 18 show the molar quantities of CO and CH4 per weight of photocatalyst in the reactor along the time under the Xe lamp with UV light, respectively. The total amount of Cu/TiO2 on two discs is 0.4 g.
Change of molar quantity of CO per unit weight of photocatalyst for Cu/TiO2 overlapped with time for several molar ratios of CO2/H2/H2O under illumination condition with UV light.
Change of molar quantity of CH4 per unit weight of photocatalyst for Cu/TiO2 overlapped with time for several molar ratios of CO2/H2/H2O under illumination condition with UV light.
According to Figures 15–18, the CO2 reduction performance is the highest for the molar ratio of CO2/H2/H2O = 1:0.5:0.5, the same as that in the case of single Cu/TiO2 disc. In addition, the order of CO2 reduction performance of Cu/TiO2 overlapped is the same as that of single Cu/TiO2. However, comparing Figures 15 and 16 with Figures 9 and 10, the concentrations of CO and CH4 for two Cu/TiO2 discs overlapped are higher than those for single Cu/TiO2 disc under every molar ratio of CO2/H2/H2O. The highest concentration of CO for Cu/TiO2 overlapped is 7273 ppmV, which is 1.4 times as large as that for single Cu/TiO2. On the other hand, the highest concentration of CH4 for Cu/TiO2 overlapped is 516 ppmV, which is 1.7 times as large as that for single Cu/TiO2. In the case of two discs overlapped, the following things are believed: (i) the amount of photocatalyst used for photocatalysis reaction is increased, (ii) the electron transfer between two Cu/TiO2 films promotes the activity of photocatalysis reaction, and (iii) the lower positioned Cu/TiO2 disc utilizes the light passing through the top disc.
However, comparing Figures 17 and 18 with Figures 11 and 12, the molar quantities of CO and CH4 per weight of photocatalyst in two discs case are lower than those for single Cu/TiO2 disc case under every molar ratio of CO2/H2/H2O. The highest molar quantity of CO per weight of photocatalyst in two discs overlapped case is 82 μmol/g, which is 54% of that in single disc case. Similarly, the highest molar quantity of CH4 per weight of photocatalyst in two discs overlapped case is 5.8 μmol/g, which is 65% of that in single disc case. The reasons of this result are considered to be: (i) some parts of the Cu/TiO2 film on the lower positioned disc cannot receive the light, (ii) if the produced fuel remains in the space between two discs, the reactants of CO2, H2, and H2O would be blocked to reach the surface of photocatalyst, resulting that the photochemical reaction could not be carried out well even though the light is illuminated for photocatalyst.
Figures 19 and 20 show the concentration changes of CO produced and the molar quantity of CO per weight of photocatalyst in the reactor with two overlapped Cu/TiO2 film coated on netlike glass disc under the illumination of Xe lamp without UV light, respectively. In this experiment, CO is the only produced from the reactions.
Change of concentration of CO for Cu/TiO2 overlapped with time for several molar ratios of CO2/H2/H2O under illumination condition without UV light.
Change of molar quantity of CO per unit weight of photocatalyst for Cu/TiO2 overlapped with time for several molar ratios of CO2/H2/H2O under illumination condition without UV light.
According to Figures 19 and 20, the CO2 reduction performance in two discs case is the highest for the molar ratio of CO2/H2/H2O = 1:0.5:0.5 which is the same as that in the single disc case. The order of CO2 reduction performance in two discs is the same as that in the single disc case. However, comparing Figure 19 with Figure 13, the concentrations in two discs case are higher than those in single case under every molar ratio of CO2/H2/H2O. The highest concentration of CO in two discs case is 271 ppmV, which is 2.8 times as large as that in single disc case. The same reasons explained in the case of illumination with UV light can be thought to cause the results.
