\r\n\t2) The divergence between the levels of reliability required (twelve-9’s are not uncommon requirements) and the ability to identify or test failure modes that are increasingly unknown and unknowable \r\n\t3) The divergence between the vulnerability of critical systems and the amount of damage that an individual ‘bad actor’ is able to inflict.
\r\n
\r\n\t \r\n\tThe book examines pioneering work to address these challenges and to ensure the timely arrival of antifragile critical systems into a world that currently sees humanity at the edge of a precipice.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-461-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-460-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-462-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"78d284ad921e9677830ef0335b1f1276",bookSignature:"Prof. Darrell Mann",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10692.jpg",keywords:"Complex-Adaptive-Systems, Edge-of-Chaos, Antifragile, Holistic-Design, Human-Error, Irrationality, Scientific Laws, Evolutionary-S-Curves, Anticipatory-Failure-Determination, Edge Effect, Feedback-Loops, OODA-Loop",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 15th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 15th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 14th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 2nd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 1st 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering innovation-methods researcher, an innovator with a $6B track-record, and a regular author on innovation-related topics. 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1. Introduction
1.1. Yeasts: commercial applications
Yeasts have a wide range of applications mainly in food industry (wine making, brewing, distilled spirits production, and baking) and in biomass production (single-cell protein [SCP]). More recently, yeast has also been used in the biofuel industry and for the production of heterologous compounds. Obviously, their main application arises from the metabolic capacity to carry out the transformation of sugars into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide under anaerobic conditions. Moreover, a large number of secondary flavor compounds are created what implies on organoleptic attributes of particular food products. However, it would be misguided to trivialize their metabolic capacities only to fermentative activity. The main factors influencing yeast metabolism are the oxygen availability and the type of carbon source. Many yeast strains can function under both anaerobic as well as aerobic conditions of environment, switching their metabolism types easily [1]. Obviously, the courses of main metabolic pathways are conserved, but some regulative mechanisms attract the attention, denoting unusual metabolism flexibility [2]. In food industry, Saccharomyces cerevisiae is the genus of yeast most frequently used, whereas Candida, Endomycopsis, and Kluyveromyces are crucial for SCP production. Yeast strains of industrial importance are carefully selected from the immense natural biodiversity and their properties improved according to process outcome. Both classical approaches as well as modern strategies of gene manipulations are applied to generate variants relevant to work under industrial specific conditions [3, 4]. Strains alterations concern not only the route of fermentations step and its direct yield but also facilitation of product recovery procedures and finally the best quality of particular end product. These nonpathogenic strains with both genotypic and phenotypic stability should have short-generation time and low nutritional requirements. They should perform the fermentation process quickly to minimize the contamination risk. Additionally, they should be tolerant of a wide range of physiological stresses, such as low pH, high ethanol concentration, and high osmotic stress.
The enzymatic power of yeast is central to beer manufacturing (Figure 1). Industrial species are carefully selected, nonsporulated polyploides that do not perform sexual reproduction process [5].
Figure 1.
Beer production process.
Brewer’s yeasts are divided into two separate categories: top-fermenting yeast (ale) and bottom-fermenting one (lager). Both yeast types have similar cell morphology, but they differ in some physiological and metabolic features [6], what closely corresponds to the process conditions and type of end product. Fermentation of ale yeast is carried out at room temperature and results in beers with a characteristic fruity aroma. In the case of lager yeast, the fermentation temperature is lower, and therefore, this step takes longer than fermentation with ale strains [7]. The share of aerobic respiration in yeast metabolism is higher in case of ale strains than in lager yeast. Both top-fermenting and bottom-fermenting yeast belong to the genus Saccharomyces. Ale-brewing yeasts are genetically more diverse and classified as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, whereas the taxonomy of the lager strains has undergone several changes. Initially, bottom-fermenting yeast was classified as Saccharomyces carlsbergensis, but due to the application of modern taxonomic approaches, the species S. carlsbergensis were included as a part of Saccharomyces pastorianus taxon. On the basis of genetic studies, S. pastorianus strains are now considered as allopolyploid interspecies hybrids of S. cerevisiae and S. bayanus [8]. From technological point of view, beside the high fermentative activity of yeast cells and tolerance for several environmental stresses, the aptitude for asexual aggregation known as flocculation seemed to be especially important, because this ability causes the yeast to sediment to the bottom of the fermenter at the end of fermentation step, what simplifies downstream processing [9, 10].
Various yeast species constitute the predominant microbial group of natural microbiota of fruits ecosystems, what is the reason of fast and spontaneous fermentation of juices or musts resulted in wine production. Yeast colonizing various fruits belongs to the genera Saccharomyces, Brettanomyces (its sexual form (teleomorph) Dekkera), Candida, Cryptococcus, Debaromyces, Hanseniaspora (anamorph Kloeckera), Hansenula, Kluyveromyces, Pichia, Rhodotorula, Torulaspora, Schizosaccharomyces, and Zygosaccharomyces [11]. It goes without saying that most fermented products are generated by a mixture of microbes. These microbial consortia perform various biological activities responsible for the nutritional, hygienic, and aromatic qualities of the product [12]. Doubtlessly, yeast plays a principal role in wine making both in domestic environment as well as in commercial scale (Figure 2). Nonconventional yeast (non-Saccharomyces species) dominates during early and middle stages of fermentation process, whereas the latter phase of natural process is mediated by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The raw material of particular importance in global wine making is grapes that are harvested at specific stages of ripeness depending on the style of wine to be made.
Figure 2.
Wine production process.
Once again yeast enzymatic power is crucial for the product chemical profile—except for ethanol biosynthesis, the creation of flavor compounds and fragrances from substrates abundant in fruits implies the organoleptic features of particular wine product. During the degradation of grape sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, terpenes, and thiols, some by-products like glycerol, carboxylic acids, aldehydes, higher alcohols, esters, and sulfides are formed, and their synthesis is largely dependent on the peculiarities of the strains used [13, 14]. In 1965, the first two commercially active dried wine yeasts called Montrachet and Pasteur Champagne were produced for a large Californian winery [15]. Nowadays, modern winegrowers routinely use selected yeast starters in practice. These microorganisms dominate native yeast species and give desired direction of chemical transformations occurring in musts and allow to obtain product of predictable quality [16]. Presently exploited commercially available starters have been created as a result of naturally occurring phenomenon called “genome renewal” as well as planned processes of genetic improvement [17] followed by a careful selection for their good fermentation performance. Genome renewal hypothesis in the standard version assumes that infrequent sexual cycles, characterized by a high degree of selfing, can help to purge deleterious alleles and fix beneficial alleles, thus helping to facilitate adaptation in yeast [18]. This hypothesis had to be re-evaluated [19] due to the fact that in the case of many environmental isolates, very high levels of genomic heterozygosity had been observed [20, 21]. Presently, the majority of commercial wine yeast comprises strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, including those described by enologists as S. bayanus, which has been re-identified in most cases as S. cerevisiae [22, 23]. The growing demand for more diversified wines or for specific characteristics has led to the exploration of new species for wine making [24–26]. This nonconventional yeast may contribute to the wine\'s organoleptic characteristic by producing a broad range of unique secondary metabolites and secreting particular enzymes or exhibiting others substantial features (release of mannoproteins, contributions to color stability etc.) [27]. The wine industry currently proposes starters of a few nonconventional yeast (Torulaspora delbrueckii, Metschnikowia pulcherrima, Pichia kluyveri, Lachancea thermotolerans, etc.) [28]. Yeast variants used as starters must qualify for commercial application. The list of desired properties is very long and includes both fermentation characteristics as well as flavor characteristics (e.g., low sulphide/dimethyl sulphide/thiol formation, liberation of glycosylated flavor precursors, low higher alcohol production, etc.), metabolic properties with health implications (low formation of sulphite, biogenic amines, or urea) and technological properties (e.g., high sulphite tolerance, low foam formation, flocculation properties, etc.) [29].
Another example of Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains of commercial interest encompasses distiller’s yeasts, applied in industry where alcohol fermentation is followed by distillation. In this industry type, spontaneous fermentations are not practiced, and specific yeast is inoculated into fermenter. Starters used for distilled beverages (aquavit, gin, vodka, whisky, rum, tequila, cognac, brandy, and kirsch) commercial production should exhibit exquisitely intensive anaerobic metabolism, what should result not only in high ethanol productivity but also in the high level of cellular tolerance to this product. Additionally, thermostable variants tolerant to acids and increased osmotic pressure are in greater demand for distillers [30]. Since many years, there has been a rising interest in new variants that are able to degrade starch. Many attempts have been made to produce ethanol from starch using recombinant haploid strains that express amylolytic enzymes, due to the simplicity of genetic manipulation of these strains. However, it is difficult to use laboratory haploid strains in practice because their fermentation characteristics are not as good as those of industrial polyploidy strains [31, 32].
In addition to alcoholic beverages production, enzymatic power of yeasts is also essential for baking industry, where concentrated yeast biomass is used as a starter in dough fermentation in order to produce bread and other bakery products. Commercially available baker’s yeast forms include fresh compressed biomass, dehydrated cells (dry yeast), and lyophilized cells (instant). Fermentation of dough substrates leads to ethanol production as well as number of volatile and nonvolatile compounds that have an important contribution to the flavor of bread [33]. As a result of carbohydrates (maltose mainly), fermentation carbon dioxide is generated what increases the dough volume and is responsible for crumb texture. Baker’s yeast is simply brewery yeast produced via submerged fermentation process carried out in the presence of oxygen (Figure 3). Aerobic conditions favor yeast cells production, which is not of interest to ethanol producers, but is important when large amount of cells mass must be produced.
Figure 3.
Baker’s yeast production process.
The main ingredient of industrial production medium used in yeast production factories are beet or cane molasses, mainly because of the low cost of this waste products and high sucrose content. In most cases, the industrial production is a multistage process carried out under batch or fed-batch conditions with sequential stages differing in fermenter size, performed under controlled intense aeration [34]. Aeration is generally considered as the most important single factor to increase yeast yield and numerous studies have been carried out to investigate the optimization of particular technological solutions [35]. It should be underlined, the particular uniqueness of yeast metabolism—baker’s yeast must exhibit efficient respiratory metabolism during yeast manufacturing, which determines biomass yield, but at the same time, cells must possess strong fermentative potential in order to produce excellent bakery products. During the fermentation of dough yeast cells is exposed to numerous environmental stresses (baking associated stresses) such as freeze thaw, high sugar concentrations, air drying, and oxidative stresses [36]. Nor should it be surprising that industrial starters should be characterized by appropriate stress tolerance. Yeasts certainly have evolved some mechanisms of adaptation, but if the level of stress will increase too much, their enzymatic potential will be restricted. It has been demonstrated that two molecules: trehalose and proline are extremely important for yeast stress tolerance, so the engineering of their metabolism is a promising approach to the development of stress-tolerant yeast strains relevant to industrial use [37].
