Results summary of the known field trials carried out in three citrus-growing countries of the Mediterranean area to evaluate the effect of CEVd and HSVd on vegetative growth and yield of different citrus scion and rootstock combinations.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6963",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Immune Response Activation and Immunomodulation",title:"Immune Response Activation and Immunomodulation",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Immune Response Activation and Immunomodulation has been written to address the perceived needs of both medical school and undergraduate curricula and to take advantage of new understandings in immunology. We have tried to achieve several goals and present the most important principles governing the function of the immune system. Our fundamental objective has been to synthesize the key concepts from the vast amount of experimental data that have emerged in the rapidly advancing field of immunology. The choice of what is most important is based on what is most clearly established by experimentation, what our students find puzzling, and what explains the wonderful efficiency and economy of the immune system. Inevitably, however, such a choice will have an element of bias, and our bias is toward emphasizing the cellular interactions in immune response by limiting the description of many of the underlying biochemical and molecular mechanisms to the essential facts. This book gives an insight into the role of cytokines in activating immune response during pathogenic invasion. Immunomodulation, aryl hydrocarbons, the role of the protein defensin and nucleated cells in provoking immune response, Bcl protein/gene-based apoptotic pathways, and plant-derived phytochemical-mediated immune response are all central themes of this book.",isbn:"978-1-78985-152-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-151-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-135-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73708",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"immune-response-activation-and-immunomodulation",numberOfPages:178,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"ac7ce04a130a57849a8d3adb55d688ed",bookSignature:"Rajeev K. Tyagi and Prakash S. Bisen",publishedDate:"April 17th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6963.jpg",numberOfDownloads:12823,numberOfWosCitations:47,numberOfCrossrefCitations:42,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:100,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:189,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 20th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 21st 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 20th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 8th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 7th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"201069",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeev",middleName:"K.",surname:"Tyagi",slug:"rajeev-tyagi",fullName:"Rajeev Tyagi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201069/images/system/201069.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rajeev K. Tyagi completed his doctorate (Ph.D.) in Immunology/parasitology/Infectiology with a special mention of 'Tres Honorabel” at Biomedical Parasitology Unit, Institute Pasteur, Paris, France (2011) on a very challenging and demanding area of translational biomedical research. He developed 'humanized” mouse model(s) to study asexual blood and liver stage infection of P. falciparum with an objective to explore vaccine candidates, drug discovery and drug resistance.\r\nDr. Tyagi worked at the University of South Florida as Postdoc fellow and used the developed humanized mouse to characterize attenuated asexual blood stage falciparum parasite. In addition, he made efforts to develop human-liver chimeric mice using TK/NOG mice to study liver stage infections of P. falciparum. \r\nDr. Tyagi worked at Augusta University, USA as senior research associate and developed an understanding of the Pathogen differentiated dendritic cells and their implication in developing therapeutic interventional approaches for chronic periodontitis.\r\nDr. Tyagi has been working to understand the role of nano-carriers in order to develop therapeutic approaches to address cancer, rheumatoid arthritis and systemic inflammatory diseases. He has published 34 research articles in various journals of international repute and contributed 5 chapters to the international books.\r\nCurrently, he is working as Assistant Professor in Institute of Science, Nirma University, Ahmedabad and his lab is funded by DST-SERB, New Delhi.",institutionString:"CSIR-Institute of Microbial Technology (IMTECH)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"276502",title:"Prof.",name:"Prakash Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Bisen",slug:"prakash-singh-bisen",fullName:"Prakash Singh Bisen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276502/images/system/276502.jpeg",biography:"Professor P.S. Bisen, received PhD in 1972 and D.Sc. in 1981\nfrom Jabalpur University, Jabalpur, India, guided 65 doctoral\ntheses having 350 research publications and reviews to his credit\nin indexed international journals of repute with 12 international books (Springer, John Wiley, CRC Press and IntechOpen) on\ncontemporary issues in Biological Sciences, served as Director\nof the Institute of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Barkatullah\nUniversity, Bhopal, Vice-Chancellor, Jiwaji University, Gwalior, Direcor, Madhav\nInstitute of Technology and Science, Gwalior, Director and Dean, JC Bose Institute\nof Life Sciences, Bundelkhand University, Jhansi and Principal Director and Advisor, Jaipur National University, Jaipur. He was a fellow of the UNESCO/UNDP/\nICRO and Hungarian Academy of Sciences at the Institute of Plant Physiology, Biological Research Center, Szeged, Hungary; U.S. National Science Foundation Fellow\nin the Department of Biological Sciences at the University of Illinois at Chicago and\nin the Department of Bacteriology at the University of California, Davis; UNESCO/\nWHO fellow at the Institute of Microbiology, Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences,\nBudejovika, Praha, Czechoslovakia; European Commission’s Marie Curie fellow\nat the Institute of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Lancaster,\nUnited Kingdom; and DAAD (German Academic Exchange Fellowship) fellow at\nthe University of Bonn, Germany, awardees of First Indira Gandhi Fellowship for\nhis outstanding work on environment conservation and management, National\nOverseas Associate ship of the Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Science\nand Technology, Govt. of India, UGC Career Award, State Level Kailash Nath\nKatju Award of Government of Madhya Pradesh for contributions in Life Sciences.\nHe was awarded the Life Time Professorship, the highest honor of Bundelkhand\nUniversity, Jhansi, India. He has also worked as emeritus scientist (CSIR) at Defense\nResearch Development Establishment, Defence Research Development Organization, Ministry of Defense, Government of India, Gwalior and is currently pursuing\nhis research in the field of medical biotechnology as Advisor in the Institute of Medical Sciences, Jaipur National University, Jaipur with a research project on tuberculosis from Grand Challenges Canada, Govt. of Canada. Professor Bisen is the elected\nfellow of the National Academy of Sciences, India, for his enormous contributions\nto the field of biology. The diagnostic technology developed by Professor Bisen is\nunique in several respects and has received recognition worldwide. The technology\nhas been patented in India, the United States, Europe, and Japan. He has served as\nthe external scientific advisor to a Barcelona-based Spanish multinational company, Biokit, involved in the manufacturing of diagnostic kits and also serving as\nScientific Adviser of an upcoming food industry, Tropilite Foods, based at Gwalior\ninvolved on probiotic research, food biotechnology and develops several innovative\nproducts for the food industry. Beijing Doing Institute of Translational Medicine\nMedical Group, China and Nan Yang Academy of Science Singapore appointed him\nas Senior Research Advisor.",institutionString:"Jiwaji University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Jiwaji University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"150",title:"Pure Immunology",slug:"pure-immunology"}],chapters:[{id:"66279",title:"Introductory Chapter: Immunity and Immunomodulation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85299",slug:"introductory-chapter-immunity-and-immunomodulation",totalDownloads:1351,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Rajeev K. Tyagi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66279",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66279",authors:[{id:"201069",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeev",surname:"Tyagi",slug:"rajeev-tyagi",fullName:"Rajeev Tyagi"}],corrections:null},{id:"63913",title:"Cytokine Profiling Plays a Crucial Role in Activating Immune System to Clear Infectious