\r\n\tThe purpose of this book is to provide the readers with an understanding of the characteristics of the crisis itself, recognize the wide range and multi-layer of the crisis from a real situation, give ideas on how to minimize the damage, and find ways to increase resilience in the future. To adapt to the rapidly and diversely changing world, the necessary experience and appropriate management for all kinds of crisis issues will be discussed as well. At the same time, it is intended to suggest elements such as verified scientific and empirical knowledge and applicable technologies; more effective risk management operation; modeling of the risks, manuals, management plans, and strategies.
\r\n\t
In modern physics there are two most important pillars of disciplines: It seems to me one is dealing with macro scale objects of Einstein [1] and the others is dealing with micro scale particle of Schrödinger [2]. Instead of speculating that micro and macro-object behaves differently, but they share a common denominator; temporal (t > 0) subspace. In other words, regardless how small the particle is it has to be temporal (t > 0), otherwise it cannot exist within our temporal (t > 0) universe. Nevertheless, as science changes from Newtonian [3] mechanics to statistical [4], to relativistic [1], and to quantum mechanics [2], time had always been regarded as an independent variable with respect to substance or subspace. And this is precisely what modern physics had been used the same empty space platform, which they had have treated time as an independent variable for centuries. Since Heisenberg was one of the earlier starters in quantum theory [5], I have found his principle was derived on the same empty space platform as depicted in Figure 1 which is in fact the “same” platform used for developing Hamiltonian classical mechanics [6]. For which this is the same reason why Schrödinger’s quantum mechanics is timeless (t = 0) or time independent because quantum mechanics is the legacy of Hamiltonian. And this is the same reason that Heisenberg uncertainty principle is time independent, instead of changes with time [7].
Shows a particle in motion within a timeless (t = 0) subspace. v is the velocity of the particle.
Nevertheless, Figure 1 is not a physically realizable paradigm by virtue of temporal exclusive principle. In other words, emptiness and temporal (t > 0) are mutually exclusive. Strictly every substance or subspace has to be temporal (t > 0) within our temporal (t > 0) universe. For simplicity we assumed momentarily that mass m is a constant and I shall come for this temporal issue in a subsequent discussion.
Yet, total energy of a Hamiltonian particle in motion is equal to its kinetic energy plus the particle’s potential energy as given by [6],
which is the well-known Hamiltonian equation, where p and m represent the particle’s momentum and mass respectively, V is the particle’s potential energy. Equivalently Hamiltonian equation can be written in the following form as applied for a subatomic particle.
which is the well-known “Hamiltonian Operator” in classical mechanics. Where h is the Planck’s constant, m and V are the mass and potential energy of the particle and ∇2 is a Laplacian operator;
By virtue of “energy conservation”, Hamiltonian equation can be written as,
where ψ is the wave function that remains to be determined, E and V are the energy factor and potential energy that need to be incorporated within the equation. And this is precisely where Schrödinger’s equation was derived from, by using the energy factor E = hν (i.e., a quanta of light energy) adopted from Bohr’s atomic model [8], Schrödinger equation can be written as [6];
In view of this Schrödinger’s equation, but it is essentially identical to the Hamiltonian equation. Where ψ is the wave function has to be determined, m is the mass of a photonic-particle (i.e., photon), E and V are the dynamic quantum state energy and potential energy of the particle, x is the spatial variable and h is the Planck’s constant.
Since Schrödinger’s equation is the core of quantum mechanics, but without Hamiltonian’s mechanics it seems to me; we would not have the quantum mechanics. The fact is that quantum mechanics is essentially identical to Hamiltonian mechanics. The major difference between them is that; Schrödinger used a dynamic quantum energy E = hν as obtained from a quantum leap energy of Bohr’s hypothesis which changes from classical mechanics to quantum leap mechanics or quantum mechanics. In other words, Schrödinger used a package of wavelet quantum leap energy hν to equivalent a particle (or photon) as from wave-particle dynamics of de Broglie’s hypothesis [9], although photon is not actually a real particle [10]. Nevertheless, where the mass m for a photonic particle in the Schrödinger’s equation remains to be “physically reconciled”, after all science is a law of approximation. Furthermore, without the adoption of Bohr’s quantum leap hν, quantum physics would not have started. It seems to me that; quantum leap energy E = hν has played a viable role as transforming from Hamiltonian classical mechanics to quantum mechanics which Schrödinger had done to his quantum theory.