Next long-standing industrial processes involving yeast are the production of single-cell protein (SCP)—alternative source of high nutritional value proteins used as a food or feed supplements. Idea of such protein concentrate production was born in response to growing human population in the world and worldwide protein deficiency [38]. SCP manufacture includes simply the cell mass obtaining by way of the application of cheap, waste raw materials to cultivate various nonpathogenic microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, algae) under conditions of submerged (rarely solid-state) fermentation. Besides its high protein content (about 60–82% of dry matter), SCP also contains fats, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, vitamins, and minerals [39]. In practice, several technologies were evaluated, products commercialized and currently obtained SCP found the application primarily in animal feeding. However, baker’s yeast mentioned above can be considered also as an example of particular SCP preparation. Many fungal species are used as protein-rich food. Most popular among them are the yeast species Candida, Hansenula, Pichia, Torulopsis, and Saccharomyces [40], but also, marine yeast is considered now as a valuable source of protein [41, 42]. Yeast-derived SCP has desired nutritional value and contains essential amino acids—above all sulfur containing amino acids. It is also significant that people accept yeast as a food source, because of its historical impact. The main disadvantage of this preparation limiting the utilization as food is the nucleic acid content what is associated with additional purification step in downstream processing [43] as well as with external mannoprotein layer of yeast cell wall what impedes the digestion.
Yeast can also be considered as an alternative source of lipids. Some species are capable of synthesis and accumulation of over 20% of biomass in form of neutral lipids and for that reason are called “oleaginous.” Under optimal growth conditions and/or as a result of genetic improvement, the level of lipid accumulation can reach even 70%. Oleaginous yeast includes species of Candida, Cryptococcus, Pichia (Hansenula), Lipomyces, Pseudozyma, Rhodosporidium, Rhodotorula, Trichosporon, Trigonopsis, Yarrowia, and Saccharomycopsis [44]. The ability of these yeast species to accumulate high quantities of lipids offers the commercial potential for production of single-cell oil (SCO). Microbial oils can serve both as alternative edible oils for food industry as well as substrates used in synthesis of the oleochemicals such as fuels, soaps, plastics, paints, detergents, textiles, rubber, surfactants, lubricants, additives for the food and cosmetic industry, and many other chemicals [45]. Microorganisms regarded as an alternative oils source cannot presently compete directly with plants, but their use has many advantages like shorter process cycle, independence of season and climate, facility for genetic improvement and the possibility to manufacture lipid of unique structure, and nonsynthesized by plants. It should be mentioned that the composition of yeast oils is similar to vegetable products, and predominant fraction of them is made of triacylglycerols (TGA) rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids [46]. Lipids are stored intracellularly mainly as granular forms called “lipid body,” and their content and profile of fatty acids differs between species [47]. The main fatty acids formed by oleaginous yeast are the myristic (C14:0), palmitic (C16:0), stearic (C18:0), oleic (C18:1), palmitoleic (C16:1), and linoleic (C18:2) acids [48]. Two different pathways are involved in lipid accumulation by oleaginous yeast: de novo lipid synthesis and ex novo lipid accumulation. Fundamental differences at the biochemical level exist between de novo lipid accumulation from hydrophilic substrates and ex novo lipid accumulation from hydrophobic substrates. In contrast, ex novo lipid production is a growth-associated process that occurs simultaneously with cell growth and is entirely independent of nitrogen exhaustion of the culture medium. The synthesis of ex novo lipids is the modification of fats and oils by oleaginous microorganisms [49]. The production of microbial oils became more important in the light of biodiesel production. The oleaginous yeast is considered as potential candidate for the production of “2nd generation” biodiesel deriving from lipid produced by oleaginous microorganisms growing on wastes or agro-industrial residues like sewage sludge, hemicelluloses, hydrolysates, waste glycerol, cheese whey, etc. [50, 51]. SCO may be produced via submerged fermentation performed under aerobic conditions through the mode of batch, fed batch, or continuous operation. To achieve both sufficient biomass formation and proper lipid accumulation level, yeast must be cultivated under carefully evaluated conditions. Many factors have been described as influencing lipid accumulation process and proper medium composition seemed to be one of the most important ones [52]. After biomass had been formed, to promote lipid accumulation process, stress conditions must be induced. Lipid storage is triggered by a nutrient limitation combined with an excess of carbon. Mostly nitrogen limitation is used to trigger lipid accumulation, but also other nutrients as phosphorus and sulphur have been shown to induce lipid storage. In spite of the applicative potential, the commercialization of microbial products is limited to oils containing polyunsaturated fatty acids like docosahexanoic acid (DHA), arachidonic acid (ARA), and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) [53, 54]. Producing other microbial oils either for human consumption, industrial use, or for biofuel production is still cost inhibitory—currently, the production of microbial oils is more expensive than that of vegetable oils [55]. To extend the industrialization of yeast as alternative source of oils, all efforts should be focused on genetic improvement of cell factories combined with optimization of nutrient supply and cultivation conditions and modifications of downstream technology [56].
2. Yeasts as whole-cell biocatalysts
Different genera of yeasts are convenient biocatalysts applied in many fields of chemistry, especially for the synthesis of chiral building blocks and fine chemicals. They are interesting catalytic tools, not only for their varied enzymatic activities but also for their microbiological features such as simplicity of cultivation, low nutritional requirements, and adaptive capacities. These capacities result from their flexible metabolism, which responds to the environmental impacts, so the direction (also stereoselectivity) and the effectiveness of the biotransformations can be driven by the physical chemical parameters of the process. What is also important, they are susceptible to the engineering of the reaction media (e.g., water, organic) and to the biocatalysts form (e.g., permeabilization, immobilization). This significantly broadens the field of their application by overcoming the limitations such as low solubility of the bioconversion substrates. It can be said that yeasts are used for decades and are one of the first whole-cell biocatalysts applied in industrial processes.
Literature data proved that the core applications of yeasts are connected with their extraordinary reductive abilities. Since it was proven that whole-cell biocatalysis is (as enzymatic one) chemoselective, regioselective, and stereoselective and able to regenerate dehydrogenases cofactors under biocatalytic conditions, yeasts were extensively examined as reductive catalysts for chiral building blocks synthesis—especially chiral alcohols of defined absolute configuration. The activity of a number of yeasts genera has been tested toward structurally different ketones, and in the most cases desired, alcohols have been obtained as pure enantiomers [57]. Alcohols drawn below (Figure 4) represent both, simple, and more complicated—unusual structures obtained thanks to the whole-cell biocatalysis driven by yeasts.
Figure 4.
Alcohols synthesized using whole yeasts cells.
Pichia methanolica is one of the most important biocatalysts employed in industry because of its reductive ability and low substrate specificity. Thus, Pichia methanolica mediated reduction of ethyl-5-oxo-hexanoate and 5-oxohexanenitrile led to S-alcohols: 1a and 1b (Figure 4) obtained with conversion degree up to 90 and 97% of ee (enantiomeric excess). What is also important, bioreduction of compound 1a (Figure 4) was performed successfully on the gram scale with the similar yield. Pichia methanolica is employed for the reduction purposes by Bristol-Mayers Squibb Company (USA). Alcohol 2 (Figure 4) is important for pharmaceutical industry, this molecule is considered as supporting drug in the diabetes type 2 therapy by elevating the rate of metabolisms. Application of Candida sorbophila MY 1833 allowed receiving pure product on the large scale level with up to 60% of conversion degree and 98% of ee. Optically pure diols are also important, mainly as chiral building blocks for pharmaceuticals and fine chemicals synthesis. As an example—compound 3 (Figure 4)—2S, 5S–hexanediol can be received by diketone reduction performed with Saccharomyces cerevisiae on preparative scale, with the complete substrate reduction and with the de (distereomeric excess) of 96%. Except to mentioned diol, such procedure can be applied also for 5-hydroxyhexane-2-on formation, which is a substrate for chiral tetrahydrofuranes synthesis—chemicals of significant meaning for obtaining of the biodegradable polymers, drugs, and perfumes. Among different chiral compounds with hydroxyl functionalities, there are some of special interest—they are building platforms for the synthesis of series compounds. Such importance can be attributed to the (S)-4-chloro-3-hydroxybutanoate ester (S)-CHBE (Figure 5) [58]. A number of fungal catalysts, e.g., Geotrichum sp., Candida sp., Aureobasidium sp. are active toward appropriate ketone, but the reaction proceeds with an average stereoselectivity. Among others, Pichia stipites CBS 6054 was found as one allowed obtaining chiral product with ee of 80%. The other products of yeast-mediated enantioselective bioreduction are chiral bicyclic alcohols, e.g., synthons of (S)-pramipexole (anti-Parkinson drug) (Figure 6) and also its (R) isomer—considered as an anti-amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) agent [59]. Chirality is introduced into these molecules by the prochiral bicyclic ketone (Figure 6) reduction mediated by Sachcaromyces cerevisiae, and this is the crucial step of the sequences of the reaction leading to the final enantiomers of pramipexole. Discussed objective is also an example of the yeast biotransformation of the compounds with heteroatoms in their structures—here, sulphur atom is an element of the bicyclic.
Reductive activity of Saccharomyces cerevisiae is also applied for some nontypical reactions such as geraniol into citronellol hydrogenation achieved with resting yeast cells on preparative level (Figure 7) [60]. Process productivity reaches 2.38 g/L for the reaction carried out in the continuous-closed-gas-loop bioreactor.
Figure 7.
Structures of geraniol and citronellol.
Entirely a different activity of yeasts as biocatalysts found some practical application, lately. Successful experiments with Saccharomyces cerevisiae were performed according to Figure 8[61], which illustrates the addition of diverse 3-substituted indol derivatives to nitroolefines. Chemical synthesis of such substituted indols requires some hazardous organic solvents, while biological synthesis significantly reduces this problem and offers easy operated and effective system (yield of the reaction range between 72 and 90%).
Figure 8.
Biocatalyzed addition of indoles to nitroolefins.
Such indol motifs are crucial part of the biologically active compounds such as arbidol (influenza A and B virus treatment and prophylactic); golotimod (immunostimulating, antimicrobial, and antineoplastic agent); and panobinostat (acute myeloid leukemia treatment; Figure 9).
Figure 9.
Compounds with the indol-motif.
3. Yeast’s enzymes applications
Biocatalysis includes both biotransformations (e.g., the conversion of xenobiotics using whole cells or resting cell systems) and enzyme catalysis (e.g., the conversion of xenobiotics using cell-free extracts or purified enzymes) [62]. Although both whole cells and isolated enzymes can be used as biocatalysts, whole cells are very often preferable because they are more stable and cheap sources than purified enzymes, without the need for purification and coenzyme addition. However, in the case of single-step biotransformation, isolated enzymes can be considered as a better choice and can be used as a free or immobilized biocatalyst either in aqueous or organic media [63]. Yeasts, especially Saccharomyces species, are primarily known from whole cell reductive activity [64, 65] and are used in the food industry for the production of alcoholic beverages as well as for bread fermentation [3]. However, yeasts are a source of enzymes such as: lipases, dehydrogenases, or invertase.