Pathogens",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80843",slug:"cytokine-profiling-plays-a-crucial-role-in-activating-immune-system-to-clear-infectious-pathogens",totalDownloads:3574,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:48,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Pathogen infections are recognized by the immune system, which consists of two types of responses: an innate immune response that recognizes pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and an antigen-specific adaptive immune response. In both responses, there are several activated cells of the immune system, which play a key role in establishing the environment of cytokines, thus directing their differentiation either suppressing or promoting the immune response. This immune response is crucial against pathogen infections. In this chapter, we will describe the crucial role played by different families of cytokines during activation of the immune system to eliminate infectious pathogens.",signatures:"José Luis Muñoz-Carrillo, Juan Francisco Contreras-Cordero,\nOscar Gutiérrez-Coronado, Paola Trinidad Villalobos-Gutiérrez,\nLuis Guillermo Ramos-Gracia and Viridiana Elizabeth Hernández-Reyes",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63913",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63913",authors:[{id:"214236",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",surname:"Muñoz-Carrillo",slug:"jose-luis-munoz-carrillo",fullName:"Jose Luis Muñoz-Carrillo"},{id:"216081",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",surname:"Gutiérrez-Coronado",slug:"oscar-gutierrez-coronado",fullName:"Oscar Gutiérrez-Coronado"},{id:"220717",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Francisco",surname:"Contreras Cordero",slug:"juan-francisco-contreras-cordero",fullName:"Juan Francisco Contreras Cordero"},{id:"233193",title:"Dr.",name:"Paola Trinidad",surname:"Villalobos-Gutiérrez",slug:"paola-trinidad-villalobos-gutierrez",fullName:"Paola Trinidad Villalobos-Gutiérrez"},{id:"254015",title:"Dr.",name:"Viridiana Elizabeth",surname:"Hernández-Reyes",slug:"viridiana-elizabeth-hernandez-reyes",fullName:"Viridiana Elizabeth Hernández-Reyes"},{id:"257472",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Guillermo",surname:"Ramos-Gracia",slug:"luis-guillermo-ramos-gracia",fullName:"Luis Guillermo Ramos-Gracia"}],corrections:null},{id:"63797",title:"Nucleated Red Blood Cells Contribute to the Host Immune Response Against Pathogens",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80545",slug:"nucleated-red-blood-cells-contribute-to-the-host-immune-response-against-pathogens",totalDownloads:1295,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"It has recently come to light that nucleated red blood cells (RBCs) of fish, amphibians, reptiles and birds are multifunctional cells, because in addition to being involved in gas exchange and transport, it has also been reported that they respond to pathogens by means of (i) phagocytosis, (ii) antigen presentation, (iii) production of cytokines and antimicrobial peptides, (iv) regulation of complement system, and (v) exerting paracrine molecular communication with other immune cells and modulating their functions. Similarly, human cord blood nucleated RBCs have been shown to exert a regulatory function in the innate immune response, by means of the suppression of the production of inflammatory cytokines. This chapter comprises the study of the implications of nucleated RBCs as mediators of both branches of immune system (innate and adaptive immune responses).",signatures:"Verónica Chico, Ivan Nombela, Sara Puente-Marín and\nMaría del Mar Ortega-Villaizan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63797",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63797",authors:[{id:"254101",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Del Mar",surname:"Ortega-Villaizan",slug:"maria-del-mar-ortega-villaizan",fullName:"Maria Del Mar Ortega-Villaizan"},{id:"254436",title:"Dr.",name:"Veronica",surname:"Chico",slug:"veronica-chico",fullName:"Veronica Chico"},{id:"261891",title:"Ms.",name:"Sara",surname:"Puente-Marin",slug:"sara-puente-marin",fullName:"Sara Puente-Marin"},{id:"261892",title:"Mr.",name:"Ivan",surname:"Nombela",slug:"ivan-nombela",fullName:"Ivan Nombela"}],corrections:null},{id:"63967",title:"Multifunctional Activity of the β-Defensin-2 during Respiratory Infections",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80611",slug:"multifunctional-activity-of-the-defensin-2-during-respiratory-infections",totalDownloads:1174,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Human β-defensin-2 is a small cationic peptide that is part of the innate and adaptive immunity. It is expressed mainly in the epithelium and has a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity against bacteria, fungi and viruses. In addition to its antimicrobial activity, it has other biological functions. The alteration of the expression of β-defensin-2 in the respiratory epithelium has been associated with the pathogenesis of several respiratory diseases such as asthma, pulmonary fibrosis, pneumonia, tuberculosis, rhinitis, etc. The acute respiratory infections caused by viruses are the main cause of morbidity and mortality in the world; there are few studies and it is necessary to study this peptide to understand its role in the viral pathogenesis. In addition, it also becomes relevant in its potential to take advantage of its properties in the development of alternative therapies that allow the prevention or treatment of viral respiratory infections.",signatures:"Dora Patricia Rosete Olvera and Carlos Cabello Gutiérrez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63967",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63967",authors:[{id:"95406",title:"Prof.",name:"Dora Patricia",surname:"Rosete",slug:"dora-patricia-rosete",fullName:"Dora Patricia Rosete"},{id:"259774",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Cabello-Gutierrez",slug:"carlos-cabello-gutierrez",fullName:"Carlos Cabello-Gutierrez"}],corrections:null},{id:"64863",title:"Immune Cell Activation: Stimulation, Costimulation, and Regulation of Cellular Activation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81568",slug:"immune-cell-activation-stimulation-costimulation-and-regulation-of-cellular-activation",totalDownloads:1199,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Opiate receptor (uOR) is expressed in central nervous system, gastrointestinal tract, male and female reproductive tissues, and immune cells. Morphine, a ligand for opioid receptor family, is known to activate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and release immunosuppressive glucocorticoids. Herein we present that minor changes, in the form of nonsynonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms, in μOR have cumulative impact on receptor-mediated signaling and functions of specific cell type(s). Significant reduction was seen in cells in M and S phases with coactivation of immune receptors with μOR. Flow cytometry-based experiments established a reduction in B and T lymphocytes, NK cells, and macrophages. Differences in types of immune cells were found to be significant to reduce immune response(s) mounted by GG(mutant allele)-bearing individuals. This is the first report on cross-talk between LPS-binding and μOR, explaining the reduction in the number of T and B cells after chronic opiate use and also the association of this impact on immunocytes with functional SNP, rs1799972/118G allele of OPRM1 gene as an explanation for the immune suppression in opiate users. Initially present lower cell titers can be further lowered by exogenous opiates and account for immunosuppression seen in chronic opiate users or after long-term treatment with opiate drugs for chronic pain.",signatures:"Suman Kapur and Anuradha Pal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64863",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64863",authors:[{id:"192210",title:"Dr.",name:"Suman",surname:"Kapur",slug:"suman-kapur",fullName:"Suman Kapur"}],corrections:null},{id:"65290",title:"Mesenchymal Stem Cells Modulate the Immune System in Developing Therapeutic Interventions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80772",slug:"mesenchymal-stem-cells-modulate-the-immune-system-in-developing-therapeutic-interventions",totalDownloads:1920,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:29,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are emerging as key players in regenerative medicine for the treatment of various diseases associated with the inflammation and degeneration, thereby aiding in therapeutic advancements. Several tissues have been identified as potential sources of MSCs including the bone marrow, cord blood, dental pulp, umbilical cord, adipose tissue, peripheral blood, and fetal liver, of which some are clinically recognized. MSCs are capable of differentiating into cells of multiple lineages and therefore established as suitable candidates for transplantation in damaged organs. They have added advantage of higher proliferation, easy expansion, and, more importantly, the absence of HLA class II receptors, with potential applications extending toward allogenic settings. MSCs are actively involved in different mechanisms related to repair and regeneration of tissues via immunomodulation, transdifferentiation, paracrine