In addition, comparing Figure 20 with Figure 14, the molar quantity of CO per weight of photocatalyst in two Cu/TiO2 discs overlapped case is singly higher than that in the single disc case under every molar ratio of CO2/H2/H2O. The highest molar quantity of CO per weight of photocatalyst is 3.1 μmol/g in two disc cases, which is 1.1 times as large at that in the single disc case. Though the effect of overlapping layout is not obtained under the illumination condition with UV light, the effect of overlapping layout is confirmed under the illumination condition without UV light. Since the photochemical reaction rate and the amount of produced fuel are small under the no-UV illumination condition compared to that with UV light, it would be beneficial to the mass transfer between produced fuels and reactants of CO2, H2, and H2O on the surface of photocatalyst in no-UV cases [36]. As a result, the mass transfer and photochemical reaction are carried out effectively in no-UV cases. Therefore, the effect of overlapping layout is obtained in no-UV cases. According to the previous reports [37, 38], the mass transfer is an inhibition factor to promote the CO2 reduction performance of photocatalyst, and it is necessary to control the mass transfer rate to meet the photochemical reaction rate. Figure 21 illustrates the comparison of mass and electron transfer within overlapped two photocatalysts in UV and no-UV illumination cases [27].
Comparison of mass and electron transfer within overlapped two photocatalysts between the illumination condition with UV light and without UV light.
Figures 22 and 23 show the concentration changes of formed CO and CH4, along the time under the Xe lamp with UV light, respectively. The amount of Cu/TiO2 on the netlike glass disc is 0.1 g. Before the experiments, a blank test, which was running the same experiment without illumination of Xe lamp, had been carried out to set up a reference case. No fuel was produced in the blank test as expected. According to Figures 22 and 23, the CO2 reduction performance is the highest for the molar ratio of CO2/NH3/H2O = 1:1:1.
Comparison of concentration of formed CO among several molar ratios of CO2/NH3/H2O under the illumination condition with UV light.
Comparison of concentration of formed CH4 among several molar ratios of CO2/NH3/H2O under the illumination condition with UV light.
According to the reaction scheme to reduce CO2 with H2O or NH3 as shown by Eqs. (1)–(5), (13)–(20), the theoretical molar ratio of CO2/H2O to produce CO or CH4 is 1:1 or 1:4, respectively, while that of CO2/NH3 to produce CO or CH4 is 3:2, 3:8, respectively. Therefore, this study assumes that the molar ratio of CO2/NH3/H2O = 3:2:3 and 3:8:12 is theoretical molar ratio to produce CO and CH4, respectively. However, the molar ratio of CO2/NH3/H2O = 1:1:1 is not matched with these theoretical molar ratios to produce CO and CH4. Since the ionized Cu doped with TiO2 provides free electron for the reduction reaction process [39], the reductants of NH3 and H2O which are less than the values indicated in the theoretical scheme are enough for producing CO and CH4 in this study. The highest molar quantities of CO and CH4 per weight of photocatalyst in the reactor, which are obtained for the molar ratio of CO2/NH3/H2O = 1:1:1, are 10.2 and 1.8 μmol/g, respectively.
In addition, it is confirmed from Figure 22 that the concentration of formed CO is increased from the start of illumination of Xe lamp and decreased after attaining the peak concentration. However, the concentration of formed CO increases again after 48 hours. It is believed that the decrease in the concentration of formed CO is resulted from the oxidization reaction between CO and O2 which is by-product as shown in Eq. (3) [40]. Since the produced CO might be remained near the photocatalyst due to high absorption performance of netlike glass fiber, this oxidization reaction is thought to be occurred. The increase in the concentration of formed CO after 48 hours might be due to the difference in reaction rates between CO2/H2O and CO2/NH3 condition. It is also revealed that the maximum concentration of formed CO is higher when the molar of NH3 is higher than that of H2O. Since the number of H+ which can be provided is 3 and 2 for NH3 and H2O, respectively, it is considered that NH3 is effective for promoting the reduction performance of Cu/TiO2. Furthermore, it is found from Figures 22 and 23 that the concentration of formed CH4 starts to increase after the decreasing of CO concentration. According to the reaction schemes, the more H+ and electron are needed to produce CH4, resulting that the production of CH4 starts later.