3.1. Yeast’s lipases
Lipases are widely distributed in nature and are produced by plants, animals, and microorganisms. Microbial enzymes are more useful than the other ones because of the diversity of catalytic activities, simplicity of manipulations, and low cost production (extracellularly during rapid growth on inexpensive media) [66]. Additionally, microbial enzymes are free from problems associated with contamination with hormones, viruses, and can be used in food processing and pharmaceutics productions for vegetarian or kosher diets [67]. Microbial lipases (EC 3.1.1.3) are suitable enzymes for organic synthesis because they are active toward broad range of nonphysiological substrates and are stable in biphasic systems or pure organic media. Lipases can be applied for either of lipid modifications and synthesis of special compounds: pharmaceuticals, polymers, biodiesels, and biosurfactants [68]. Under physiological conditions, lipases catalyze hydrolysis of ester bond in triacylglycerol to glycerol and free fatty acids. Under nonaqueous conditions, they catalyze the reverse process—esterification. The term transesterification refers to exchange the group between an ester and acid, ester and alcohol, or at least between two esters (Figure 10) [69].
Figure 10.
Types of reactions carried out by lipases.
Mentioned features make them significant biocatalyst for various applications. There are a certain number of yeast species able to produce lipases, most of them belong to Candida genus: Candida utilis, C. rugosa (cylindracea), C. antarctica, C. viswanathii, and additionally, Yarrowia lipolytica [70].
3.1.1. Hydrolysis
For pharmaceutical industry, lipases are used to resolve racemic mixtures of alcohols or carboxylic acids through asymmetric hydrolysis of acyl derivatives. Candida antarctica lipase, isoform B (CAL-B) is one of the most employed psychrophilic lipases for many different applications (kinetic resolutions, desymmetrization, aminolysis, etc.) [71]. Commercial CAL-B is available either in free, lyophilized, and immobilized forms (onto Lewatit VP OC 1600 (poly(methyl methacrylate-co-divinylbenzene)—Novozyme 435, Chirazyme L2-C2). Novozym 435 is a suitable catalyst for both small organic molecules [72, 73] and for polymerization reactions [74, 75]. Also, the immobilization of CAL-B onto different supports may result in different activity and enantioselectivity (Table 1) and may be a tool of control of selectivity of the hydrolysis. This feature was used for the resolution of racemic mixture of 2-O-butyryl-2-phenylacetic acid—precursor of both enantiomers of mandelic acid (Figure 11) and for the enantioselective hydrolysis of 3-phenylglutaric dimethyl diester—precursor in the drug synthesis (e.g., HIV inhibitor) [76]. As it is shown in the Table 1, it is possible to change the enantioselectivity of biocatalyst just by simple replacement of one support material to another one (Figure 11).
Biocatalyst
Activity μmolgcat−1h−1
ee p (%)1
Stereochemical preference
E2
Novozym 435
0.75
>99
S
>100
NOVO-CAL-B
0.56
>99
S
>100
Lewatit-CAL-B
0.55
>99
S
>100
Octyl-agarose-CAL-B
0.19
95
R
49
Octadecyl-sepabeads-CAL-B
0.35
90
R
23
Butyl-agarose-CALB-B
0.16
72
R
7.5
Table 1.
The influence of different methods of immobilization on the activity and enantioselectivity of CAL-B applied for hydrolytic resolution of 2-O-butyryl-2-phenylacetic acid.
Optical purity of product.
Enantioselectivity of the enzyme towards substrate.
Figure 11.
Kinetic resolution of 2-O-butyryl-2-phenylacetic acid by immobilized CAL-B on different supports.
Another possible way to change the enantioselectivity of hydrolysis is the addition of the organic co-solvent to reaction medium. In organic media, the conformation of enzyme appears to be more rigid which may influence the enantioselectivity of the reaction. For the Candida rugosa, lipase-catalyzed hydrolysis of various substituted phenoxypropionates, the addition of 30–70% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) or sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) improved the enantioselectivity, (E = 4 to >100) [77, 78]. For the same lipase (C. rugose), complete reversal of enantioselectivity of hydrolysis of 1,4-dihydropyridines was observed in different organic solvents saturated with water [79], this allowed to obtain both enantiomers of 1,4-dihydropiridine (Figure 12).
Figure 12.
Reversal of enantioselectivity in hydrolysis catalyzed by Candida rugosa lipase in organic solvent saturated with water [79].
Candida antarctica produces two isoforms of lipases (A and B). However, more attention has been directed to the application of CAL-B, but in the last few years, also CAL-A has found remarkable applications. The most surprising biochemical property of CAL-A is its high termostability of over 90°C [71, 80]. It is quite strange that rather psychrophilic microorganism produces thermostable enzyme. This feature allows using the CAL-A under unique reaction conditions [81] and towards unusual substrates, especially sterically hindered tertiary alcohols and their derivatives or bulky cyclic compounds. Bioconversion of tertiary alcohols can be useful for the removal of tert-butyl protecting group even under high temperature (Table 2) [82]. Several examples of such applications are summarized in Table 2.
Another interesting application of CAL-A is the regioselective hydrolysis of cyclic diacetates, useful building blocks for the synthesis of vitamin D3 derivatives [83], or hydrolysis of different sterically hindered carboxylic acids [84].
Table 2.
Examples of substrate structures accepted by CAL-A–protecting group removal.
3.1.2. Esterification and transesterification
The most important application of lipases in organic synthesis is esterification important for the resolution of racemic mixtures of secondary alcohols and carboxylic acids. Chiral secondary alcohols serve as intermediates for pharmaceutical synthesis [85–87]. Lipase-catalyzed methods available for the preparation of enantiopure compounds are kinetic resolution (KR), dynamic kinetic resolution (DKR), and desymmetrization. Enzymatic kinetic resolution is based on the difference between the reaction rates of the enantiomers of a racemate at the presence of chiral catalyst—enzyme. Dynamic kinetic resolution combines kinetic resolution with the in-situ racemization of the unreacted enantiomer. Racemization can be performed chemically or enzymatically. The kinetic resolution of secondary alcohols and esters is carried out in organic solvents with lipase catalyzed acylation and alcoholysis. It leads to the formation of one enantiomer obtained as an alcohol and the other one as an ester. The maximum theoretical yield for each enantiomer is 50%. C. antarctica enzymes are often used for the resolution of secondary alcohols, mostly with bulky group [88, 89] but also for resolution of aliphatic compounds [90]. As an example—CAL-B was applied for the resolution of racemic mixture of 2-pentanol in heptane—media (yield (49,6%) and ee >99%) (Figure 13). S-(+)-2-pentanol is a key chiral intermediate for synthesis of anti-Alzheimer drugs, which inhibit β-amyloid peptide release and/or its synthesis [91, 92].
Figure 13.
Kinetic resolution of 2-pentanol by esterification.
C. rugosa is the producer of lipase employed for the resolution of profens (2-aryl propionic acids) in enantioselective transesterification process. Profens are an important group of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and their biological activity depends on the optical purity of the compounds, mainly (S)-enantiomer [93]. For instance, (S)-ibuprofen ((S)-2(4-isobutylphenyl) propionic acid) is 160 times more effective than (R)- isomer in the inhibition of prostaglandins synthesis. Optically, pure profens can be synthesized by asymmetric chemical synthesis, catalytic kinetic resolution, and chiral chromatography [69], but enzymatic enantioselective esterification seems to be the best method (Figure 14). Discussed reaction was carried out in saturated cyclohexane with 1-propanol or 2-propanol as acyl agents and completed with good conversion degree and excellent enantiomeric excess of (S)-ibuprofen [94].
Figure 14.
Enantioselective esterification of (R,S)-ibuprofen.
Also, enantiomerically pure amines constitute a class of compounds with possible biological properties and industrial applications [95]. Candida antarctica lipase B is one of the most effective catalyst in the preparation of enantiomerically pure nitrogenated compounds (e.g., amines, amides, amino acids, amino alcohols, etc.). This is achieved by enantioselective acetylation [96]. For example, resolution of aminoalkylpyridines was most effective (conversion 50%, time 4h, ee of product, and substrate >99%) with the use CAL-B and ethyl acetate as an acyl donor in the tert-butyl methyl ether (TBME-medium) (Figure 15) [97].
Figure 15.
Kinetic resolution chloro-aminopyridines.
CAL-A isoform of C. antarctica lipase is able to selectively acylate cyclic, sterically hindered structures via kinetic resolution (Figure 16) alicyclic β-aminocarboxylic acids esters—building blocks for the synthesis of various pharmaceutical important heterocycles [81] are synthesized this way. The best activity and enantioselectivity were observed in diethyl ether or diisopropyl ether with 2,2,2-trifluoroethyl hexanoate as an acyl donor.
Figure 16.
Kinetic resolution of alicyclic amino acids.
CAL-A is also active towards sterically hindered tertiary alcohols. This feature is quite unique among hydrolases. The first example of enantioselective kinetic resolution of racemic mixture of tertiary alcohol was acylation of 2-phenylbut-3-yn-2-ol. The reaction was quite enantioselective, but the yield was rather moderate (25%) because of the steric hindrance. Another interesting application of CAL-A is selective acylation of sterols [98], furyl substituted allyl alcohol [99], or cyanohydrins [100, 101].
3.2. Yeast’s invertase
Invertase (β-fructofuranosidase- EC 3.2.1.26) catalyses hydrolysis of the glycoside bond from the terminal nonreducing beta-fructofuranoside side in disaccharide [102]. It is also widely distributed in the environment, mainly in plants and microorganisms. The most important application of invertase is production of invert syrup—equimolar mixture of fructose and glucose, released from sucrose (Figure 17), which is used in food and beverage industries. Monosaccharides mixture is sweeter than sucrose and hygroscopic, it mainly is used for production of soft-centered candies and fondants. Invertase is also applied for the manufacture of artificial honey, plasticizing agents for cosmetics, pharmaceutical and paper industries, and enzyme electrodes for the detection of sucrose [103, 104]. Additionally, it can be applied for the synthesis of probiotic oligosaccharides like non-digestible oligosaccharides (NDO), e.g., lactosucrose [105]. Commercially invertase is produced mainly by Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Baker’s yeast) or Saccharomyces carlsbergensis. In yeast cells, invertase is produced either in intracellular or extracellular form [106].
Figure 17.
Hydrolysis of sucrose by invertase.
3.3. Yeast’s oxidoreductases
Enantiometrically pure alcohols including α- and β-hydroxyesters are important and valuable intermediates in the synthesis of pharmaceuticals and other fine chemicals [107]. Enantioselective ketone reductions are one of the most common methods applied for optically pure alcohols productions. Because reactions catalyzed by dehydrogenases/reductases require cofactors (NADH or NADPH), the use of whole cells rather than isolated enzymes is preferred, to decrease the cost of enzyme purification and cofactor regeneration. However, isolated dehydrogenases employment decreased product purification problems (Figure 18).
Figure 18.
Reduction reactions catalyzed by dehydrogenases. Cofactor regeneration circle.
Generally, α-ketoesters are reduced with lower enantioselectivities by whole yeast cells, so pair of purified reductases are selected to produce both enantiomers of (S)-ethyl-3-hydroxybutyrate (pharmaceutical building block) in optically pure forms on preparative scale [108]. Reduction of β-ketoesters depends on both structure of substrate and specificity of the enzyme and usually yields in desired enantiomer of high optical purity [109].
Saccharomyces are also known as a producers of old yellow enzyme (OYE), the first discovered and characterized flavoprotein [110], which can be used for double bond reduction (Figure 19) or for dismutation reactions toward cyclic substrates (Figure 20) [111] and also for the reduction of nitrate esters [112] with the addition of coenzyme—NADPH.