factors, etc. They are known to exhibit profound immunomodulatory effect on T and B cells and natural killer (NK) cells mediated via soluble factors and direct cell-cell contact. The MSCs activate the immune responses and inhibit proliferation, maturation, and differentiation of T and B cells. The MSC-activated immune responses induce the expression of regulatory T cells (Tregs). A plethora of studies have established that MSCs suppress immune responses via immunomodulation that makes them a preferred cell source for the use in clinical trials.",signatures:"Sonali Rawat, Suchi Gupta and Sujata Mohanty",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65290",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65290",authors:[{id:"201972",title:"Prof.",name:"Sujata",surname:"Mohanty",slug:"sujata-mohanty",fullName:"Sujata Mohanty"},{id:"256312",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonali",surname:"Rawat",slug:"sonali-rawat",fullName:"Sonali Rawat"},{id:"256314",title:"Ms.",name:"Suchi",surname:"Gupta",slug:"suchi-gupta",fullName:"Suchi Gupta"}],corrections:null},{id:"65510",title:"Current State of the Art in DNA Vaccine Delivery and Molecular Adjuvants: Bcl-xL Anti-Apoptotic Protein as a Molecular Adjuvant",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82203",slug:"current-state-of-the-art-in-dna-vaccine-delivery-and-molecular-adjuvants-bcl-xl-anti-apoptotic-prote",totalDownloads:1448,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"DNA vaccines (nucleic acid vaccines) have been gaining importance as promising therapeutics against infectious diseases, cancer, autoimmune disorders and allergy for the past two decades. However, the immune responses elicited by the DNA vaccines are not at the desired level to stimulate a protective immune response. Thus, studies are focused on the enhancement of DNA vaccine-induced immune response by different approaches. The most common approach is to use biomaterial-based adjuvants for enhanced antigen delivery and uptake by antigen-presenting cells. Some of these adjuvants are alum, saponins, microspheres, nanoparticles, liposomes, polymers, etc. used in vaccine formulations. In addition, molecular adjuvants like cytokines, chemokines and heat shock proteins have been shown to be promising in designing DNA vaccines. In this chapter, molecular adjuvants to improve DNA vaccination-induced immune responses will be summarized with a special focus on Bcl-xL anti-apoptotic protein.",signatures:"Sultan Gulce-Iz and Pelin Saglam-Metiner",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65510",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65510",authors:[{id:"254386",title:"Prof.",name:"Sultan",surname:"Gulce Iz",slug:"sultan-gulce-iz",fullName:"Sultan Gulce Iz"},{id:"264934",title:"MSc.",name:"Pelin",surname:"Saglam Metiner",slug:"pelin-saglam-metiner",fullName:"Pelin Saglam Metiner"}],corrections:null},{id:"63859",title:"Role of Aryl Hydrocarbon-Ligands in the Regulation of Autoimmunity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80840",slug:"role-of-aryl-hydrocarbon-ligands-in-the-regulation-of-autoimmunity",totalDownloads:864,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aim of this study is to show the effects of activating aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) by specific ligands, on the expression of responsive genes. Specific AhR-ligands were reported to play an important role in immune regulation. This chapter will focus mostly on the effects of activating AhR with different ligands on autoimmunity. Findings showed the possibility of using the AhR to treat inflammatory and autoimmune diseases in mice. AhR ligation with specific ligands can affect T cell differentiation, through activation of CD4+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells and downregulation of the pro-inflammatory T helper 17 cells. The results showed the effects of specific AhR-ligands on the production of pro-inflammatory and/or anti-inflammatory T cell subsets, the potential to use AhR-ligands in regulating the inflammation of organ/tissues in various diseases, suggesting that specific AhR-ligands could be used for immune regulation in pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases of human and mice.",signatures:"Hana’a Burezq",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63859",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63859",authors:[{id:"253555",title:"Dr.",name:"Hana'A",surname:"Burezq",slug:"hana'a-burezq",fullName:"Hana'A Burezq"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6617",title:"Immunoregulatory Aspects of Immunotherapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a2f42aa78dd846d4a1679066e72a7285",slug:"immunoregulatory-aspects-of-immunotherapy",bookSignature:"Seyyed Shamsadin Athari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6617.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"139889",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyyed Shamsadin",surname:"Athari",slug:"seyyed-shamsadin-athari",fullName:"Seyyed Shamsadin Athari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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In this period, we grow faster, we cry, we laugh more, we love it more, maybe we hate more. Our physical characteristics and sexual characteristics develop and reach maturity. Of course our personality traits and psychology are also important in this period. In this sense, adolescence is both very beautiful and difficult.
\r\n\tAt the same time, many diseases such as autoimmune diseases, eating and reproductive disorders emerge in the first time or symptoms peak in this period. For this reason, it is very important to know adolescence and to follow the healthy progress of the physiological period. Early diagnosis and treatment of problems that may be problematic in this period or later life is important.
\r\n\tThis book focuses on the normal physiological development and diseases of the whole adolescence period. I hope this book will help understand adolescents and solve their problems.
Viroids are circular, highly structured, single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) phytopathogens. Although they do not code for any peptide, these enigmatic pathogens have evolved the capacity to replicate within cellular organella, the nucleus and chloroplast for
Citrus exocortis is a destructive disease infecting citrus species [9, 11]. The agent of this disease, citrus exocortis viroid [
Citrus exocortis could affect a various part of the tree including the rootstock (at bark and wood levels), scion, leaves, and fruits, thus causing different types of damages such as bark scaling and cracking, bumps, severe stunting, low fruit-bearing, the poor appearance of the canopy [21, 24, 25, 26, 27], and poor tree performance [28]. CEVd-infected trees in the orchard show typical symptoms. The most characteristic one is bark scaling on trifoliate orange rootstock, yellow stem blotch on trifoliate orange and its hybrids and Rangpur lime (
The major susceptible citrus rootstocks, which show exocortis bark scaling symptoms, are trifoliate orange and its hybrids, Palestine sweet lime (
The type and severity of symptoms induced by citrus exocortis disease depend not just on the selected rootstock as described above, but also on the amount of viroid present in the scion and the infection with other citrus viroids. High temperatures can also accelerate the development of symptoms [30]. The results of a long-term field trial carried out with clementine trees grafted on the trifoliate orange rootstock revealed that CEVd-induced effects might be both reduced or increased when CEVd-infected trees were exposed to mixed viroid infections. In other words, several interactions among viroids including CEVd have been revealed through comparative assays between symptoms developed on trees infected with CEVd alone or co-infected with other viroids. The most clear-cut interaction occurs between CEVd and Citrus viroid IV [
Numerous field trials have been conducted on different citrus species, varieties, and rootstocks under three different agroecosystems, to evaluate the effect of CEVd on vegetative growth and yield (Table 1). The first field trial has been conducted to assess the effect of CEVd infection on commune clementine trees grafted on Pomeroy trifoliate orange. CEVd-infected trees have been periodically monitored for a period of 12 years (from 1990 to 2002) for symptom expression, growth, and fruit yield. CEVd-infected trees showed a significant reduction of growth and yield, which became increasingly apparent over time with infection. Cumulative yield varied from 291,1 to 570,3 kg in 2001 for CEVd and the control, respectively. This equated to 50% cumulative yield lost. This yield attenuation was associated mainly with the loss of large fruit production. Indeed, it has been shown that CEVd reduced fruit production significantly for calibers 2 to 5. Cumulative weights were smaller than the control for caliber 0–1 and small calibers 6 and 7–8, with some significant difference [21]. The quality of fruits from CEVd-infected orange trees (Washington Navel) grafted on Carrizo citrange rootstock has been evaluated from 2004 to 2007. The results of this experiment showed that the quality of the fruit was not affected by CEVd infection [26].