Nevertheless, Schrödinger equation is a point singularity approximated deterministic time-independent equation, for which we see that any solution and principle come out from Schrödinger equation will be deterministic time-independent. But science is supposed to change naturally with time or approximated. And this is precisely the reason that quantum scientists had have committed for decades without knowing that solution or principle as obtained from Schrödinger equation is not physically realizable. For which his fundamental principle of superposition is one of them. The reason why Schrödinger equation is not a physically realizable equation is trivial; firstly, since Schrödinger equation is the legacy of Hamiltonian, which is a timeless (t = 0) or time independent classical machine. Secondly, the quantum leap E = hν is not a time limited physically realizable assumption, since Bohr’s atomic was developed from an empty subspace platform, which has no time and no space. And this empty virtual subspace had been using it for centuries. Although Schrödinger equation has given scores of viable solutions for practical applications but at the same time it had also produced a number of fictitious and irrational principles and theories that are not actually existed within our temporal (t > 0) universe, such as the paradox of Schrödinger’s Cat [11], string theory [12], superposition principle, and others.
In order to understand why Schrödinger equation is a timeless (t = 0) or time-independent equation, we have to understand what is a temporal (t > 0) space paradigm since physically realizable solution comes from a physically realizable subspace. For which every physically realizable subspace must be a subspace within our temporal (t > 0) universe, which changes naturally with time. This includes all the laws, principles, and theories must changes naturally with time, as from strictly physical realizability standpoint. Particularly we are in the era of asking our science to response as instantaneously, for instance as the fundamental principle of Schrödinger equation.
For which let me epitomize the nature of our temporal (t > 0) universe as depicted in Figure 2. It shows that our universe was started from a big bang creation theory about 14 billion light years ago. Since past certainty’s consequences (i.e., memory subspaces) were happened at specified time within the negative time domain (i.e., t < 0), we see that every specific past time event has been determined with respect to a precise past certainty subspace. For which time can be treated as an independent variable with respect to the past certainty consequences within the pass-time domain (t < 0) as from mathematical standpoint. Which is precisely where Schrödinger equation is, as well all the laws and theories were developed.
Shows a composited temporal (t > 0) time–space diagram to epitomize the nature of our temporal universe. BLY is billion of light years.
However, it is reasonable to predict any hypothesis and principle based on our past certainty knowledges, but it is the nature of our time–space tells us that prediction cannot be absolute deterministic, since every physical aspect changes with time. In other words, a deterministic Schrödinger equation should not be used to predict future reality without the constrain of temporal (t > 0) condition, since future physical reality changes naturally with time. And this is the timeless (t = 0) or time-independent past-time certainty subspace that many scientists had used to predict the future out-come with absolute certainty, even though consciously they knew it is incorrect. Although this was the issue that Einstein and his colleagues were strongly opposed Schrödinger’s fundamental principle of superposition [13], but Einstein had also committed the same error as Schrödinger did, his general and special theory of relativity are also deterministic theories. Nevertheless, the major difference between Schrödinger’s fundamental principle and Einstein’s theories is that, Schrödinger’s principle is essentially to stop the time, such as applied to quantum computing and communication [14, 15]. While Einstein’s theory is basically to move ahead or behind the pace of time, for instance as applied to wormhole time traveling [16]. Nevertheless, Schrödinger equation is a non-physically realizable equation which is not encouraged to be used without the constrain of temporal (t > 0) condition, particularly as applied on instantaneously and simultaneously supersession position. Since the fundamental principle exists only within an empty space, but not within our temporal (t > 0) space where empty space is not an inaccessible subspace within our temporal universe. From which we see that those application of Schrödinger equation to quantum space–time would have problem to prove that they exist within our temporal (t > 0) universe, since Schrödinger equation is a time-independent equation.