Figure 19.
Example of reduction of double bonds catalysed by OYE.
Figure 20.
Dismutation reaction calalysed by OYE.
Other example of reductase is selective carbonyl reductase from Candida magnolia, active toward the structurally different ketones, reduced to the corresponding optically pure (R)- aryl and aliphatic alcohols. This enzyme also catalysis reduction of ketones with anti-Prelog enantioselectivity which is an unusual feature of bioreductions (Figure 21) [107]. Configuration of obtained aryl alcohols is mostly R—enantiomers but also strongly dependent on R group structure (Figure 21).
Figure 21.
Anti-Prelog reduction of ketones by C. magnoliae reductase.
4. Yeast’s applications in molecular biology
Yeasts of the Saccharomyces genus, in particular S. cerevisiae, are one of the fundamental models for eukaryotic organisms, commonly used in genetic and molecular biology studies. S. cerevisiae is a unicellular organism that can be grown on defined media, which gives the complete control over its chemical and physical environment. Culturing yeast is simple, economical, and rapid and can be conducted under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. As a nonpathogenic and nontoxic organism, they are safe for laboratory work, without any special precautions. Big accessibility as well as easy culturing on both liquid and solid medium makes yeast cheap and handy organism with significant biotechnological capabilities.
Although yeast and humans have been evolving along separate paths for 1 billion years, still a substantial amount of yeast genes exhibit high homology to mammalian ones. Since the basic cellular mechanics of replication, recombination, cell division, and metabolism are generally conserved between yeast and larger eukaryotes, they constitute a good model for studying different processes such as aging, regulation of gene expression, signal transduction, cell cycle, metabolism, apoptosis, neurodegenerative disorders, and many more [113]. Furthermore, its protein expression systems have more in common with higher organisms than with prokaryotic ones, mainly due to the posttranscriptional and posttranslational processing, which makes it a great candidate for acquiring a number of industrially or medically significant biomolecules, such as recombinant proteins for pharmaceutical purposes [114].
Life cycle of Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains include haploid and diploid phase, both of which typically grow asexually by budding. The cell cycle consists of four distinct phases (G1, S, G2, and M) and is regulated in a similar way to that of the cell cycle in larger eukaryotes [115]. Haploid yeast cells can be either mating type a or α and under normal condition can mate together to generate a/α diploids. The diploid cells cannot mate but can reproduce asexually by budding like haploids. However, under specific circumstances, like unfavorable environment conditions (lack of nutrients), diploid cell can undergo meiosis to produce haploid spores. Subsequently, the newly produced haploid nuclei are packaged into four spores that contain modified cell walls, resulting in structures that are very resistant to environmental stress [116]. Each single haploidic spore from tetrad arising after meiosis can be isolated and analyzed by various micromanipulation methods. It provides a unique opportunity to study the coupling between genes among many others. Haploid states cell can be also used for recessive mutation studies, while diploid strains can be exploited for complementation tests.
S. cerevisiae have also been first eukaryotes whose genome has been fully sequenced and published in 1996. Its nucleus genome constitutes of 12,068 kb organized into the haploid set of 16 chromosomes ranging in size from 200 to 1600 kb. The characteristic feature is that yeast genome is much more compact in comparison to other eukaryotic relatives, with genes representing 70% of total sequence. It possesses around 5885 potential protein-encoding genes, approximately 140 genes specifying ribosomal RNA, 40 genes for small nuclear RNA molecules, and 275 transfer RNA genes. Currently, an international, multidisciplinary team is involved in the production of 16 chromosomes of S. cerevisiae by synthetic biology tools, and the results are expected at the end of the year [117]. Another highly unique and unusual, as for eukaryotes, feature of S. cerevisiae genome is the presence of DNA plasmids that enables a variety of genetic manipulations and are of great importance for modern molecular biology [118].
Techniques used for yeast transformation and specific selection have been well described. For this purpose, shuttle vectors are commonly used due to the fact that they can transform both yeast and bacteria, such as Escherichia coli. Various yeast strains carry different auxotrophic markers that can be generated by genetic engineering methods, for instance, by gene deletion in amino acid biosynthesis pathways. Scientists have developed a number of bifunctional vectors that are easy to isolate and can autonomously replicate in each yeast and bacteria cells.
4.1. Yeast’s plasmid vectors
Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a very important microorganism in modern biotechnology, not only for its contribution to brewing and bread-making industry, but also for showing great potential in the field of molecular biology and biomedicine due to its unique form of genetic material and protein expression systems. S. cerevisiae is one of very few eukaryotic organisms that contain circular DNA in the form of plasmids. Almost every strain of this yeast has the 2-μm plasmid, which can constitute the outstanding basis for cloning vectors (Figure 22), as it is 6 kb in size and is equipped with four following elements: origin of replication; genes REP1 and REP2 that code for proteins involved in replication process; FLP gene that is utilized by the plasmid to switch between isoforms, and gene D which role is not established yet [119]. In order for 2-μm plasmid to work as a fully functional cloning vector, there has to be an incorporated element, called a selective marker, which allows for the transformed cells to be identified after cloning experiment.
Figure 22.
Genetic structure of 2 μm yeast plasmid.
Most of the bacterial vectors are provided with genes-encoding resistance to various kinds of antibiotics, such as ampicillin (ampR) or tetracycline (tetR). Therefore, upon culturing transformed cells in the medium with the addition of such antibiotic, the colonies that were unable to grow did not carry the resistance gene (hence, the uptake of the vector did not occur); thus, the only cells that survive are the transformed ones carrying the properly inserted vector.
Cloning techniques with yeast differ mostly in the strategic approach of the selective markers. In this case, usually a special kind of organism is required as the host, namely an auxotrophic mutant that is unable to obtain or synthesize a pivotal compound of one of its metabolic pathways. A good example is leu2− yeast that has an inactive form of LEU2 gene; hence, it cannot synthesize leucine and can only grow in a medium that is supplied with this amino acid. To properly use that organism as the host, a vector with LEU2 active gene has to be prepared. The cells are then transformed with the plasmid and cultured in minimal medium that lacks leucine. This way the only colonies that will grow will be the transformed cells [120].
There are few kinds of yeast cloning vectors, but all of them are so-called shuttle vectors, which means that they can replicate and be selected in both bacteria and yeast. Shuttle vectors were developed mostly because plasmid preparation from yeast only is highly ineffective; hence, the large-scale DNA propagation and convenient genetic manipulation are performed in bacterial organism, such as Escherichia coli.
Yeast cloning vectors based on 2-μm plasmid are called yeast episomal plasmids (YEps) (Figure 23(a)). Depending on the kind of YEp, they can either contain most of the 2-μm plasmid or just the origin of replication, their backbone is usually constructed from E. coli vectors, such as pBR322 that contains genes encoding resistance for antibiotics, like ampicillin or tetracycline. As the name suggests, YEps can replicate independently, or they can be integrated into one of the yeast chromosomes. The most common reason for YEps integration is that they carry selective marker gene, which is very similar to the mutant chromosomal DNA of the host organism; for example, the already mentioned LEU2 gene or others, such as URA3, HIS3, TRP1, or LYS2 all involved in biosynthesis pathways of pyrimidine nucleotides, histidine, tryptophan, or lysine, respectively. YEps are considered as high copy number vectors, yielding up to 200 copies per cell with the transformation frequency between 10,000 and 100,000 transformed cells per μg. Unfortunately, the major drawback is that their recombinants are highly unstable, which makes it very difficult and time consuming to achieve conclusive and reliable results when working with YEps.
Figure 23.
Genetic structure of exemplary yeast vectors. AmpR and tetR are the antibiotic resinstance genes from E. coli pBR322 plasmid, whereas LEU2, URA3, TRP1 fragments represent yeast chromosomal DNA: (a) yeast episomal plasmid YEp13, (b) yeast integrative plasmid YIp5, (c) yeast replicative plasmid YRp7.
The other important type of yeast vectors are yeast integrative plasmids (YIps) (Figure 23(b)). They mainly consist of E. coli plasmid, such as pBR322 and a selective marker (usually one of the mentioned above). What is important is they do not contain yeast origin of replication; therefore, they cannot replicate in any other way than through the process of integration with chromosomal DNA. In terms of transformation frequency, YIps come at the very last place with the number significantly lower than 1000 transformed cells per μg and usually only one copy per cell. On the other hand, their recombinants are very stable, usually making them the top pick for the experimental purposes.
Yeast replicative plasmids (YRps) (Figure 23(c)) are another type of yeast cloning vectors. They contain a backbone from E. coli vector, the yeast origin of replication in close proximity to the selective marker. Such structure suggests that YRps can replicate independently with relatively high transformation frequency ranging from 1000 to 10,000 transformed cells per μg and a number of copies between 5 and 100 per cell. YRps recombinants are as unstable as the YEps ones, making them one of the last choice for laboratory work.
Along with the time, there was a growing demand for much larger pieces of DNA to be manipulated through the techniques of genetic engineering. It was at this point that the last type of yeast cloning vectors was developed, namely the yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs). The general idea behind those constructs was that yeast chromosomes usually carry several hundred kilobases of genetic material, so why not imitate the native DNA? YACs were thought to contain the three key elements of a chromosome:
centromeres required for the proper chromosome positioning during the cell division;
origins of replication, which are the places on chromosome where the replication of genetic material starts;
telomers as the defenders of the chromosomes against exonucleases.
Several types of YACs have been developed over the years, they usually consist mostly of a E. coli pBR322 plasmid with some yeast genes, such as selective markers (usually at least two located oppositely), origin of replication, gene CEN4 coding for centromere region, the two telomeres fragments TEL, and an additional selective marker with a restriction enzyme site, such as SUP4 gene that compensates for a mutation-causing accumulation of a red pigment (Figure 24). YACs are equipped with a restriction enzyme site between two TEL sites, so that upon cleavage, an “artificial” linear chromosome is created, subsequently SUP4 is cut, and the chromosome is divided into two arms, between which a DNA fragment to be cloned is ligated, thus recreating the single-line chromosome structure. The next step is to transform double auxotrophic mutant organisms that will not be able to survive in the minimum medium without the properly received YAC. Additional experimental control can be then tested by simple optical inspection—colonies with disrupted SUP4 gene will appear as white, meaning they are transformed, any other color means that the colony has not been properly transformed [121].
Figure 24.
Genetic structure of yeast artificial chromosome pYAC3.
4.2. Yeast expression system
Recombinant proteins are the biomolecules of great importance, because among other things, they are able to mimic the functions of native proteins; hence, they are extensively studied in biotechnology and biopharmaceutical research. The critical point of target protein production is the choice of efficient expression system which enables obtaining functional product with high yield.
Yeast expression system constitutes a good alternative for widely used bacterial and higher eukaryote expression systems. They are genetically well defined and are known to perform many posttranslational modifications, including proper protein folding, disulfide bond formation, and glycosylation [122]. The culturing of yeast is also easy, rapid, and cheap, which is their big advantage over the insect or mammalian cells. They easily undergo genetical manipulation and adapt to fermentation processes; therefore, using yeasts as a cell factory is convenient and enables to obtain a fair amount of target protein. In contrast to bacteria, recombinant proteins obtained in yeast expression systems are free of endotoxins that make this system safer, especially in terms of medical and food application [114]. In fact, about 20% of all biopharmaceuticals are produced by S. cerevisiae. Among them, the most dominant are insulin, human serum albumin, hepatitis vaccines, and virus-like particles used for vaccination against human papillomavirus [123].