Combination | Effect on | References | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Scion | |||||
CEVd | |||||
Clementine | Orange Pomeroy trifoliate | NSE | [21] | ||
Oranger Washington Navel | Carrizo citrangec | NSE (Reduction of almost 17% and 27% for CEVd-129 and CEVd-117, respectively) | NSE (Low reduction of about 2% and 10% for CEVd-129 and CEVd-117, respectively) | [26] | |
Orange Maltaise demi sanguine | Soor orange ( | NSE | NSE | NSE (Reduction of almost 20%) | [46] |
Alemow | NSE | NSE | NSE | ||
Carrizo citrangec | NSE | NSE | NSE | ||
NSE | NSE (Reduction of almost 20%) | ||||
Cleopatra mandarin ( | NSE | NSE (Reduction of almost 25%) | NSE (Reduction of almost 20%) | ||
Swingle citrumelo (Citru)c | NSE | NSE | NSE | ||
Rangpur lime ( | NSE | NSE (Reduction of almost 28%) | NSE (Reduction of almost 20%) | ||
Trifoliate orangec | NSE | ||||
HSVd | |||||
Clementine | Orange Pomeroy trifoliatec | Little or no real impact | NSE | [21] | |
Orange Washington Navel | Carrizo citrangec | NSE (Reduction of almost 15% for CVd-IIc) | NSE (Reduction of almost 8% for CVd-IIb) | No effect | [26] |
Orange Maltaise demi sanguine | Soor orange ( | NSE | NSE | NSE (Reduction of almost 20%) | [46] |
Alemow | |||||
Carrizo citrangec | NSE | NSE | NSE | ||
NSE | NSE (Reduction of almost 20%) | ||||
Cleopatra mandarin ( | NSE | NSE | NSE (Reduction of almost 20%) | ||
Swingle citrumelo (Citru)c | NSE | NSE | |||
Rangpur lime ( | NSE | NSE | NSE (Reduction of almost 20%) | ||
Trifoliate orangec |
Results summary of the known field trials carried out in three citrus-growing countries of the Mediterranean area to evaluate the effect of CEVd and HSVd on vegetative growth and yield of different citrus scion and rootstock combinations.
Susceptible to citrus tristeza virus [
Susceptible to CTV stem-pitting and cachexia.
CTV tolerant.
A function of the used viroid isolates.
All citrus viroids are distributed primarily by the introduction and propagation of infected budwoods and subsequently by mechanical transmission, and CEVd is no exception [11]. Mechanical transmission of CEVd has been already reported. It took place on secateurs, tools, knives, and hedging equipment [9, 11, 27, 29] especially from lemon (
Cachexia is a destructive disease infecting citrus species [11]. The agent of this disease, hop stunt viroid [
Cachexia could affect a various part of the tree including the trunk, bark, twigs, branches, leaves, and fruits, thus causing different types of damages such as bark and trunk gumming with a rough and rugose appearance, bark-cracking, moderate and severe tree stunting, chlorosis, decline and death of severely affected trees, brown stipple spotting on the underside of the leaves, and the appearance of small pits on the wood [9, 21, 24]. Cachexia disease mainly affects some mandarins and their hybrids such as tangelos, and
As mentioned before, for CEVd, the type and severity of citrus cachexia symptoms depend also on the presence of other citrus viroids in the tree. The results of a long-term field trial carried out with clementine trees grafted on the trifoliate orange rootstock revealed that HSVd-induced effects might be both reduced or increased when HSVd-infected trees were exposed to mixed viroid infections. The most clear-cut interaction occurs between HSVd and CVd-IV. This interaction is manifested by a slight increase in fruit yield and reduction of scion circumferences [24].
The same field trials described before to evaluate the effect of CEVd on vegetative growth and yield (Table 1) were used for the same purpose for HSVd. Little or no effect in vegetative growth has been observed on commune clementine trees infected by HSVd as it has been determined by the measure of height and rootstock and scion circumferences [21]. Cumulative yield varied from 377,6 to 570,3 kg in 2001 for HSVd (CVd-IIc isolate) and the control, respectively. This equated to 34% cumulative yield lost [21]. The negative impact of HSVd infection on cumulative yield has been reported in another study carried out on Orange Maltaise demi sanguine grafted on Alemow (
As pointed out before, for CEVd, propagation of infected budwoods and mechanical inoculations with contaminating tools were reported as the principal causes for the omnipresence of multiple viroid species, including HSVd, among citrus orchards [34]. Mechanical transmission of HSVd has been already reported. Indeed, the results of a transmission assay carried out under greenhouse conditions revealed that all HSVd strains are mechanically transmitted from citron to healthy citron by a single slash with a knife blade [32]. As for CEVd, the potential involvement of gots in HSVd spread has been shown under controlled conditions [34]. Top working, a common practice in Mediterranean countries, seems to have largely contributed to HSVd spread in Mediterranean citrus orchards [9]. HSVd is not known to be seed-borne [47] in citrus or to have natural vectors [11, 48].
It is usually accepted that although the mechanisms through which viroids interact with their hosts are beginning to be dissected, the key triggering events and molecular mechanisms underlying viroid pathogenesis remain unclear [49, 50], and CEVd and HSVd are no exception. As demonstrated by various types of citrus pathogens [51, 52], further investigation of the molecular basis of viroid-host interactions is crucial to better understand the pathogenesis of viroids, and thus help to develop effective strategies to combat viroid diseases [50, 53]. Important changes occur in the chloroplast, cell wall, peroxidase, and symporter activities upon infection of Etrog citron with CEVd [54]. The CEVd-infected citron system has been subsequently used for studying the feedback regulation mechanism using transcriptomic analysis. The analysis of the woody host response to CEVd revealed the activation of basic defense and RNA-silencing mechanisms following CEVd infection. In other words, a large number of genes (about 1530) encoding key proteins involved in the RNA silencing pathway, and proteins related to basic defense responses are expressed following CEVd infection [53]. Furthermore, a recent study elucidates the role of phytohormone pathways, particularly those linked to ethylene, in disease development and ribosomal stress caused by CEVd infection by using tomato as an experimental host [55]. For HSVd, a small RNA-mediated gene silencing response has been highlighted upon the infection of lemon by HSVd. The large amounts of HSVd-small interfering RNA (siRNA) from both central and variant domains have been suggested to be involved in interference with host gene and symptom development [56].