Although using past certainties to predict future outcome is a reasonable method that had have been used for centuries, but it is physically wrong if we treated time as an independent variable within our temporal (t > 0) universe. And this is the reason scores of irrational and fictitious solutions emerged, that has already been dominated the world-wide scientific community. This includes Schrödinger ‘s fundamental principle of superposition, Einstein’s special and general relativity theories, and many others, since they were all based on past certainties to predict a deterministic future, which is not a temporal (t > 0) solution that changes with time (i.e., non-deterministic).
Nevertheless, the section of time Δt shown in Figure 2 represents an incremental moment after instant t = 0 moved to a new t = 0 + Δt. In which Δt can be squeeze as small as we wish (i.e., Δt ⟶0), but it cannot be squeezed to zero (i.e., Δt = 0) even we have all the energy ∆E to pay for it. In fact, this is the section of time that cannot be delay or moved ahead the pace of time (i.e., t < 0 + Δt or t > 0 + Δt). From which the possibility for time traveling either ahead or behind the pace of time is not conceivable, since we are coexisted with time.
Since our temporal (t > 0) universe shows that science is supposed to be approximated but not exact or deterministic, any deterministic solution is not physically real as from absolute certainty of the present. In other words, further away from the absolute certainty the more ambiguous the prediction or uncertainty is. And this exactly why uncertainty principle should have developed based on temporal (t > 0) standpoint, instead Heisenberg principle was derived by observation which is independent from time [7].
As any physical substance or subspace requires to be temporal (t > 0), otherwise it cannot be existed within our temporal universe, this includes all the laws, principles, and theories, otherwise those principles and theories would be as virtual as mathematics. For example, as we had shown in the preceding section. Schrödinger equation is essentially the legacy of Hamiltonian, where Hamiltonian is a timeless (t = 0) or time-independent equation. To avoid the ambiguity of timeless and time-independent equation, that means that timeless and time independent are equivalent, since within a virtual empty space it has no time and no physical space. Which is precisely why we had hijacked by an empty space inadvertently for centuries, for not knowingly that empty space paradigm is not a physically realizable paradigm.
Since the application of all those timeless (t = 0) principles and theories were never encountered with serious irrationality, it was because we had never thought that temporal (t > 0) issue of those timeless (t = 0) principles, although we knew science is approximated. Which was in part due to our own analytical incline that paradoxes can be alleviated by rigorous mathematics that all theoretical scientists adored. For which we felt that without complicated mathematics it has no theoretical physics. But mathematics is not equaled to science, although science needs mathematics. It turns out to be wrong with theoretical physicists, physically realizable science depends on a physically realizable platform but not on the severity of mathematics. Nevertheless, as we have seen it is mathematics currently leads the theoretical physics, but not science directs mathematics. In other words, if it not how rigorous mathematics is, but it is the physically realizable science that we are searching for.
Nevertheless, it must be the demand for instantaneous information-transmission and simultaneous computing, that had motivated me found that the fundamental principle of Schrodinger had violated the nature of temporal (t > 0) condition of our universe. Since every subspace within our universe changes with time, but not the subspace stops the time. In other words, it is time changes us yet we are coexisted with time. Since time changes subspace, then the respond from subspace cannot be instantaneously (t = 0), but it takes a section of time ∆t no matter as small it is (i.e., ∆t → 0), but never able to make it to zero (i.e., ∆t = 0), to response. Which is a well-known causality constraint [17], that we may have forgotten.