However, yeast cells are limited in the production of human-like glycoproteins by their inability to produce complex N-linked glycans. In addition, S. cerevisiae produce the hypermannosylated N-linked glycans with the mannose residues being attached to the chitobiose core (a dimmer of β-1,4-linked glucosamine units). Hypermannosylation also results in a short half life in vivo and thereby compromises the efficacy of most therapeutic glycoproteins [124]. To overcome this issue, great deal of effort has been put into altering the glycosylation pathways in P. pastorsis to produce strains possessing human-like N-glycosilation patterns [125, 126]. This achievement has contributed to the increased usefulness of yeast in industry for the production of stable and recombinant glycoproteins.
There is no ultimate procedure for yeast expression system that could work equally well for the production of all kinds of proteins. Optimization of whole process is the critical step to obtain sufficient amounts of pure, properly folded and secreted protein of interest. While small and simple in structure proteins are easy to obtain, the big and multi-domain protein could require certain chaperones to facilitate the folding process [127]. The advantage of yeast expression system is that it allows extracellular secretion of produced protein when proper signaling sequence has been attached to the structural gene [114]. It significantly facilitates the recombinant protein purification process from the culturing medium and allows to optimize the culturing conditions. In order to increase protein secretion level, a few strategies have been developed. One of them is protein engineering of a desired product, for instance by modifying protein coding sequences and signaling sequences [128–130]. Since this methodology is highly specific against each protein, the conditions optimized for one protein do not always work for another. Different approach is to engineer the host strains and tune-up folding and secretory machinery by overexpression or deletion genes that are critical for the protein secretion [131, 132]. Additionally, it has been shown that expression in low temperatures enhances the level of secretion [133].
There are numerous varieties of expression vectors available for producing heterologous proteins in yeast, and these are the derivatives of YIp, YEp, and YRp plasmids described previously. The DNA coding for the protein of interest is inserted into the vector. The type of selective marker and promoter strength are key factors that determine the plasmid copy number and the mRNA level of the recombinant protein. Varieties of inducible and constitutive promotors have been applied for gene expression in yeasts in the past. The first of these allow the controllable gene expression. Most of inducible promoters are responsive to catabolite repression or react to other environmental conditions, like in-cell iron concentration, stress, or lack of essential amino acids. GAL promoter, which is induced by adding galactose, provides a straightforward system for expression regulation of the cloned foreign gene [134]. Another good example can be CUP1 promoter, which is induced by copper [135] or heat shock factor promoter, induced by heat stress at 39°C [136]. There are also some other groups of promoters that initiate strong and constitutive expression. TEF1 promoter, as an example of S. cerevisiae, is a widely used representative of this group, as it can drive high gene expression in both high and low glucose conditions [137]. Selection of a suitable promoter depends on specific process requirements and the properties of the target protein to be produced.
Additionally, yeasts are recognized as a generally recognized as safe (GRAS) organism, which only strengthens its position as the most frequently used microbial eukaryote for recombinant protein synthesis.
4.3. Yeast’s two hybrid system
Ever since the Field and Song discovery described in 1989, a new approach toward the examination of protein-protein interactions emerged, it was named as the yeast two-hybrid system. It allows to detect the interaction of two proteins in the yeast cell, and it can be used to select an interacting partner of a known protein. This technique takes the advantage of the fact that majority of eukaryotic transcriptional factors, such as Gal4p, consist of two independent, functional DNA domains: binding domain (BD) and transcription activation domain (AD). While the two domains are normally on the same polypeptide chain, the transcription factor also functions when these two domains are brought together by noncovalent protein-protein interactions. In yeast hybrid system, each of these domains is connected to the one from the studied protein. As a result, two fusion proteins are created: one combined to DNA-binding domain (BD) and the other joined to activation domain (AD) [138]. The genes coding for both fusion proteins are carried by different plasmids, but each plasmid undergoes expression in the same yeast cell. If the interaction between studied proteins occurs, BD and AD domains are close enough to activate transcription of a reporter gene that is regulated by the transcription factors.
General idea of the yeast two-hybrid system can be represented by an example of transcriptional factors and a gene coding for β-galactosidase, wherein the interaction between studied proteins may potentially lead to the expression of the reporter gene coding for β-galactosidase in E. coli lacZ reporter gene. The presence of this enzyme can later be verified by simple reaction with X-gal, which yields a blueish insoluble product, thereby confirming or denying the association of studied proteins. Since 1989, yeast two-hybrid system has been studied extensively and further developed to find countless new applications, some of which are summarized and generally described in Ref. [139].
5. Conclusions
Discussed unique yeasts features, which are fundamental for their versatile applications are still examined and after finishing the “Synthetic Yeast Genome Project (Sc2.0)” the new perspectives of the applying them will be opened as well as in the molecular biology and in the industrial applications.
Acknowledgments
The project was supported by the Wroclaw Center of Biotechnology program, the Leading National Research Center (KNOW) for the years 2014–2018.
\n',keywords:"fermentation, SCP, biocatalysis, molecular biology applications—fundamentals",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/56515.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/56515.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56515",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56515",totalDownloads:2192,totalViews:1727,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"December 11th 2016",dateReviewed:"June 14th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"November 8th 2017",dateFinished:"July 18th 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Yeasts represent a very diverse group of microorganisms, and even strains that are classified as the same species often show a high level of genetic divergence. Yeasts biodiversity is closely related to their applicability. Biotechnological importance of yeast is almost immeasurable. For centuries, people have exploited its enzymatic potential to produce fermented food as bread or alcoholic beverages. Admittedly, yeasts application was initially instinctual, but with science and technology development, these microorganisms got the object of thorough scientific investigations. It must be recognized that yeast represents an excellent scientific model because of its eukaryotic origin and knowledge of genetics of yeast cells as well as metabolism examined in detail. In 1996, the genome of baker yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been elucidated, what opened the opportunity for the global study of the expression and functioning of the eukaryotic genome. Also, currently, an international team is working on the synthesis of the 16 yeast chromosomes by synthetic biology tools, and the results are expected till the end of the year. Nowadays, yeast is regarded as a versatile tool for biotechnological purposes.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/56515",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/56515",book:{slug:"yeast-industrial-applications"},signatures:"Ewa Żymańczyk-Duda, Małgorzata Brzezińska-Rodak, Magdalena\nKlimek-Ochab, Maciej Duda and Agata Zerka",authors:[{id:"203728",title:"Prof.",name:"Ewa",middleName:null,surname:"Żymańczyk-Duda",fullName:"Ewa Żymańczyk-Duda",slug:"ewa-zymanczyk-duda",email:"ewa.zymanczyk-duda@pwr.edu.pl",position:null,institution:{name:"Wrocław University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"203729",title:"Dr.",name:"Małgorzata",middleName:null,surname:"Brzezińska-Rodak",fullName:"Małgorzata Brzezińska-Rodak",slug:"malgorzata-brzezinska-rodak",email:"malgorzata.brzezinska-rodak@pwr.edu.pl",position:null,institution:null},{id:"203730",title:"Prof.",name:"Magdalena",middleName:null,surname:"Klimek-Ochab",fullName:"Magdalena Klimek-Ochab",slug:"magdalena-klimek-ochab",email:"magdalena.klimek-ochab@pwr.edu.pl",position:null,institution:null},{id:"203731",title:"MSc.",name:"Maciej",middleName:null,surname:"Duda",fullName:"Maciej Duda",slug:"maciej-duda",email:"maciej.duda@pwr.edu.pl",position:null,institution:null},{id:"203732",title:"MSc.",name:"Agata",middleName:null,surname:"Zerka",fullName:"Agata Zerka",slug:"agata-zerka",email:"agata.zerka@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. Yeasts: commercial applications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3",title:"2. Yeasts as whole-cell biocatalysts",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"3. Yeast’s enzymes applications",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.1. Yeast’s lipases",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"3.1.2. Esterification and transesterification",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2. Yeast’s invertase",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.3. Yeast’s oxidoreductases",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"4. Yeast’s applications in molecular biology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.1. Yeast’s plasmid vectors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.2. Yeast expression system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.3. Yeast’s two hybrid system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Otterstedt K, Larsson C, Bill RM, Stahlberg A, Boles E, Hohmann S, Gustafsson L. 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DOI: 10.1016/0378-1119(90)90159-O'},{id:"B138",body:'Fields S, Song O. A novel genetic system to detect protein-protein interactions. Nature. 1989;340(6230):245-246. DOI: 10.1038/340245a0'},{id:"B139",body:'Stynen B, Tournu H, Tavernier J, Dijck PV. Diversity in genetic in vivo methods for protein-protein interaction studies: From the yeast two-hybrid system to the mammalian split-luciferase system. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 2012;76(2):331-382. DOI: 10.1128/MMBR.05021-11'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ewa Żymańczyk-Duda",address:"ewa.zymanczyk-duda@pwr.edu.pl",affiliation:'
Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wrocław, Poland
Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Wrocław, Poland
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Ronkainen",authors:[{id:"182161",title:"Dr.",name:"Niina",middleName:"J",surname:"Ronkainen",fullName:"Niina Ronkainen",slug:"niina-ronkainen"}]},{id:"52205",title:"D-O-C Stable Isotopes, 14C Radiocarbon and Radiogenic Isotope Techniques Applied in Wine Products for Geographical Origin and Authentication",slug:"d-o-c-stable-isotopes-14c-radiocarbon-and-radiogenic-isotope-techniques-applied-in-wine-products-for",signatures:"Paraskevi Chantzi, Anastasia-Elektra Poutouki and Elissavet Dotsika",authors:[{id:"182605",title:"Dr.",name:"Elissavet",middleName:null,surname:"Dotsika",fullName:"Elissavet Dotsika",slug:"elissavet-dotsika"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"64644",title:"Indigenous Communities in the Arctic Change in Socio-Economic and Environmental Perspective",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80765",slug:"indigenous-communities-in-the-arctic-change-in-socio-economic-and-environmental-perspective",body:'\n
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1. Introduction
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At the beginning of this century, the topic of global climate change became of particular relevance for the regions of the Arctic and the North. This problem is actual in modern conditions. The Arctic climate changes faster than any other part of the world; this is the only highly integrated system in this belt; changes in the Arctic will have a big impact on other parts of the world. The Arctic will become an increasing center of world attention. Over the past few decades, the average annual temperature due to an increase in the average winter temperature in the Arctic has grown two times faster than elsewhere, causing the melting of sea ice and permafrost and a reduction in the snow period. The consequences of global warming in the Arctic are already obvious and numerous. Modern climate changes significantly affect coastal communities, species diversity of animals and plants, human health and welfare, as well as the economy and infrastructure of the Arctic regions. Global warming is the process of gradual growth of the average annual temperature of the surface layer of the Earth’s atmosphere and the World Ocean, due to all sorts of reasons (increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere, changes in solar or volcanic activity, etc.). Global warming will change the habitats of many species of terrestrial and marine flora and fauna. The most large-scale changes will be felt by the indigenous peoples of the North, whose life is inseparably linked with the natural environment. As the permafrost is thawing, the threat of destruction of buildings, roads, pipelines, airports, and other infrastructure increases, which in a number of cases will lead to significant economic losses, deterioration in the quality of drinking water supply, social tension, forced migration, and, as a result, an increase in the number of infectious and noninfectious diseases, including mental disorders and psychosomatic and addiction diseases. Indigenous peoples of the North are the most vulnerable category of the population to the climate negative impact in the Arctic. Limiting the possibility of using bioresources as a result of hunting and reindeer herding, fishing, and gathering, as well as reducing the safety of movement when the parameters of ice and weather conditions change significantly, increases the risks to health and life and, possibly, in the future, threatens the very existence of some nationalities and cultures.