Generally, biological assays based on indicator host plants expressing typical symptoms of infection and able to withstand higher levels of viroid replication played an essential role in both viroid detection and characterization [57]. CEVd and HSVd are viroid diseases present in citrus orchards around the world [11]. The biological diagnosis through indexing method is considered as an efficient tool to test the health status of a plant, regarding a disease by inoculation with the grafting of the budwood or any other infected tissue in indicator plants that allow viroid replication, symptoms expression [11, 58], and the enhancement of viroid concentration [59]. However, bioassays for CEVd and HSVd detection and identification may require a panel of indicator host plants [60]. Certain considerations need to be respected for the proper indexing of citrus viroids. These include the use of excellent plants, the work under warm temperatures, and the use of citron index plants grown one per container. As mentioned previously, citrus viroids are highly mechanically transmissible and tools must be disinfected to avoid their spread [9].
The citron test is a very sensitive and diagnostic index for determining the presence of CEVd [9]. However, indexing,
As to cachexia, Parson’s special mandarin budded on vigorous root-stock such as rough lemon or Volkamer lemon is reported as an excellent indicator for the disease [9, 65]. The biological indexing may take up to one year before symptoms are seen. The reaction of Parson’s Special mandarin may differ depending on HSVd isolates. In other words, some isolates are very mild reacting, whereas others are quite severe in their reaction to the indicator plant. Indeed, a mild strain reaction consists of just a slight browning at the bud union or cut back region of the Parson’s Special mandarin while a severe reaction consists of the appearance of gum in the wood that may extend via the entire plant [9]. Cuban Shaddock has been proved to be the best rootstock, compared to rough lemon or Volkamer lemon, for symptom expression on Clemeline 11–20 indicator plants for indexing cachexia. Furthermore, the application of 0,5% foliar urea sprays, alone or in combination with 20 ppm gibberellic acid showed to produce more intense expression of cachexia symptoms in the indicator Clemeline 11–20 than the unsprayed control [64].
Cross protection is a biological assay, in which the infection of a plant with a viroid strain ensures protection from infection with another strain of the same viroid. This bioassay can be used for indirect viroid biological indexing. It has been applied in the diagnosis of several viroids including CEVd and HSVd. Typically, the principle of this method is based on the infection of the plant with a mild strain of a viroid, followed by its inoculation with inoculum from a plant suspected to be infected with a severe strain of the same viroid. Positive indexing of the viroid is revealed by the non-expression of symptoms in the tested plants [60]. It has been shown in a cross-protection assay, performed with CEVd-129 as a “protecting” strain against the severe type strain of CEVd that a mild strain of CEVd could lead to apparent “protection” against challenge inoculation with the severe strain. However, it is important to highlight that variability has been shown in the induced protection effect. The latter varied from only a brief delay to almost total impairment of symptom expression. The level of protection depends on the length of the interval between the inoculations with the mild and severe strains [66].
Since viroids lack a protein capsid, serological techniques used routinely in plant viruses’ detection are not applicable [67]. Nucleic acid-based methods, including polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE), hybridization (dot- and northern-blots and micro−/macroarrays), amplification (reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP)) and sequencing (next-generation sequencing and Sanger sequencing), offer rapid cost-effective, and reliable diagnosis of viroids [60].
PAGE is considered as the first molecular technique used for the rapid (2–3 day period) identification of viroid infected plants. This technique continues to play a crucial role in the identification of new viroids since it is the only diagnostic method that is sequence-independent. PAGE analysis under denaturing conditions showed that many
Since the beginning of their use in the 1980s, dot blot hybridization and hybridization of tissue imprints began to replace PAGE for routine viroid detection. This is mainly because these methods allow the processing of a large number of samples [57]. A northern hybridization protocol, which relied on the analysis of preparations from bark tissues, was proved to be more sensitive than PAGE to detect CEVd and HSVd from field-grown plants of different citrus species and cultivars [70]. A citrus viroids-multiprobe composed of full-length clones of HSVd, CEVd, and two other citrus viroids has been constructed for the simultaneous detection of viroids associated with citrus trees. All the tested viroids were effectively detected with this multiprobe when tested by both northern hybridization and dot blot methods. It is important to highlight that this multiprobe does not allow the identification of the viroid type species resulting in a positive signal [71].
Due to the small size of viroids, numerous RT-PCR approaches can be applied for both their detection and subsequent characterization. In the case of CEVd and HSVd, numerous RT-PCR and real-time RT-PCR approaches have been developed and proved to allow the detection of CEVd and HSVd in both singleplex or multiplex assays [63, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76]. A list of some RT-PCR and related tests developed to detect CEVd and HSVd are presented in Table 2. Some of these tests allow also the discrimination between mild and severe CEVd strains and the identification of HSVd isolates associated with cachexia symptoms [77]. The multiplex one-step RT-PCR assay developed by Wang et al. [75] is considered a good tool streamlining the simultaneous detection of up to five citrus viroids, including CEVd and HSVd. This enables to reduce time and labor without affecting sensitivity and specificity. Indeed, serial dilution experiments showed that the singleplex RT-PCR sensitivity was similar to that of multiplex RT-PCR for all the tested viroids [75]. This type of assay could be used in high throughput screenings of viroids associated with citrus in field surveys, germplasm banks, nurseries, as well as in other viroid disease management programs [74]. Similarly, the multiplex RT-TaqMan PCR assay developed by Papayiannis [76] enables accurate discrimination between CEVd and HSVd with a diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of 100%. It is important to emphasize that in conventional RT-PCR tests, the overall sensitivity and specificity were lower and varied between 97 and 98% for HSVd, and 94 and 95% for CEVd. Therefore, this essay presented 1000-fold more analytical sensitivity [76]. The specificity of the tests described previously was confirmed by including healthy controls and/or plant tissue infected with other citrus graft transmissible virus and bacteria pathogens and non-targeted citrus viroids. Both singleplex and multiplex assays did not cross-react with any non-inoculated negative controls or other citrus pathogens [63, 74, 76]. To date, PCR-based approaches have been proven efficacy on viroid direct detection. However, false positives and negatives due to amplicon contamination and failure to generate cDNA of suitable size during reverse transcription, respectively, are not uncommon and therefore preclude the application of RT-PCR for large scale indexing [70].