Figure 24 shows the concentration changes of formed CO along the time under the Xe lamp without UV light. In this experiment, CO is the only fuel produced from the reactions, that is, no CH4 was detected. Before the experiments, a blank test, which was running the same experiment without illumination of Xe lamp, had been carried out to set up a reference case. No CO or CH4 was produced in the blank test as expected. According to Figure 24, the CO2 reduction performance is the best for the molar ratio of CO2/NH3/H2O = 1:1:1. In addition, it is confirmed from Figure 24 that the concentration of formed CO is increased from the start of illumination of Xe lamp and decreased after reaching the maximum concentration. However, the concentration of formed CO is increased gradually again after a while. It can be considered that the same reaction mechanism under the illumination condition with UV light as mentioned above occurred.
Comparison of concentration of formed CO among several molar ratios of CO2/NH3/H2O under the illumination condition without UV light.
Under the condition of CO2/H2/H2O, the highest molar quantity of CO per weight of photocatalyst is 153 μmol/g in a single disc case with UV light illumination. The CO production performance achieved in this study is approximately 500 times as large as that reported in [24, 26] which is owing to Cu doping. The CH4 production performance achieved in this study is almost the same as that reported in [24]. Since the doped Cu provides the free electron preventing recombination of electron and hole produced as well as the improvement of the light absorption effect, the big improvement of CO2 reduction performance is obtained in this study.
One way to further promote the CO2 reduction performance may be that different metals should be doped on the higher and the lower positioned photocatalysts discs. The co-doped such as PbS-Cu/TiO2, Cu-Fe/TiO2, Cu-Ce/TiO2, Cu-Mn/TiO2, and Cu-CdS/TiO2 would promote the CO2 reduction performance of TiO2 under the CO2/H2O condition [7, 9]. When the combination of CO2/H2/H2O is considered, the ion number of dopant is important to match the number of electron emitted from the dopant with H+ as shown by the reaction schemes of CO2/H2O and CO2/H2. The same number of electron and H+ are necessary for fuel production. Though Cu+ ion is applied to promote the CO2 reduction performance with TiO2 in this study, it is expected that the co-doping of Cu and the other metal having larger positive ion might have positive effect for CO2 reduction with H2 and H2O. In addition, the dopant like Fe, which can absorb the shorter wavelength light than Cu [17, 41, 42], should be used at the higher positioned layer. The wavelength of light becomes long after penetrating the higher positioned photocatalyst [36]. Therefore, it may be an effective way for utilization of wide wavelength range light that the higher positioned Fe/TiO2 which absorbs the shorter wavelength light and the lower positioned Cu/TiO2 which absorbs the longer wavelength light are overlapped. This idea is similar to the concept of hybridizing two photocatalysts having different band gaps [13, 42, 43].
On the other hand, under the condition of CO2/NH3/H2O, the highest molar quantities of CO and CH4 per weight of photocatalyst in the reactor, which are obtained for the molar ratio of CO2/NH3/H2O = 1:1:1, are 10.2 and 1.8 μmol/g, respectively. Compared to the previous research on CO2 reduction with H2 and H2O over pure TiO2, the CO2 reduction performance of photocatalyst prepared in this study is approximately 35 times as large as that reported in Refs. [24, 39], which is owing to not only Cu doping but also the combination of NH3 and H2O. The CO production performance over the Cu/TiO2 prepared in this study is approximately 3 times as large as that reported in the reference [44]. However, the CH4 production performance of Cu/TiO2 prepared in this study is one twentieth as large as that of Cu/TiO2 reported in the other reference [45]. Therefore, it is necessary to promote the conversion from NH3 into H2 in order to improve the reduction performance according to the reaction scheme to reduce CO2 with NH3. One way to promote the conversion from NH3 into H2 is thought to be using Pt as a dopant. It was reported that Pt/TiO2 was effective to dissolve NH3 aqueous solution into N2 and H2 [25].
The conclusions on this chapter are as follows:
Cu in Cu/TiO2 prepared by this study exists in the form of Cu+ ion in Cu2O.