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Gradually, in countries the understanding comes that the nature is the original environment of human life, but not capital, which should be used in economic circulation. Preservation of this environment is becoming one of the main tasks of state policy based on the principles of energy efficiency and resource saving. For example, in the Russian Federation, such basic documents as the Strategy of Ecological Safety of Russia [1], the state program on energy efficiency and development of energy [2], etc. were adopted. However, despite the billions of dollars invested by developed countries in greening the economy, the development of innovative technologies, and the reduction of greenhouse gases, there are still no visible effects on a global scale, and in fact the world is facing a degradation of the natural environment. As Nobel laureate academician Vladimir Kotlyakov notes, our planet is experiencing an era of global warming. The increase in global air temperature in the last century was slightly more than 0.7°C. However, over the past 30 years, this growth has increased, which is especially reflected over the continental regions of Eurasia and North America and most of all in the Arctic [3]. The current model of the functioning of the world economy allows us to make disappointing forecasts: the growing population of the Earth will be able to supply the products of consumption only with the increase of production, the improvement of technologies, and, unfortunately, the destruction of the biosphere.
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Figure 1 demonstrates the anomalies of temperature values in the Northern Hemisphere, including the Arctic. This gives grounds to predict the increasing influence of negative factors on the ecosystem of this region, as well as on the life of the indigenous population. Certainly, climate change is a particularly important issue in the context of the development of the Arctic and the indigenous communities that inhabit it. Indigenous peoples also have their own observations related to climate change, since no one can see better what is happening now in the North, and there are significant shifts in their strategies for adapting to these changes. Traditional knowledge is a valuable resource that can and should be used in various fields of exploration and development of the Arctic. Unfortunately the representation of indigenous peoples in international governance structures does not guarantee that traditional knowledge is entirely engaged in evidence-based policy making and that traditional knowledge is not always valued as an equal source of knowledge by some relevant scientific bodies [4]. Hundreds of years of tribal communities’ observations over the changes in the Arctic, the formation of ideas about the laws of nature, beliefs in the “living land of ancestors” give today the opportunity to transform traditional knowledge into the daily practice of government, business, and scientists in the extreme North and integrate it with modern technologies. According to the Paris Climate Change Agreement, indigenous peoples and local communities are recognized as the important actors in building a world that is resilient in the face of climate impacts [5].
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Figure 1.
Map of monthly values and anomalies of meteorological values in the northern hemisphere for June 2018 (source: https://meteoinfo.ru/anomalii-tabl3).
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2. Factors, risks, and challenges to the indigenous communities in climate change in the Arctic
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We can rightly call the Arctic zone a “locomotive” of the modernization of the Russian economy [6]. In this vein, state policy is being drawn up, investments are attracted, and projects are being implemented to extract natural resources (gas, oil, gold, rare earth metals, etc.). Almost every one of these projects implemented in the northern regions of the country, one way or another, affects the territories of traditional nature use—the habitat of indigenous peoples of the North. Therefore, the issue of research and assessment of changes in these territories under the impact of climate change and industrial development is very relevant, since it has a multifactorial specificity, centered on the unique culture of the northern people, its traditions, and its customs. In Russia, indigenous peoples of the North, as a rule, live in the rural areas of the Arctic zone, which population, according to the Federal State Statistics Service, declines annually. Therefore, it is important to study the changes in these territories and develop policies aimed at preserving not only local communities as a carrier of culture and traditions of northern peoples but also traditional economic activities (reindeer herding, fishing, hunting, etc.), since the reindeer herding is the basis of the traditional culture of the North (Figure 2).
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Figure 2.
The numbers of the permanent population of the land territories of the Arctic zone of the Russian Federation as of January 1, 2018 (number of people) [7].
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The future of the Arctic territories is connected, on the one hand, with the expansion of the zone of industrial development and the extraction in deposits and on the other hand the increasing pressure on the unique ecosystem of the Arctic, the changes in the territories of traditional nature use, the transformation of indigenous population’s way of life, and tribal communities under the influence, including climate change. In Table 1 the main indicators describing the territories of traditional residence and traditional economic activity of the indigenous peoples of Russia are presented. This type of territory is located in 21 regions of the Russian Federation with reindeer pastures, hunting grounds and rich fishing opportunities, and gathering of wild plants on a total area of 994.2 million hectares, including lands used directly as reindeer pastures—407.0 million hectares [8].
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Climate change leads to the transformation of the traditional way of life and also forces regional and local governments to seek new approaches to managing these changes, allowing them to adapt and adequately respond to emerging challenges. Prospects for the revitalization of the industrial development of the North in the future involve the withdrawal of an increasing number of lands of traditional nature use for inclusion in economic circulation. Undoubtedly, industrial development of indigenous peoples’ habitats at the present time determines the prospects for their further socioeconomic and ethno-cultural development. Considering the strategic nature of the state interests in the Arctic region and the attention paid to the development of deposits in Siberia and the Far East, it is necessary to devote harmonization of interests of industrial development of these territories and preservation of the habitat of indigenous communities, creation of mechanisms for interaction of task forces on optimization of economic, and social and environmental interests of all stakeholders in the territories of traditional nature use [10].
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2.1 Climate change impacts on the traditional way of life
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The impact of climate change on indigenous peoples is diverse. This is especially reflected in health and the traditional way of life. Health as a factor in the well-being of indigenous peoples worsens, which shows itself in a high level of mortality with relatively high birth rates, problems with alcoholism, and diseases of the digestive system due to poor-quality drinking water. Significant climate change resulting in the increase of natural disasters, abnormal winter and summer temperatures, floods, mudflows, and landslides increases the number of deaths from unnatural causes, injuries, and subsequent health problems. Climatic changes are also the cause of more serious phenomena, as the deterioration of the parasitic and epidemiological situation. Degradation of permafrost in areas where this type of soil has been preserved for centuries, and on the basis of which the habitat of indigenous peoples and their feeding systems has been formed, leads to catastrophic consequences. Moreover, changes in the permafrost sometimes have unexplained causes, which raise an active discussion in the scientific community. So, in 2014 in Yamal, a giant dip of a soil of unknown origin was discovered. A huge funnel was noticed by helicopter pilots who serve the oil and gas fields on the Yamal Peninsula. The fault is located next to the Bovanenkovo gas field (Yamal LNG), one of the largest in Yamal—the place of one of the most innovative projects of modern Russia for liquefied gas production jointly implemented with Italy, France, Japan, and China (Figure 3).
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Figure 3.
Yamal hole in 30 km from the Bovanenkovo gas field. (source: https://www.moya-planeta.ru/news/view/uchenye_vpervye_issledovali_dno_yamalskoj_voronki_8251/).
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Later Russian scientists from Yamal managed to descend for the first time to the bottom of this dip—to a depth of 200 m. The hole has a cone-shaped view with dimensions of 60 and 40 m. They took more than a dozen samples for chemical analyses, including ice and soil. It turned out that the Yamal “black hole” from the inside is covered with a layer of ice of unknown composition, which has yet to be investigated in the laboratory. Analyses of air inside the funnel revealed the absence of harmful impurities and dangerous gases—on the basis of this fact, scientists concluded that in a mysterious earthly failure, a new life could arise in time. The scientists noted that they failed to solve the main riddle—how the process of a mysterious holes’ formation was going on in the Yamal land. The most authoritative experts consider these holes to be the result of the process of degassing the permafrost due to global warming [11]. Currently, the problem of tundra transformation under the climate change factors is becoming a significant threat to the traditional forms of economic activity, especially reindeer herding. The formation of thermokarst lakes, the degradation of biota, and the waterlogging of significant areas of the tundra during the summer period are risk factors and cause deer to change routes, and in the spring and autumn, a phenomenon such as ice, which is ruinous for reindeer herding, began to increase. Due to the steady increase in the amount of precipitation in recent years, a deeper snow cover is formed, creating difficulties for animals to hoof the reindeer moss. At the same time, the late arrival of colds led to difficulties in the transition of reindeers to winter pastures (Figure 4).
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Figure 4.
Thermokarst lake in tundra with landscape degradation near Vorkuta, Komi Republic, Russia (photo: V. Gassiy).
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In the northern regions of Russia in recent years, there have been no isolated cases in which thousands of reindeers perished from hunger. The increase in the mean annual temperature is detrimental to the regions of permafrost, where the centers of anthrax are revealed during thawing. In the summer of 2016 on the territory of Yamal, an outbreak of anthrax was caused by an abnormal heat. The most dangerous infection was safely suspended in the permafrost for 75 years. The most objective cause of the outbreak was called climate warming. Abnormal heat in the tundra to +35°C kept for more than a month. Comprehensive measures were taken to protect Yamal reindeer herders from dangerous diseases. All the livestock of the deer are vaccinated; the animals are fitted with chips. Vaccination is conducted among the tundra population and specialists from the risk group: in 2017, about 8.2 thousand people were vaccinated in the region, and the entire number of reindeer and more than 730 thousand animals were vaccinated against anthrax. Forty-two thousand representatives of the indigenous peoples of the North—14,000 of them live in a traditional nomadic way of life—and the largest reindeer herd in the world live in the territory of Yamal, so the ecological component plays an important role in preserving the traditional economic activities of indigenous peoples [12]. One of the main threats is the change in the water regime of rivers. Most of the modern settlements in the North are located on the banks of rivers. In recent years, spring floods have sharply increased, floods have become more frequent, and the processes of erosion of shores have accelerated, which bring great disasters to the population. For example, in the regions of northern Yakutia, the banks of the rivers Lena, Yana, and Anabar collapse under the influence of high temperatures and melting of permafrost, which leads to shallowing of rivers, a change in the relief of the bottom. As a consequence of these processes, boats of local fishermen cannot sail along the riverbed; the fish does not go far downstream; thus indigenous peoples are deprived of the type of product that forms the basis of their food ration. Reduction of fishing takes place together with a decrease in the level of production of hunting objects (wild reindeer changes migration routes; the number of fur-bearing animals decreases; because of warming, the meat of a wild animal is often affected by a viral infection or parasites), i.e., we are talking about the problem of access to traditional types of resources.