Name of RT-PCR test | Sequence 5′-3′ | Tm (°C) | Genomic coordinates | Size of the expected product | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Primer/Probe Name | |||||
RT-PCR | |||||
Singleplex | |||||
CEVd-R | GGGGATCCCTGAAGGACTT | 60 | 80-98a | 371 bp | [72, 85] |
CEVd-F | GGAAACCTGGAGGAAGTCG | 99-117a | |||
HSVd-F 27-mer VP-20 | CGCCCGGGGCAACTCTTCTCAGAATCC | 60 | 78–102 | 251 bp | [37, 73] |
HSVd-R 26-mer VP-19 | GCCCCGGGGCTCCTTTCTCAGGTAAG | 60–85 | |||
HSVd VP-98 | CTCCAGAGCACCGCGGCCCTC | DN | 120–140 | 140 bp | [37] |
HSVd VP-99 | CTGGGGAATTCTCGAGTTGCCGC | 1–23 | |||
Multiplex | |||||
CEVd-F194 | TTTCGCTGCTGGCTCCACA | 58 | 194–212 | 196 bp | [63] |
CEVd-R18 | ACCTCAAGAAAGATCCCGA | 371–18 | |||
HSVd-F1 | GGGGCAACTCTTCTCAGAATCC | 81–102 | 302 bp | ||
HSVd-R1 | GGGGCTCCTTTCTCAGGTAAGTC | 58–80 | |||
CEV-R | CCGGGGATCCCTGAAGGACTT | 58 | 78-98a | 371 bp | [75] |
CEV-F | GGAAACCTGGAGGAAGTCGAG | 99-119a | |||
HSVd-R | CCGGGGCTCCTTTCTCAGGTAAGT | 59-82b | 302 bp | ||
HSVd-F | GGCAACTCTTCTCAGAATCCAGC | 83-105b | |||
Real time-RT-PCR | |||||
Singleplex | |||||
CEVd −161 F | GTCCAGCGGAGAAACAGGAG | 60 | 181-200c | 105 bp | [74]* |
CEVd −258 R | AGAGAAGCTCCGGGCGA | 270-286c | |||
CEVd −187 P FAM | TCCTTCCTTTCGCTGCT | 212-228c | |||
HSVd-208 F | GAGACGCGACCGGTGG | 60 | 216-231d | 88 bp | |
HSVd-295 R | GCTCAAGAGAGGATCCGCG | 286-304d | |||
HSVd-226 P TET | TCACCTCTCGGTTCGTC | 234-250d | |||
Multiplex | |||||
CEVd-RTR_F | GTCGCCGCGGATCACT | 60 | 142–159 | 64 bp | [63] |
CEVd-RTR_R | CCAGCAGCGAAAGGAAGGA | 187–205 | |||
HSVd-RTR_F | GGAATTCTCGAGTTGCCGCA | 5–24 | 127 bp | ||
HSVd-RTR_R | CCGCGGCCCTCTCT | 118–131 | |||
CEVd-RTR_P | CCAGCGGAGAAACAG | 163–177 | — | ||
HSVd-RTR_P | CAACTCTTCTCAGAATCC | 85–102 | — | ||
CEVdF | GCGTCCAGCGGAGAAACA | 60 | 158–175e | 68 bp | [76] |
CEVdR | CAGCGACGATCGGATGTG | 226–208e | |||
CEVdTAQ | {FAM}-TCGTCTCCTTCCTTTCGCTGCTGG-{BHQ1} | 181–204e | |||
HSVdF | GCCTTCGAAACACCATCGA | 159–177f | 71 bp | ||
HSVdR | CACCGGTCGCGTCTCATC | 230–213f | |||
HSVdTAQ | {HEX}-CGTCCCTTCTTCTTTACCTTCTCCTGGCTC-{BHQ2} | 179–208f |
Primer sequences and their annealing temperature (Tm), primer/probe location, and expected size of PCR products for each primer pair when used to amplify CEVd and HSVd by RT-PCR and related tests (this is not a full or exclusive list).
The same primers have been also tested in multiplex Real time-RT-PCR test.
GenBank Accession no. NC-001464.
GenBank Accession no. NC-001351.
GenBank Accession no. CEVd-HQ284019.
GenBank Accession no. HSVd-KJ810553.
GenBank Accession no. U21126.
GenBank Accession no. GQ249348. R: antisense primer. F: sense primer.
Next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies are currently becoming routinely applied in different fields of virus and viroids studies. These advanced technologies have therefore contributed to a revolution in both the detection and discovery of plant viruses and viroids [78, 79, 80, 81]. NGS has also provided an alternative method to identify viroids in the citrus cultivars. In other words, transcriptome sequencing has shown efficacy in citrus viroid diagnostics. Indeed, this method enabled the simultaneous identification of numerous viroids from various citrus samples, including CEVd and HSVd [82]. A deep sequencing approach, combined with bioinformatics analysis, is already being implemented for HSVd detection in
No naturally occurring durable resistance has been observed in most species, despite non-hosts for viroids exist. Therefore, the effective control methods for viroid diseases consist mainly of detection and eradication, and cultural controls [50].
Exocortis and cachexia are widespread diseases in the Mediterranean region. CEVd and HSVd have been reported in most Mediterranean countries and are among the most prevalent citrus viroids in the region [9]. The development of reliable diagnostic methods facilitated extensive surveys for CEVd and HSVd in different parts of the region. Both viroids were successively identified in many countries, including Morocco [89, 90, 91, 92], Cyprus [33], Spain [26], Egypt [43, 93], Italy [61, 94], Tunisia [46, 95], France [21], Syria [96], and Turkey [42].
In Morocco, exocortis and cachexia are among the major citrus viroid diseases [90, 91]. These diseases are prevalent in citrus orchards and can be found in all
Citrus viroids, including CEVd and HSVd, are distributed mainly by the introduction and propagation of infected budwoods, by top working, and by mechanical transmission [9, 11]. Both viroids are known for their ability to infect a large number of host plants [36]. CEVd and HSVd are destructive to certain citrus varieties and, can cause yield losses that may be as high as 34 to 76 percent depending on the combination viroid-rootstock-scion [21, 46]. The mechanisms through which CEVd and HSVd interact with their hosts and induce pathogenesis are beginning to be deciphered. In other words, the involvement of RNA-silencing and basic defense mechanisms following CEVd and HSVd infection has been highlighted [54, 56].
Once introduced and established in a country, both viroids can spread relatively rapidly because of their ability to be transmitted via mechanical means [9, 11]. Since CEVd and HSVd have a high resistance to heat, the chemical treatment appears to be the best method to disinfect CEVd- and HSVd-contaminated tools. For instance, a 0,25 to 0,5 and a 1 percent solution of sodium hypochlorite appears to be the best option to eliminate CEVd and HSVd, respectively, from contaminated hedging and budwood cutting tools [11, 98]. Like all citrus viroids, CEVd and HSVd seem to be successively eliminated from propagative material by shoot-tip grafting or by the deployment of nucellar budlines. Being extremely tolerant of heat, CEVd and HSVd have not been successfully eliminated from budwood by applying thermotherapy [9]. Certification programs must include measures to control viroid spread in nurseries [32]. The majority of rootstocks that are tolerant to the citrus tristeza virus [
Complicated interactions, including antagonism and synergy, occur between viroids coinfecting the same citrus host. These interactions may lead to different symptoms, canopy volumes, fruit yields, and commercial performance. Although no obvious physiological changes in citrus hosts have been described in mixed infections of CEVd and HSVd and both viroids do not induce severe symptoms in citrus [24, 99], their interaction was intriguing because they are commonly found simultaneously infecting different citrus cultivars and they have identical biological properties within the same host. The relationship between the two viroids has been investigated over 3 years (from 2011 to 2013). Results showed a positive correlation between CEVd and HSVd in specific tissues of two citrus cultivars (blood orange and Murcott mandarin). This result has been supported by three findings: titer enhancement, localization similarity, and lack of symptom aggravation under mixed-infection conditions. Compared to their concentrations under single-infection conditions, a significant increase in the CEVd and HSVd population has been observed under mixed-infection during 6 and only 1 season of the 12 monitored seasons, respectively. This result is somewhat surprising because no competition phenomenon for host resources occurs between the two viroids although they have the same biological functions and share identical cellular and subcellular spaces [27]. This issue merits consideration in future research.