Since Schrödinger equation is one of my typical examples to shown that flaw and limitation as it is implemented within our temporal (t > 0) time–space. Firstly, Schrodinger equation is a time-independent deterministic equation, which is precisely why superposition is a timeless (t = 0) principle. Nevertheless, if we imposed a temporal (t > 0) constraint on the equation as given by,
From which we see that any solution comes out from this equation will be temporal (t > 0), since temporal equation produces temporal solution. Nevertheless, as from strict temporal (t > 0) standpoint, mass m, quantum leap energy E = hν, and potential energy V should be temporal. Nevertheless, (t > 0) imposition is showing that solution or principle as derived from this equation should be temporal. For example, fundamental principle of superposition is one of the evidences, since the principle was not constrained by temporal condition. In other words, the adopted quantum leap energy E = hν is not a physically realizable assumption to be used, since it is not a time limited quantum leap. This means the wave function ψ as obtained from Schrödinger equation without the temporal constraint is given by [6];
Which is the well-known Schrödinger wave equation, where ψ0 is an arbitrary constant, ν is the frequency of the quantum leap hν and h is the Planck’s constant. As anticipated, Schrödinger wave equation is also a time unlimited solution with no bandwidth, which is not a physical realizable solution. Yet many quantum scientists had used this wave solution to pursuing their dream for quantum supremacy computing and communication [14, 15]. But not knowing the dream they are pursuing is not a physical realizable dream.
It is trivial where the source of the unlimited quantum leap came from, it is from Bohr atomic model as depicted in Figure 3. Where an atomic model is embedded within a non-physically realizable empty space paper paradigm, it has no time and no space. Yet quantum physicists can implant virtual time and coordinates within the paradigm but not knowing that piece of paper does not actually represents a physically real subspace. From which we see that Bohr’s model strictly speaking it is not a physically realizable paradigm should be used. Firstly it is an empty subspace paradigm, secondly E = hν is not a physically realizable quantum leap energy.
Shows a Bohr atomic model embedded in a timeless (t = 0) platform (i.e., a piece of paper).
On the other hand, if we put a temporal (t > 0) constraint on the time unlimited wave equation as given by,
From which we have,
where t > 0 denotes equation is subjected to temporal (t > 0) condition (i.e., exists only within positive time domain). From which we see that a narrow package of wavelet as shown in Figure 4 is temporal (t > 0) and time limited. Thus, we see that it is unlikely simultaneous wavelets will instantaneously occur at same time. From which we have shown that Schrödinger’s fundamental principle of superposition fails to exist within our temporal (t > 0) universe.
Shows a time-limited temporal (t > 0) equation exists in positive time domain. Which can be implemented within our temporal (t > 0) universe.
Nevertheless, major problem of Schrödinger equation is its time-independent or timeless issue, since the equation was derived from an empty space platform as Hamiltonian. From which we see that, Schrodinger equation is not a physically realizable equation, which is precisely why quantum world behaves weirdly as within a timeless wonderland. Since string theory [12] in part was developed from Schrödinger equation, it is trivial to see that string theory is deterministic which is not a physically realizable theory. From which we see that it is not how sophisticated a theory is, but it is the temporal (t > 0) subspace platform that produces physically realizable theories.
There is however another essential physical limit cannot be ignored. Within our temporal (t > 0) universe every aspect has a price to pay; a section of time ∆t and an amount of energy ∆E [i.e., ∆t, ∆E], where ∆E(t) is temporal. In other words, every physically realizable theory or principle needs a section of time ∆t to spare and an amount of energy ∆E to realize or to transmit. For instance, every bit of information needs a section of time ∆t to create. But without an amount of energy ∆E it is impossible to physically realize a bit of information. For which we have the following by uncertainty relationship as given by [18],
where h is the Planck’s constant. From which we see that we need to pay a higher amount of energy ∆E for a narrower section of ∆t for every bit of information-transmission.
On the other hand, if we want to curve a particle into a string-like shape within our quantum world [12], which is not a physically realizable theory since string theory is a deterministic principle while our universe is temporal (t > 0). Yet, my question is that how long it will take to change a particle to string like equivalent, even though assume we have all the energy (i.e., ∆E) we need. And this is a trivial question that we have to answer, since every physical aspect within our universe has a price (i.e., ∆t, ∆E) to pay. In other words, particle-string dynamic is a mathematical equivalent, but physically they are not equaled since every particle is a temporal (t > 0) particle, which has a mass with time.