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Access to resources is closely linked to security, which is provided by traditional knowledge, accumulated for millennia. But the transformations that are taking place change the reality; the representatives of indigenous peoples are increasing in situations where their practice, experience, and knowledge cannot help them. This leads to an increase in the number of accidents, especially those associated with late freeze-up, ice, and early floods. One of the consequences is the restriction of access to traditional food. In addition to the above factors, one of the reasons is the deterioration of storage conditions. In recent years, the quality of food has sharply deteriorated. So, in the Bulunsky District of Yakutia, local residents often face the problem of phimosis (cysticercosis) caught from the Lena River. It should be noted that a similar problem is a characteristic of other regions of the Arctic where indigenous peoples eat fresh or slightly salted fish [13]. In 2016, Federal Service for Veterinary and Phytosanitary Surveillance in the Komi Republic during federal monitoring sampled liver and kidney samples of slaughtered animals belonging to the reindeer herding enterprises of Intinsky and Usinsky districts. Sixty-four samples were examined, of which 52 results were found with excess of mercury—the maximum permissible level was exceeded by 0.9 mg/kg—and 43 results with excess of cadmium, the maximum permissible norm is exceeded by 8.3 mg/kg [14]. In addition, in the liver samples, an excess of the normative indices of dioxins was detected—the maximum permissible rate was exceeded by 8.3 times. However, meat and other offal (with the exception of kidneys and liver) do not contain dangerous chemical pollutants and do not pose a danger to citizens. Accumulation of toxicants in the liver and kidneys of animals is due to the physiological properties of these organs, which are biological filters of organisms. Dioxins are formed in a number of industrial and natural processes, for example, in the production of chlorine and pesticides, burning fuel and debris, and forest fires. Cadmium and mercury pollute the environment both for natural and as a result of industrial activities. In particular, heavy metals pollute the environment during the smelting of nonferrous metals and other processes in the mining industry. It is believed that the northern communities of plants and animals tend to accumulate persistent contaminants, as they have a number of properties necessary for this, including the characteristics of the climate (preventing the destruction of substances) and food chains that are distinguished by a small variety of plant and animal species. According to the world scientific data, some traditional food of the inhabitants of the northern regions of the planet (Alaska, Greenland, Scandinavian Peninsula, Far North of Russia) have a high content of harmful chemicals. Such types of food include meat and fat of marine mammals, reindeer offal, and others [15]. In this way, there are more and more people who are forced to refuse from the consumption of raw fish, which often turns out to be infected with phimosis and other diseases. As a result, the probability of losing certain cultural traditions is growing, since food is an integral part of the traditional way of life and culture.
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It is also necessary to say about the impact of climate change on the health of indigenous peoples. In recent years there has been an increase in mortality in the Arctic. Almost every year there are floods, with every third year—with disastrous consequences and deaths. The number of hits to hospitals increased due to sunstroke, dehydration, pressure drop, etc. Surface water pollution increased, both from floods and melting of permafrost. This leads to an increase in intestinal diseases, especially in the period of floods. Also, in Arctic regions, there is increasing cases of oncological diseases [16]. Some experts attribute this to a more intensive chlorination due to the deterioration of water quality. The prolonged exposure to increased concentrations of chlorine and its constituents, according to doctors, increases the risk of cancer. Warming has widened the areas of spread of diseases, the carriers of which are insects or mites that spread to all new territories. One of the main risk groups for climate change is the children. In northern regions, up to 70% of children have deviations in health status. The incidence of children in the northern regions is significantly higher than the national average. Over the past 10 years, they tend to grow. Children of the North and children of other regions are in unequal starting conditions of life. Under the influence of unfavorable climatic factors and polluted environment, the age development of the immune system falls behind in children of the North for 2–5 years. Thus, for indigenous peoples of the Arctic, the warming of the climate and the associated lengthening of the season, during which the sea is not covered by ice, a decrease in the surface and thickness of sea ice, changes in the migration routes of wild reindeer and their food base, and a drop in the number of marine animals may lead to a reduction in traditional craft. This, in turn, will lead to a violation of traditional food. The indigenous inhabitants of Alaska and Greenland, Chukotka, and Yamal are already recording the negative effects of climate warming, which appeared in a decrease in thickness and an earlier opening of sea ice. These circumstances make it more difficult to hunt and lead to an increase in the number of injuries, which is already the cause of a significant number of deaths among indigenous peoples of the North [17].
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Figure 5 shows the riverbed of the Anabar River near the village of Saskylakh in the northwestern part of Yakutia. Fishermen are forced to manually drag the boat a few kilometers downstream to reach the fairway (Figure 6).
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Figure 5.
Shallowing of the Anabar River in Yakutia (photo: V. Gassiy).
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Figure 6.
Collapse of the riverbank of Yana due to permafrost melting, Yakutia (photo: V. Gassiy).
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2.2 In a dialog with indigenous communities for better understanding of climate change in the Arctic: the Yakutia case
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In 2017, an expedition aimed to the research on socioeconomic and environmental problems of the Arctic indigenous communities was organized by the financial aid of the Russian Fund for Basic Research (RFBR) to the Anabar National (Dolgan-Evenk) ulus (district) and Ust-Yanskiy region in Yakutia. These areas belonged to the compact residents of the indigenous peoples of the North. The study allowed to determine the attitude of the local population to traditional activities and to identify the socioeconomic problems of the territories and environmental threats to indigenous communities in the context of climate change. In the structure of the respondents in the Anabar area, representatives of indigenous peoples were Evenks 43 people (33%) and Dolgans 71 people (55%) (Figure 7) (Table 2).
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Figure 7.
Ratio of men and women in the total number of respondents.
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Education organizations, units
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1735
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Number of medical treatment and prophylactic organizations, units
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2045
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Number of cultural and leisure type organizations, units
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834
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Libraries and museums, units
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542
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Number of sports facilities, units
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10,161
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Hospitality facilities and accommodation
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1123
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Shops and supermarket, units
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28,364
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Restaurants and cafes
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3773
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Settlements with post office, units
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1735
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Commissioning of residential buildings, square meters
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1,496,550
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Number of people living in dilapidated houses
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192,411
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Extension of a street water supply network, meters
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7,566,841.0
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Including in need of replacement, meters
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2,411,098.0
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Number of enterprises for utilization and neutralization of domestic and industrial waste, units
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151
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Table 1.
Indicators of the social development level of territories of traditional nature use in Siberia and the Far East of the Russian Federation in 2017 [9].
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Indigenous community
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Respondents
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Share of respondents from the total number, %
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Yuryung-Khaya
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29
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22
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Saskylakh
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101
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78
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Total
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130
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1000
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Table 2.
Distribution of respondents who participated in the survey, by settlements in the district.
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It is worth noting that this ratio between men and women, when the number of women prevails, is typical for indigenous communities, since it is associated with the high mortality of men engaged in traditional crafts: hunting, fishing, and reindeer herding. In addition, we can add problems of alcoholism reducing life expectancy, as well as chronic diseases caused by the harsh climate. As a result of the survey, residents of indigenous communities noted the following socioeconomic problems in their places of residence:
High prices for food products, 22.5%
The lack of jobs, 20.2%
Low level of income, 19.7%
Old state of housing and communal services, 19.1%
Poor transport accessibility, 9.0%
Low level of medical services, 6.5%
Low level of equipping educational institutions, 3.1%
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As can be seen from the survey results presented, the majority of the respondents connect the socioeconomic problems of the territory with the lack of a stable income, the need for employment, and the underdeveloped infrastructure. In this regard, the implementation of investment projects for the industrial development of territories can create additional jobs for the local population. It should be noted that in the experience of some Russian regions, there are examples of the implementation of a targeted policy for the local labor market development. For example, for several years in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), JSC Almazy Anabara (Alrosa group) has been implementing the educational program, which provides training for the company’s interests and the residents of indigenous communities, where an investment project on the extraction of minerals starts. The survey made it possible to determine the list of sociocultural problems that concern the local population:
Increase in morbidity and mortality of the population, 20.7%
Loss of communication between people and their culture, traditions, 18.3%
Alcoholism, 18.3%
The lack of organized forms of leisure, 14.1%
Problems of selling traditional craft products, 12.3%
Outflow of youth, 12.0%
Crime rate, 4.5%
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It should be noted that the majority of respondents attributed an increase in morbidity and mortality of the population with active industrial development of territories of traditional nature use. However, these are often only subjective assessments, since the problem of early diagnosis of diseases in the Arctic regions of Russia is particularly acute, and not only instruments and specialists are available in the district centers that could conduct regular medical checkups of the population but even a morgue, i.e., in rural settlements there is no way to establish reliably the cause of death. In most cases, early and sudden deaths, the local population refers to oncological diseases as the consequences of the activity of an industrial enterprise in the territory of their living. In the course of a poll among the inhabitants of indigenous communities, it was found that a high mortality rate is also associated with the problem of alcoholism and crimes committed under the influence of alcohol. The traditional types of economic activity associated with hunting and fishing also endanger life: water safety rules are not followed as well as dealing with weapons.
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Among environmental problems, the majority of respondents noted the decline in traditional craft facilities, which is directly attributed to climate change (e.g., the wild reindeer changes its migration routes under the influence of this factor and, as in the case of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), goes to the Krasnoyarsk Territory). According to observations of indigenous peoples, winters become warmer, which is expressed in heavy snowfalls and increased winter temperatures. This leads to river spill in spring, flooding of villages, and loss of the fishing opportunity in the traditional way, as the fish goes deeper. Flood threatens another serious problem for traditional craft—broken trees, which the river carries, can break the seines, which means that an indigenous individual and his family can be deprived of food. Many of the representatives of indigenous communities also note the man-made factor—pollution of rivers due to the implementation of industrial projects, shipping, etc.
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The Ust-Yanskiy region, the second researched area, has specificity concluded in a huge accumulated damage due to a previous gold extractive mine Kular and closed settlements (Vlasovo, Severniy) caused by mass outflow migration since 1998 when this mine was closed. The barbaric way of extracting gold from only the large and medium fractions, the pursuit of the indicators, led to the fact that there is still enough gold in the recycled dumps that can be produced. Since 2017, the license for processing and restoring Kular mine has been transferred to Arctic Capital LLC, which has undertaken the task of eliminating the accumulated environmental damage, recultivation of soil, employment of the local population among indigenous peoples in the newly discovered deposit, and procurement of traditional products (venison, fish, etc.). The concept of social responsibility of business comes to the Russian part of the Arctic, and it becomes one of the few ways to preserve indigenous community and people on the place of their original habitat (Figure 8).
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Figure 8.
Accumulated environmental damage in Vlasovo, Ust-Yanskiy region, Yakutia (photo: V. Gassiy).
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The specificity of the researched territory is its inaccessibility, which has a negative impact on the development of traditional spheres of economic activity. Producing objects of traditional nature use (fish, berries, furs) involves not only consumption for personal purposes but also the need to transport them to the market in larger settlements. The lack of roads and the high cost of transportation by air or auto trucks make economic activity (trade) by-products of traditional nature use almost impossible. In the Ust-Yanskiy area, the main source of income is the extraction of the mammoth tusk, which brings a significant income to the tribal communities and individual entrepreneurs. However, this type of activity requires special training (traditional knowledge, physical form, etc.) and technical equipment (pumps, boats, etc.). Although there are widespread cases of attempts by local residents to obtain tusks and without the necessary equipment, which leads to lethal incidents. On average, according to local residents, the “washing” season is about 100 days, for which one well-trained person can collect from 500 to 800 kg of tusks. In monetary terms, such a “crop” can fluctuate from 10 to 15 million rubles or 160,000–230,000 US$. Moreover, a hot summer with anomalous temperatures is considered by local hunters for tusks as a blessing, since actively melting permafrost itself gives away the hidden remains of ancient animals hidden for thousands of years. It should be noted that in the villages where the main activity is the extraction of the mammoth tusk, one can see expensive modern machinery that local authorities do not always have (Figure 9).