Under the condition of CO2/H2/H2O, the highest concentrations of CO and CH4 produced as well as the highest molar quantities of CO and CH4 per weight of photocatalyst for Cu/TiO2 are obtained for CO2/H2/H2O ratio of 1:0.5:0.5. Since the molar ratio of CO2/H2/H2O = 1:0.5:0.5 can be regarded as the molar ratio of CO2/total reductants = 1:1, it is believed that the results of this study follow the reaction scheme of CO2/H2O and CO2/H2.
Under the condition of CO2/H2/H2O, the highest concentration of CO in two discs case is 1.4 times as large as that in the single disc case, while the highest concentration of CH4 is 1.7 times with UV light illumination. Under the illumination condition without UV light, the highest concentration of CO with two Cu/TiO2 disc is 2.8 times as large as that with single Cu/TiO2 disc.
Under the condition of CO2/H2/H2O, the highest molar quantity of CO per weight of photocatalyst with two Cu/TiO2 discs overlapped is 54% of that with single Cu/TiO2 disc with UV light illumination. The highest molar quantity of CH4 per weight of photocatalyst with two Cu/TiO2 discs overlapped is 65% of that with single Cu/TiO2 disc.
Under the condition of CO2/H2/H2O, the molar quantity of CO per weight of photocatalyst with two Cu/TiO2 discs overlapped is slightly (1.1 times) higher than that with single Cu/TiO2 disc without UV light illumination.
Under the condition of CO2/NH3/H2O, the molar ratio of CO2/NH3/H2O is 1:1:1 under the illumination condition with UV as well as without UV. The highest molar quantities of CO and CH4 per weight of photocatalyst obtained in this study are 10.2 and 1.8 μmol/g, respectively.
The authors would like to gratefully thank from JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 16K06970 for the financial support of this work.
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She performed research in perioperative autotransfusion and obtained the degree of PhD in 1993 publishing Peri-operative autotransfusion by means of a blood cell separator.\nBlood transfusion had her special interest being the president of the Haemovigilance Chamber TRIP and performing several tasks in local and national blood bank and anticoagulant-blood transfusion guidelines committees. Currently, she is working as an associate professor and up till recently was the dean at the Albert Schweitzer Hospital Dordrecht. She performed (inter)national tasks as vice-president of the Concilium Anaesthesia and related committees. \nShe performed research in several fields, with over 100 publications in (inter)national journals and numerous papers on scientific conferences. \nShe received several awards and is a member of Honour of the Dutch Society of Anaesthesia.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Albert Schweitzer Hospital",country:{name:"Gabon"}}},{id:"83089",title:"Prof.",name:"Aaron",middleName:null,surname:"Ojule",slug:"aaron-ojule",fullName:"Aaron Ojule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Port Harcourt",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"295748",title:"Mr.",name:"Abayomi",middleName:null,surname:"Modupe",slug:"abayomi-modupe",fullName:"Abayomi Modupe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Landmark University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"94191",title:"Prof.",name:"Abbas",middleName:null,surname:"Moustafa",slug:"abbas-moustafa",fullName:"Abbas Moustafa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94191/images/96_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Moustafa got his doctoral degree in earthquake engineering and structural safety from Indian Institute of Science in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at Department of Civil Engineering, Minia University, Egypt and the chairman of Department of Civil Engineering, High Institute of Engineering and Technology, Giza, Egypt. He is also a consultant engineer and head of structural group at Hamza Associates, Giza, Egypt. Dr. Moustafa was a senior research associate at Vanderbilt University and a JSPS fellow at Kyoto and Nagasaki Universities. He has more than 40 research papers published in international journals and conferences. He acts as an editorial board member and a reviewer for several regional and international journals. His research interest includes earthquake engineering, seismic design, nonlinear dynamics, random vibration, structural reliability, structural health monitoring and uncertainty modeling.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Minia University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"84562",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbyssinia",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"abbyssinia-mushunje",fullName:"Abbyssinia Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Fort Hare",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"202206",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Abd Elmoniem",middleName:"Ahmed",surname:"Elzain",slug:"abd-elmoniem-elzain",fullName:"Abd Elmoniem Elzain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kassala University",country:{name:"Sudan"}}},{id:"98127",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdallah",middleName:null,surname:"Handoura",slug:"abdallah-handoura",fullName:"Abdallah