On the other hand, if we take a set physically realizable wave functions as given by,
Which are depicted respectively in Figure 5(a), where we see that wavelets are physically separated. However, if this set of wavelets are submerged within an empty subspace, although physically not realizable as illustrated in Figure 5(b), we see that the wavelets superimposed at t = 0 within an empty space, since within an empty space it has no time and no distance. And this is precisely what a virtual empty space can do for all substances as from mathematical standpoint.
(a) Shows a set of time-limited temporal wavelets. (b) Shows the set of time-limited wavelets is embedded within an empty space. We see superposition principle holds within an empty space since it has no time and no space.
Before we move on, let me stress that wave-particle duality is a non-physical realizable dynamic, since it is from statistical mechanics standpoint that a package wavelet energy is equivalent to a particle in motion where momentum of a particle p = h/λ is conserved [6]. However, one should not treat wave or a package of wavelet energy hΔν as a particle or particle as wave. But it is a package of wavelet energy equivalent to a particle dynamic (i.e., photon), but they are not equaled. Similar to mass to energy equation, mass is equivalent to energy and energy is equivalent to mass, but mass is not equaled to energy and energy is not mass. For which a quantum of hν or a photon is a virtual particle. From which we see that a photon has a momentum p = h/λ but no mass, although many quantum scientists regard a photon as a physical real particle.
Similarly, we can show that a set of separated particles in motion is situated within a temporal (t > 0) subspace as depicted in Figure 6(a). Since they are embedded within a time–space platform, their locations can be precisely determined. However, if this set moving particles are situated within an empty space as illustrated in Figure 6(b), then particles lost their temporal (t > 0) identities (e.g., such as size, location, and motion), since within an empty space it has no time and no space. For which all the particles’ dynamic energy converged at t = 0. From which we see that empty space is a virtual space which does not exist within our temporal (t > 0) universe. But we had used this virtual space for ages since the dawn of our science. And this reason that why we need to change to temporal (t > 0) science otherwise we will forever be trapping within the empty wonderland of timeless (t = 0) science, which does not need to pay a price (i.e., ∆t, ∆E).
(a) Shows particles within a timeless (t = 0) subspace can do to particles. (b) Shows particle 1 and 2 are superimposing at everywhere within an empty space. (c) Shows energy of particle 1 and 2 converged at t = 0, in view of energy conservation. But empty space is a virtual mathematical space which does not exist within our universe.
Nevertheless, Schrödinger equation is a non-physical realizable equation, which can be traced back to the development of Hamiltonian mechanics. From which we see that it is the background subspace (i.e., a piece of paper) that we had inadvertently treated as an empty space paradigm. And it is also the same empty space paradigm that Bohr’s atomic model was embedded, from which we see that quantum state energy hν is not a physically physical assumption. From which I had shown any application of Schrödinger equation has to be constrained within the temporal (t > 0) condition. Otherwise, the solution would be virtual and fictious, which cannot be implemented within our time–space. From which I had shown that it is not how rigorous mathematics is, it is the physical realizable paradigm determines her solution is physical realizable.
When we are dealing with quantum mechanics, it is inevitable not to mention Schrödinger’s cat since it is one of the most elusive cats in the modern science since Schrödinger’s disclosed it in 1935 at a Copenhagen forum. Since then, his half-life cat has intrigued by a score of scientists and has been debated by Einstein, Bohr, Schrödinger, and many others as soon Schrödinger disclosed his hypothesis. And the debates have been persisted for over eight decades, and still debating. For example, I may quote one of the late Richard Feynman quotations as: “After you have leaned quantum mechanics, you really “do not” understand quantum mechanics …”.