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Figure 9.
Type of transport vehicle in a Kazachye indigenous community, Ust-Yanskiy region (photo: V. Gassiy).
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The purchased transport equipment allows local residents to develop trade between settlements within the region. Given their remoteness from each other, and the impossibility of year-round traffic, this is an important factor in actually helping people survive in such a harsh terrain. This fact makes indigenous peoples to adapt to the climate change in tundra in a unique way. For example, it is often possible to meet indigenous peoples who are using a winter mode of transport during the summer period, since flooded areas of the tundra do not allow movement on motorized wheeled vehicles, Figure 10.
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Figure 10.
Snowmobile in summer tundra on the way to Khayyr (even community), Ust-Yanskiy region, Yakutia (photo: V. Gassiy).
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Figure 10 shows a group of Evens moving on a snowmobile to their native village. In their opinion, in recent years the climate in the tundra has changed considerably: “Winters have become warmer, and summer is unstable: there can be both hot days and cold months when berries do not have time to ripen” (reindeer herder Nikolai, 43); “The deer goes North and does not come here because of the midges, which is very much due to the heat” (hunter Michael, 52) (Figure 11).
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Figure 11.
Example of private household in Kazachye (even community), Ust-Yanskiy region, Yakutia (photo: V. Gassiy).
\n
As a survey of the indigenous community showed, the traditional economy for the majority of local population ceases to be the basic criteria for determining the ethnic characteristics of the people. The high level of unemployment among indigenous peoples of the North, including the Evenks, Evens, and Dolgans, is complicated by the peculiarities of the sectoral structure of employment and the qualification and educational level of the economically active population. The succession of generations in the traditional sectors of the North is gradually disappearing. Young people, being witnesses to the everyday, problematic life of the older generation, are of the opinion that work in reindeer husbandry, hunting, and fishing is not prestigious and does not bring sufficient income to create the corresponding financial situation of the family. The studied living conditions of indigenous communities on the territories of traditional nature use testify to the low level of social, communal, transport infrastructure development, which affects the behavior of the younger generation, their desire to go to the city or find work in extractive companies. “The benefits of civilization” in the form of the Internet, social web sources, and public amenities, along with climate changes, form challenges to the traditional way of life, undermining the age-old foundations of tribal communities. The domestic problems of indigenous peoples are one of the main reasons for the reluctance to remain on their land, to lead a traditional way of life, especially nomadic. Often villages in the territories of traditional residence are not provided with drinking water, and the only sources are river, rain water, or snow (Figure 12).
\n
Figure 12.
Rainwater harvesting for personal consumption, Khayyr (even community), Ust-Yanskiy region, Yakutia (photo: V. Gassiy).
\n
\n
\n
\n
3. Conclusion
\n
Thus, climate change in the Arctic for indigenous communities is not a prospect of the future, but a real threat to the traditional way of life, food security, and their habitat. We believe that ensuring the social status, decent level, and quality of life of the indigenous communities depends on the ways of preserving and developing the traditional economy on a new material, technical, and technological basis. Market relations in reindeer husbandry and hunting are constrained by the peculiarities of the nomadic way of life and the mentality of indigenous peoples. The theory and practice of managing changes in the territories of the traditional nature use of the Arctic require a critical rethinking of established views. In the coming years, new management approaches will be needed to quickly respond to changes in the Arctic territories, as climate change and global warming lead to the biggest social problem—changing the traditional way of life of indigenous peoples. On the other hand, industrial development expands the area of its presence in the Arctic, which creates not only challenges for the indigenous population but also the opportunities to preserve their culture, traditions, and crafts. In this regard, it is necessary to introduce into the practice of public administration the decision-making model for choosing investment projects based on the priorities of local development, the interests not only of the state and business but also of the indigenous communities [18]. Therefore, in order to solve the problem of survival and adaptation of Arctic indigenous communities in the context of climate change, a proactive reaction of science and practice is needed, based on complex sociological, ethno-cultural, ecological-economic, and statistical studies of traditional nature-use territories.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"indigenous community, Arctic, climate change, territories of traditional nature use, sustainable development, Russia, Yakutia",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/64644.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/64644.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64644",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64644",totalDownloads:609,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"May 29th 2018",dateReviewed:"August 7th 2018",datePrePublished:"December 5th 2018",datePublished:"November 13th 2019",dateFinished:"December 5th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In recent decades, the world has undergone significant changes in the environment, which have led not only to economic losses but also to a deterioration in the quality of human life, a change in the usual way of life. The Arctic today is in the focus of geopolitical and economic interests, the impact on the region of global warming. The ice retreats giving humanity new transport corridors, thereby attracting new participants from non-Arctic countries. Japan, China, and South Korea are interested in developing the Northern Sea Route for the delivery of goods and the development of economic ties between Europe and Asia. However, the importance of this route is also connected with transportation of hydrocarbons and other minerals extracted in the Arctic. Industrial development is a priority for the Arctic countries, and climate change makes remote areas of the subsoil more accessible. Especially this issue should be considered for Russia, where the development of the Arctic is experiencing a third wave and this process affects the interests of state, business, and population including indigenous communities, whose number is more twice than in the rest of the world (2.8 million residents in the Russian Arctic with approximately 4 million people in the Arctic totally).",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/64644",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/64644",signatures:"Violetta Gassiy",book:{id:"6982",title:"Arctic Studies",subtitle:"A Proxy for Climate Change",fullTitle:"Arctic Studies - A Proxy for Climate Change",slug:"arctic-studies-a-proxy-for-climate-change",publishedDate:"November 13th 2019",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Yoshihiro Kakinami and Genti Toyokuni",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6982.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Factors, risks, and challenges to the indigenous communities in climate change in the Arctic",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Climate change impacts on the traditional way of life",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 In a dialog with indigenous communities for better understanding of climate change in the Arctic: the Yakutia case",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of April 19, 2017 No. 176 “On the Strategy of Ecological Safety of the Russian Federation for the Period Until 2025”. http://www.kremlin.ru/acts/bank/41879\n\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of April 3, 2013 No. 512-r “On Approval of the State Program “Energy Efficiency and Development of Energy” for 2013–2020”. http://government.ru/docs/1171/\n\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Kotlyakov VМ. On causes and effects of current climate changes. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics. 2012;21:110-114\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Romero D, Corralb MS, Pereira ÂG. Climate-related displacements of coastal communities in the Arctic: Engaging traditional knowledge in adaptation strategies and policies. Environmental Science & Policy. 2018;85:90-100\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Indigenous Empowerment is Vital for Climate Action. UN Climate Change; August 09, 2017. https://unfccc.int/news/indigenous-empowerment-is-vital-for-climate-action\n\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Gassiy V, Potravny I. The assessment of the socio-economic damage of the indigenous peoples due to industrial development of Russian Arctic. Czech Polar Reports. 2017;2(7):257-270. DOI: 10.5817/CPR2017-2-25\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Bulletin. Population size and migration of the Russian Federation, Federal Service of State Statistics. http://www.gks.ru/wps/wcm/connect/rosstat_main/rosstat/ru/statistics/population/demography/\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Information on hunting for 2016–2017. Federal Service of State Statistics. www.gks.ru/free_doc/doc_2016/bul_dr/ohrana/ohota16.xls\n\n'},{id:"B9",body:'The Arctic Zone of the Russian Federation/Federal Service of State Statistics. http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/region_stat/arc_zona.html\n\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Novoselov A, Potravnii I, Novoselova I, Gassiy V. Conflicts management in natural resources use and environment protection on the regional level. Journal of Environmental Management and Tourism. 2016;3(15):407-415\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Bogoyavlenskiy VI, Sizov OS, Bogoyavlenskiy IV. Remote detection of sites surface appearance gas and gas emissions in the Arctic: The Yamal peninsula. The Arctic: Ecology and Economy. 2016;3(23):4-15. http://www.ibrae.ac.ru/docs/3(23)2016_%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0/004_015_%20ARCTICA%203(23)%2009%202016.pdf\n\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Atle S. More than 800,000 reindeer vaccinated against anthrax. The Barents Observer. August 08, 2017. https://thebarentsobserver.com/en/life-and-public/2017/08/more-800000-reindeer-vaccinated-against-anthrax\n\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Hotez PJ. Neglected infections of poverty among the indigenous peoples of the Arctic. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 2010;4(1):e606. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000606\n'},{id:"B14",body:'On the Detection of Dangerous Toxic Chemical Elements in Deer By-Products. Federal Service for Veterinary and Phytosanitary Surveillance. http://www.fsvps.ru/fsvps/news/ld/216626.html\n\n'},{id:"B15",body:'Makarov DA, Komarov AA, Ovcharenko VV, Nebera EA, et al. The study of the content of dioxins and toxic elements in the by-products and meat of the reindeer from 8 regions of Russia and the assessment of the harm to health when using venison for food. Federal Service for Veterinary and Phytosanitary Surveillance: Official Report 2014–2016. http://www.vgnki.ru/assets/files/issledovaniya-oleni.pdf\n\n'},{id:"B16",body:'Vasilyeva AP. Influence of global warming on the welfare of the indigenous peoples living on the territory of the Sakha Republic (Yakutia). Almanac of Modern Science and Education. 2010;10(41):74-75\n'},{id:"B17",body:'The Impact of Global Climate Change on the Health of the Population of the Russian Arctic. UN Mission in the Russian Federation. 2008. http://www.unrussia.ru/doc/Arctic-ru.pdf\n\n'},{id:"B18",body:'Novoselov A, Potravny I, Novoselova I, Gassiy V. Selection of priority investment projects for the development of the Russian Arctic. Polar Science. 2017;14:68-77\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Violetta Gassiy",address:"vgassiy@mail.ru",affiliation:'
Action Group on Indigenous Involvement, International Arctic Science Committee (IASC), Kuban State University, Russia
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Originally, biosurfactants attracted attention as hydrocarbon-dissolving agents in the late 1960s and as potential replacements for synthetic surfactants (carboxylates, sulfonates and sulfate acid esters) in the food, pharmaceutical, and oil industries. Synthetic surfactants currently used are usually toxic and hardly degraded and as such are also a contaminant in the environment. To replace synthetic surfactants, biosurfactant production needs to be cost-effective; therefore, it is important to develop culture conditions with low-cost materials using efficient biosurfactant-producing microbial strains. Although bacteria have been extensively studied for biosurfactant production, yeasts are also potential biosurfactant-producing microorganisms. Because of their unique structures, biosurfactants may have a greater range of properties that can be exploited commercially. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:"University of Alicante",institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"165628",title:"Dr.",name:"Mónica",surname:"Camacho",slug:"monica-camacho",fullName:"Mónica Camacho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"167339",title:"Mr.",name:"Pratap",surname:"Devarapalli",slug:"pratap-devarapalli",fullName:"Pratap Devarapalli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/167339/images/4262_n.jpg",biography:"Pratap Devarapalli is a Techno-legal expert and IP researcher. 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