Handoura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Supérieure des Télécommunications",country:{name:"Morocco"}}},{id:"91404",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdecharif",middleName:null,surname:"Boumaza",slug:"abdecharif-boumaza",fullName:"Abdecharif Boumaza",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Abbès Laghrour University of Khenchela",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"105795",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Ghani",middleName:null,surname:"Aissaoui",slug:"abdel-ghani-aissaoui",fullName:"Abdel Ghani Aissaoui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105795/images/system/105795.jpeg",biography:"Abdel Ghani AISSAOUI is a Full Professor of electrical engineering at University of Bechar (ALGERIA). He was born in 1969 in Naama, Algeria. He received his BS degree in 1993, the MS degree in 1997, the PhD degree in 2007 from the Electrical Engineering Institute of Djilali Liabes University of Sidi Bel Abbes (ALGERIA). He is an active member of IRECOM (Interaction Réseaux Electriques - COnvertisseurs Machines) Laboratory and IEEE senior member. He is an editor member for many international journals (IJET, RSE, MER, IJECE, etc.), he serves as a reviewer in international journals (IJAC, ECPS, COMPEL, etc.). He serves as member in technical committee (TPC) and reviewer in international conferences (CHUSER 2011, SHUSER 2012, PECON 2012, SAI 2013, SCSE2013, SDM2014, SEB2014, PEMC2014, PEAM2014, SEB (2014, 2015), ICRERA (2015, 2016, 2017, 2018,-2019), etc.). His current research interest includes power electronics, control of electrical machines, artificial intelligence and Renewable energies.",institutionString:"University of Béchar",institution:{name:"University of Béchar",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"99749",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdel Hafid",middleName:null,surname:"Essadki",slug:"abdel-hafid-essadki",fullName:"Abdel Hafid Essadki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Nationale Supérieure de Technologie",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"101208",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Karim",middleName:"Mohamad",surname:"El Hemaly",slug:"abdel-karim-el-hemaly",fullName:"Abdel Karim El Hemaly",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101208/images/733_n.jpg",biography:"OBGYN.net Editorial Advisor Urogynecology.\nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly, MRCOG, FRCS � Egypt.\n \nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly\nProfessor OB/GYN & Urogynecology\nFaculty of medicine, Al-Azhar University \nPersonal Information: \nMarried with two children\nWife: Professor Laila A. Moussa MD.\nSons: Mohamad A. M. El-Hemaly Jr. MD. Died March 25-2007\nMostafa A. M. El-Hemaly, Computer Scientist working at Microsoft Seatle, USA. \nQualifications: \n1.\tM.B.-Bch Cairo Univ. June 1963. \n2.\tDiploma Ob./Gyn. Cairo Univ. April 1966. \n3.\tDiploma Surgery Cairo Univ. Oct. 1966. \n4.\tMRCOG London Feb. 1975. \n5.\tF.R.C.S. Glasgow June 1976. \n6.\tPopulation Study Johns Hopkins 1981. \n7.\tGyn. Oncology Johns Hopkins 1983. \n8.\tAdvanced Laparoscopic Surgery, with Prof. Paulson, Alexandria, Virginia USA 1993. \nSocieties & Associations: \n1.\t Member of the Royal College of Ob./Gyn. London. \n2.\tFellow of the Royal College of Surgeons Glasgow UK. \n3.\tMember of the advisory board on urogyn. FIGO. \n4.\tMember of the New York Academy of Sciences. \n5.\tMember of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. \n6.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in the World� from the 16th edition to the 20th edition. \n7.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in Science and Engineering� in the 7th edition. \n8.\tMember of the Egyptian Fertility & Sterility Society. \n9.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Ob./Gyn. \n10.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Urogyn. \n\nScientific Publications & Communications:\n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asim Kurjak, Ahmad G. Serour, Laila A. S. Mousa, Amr M. Zaied, Khalid Z. El Sheikha. \nImaging the Internal Urethral Sphincter and the Vagina in Normal Women and Women Suffering from Stress Urinary Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol18, No 4; 169-286 October-December 2009.\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nFecal Incontinence, A Novel Concept: The Role of the internal Anal sphincter (IAS) in defecation and fecal incontinence. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 2; 79-85 April -June 2010.\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nSurgical Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, Fecal Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse By A Novel Operation \n"Urethro-Ano-Vaginoplasty"\n Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 3; 129-188 July-September 2010.