It is however not the fate of the Schrödinger’s half-life cat, but it is the paradox that quantum scientists had have treated the fate of the cat as a physically realizable paradox. In other words, many scientists believed the paradox of Schrödinger’s cat is actually existed within our universe, without any hesitation. Or literally accepted superposition is a physically realizable principle, although fictitious and irrational solutions had emerged, it seems like looking into the Alice wonderland. In order to justify some of their believing some quantum scientists even come-up with their own logic; particle behaves weirdly within a microenvironment as in contrast within a macro space. Yet some of their potential applications, such as quantum computing and quantum entanglement communication are in fact in macro subspace environment. Nevertheless, I have found many of those micro behaviors are not existed within our universe, from which paradox of Schrödinger’s cat is one of them, as I shall discuss.
Let us start with the Schrödinger’s box as shown in Figure 7. Inside the box we have equipped a bottle of poison gas and a device (i.e., a hammer) to break the bottle, triggered by the decaying of a radio-active particle, to kill the cat. Since the box is assumed totally opaque of which no one knows that the cat will be killed or not, as imposed by the Schrödinger’s superposition principle until we open his box. From which we see that the fate of Schrödinger ‘s cat is dependent upon the beholder, or consciousness.
Shows Paradox of Schrodinger’s Cat: Inside the box we equipped a bottle of poison gas and a device (i.e., hammer) to break the bottle, triggered by the decaying of a radio-active particle, to kill the cat.
Nevertheless, as we investigate Schrödinger ‘s hypothesis, immediately we see that his hypothesis is not a physical realizable postulation, since within the box it has a timeless (t = 0) or time independent radioactive particle in it. As we know that; any particle within our universe subspace has to be a temporal (t > 0) particle or has time with it, otherwise the proposed radioactive particle cannot be existed within Schrödinger’s temporal (t > 0) box. It is therefore, the paradox of Schrödinger’s cat is not a physical realizable hypothesis and we should not have treated Schrödinger’s cat as a physically real paradox.
Since every problem has multi solutions, I can change the scenarios of Schrödinger’s box a little bit, such as allow a small group of individuals take turn to open the box. After each observation close the box before passing on to the next observer. My question is that; how many times the superposition has to collapse? With all those apparent contradicted logics, we see that Schrödinger ‘s cat is not a paradox after all. And the root of timeless (t = 0) superposition principle as based on Bohr’s quantum leap hν, represents a time unlimited radiator, which is a singularity approximated wave solution. But time-unlimited quantum leap is a non-physically realizable radiator that cannot exist within our universe.
Two of the important pillars in modern physics must be Einstein’s relativity and Schrödinger’s Quantum theory; one is dealing with very large object, and the other is dealing with small particles. Since both of Einstein’s theories and Schrödinger’s mechanics were developed from an empty subspace, they are not physically realizable principles. But it was those theories that had given us the fantasy promises that had led us to believe that physical behaves within a macro and a micro are different, otherwise relativistic theory and quantum mechanics cannot be reconciled. Nevertheless, either was inadvertently or not, it remains to be found. Nevertheless, this is the objective that I will show that particles behave within a macro and a micro space are basically the same regardless of their sizes. From which I wonder that particle behaves differently within a micro space must be a major cover up but not inadvertently in modern scientific history.
Although Einstein was strongly opposing Schrödinger’s quantum theory [13], but his relativity theory had also committed the same error for using the same empty space paradigm. For which I will show that particle behaves basically the same within a macro and a micro space, regardless of their size. Nevertheless, the major difference between Einstein’s theory and Schrödinger ‘s principle is that, one is to move ahead or behind the pace of time and the other is to stop the time. Yet neither move ahead nor stop time is possible, since our universe changes with time, but not change the time.
As commonly agreed, that a picture is worth more than a thousand words, then a viable diagram is worth more hundreds of equations. Once again let me epitomize the creation of our temporal (t > 0) universe as summarized in Figure 8.
Shows our universe was originated by a big bang explosion from a singularity temporal mass m(t) triggered by her own intensive gravitational force within a preexisted temporal (t > 0) space. In which we see that our universe, subspace, galaxy, planet, particle regardless the size changes naturally with time. From which we see that the behaviors within micro and macro are basically the same.