Regarding the current situation of CEVd and HSVd in Morocco, this chapter provides a general overview of their spread in the Moroccan citrus-growing areas. Preventing the introduction and the establishment of exocortis and cachexia diseases in the Moroccan citrus orchards can be set up through the use of viroid-free (certified) planting material, disinfection of pruning tools, regular monitoring of citrus orchards to ensure early detection of both diseases, and by avoiding top working practice. This review pointers to new research avenues in exocortis and cachexia diseases in Morocco or elsewhere. These research fields could include for instance the characterization of CEVd and HSVd isolates, searching for secondary hosts, and developing sustainable control strategies. Investigating the prevalence of CEVd and HSVd infection in numerous natural host plants, and the characterization of the viroid sequence variants is valuable especially that a cross-transmission phenomenon between different hosts seems to be possible for HSVd [100].
Studying functional genomics through transcriptomic analysis and/or proteomic approaches in citrus-CEVd/HSVd interaction would be an interesting approach to shed more light on the full mechanisms underlying the complex and varied events associated with such interactome, and thus contribute to the development of novel diagnostic methods and plant protection strategies. This further advanced research will expand our understanding of CEVd and HSVd epidemiology and the mechanisms behind their spread across the world in general and Morocco in particular, and could potentially help in devising innovative management strategies of both viroids.
This research was financially supported by INRA Institute (CRRA de Oujda; Qualipole de Berkane) and the Phytopathology Unit of the Department of Plant Protection, Ecole Nationale d’Agriculture de Meknes.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
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Furthermore, as global warming and pollution worsen, the development of renewable energy sources is becoming more essential. Hydrogen is one of the most promising clean and sustainable energy carriers because it emits only water as a byproduct without carbon emission and has the highest energy efficiency. Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of raw resources, including water and biomass. Water electrolysis is one of many hydrogen production technologies that is highly recommended due to its eco-friendliness, high hydrogen generation rate, and high purity. However, in terms of long-term viability and environmental effect, Polymer Electrolyte Membrane water electrolysis has been identified as a potential approach for producing high-purity, high-efficiency hydrogen from renewable energy sources. Furthermore, the hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) produced are directly employed in fuel cells and other industrial uses. As a result, an attempt has been made in this work to investigate hydrogen synthesis and utilization in fuel cell vehicles. Low-temperature combustion technology has recently been applied in engine technology to reduce smoke and NOx emissions at the same time. The advantages and limitations of homogeneous charge compression ignition, partially premixed charge compression ignition, premixed charge compression ignition, and reactivity regulated compression ignition are described separately in low-temperature combustion strategy.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Babu Dharmalingam, Ramakrishna Reddy Ramireddy, Santhoshkumar Annamalai, Malinee Sriariyanun, Deepakkumar Rajagopal and Venkata Ramana Katla"},{id:"82176",title:"Replacement of Diesel Fuel by DME in Compression Ignition Engines: Case for India",slug:"replacement-of-diesel-fuel-by-dme-in-compression-ignition-engines-case-for-india",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104969",abstract:"Decarbonising of transport, industrial and all sectors of economy is a necessity to stop or reverse global warming. Use of batteries, fuel-cells, hybrid topographies with smaller IC engines and use of alternative fuels like methanol, ethanol, DME in the IC engines are some of the ways through which emission of green-house gases can reduced/eliminated. Diesel engines are highly efficient due to higher compression ratios and are used in the heavy-duty transportation vehicles. DME is a single molecule fuel having high cetane number and which can be used as a drop-in fuel on the diesel engines albeit with retro-fitment of these engines with a new pressurized fuel system. DME with a chemical formula CH3-O-CH3 can be produced by different feedstocks such as coal, natural gas, biomass and bio-waste and municipal solid waste. India has a large reserve of high ash coal and generates high quantities of biomass and MSW, all of which can be converted to DME by use of clean production technologies. India’s transport and industrial sectors consume about 100 billion liters of diesel fuel per year produced entirely from imported petroleum. This amount of diesel can be replaced by indigenously produced DME from locally available coal, biomass and MSW.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Anirudh Gautam and Ankita Singh"},{id:"81979",title:"The Influence of Exhaust Gas Recirculation on Performance and Emission Characteristics of a Diesel Engine Using Waste Plastic Pyrolysis Oil Blends and Conventional Diesel",slug:"the-influence-of-exhaust-gas-recirculation-on-performance-and-emission-characteristics-of-a-diesel-e",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105011",abstract:"Through an experimental study, this work focused on finding the influence of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) on waste plastic pyrolysis oils (WPPOs) with diesel as a base comparison fuel. The results show the amount of carbon monoxide emissions seemed to decrease at low engine loads up to intermediate loads of (50%), thereafter continued to increase significantly but marginally. Among fuels tested, blend WPPOB100 reported the highest BSFC, at 0% EGR flow rate. The value was 0.4751g/kW.hr. compared with 0.7235 g/kW.hr. at 30% EGR flow rate. Increased blend ratio had a direct decrease in brake power linearly. At 30% engine load, CD, WPPOB10, WPPOB20, WPPOB30 and WPPOB40 recorded values of 2.125 kW, 2.15 kW, 2.05 kW, 1.98 kW, 1.86 kW and 1.75 kW, respectively. Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) at 30% EGR flow rate, blend WPPOB10 had the highest reduction in temperature compared with the any other WPPO blends at 320°C. Increased blend ratio and EGR percentage flow rate increased smoke emissions within the test fuels blends. At 15% EGR flow rate, the following data were recorded: 7.53%, 7.1%, 6.72%, 6.25%, 6.0% and 5.4% for CD, WWPO10, WPPO20, WPPO30, WPPO40 and WPPO100, respectively.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Semakula Maroa and Freddie L. Inambao"},{id:"81895",title:"Performance and Emission Characteristics of Hydrogenation Derived Renewable Diesel as Diesel Engine Fuel",slug:"performance-and-emission-characteristics-of-hydrogenation-derived-renewable-diesel-as-diesel-engine-",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104820",abstract:"Growing anxieties about the continued depletion of fossil fuel reserves, improving the performance of diesel engines, and mandates to reduce greenhouse gas emissions have made the search for alternative fuels for diesel engines more imperative. Hydrogenation Derived Renewable Diesel (HDRD) is recognized as a sustainable, reliable, and cost-effective alternative to petroleum-based diesel (PBD) fuel for compression ignition (CI) engines. This may be because the physicochemical properties of HDRD are similar to that of PBD fuel. The current effort examines the performance and emission characteristics of HDRD in unmodified CI engines. Performance emissions characteristics such as power, torque, brake specific fuel consumption, thermal efficiency, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, particulate matter, and exhaust gas temperature were interrogated and compared with that of PBD fuel in a CI engine. The outcome of the study shows that HDRD is better than biodiesel and a sustainable replacement for PDB fuel to achieve improved performance and reduced emissions of CI engines. Going forward, more investigations are needed to further simplify the preparation and democratize the utilization of HDRD as CI fuels for various applications.