\n4- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n5- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n6- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n7-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n9-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n10-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n11-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n12- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n13-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n15-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n\n16-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n17- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: An Update on the pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecology/?page=/ENHLIDH/PUBD/FEATURES/\nPresentations/ Nocturnal_Enuresis/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n18-Maternal Mortality in Egypt, a cry for help and attention. The Second International Conference of the African Society of Organization & Gestosis, 1998, 3rd Annual International Conference of Ob/Gyn Department � Sohag Faculty of Medicine University. Feb. 11-13. Luxor, Egypt. \n19-Postmenopausal Osteprosis. The 2nd annual conference of Health Insurance Organization on Family Planning and its role in primary health care. Zagaziz, Egypt, February 26-27, 1997, Center of Complementary Services for Maternity and childhood care. \n20-Laparoscopic Assisted vaginal hysterectomy. 10th International Annual Congress Modern Trends in Reproductive Techniques 23-24 March 1995. Alexandria, Egypt. \n21-Immunological Studies in Pre-eclamptic Toxaemia. Proceedings of 10th Annual Ain Shams Medical Congress. Cairo, Egypt, March 6-10, 1987. \n22-Socio-demographic factorse affecting acceptability of the long-acting contraceptive injections in a rural Egyptian community. Journal of Biosocial Science 29:305, 1987. \n23-Plasma fibronectin levels hypertension during pregnancy. The Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 13:1, 17-21, Jan. 1987. \n24-Effect of smoking on pregnancy. Journal of Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 111-121, Sept 1986. \n25-Socio-demographic aspects of nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 35-42, Sept. 1986. \n26-Effect of intrapartum oxygen inhalation on maternofetal blood gases and pH. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 57-64, Sept. 1986. \n27-The effect of severe pre-eclampsia on serum transaminases. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 479-485, 1986. \n28-A study of placental immunoreceptors in pre-eclampsia. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 211-216, 1986. \n29-Serum human placental lactogen (hpl) in normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women, during pregnancy and its relation to the outcome of pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:2, 11-23, May 1986. \n30-Pregnancy specific B1 Glycoprotein and free estriol in the serum of normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women during pregnancy and after delivery. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:1, 63-70, Jan. 1986. Also was accepted and presented at Xith World Congress of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Berlin (West), September 15-20, 1985. \n31-Pregnancy and labor in women over the age of forty years. Accepted and presented at Al-Azhar International Medical Conference, Cairo 28-31 Dec. 1985. \n32-Effect of Copper T intra-uterine device on cervico-vaginal flora. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 23:2, 153-156, April 1985. \n33-Factors affecting the occurrence of post-Caesarean section febrile morbidity. Population Sciences, 6, 139-149, 1985. \n34-Pre-eclamptic toxaemia and its relation to H.L.A. system. Population Sciences, 6, 131-139, 1985. \n35-The menstrual pattern and occurrence of pregnancy one year after discontinuation of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as a postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 105-111, 1985. \n36-The menstrual pattern and side effects of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 97-105, 1985. \n37-Actinomyces in the vaginas of women with and without intrauterine contraceptive devices. Population Sciences, 6, 77-85, 1985. \n38-Comparative efficacy of ibuprofen and etamsylate in the treatment of I.U.D. menorrhagia. Population Sciences, 6, 63-77, 1985. \n39-Changes in cervical mucus copper and zinc in women using I.U.D.�s. Population Sciences, 6, 35-41, 1985. \n40-Histochemical study of the endometrium of infertile women. Egypt. J. Histol. 8(1) 63-66, 1985. \n41-Genital flora in pre- and post-menopausal women. Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 4(2), 165-172, 1983. \n42-Evaluation of the vaginal rugae and thickness in 8 different groups. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 9:2, 101-114, May 1983. \n43-The effect of menopausal status and conjugated oestrogen therapy on serum cholesterol, triglycerides and electrophoretic lipoprotein patterns. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 12:2, 113-119, April 1983. \n44-Laparoscopic ventrosuspension: A New Technique. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet., 20, 129-31, 1982. \n45-The laparoscope: A useful diagnostic tool in general surgery. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:4, 397-401, Oct. 1982. \n46-The value of the laparoscope in the diagnosis of polycystic ovary. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:2, 153-159, April 1982. \n47-An anaesthetic approach to the management of eclampsia. Ain Shams Medical Journal, accepted for publication 1981. \n48-Laparoscopy on patients with previous lower abdominal surgery. Fertility management edited by E. Osman and M. Wahba 1981. \n49-Heart diseases with pregnancy. Population Sciences, 11, 121-130, 1981. \n50-A study of the biosocial factors affecting perinatal mortality in an Egyptian maternity hospital. Population Sciences, 6, 71-90, 1981. \n51-Pregnancy Wastage. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 11:3, 57-67, Sept. 1980. \n52-Analysis of maternal deaths in Egyptian maternity hospitals. Population Sciences, 1, 59-65, 1979. \nArticles published on OBGYN.net: \n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n4-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n5-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n6-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n7-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n9- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n10-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n11- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n12-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n13-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: An Update on the pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecology/?page=/ENHLIDH/PUBD/FEATURES/\nPresentations/ Nocturnal_Enuresis/nocturnal_enuresis",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Al Azhar University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"113313",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdel-Aal",middleName:null,surname:"Mantawy",slug:"abdel-aal-mantawy",fullName:"Abdel-Aal Mantawy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5681},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5161},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1683},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10200},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:886},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15610}],offset:12,limit:12,total:1683},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"8"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10454",title:"Technology in Agriculture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"dcfc52d92f694b0848977a3c11c13d00",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Fiaz Ahmad and Prof. Muhammad Sultan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10454.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"338219",title:"Dr.",name:"Fiaz",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"fiaz-ahmad",fullName:"Fiaz Ahmad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10502",title:"Aflatoxins",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"34fe61c309f2405130ede7a267cf8bd5",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Lukman Bola Abdulra'uf",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10502.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"149347",title:"Dr.",name:"Lukman",surname:"Abdulra'uf",slug:"lukman-abdulra'uf",fullName:"Lukman Abdulra'uf"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10504",title:"Crystallization",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3478d05926950f475f4ad2825d340963",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Youssef Ben Smida and Dr. Riadh Marzouki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10504.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"311698",title:"Dr.",name:"Youssef",surname:"Ben Smida",slug:"youssef-ben-smida",fullName:"Youssef Ben Smida"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10552",title:"Montmorillonite",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c4a279761f0bb046af95ecd32ab09e51",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Faheem Uddin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10552.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"228107",title:"Prof.",name:"Faheem",surname:"Uddin",slug:"faheem-uddin",fullName:"Faheem Uddin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10572",title:"Advancements in Chromophore and Bio-Chromophore Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4aca0af0356d8d31fa8621859a68db8f",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Rampal Pandey",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10572.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"338234",title:"Dr.",name:"Rampal",surname:"Pandey",slug:"rampal-pandey",fullName:"Rampal Pandey"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10581",title:"Alkaline Chemistry and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4ed90bdab4a7211c13cd432aa079cd20",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Riadh Marzouki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10581.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"300527",title:"Dr.",name:"Riadh",surname:"Marzouki",slug:"riadh-marzouki",fullName:"Riadh Marzouki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10582",title:"Chemical Vapor Deposition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f9177ff0e61198735fb86a81303259d0",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sadia Ameen, Dr. M. 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