In which it shows that the origin of our temporal (t > 0) universe was started by a big bang explosion within a preexisted temporal (t > 0) space that allows a singularity mass M(t) to exist and to grow over time. Such that her induced gravitational pressure will eventually trigger the thermo-nuclei explosion of mass M that enables creation of our universe. From which we see that every substance regardless the size changes with time. Where time is the only invisible real variable runs at a constant pace, for which nothing can move ahead or even stop time. And this a physically realizable time–space we live in. Which is different from the Einstein’s space–time continuum where he had treated time as an independent variable [1]. The fact is that temporal (t > 0) universe is a newly discovered realizable time–space that closer to truth. From which I would anticipate temporal (t > 0) space will eventually take over the time-independent universe of Einstein. For which we would have a viable physically realizable paradigm for years to come, because principle and theory developed from a temporal (t > 0) space platform will be physically realizable.
In view of our temporal (t > 0) universe, it is not possible for particle behavior differently within a micro space, since every particle is temporal that changes naturally with time. Since it is time changes the particle, but not particle changes time, time is neither can be stop momentarily as superposition principle stated or changed momentarily as relativistic theory promised. In other words, every substance regardless of the size needs a section of time ∆t and an amount of energy ∆E to create. And it cannot allow micro-space behaves like a timeless space since every subspace within our universe has to be temporal, by virtue of temporal exclusive principle.
Qubit information-transmission is basically exploiting Wiener’s communication strategy for the purpose of qubit transmission [19]. For which the receiver would anticipate a more ambiguous digital signal (e.g., either 0 or 1) from an anticipated sender. In other words, qubit communication has treated at receiving end entropy H(B) as a source entropy H(A) to determine the intended signal was sent. Since signal was originated by the sender, by maximizing entropy H(B) under noiseless condition the receiver can interpret the received signal (e.g., 0 or1) as equals to a qubit information. And this is precisely the qubit information principle that currently is using for quantum communication and computing.
For example, a receiver is not certained about an enclosed message is either yes or no, until the receiver opens the envelope to find out is yes or no message but not both. Which is a similar the scenario to the paradox of Schrödinger ‘s cat before opening his box. But the fate of Schrödinger’s cat or the information within the envelope had been determined before we look into the Schrödinger’s box or the receiver opens the envelope. From which we see that it is not our consciousness changing the outcome of the enclosed message or the fate of the cat, as superposition principle had implied. For which to guarantee that the envelope will not be contaminated during transmission, if and only if the transmission time is instantaneously (i.e., ∆t = 0) which is equivalently that message is sent within timeless (t = 0) channel, that has no time.
Therefore, it is the physically realizable qubit information whether it exists within our temporal (t > O) universe. Since everything within our universe has a price to pay, namely a section of time ∆t and an amount of energy ∆E, for which qubit information transmission cannot be the exception. Firstly, quantum communication relies on fundamental principle of superposition, but we had shown that superposition principle cannot exist within our temporal (t > 0) universe. Then it has no sense to talk about all the possible capability of qubit information can offer.
Nevertheless, let us assume a quantum communication channel which is situated within an empty space paradigm shown in the Figure 9, where a binary source ensemble of A = {0, 1} is capable of transmitting 0 and 1 instantaneously and simultaneously within an empty space. Notice that this is precisely the same subspace platform that Schrödinger’s fundamental principle of superposition derived from. From which we see that qubit information can only exist within an empty space platform which is not a physically realizable information hypothesis, since platform has no time to represent a transmitting signal. The fact is that every temporal information (i.e., 0 or 1) needs a section of time (i.e., ∆t) to presents a time-signal. In other words, if a time-signal has no section of time, it has no carrier to represent and to transmit within our temporal (t > 0) universe since qubit information is timeless (t = 0) space transmission algorithm.
Shows a conventional noiseless communication channel is embedded within an empty space. But it is not a physically realizable paradigm since substance (i.e., signal) and emptiness cannot coexist.