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Omojola Awogbemi, Daramy Vandi Von Kallon and Josiah Pelemo"},{id:"81114",title:"Research and Innovation to Improve the Efficiency of Modern Diesel Engines",slug:"research-and-innovation-to-improve-the-efficiency-of-modern-diesel-engines",totalDownloads:10,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102759",abstract:"Modern diesel engines are one of the main mobile energy sources and are characterized by a high degree of workflow completeness, design, and manufacturing technology. The chapter summarizes the authors’ experience in improving diesel engines, increasing specific volume power, and reliability, ensuring a low level of environmental pollution emissions. The results of research using industry 4.0 technologies for systematization, choice of directions, and the search for rational ways to improve the efficiency of diesel engines are presented. The application of anergo-exergy method for analyzing the efficiency of the working process of the engine and its systems is considered. Taking into consideration the operating conditions, technical solutions are proposed to improve the reliability of the most heat-stressed parts of high-powered engines. The possibilities for a comprehensive assessment of the fuel efficiency and environmental qualities of diesel engines have been expanded taking into account CO2 emissions when using traditional, alternative, and hybrid diesel fuel.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Andriy Marchenko, Igor Parsadanov, Volodymyr Pylyov, Oleksandr Osetrov, Linkov Oleh, Serhii Kravchenko, Oleksandr Trynov, Denys Meshkov, Serhii Bilyk, Anatolii Savchenko, Inna Rykova and Rasoul Aryan"},{id:"81849",title:"A Comparative Evaluation of Biodiesel and Used Cooking Oil as Feedstock for HDRD Application: A Review",slug:"a-comparative-evaluation-of-biodiesel-and-used-cooking-oil-as-feedstock-for-hdrd-application-a-revie",totalDownloads:23,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104393",abstract:"The search for clean energy for transportation fuel across the globe has grown in intensity. The use of biodiesel as a fuel for compression ignition (CI) engines has shown some deficiencies, e.g., poor storage, and poor pour point. The carbon chain of biodiesel is one of the factors to be considered; the longer carbon chain length leads to decreased ignition delay, which leads to the formation of OH during the premixed combustion phase. The major challenges that render biodiesel inefficient are discussed, like higher viscosity, lower energy content, higher nitrogen oxide (NOX) emissions, lower engine speed and power, injector coking, engine compatibility, high cost, and higher engine wear. The novelty of this work is that it shows that biodiesel conversion to green diesel is possible using a biowaste heterogeneous catalyst to obtain quality and high yield of HDRD with lower cost. This renewable energy (HDRD) possesses properties that are directly compatible with CI engines and transportation engines. This research reviewed biodiesel and UCO as feedstocks for the production of HDRD, including the cost–benefit of these feedstocks. Hydrogenation of biodiesel has the potential to overcome the drawbacks of conventional chemically catalyzed processes.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Josiah Pelemo, Kayode Timothy Akindeji, Freddie L. Inambao, Omojola Awogbemi and Emmanuel Idoko Onuh"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:12},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. 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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:754,paginationItems:[{id:"310674",title:"Dr.",name:"Pravin",middleName:null,surname:"Kendrekar",slug:"pravin-kendrekar",fullName:"Pravin Kendrekar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310674/images/system/310674.jpg",biography:"Dr. Pravin Kendrekar, MSc, MBA, Ph.D., is currently a visiting scientist at the Lipid Nanostructure Laboratory, University of Central Lancashire, England. He previously worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Ben-Gurion University of Negev, Israel; University of the Free State, South Africa; and Central University of Technology Bloemfontein, South Africa. He obtained his Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry from Nagaoka University of Technology, Japan. He has published more than seventy-four journal articles and attended several national and international conferences as speaker and chair. Dr. Kendrekar has received many international awards. He has several funded projects, namely, anti-malaria drug development, MRSA, and SARS-CoV-2 activity of curcumin and its formulations. He has filed four patents in collaboration with the University of Central Lancashire and Mayo Clinic Infectious Diseases. His present research includes organic synthesis, drug discovery and development, biochemistry, nanoscience, and nanotechnology.",institutionString:"Visiting Scientist at Lipid Nanostructures Laboratory, Centre for Smart Materials, School of Natural Sciences, University of Central Lancashire",institution:null},{id:"428125",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinayak",middleName:null,surname:"Adimule",slug:"vinayak-adimule",fullName:"Vinayak Adimule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428125/images/system/428125.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vinayak Adimule, MSc, Ph.D., is a professor and dean of R&D, Angadi Institute of Technology and Management, India. He has 15 years of research experience as a senior research scientist and associate research scientist in R&D organizations. He has published more than fifty research articles as well as several book chapters. He has two Indian patents and two international patents to his credit. Dr. Adimule has attended, chaired, and presented papers at national and international conferences. He is a guest editor for Topics in Catalysis and other journals. He is also an editorial board member, life member, and associate member for many international societies and research institutions. His research interests include nanoelectronics, material chemistry, artificial intelligence, sensors and actuators, bio-nanomaterials, and medicinal chemistry.",institutionString:"Angadi Institute of Technology and Management",institution:null},{id:"284317",title:"Prof.",name:"Kantharaju",middleName:null,surname:"Kamanna",slug:"kantharaju-kamanna",fullName:"Kantharaju Kamanna",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284317/images/21050_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. K. Kantharaju has received Bachelor of science (PCM), master of science (Organic Chemistry) and Doctor of Philosophy in Chemistry from Bangalore University. He worked as a Executive Research & Development @ Cadila Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Ahmedabad. He received DBT-postdoc fellow @ Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore under the supervision of Prof. P. Balaram, later he moved to NIH-postdoc researcher at Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA, after his return from postdoc joined NITK-Surthakal as a Adhoc faculty at department of chemistry. Since from August 2013 working as a Associate Professor, and in 2016 promoted to Profeesor in the School of Basic Sciences: Department of Chemistry and having 20 years of teaching and research experiences.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rani Channamma University, Belagavi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"22",type:"subseries",title:"Applied Intelligence",keywords:"Machine Learning, Intelligence Algorithms, Data Science, Artificial Intelligence, Applications on Applied Intelligence",scope:"This field is the key in the current industrial revolution (Industry 4.0), where the new models and developments are based on the knowledge generation on applied intelligence. The motor of the society is the industry and the research of this topic has to be empowered in order to increase and improve the quality of our lives.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11418,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. 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He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. 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