Aside it is not a physically realizable paradigm, let me show how a qubit information channel works as depicted by a block box diagram shown in Figure 10, which is a timeless (t = 0) noise free channel. Where A = {0, 1} represents an input binary source, H(A) = 1 bit is the input entropy, B{qubit} is output quantum bit, H(B) = qubit is the output entropy. Since quantum qubit information transmission has treated the input binary source A = {0, 1} and the output ensemble as qubit B = {qubit}, such that at the receiving ending information can be presented in quantum bit (i.e., qubit). But qubit channel is embedded within a timeless (t = 0) subspace, it has no noise and no time, we see that it has no channel noise entropy [i.e., H(A/B) = 0]. From which mutual information of the qubit channel can be written as,
Shows a binary timeless (t = 0) quantum qubit-information channel.
where the output end entropy H(B) is equaled to the input entropy H(A) [i.e., H(B) = H(A)]. Thus, the intended sent signal either 1 or 0, but not by both, is receiving at the receiving end. This is equivalently to recovering the intended input signal that was corrupted within a noisy channel of Wiener’s information-transmission, but in this case is a noiseless channel. In fact, a noiseless channel is a virtual channel only exists within an empty virtual space, which cannot be existed within our temporal (t > 0) universe.
Since quantum information is dependent on Schrodinger’s superposition principle such that binary transmission of 0 and 1 can be transmitted instantaneously and simultaneously. This presents a quantum bit or a qubit to determine the input source ensemble of either 1 or 0. But quantum information channel is assumed within an empty space paradigm, we see that the operation is instantaneous and simultaneous but only exists within timeless (t = 0) space. Since qubit information is the anchor principle for quantum computing and communication, but unfortunately qubit information cannot exist within our temporal (t > 0) universe, by virtue of temporal exclusive principle.
A similar scenario to qubit information transmission is the paradox of Schrodinger’s cat, where a received signal is dependent upon on observation. For example, the observer (i.e., the receiver) did not know the cat within the Schrödinger’s box is either alive or dead until the observer opens up the box. In which we see that it is the observer confirms the outcome after the observation. But the physical fact is that the cat is alive, or dead had been determined before the observer opens up Schrödinger’ s box. Similarly, we never know a boiled egg is either hard or soft-boiled until we crack open it. But hard- or soft-boiled egg had been determined before we crack the egg.
Although paradox of Schrödinger’s cat had been debated since the disclosure of the hypothesis in 1935, it seems to me that no one had have found the real reason where the paradox comes from until recent discovery of the temporal (t > 0) universe [20, 21]. From which I had shown that paradox came from an empty subspace (i.e., a piece commonly used paper) where Schrödinger’s equation was derived from. From which I had shown that his fundamental principle of superposition is timeless (t = 0), fails to exist within our universe.
On the other hand, if qubit information channel is situated within a temporal (t > 0) subspace as shown in Figure 11, then the responds of a supposed qubit channel is subjected to the boundary condition within temporal (t > 0) space. For which simultaneous and instantaneous superposition of binary digital transmission (i.e., 0, 1) fails to exist. Thus, output entropy H(B) at the transmitted end cannot be treated as a qubit information since superposition principle does not hold within our temporal (t > 0) space. Of which output ensemble is B = {0, 1} that is identical to a conventional noisy binary channel, instead of B = {qubit}.
Shows a binary noisy quantum communication channel embedded within a temporal (t > 0) space. For which output entropy is always larger than the input entropy, that is H(B) > H(A). Note: For a noise-free channel we have H(B) = H(A). But noiseless channel is equivalent to a timeless channel, which is not a physically realizable communication channel.
Before departing this section, I would stress that within our universe everything needs a price to pay, a section of time ∆t and an amount of energy ∆E and it is not free. However, quantum qubit information pays no price since it does not have a section of time ∆t. Yet, qubit information had created a worldwide qubit conspiracy, from which it is hard to tell when this conspiracy would be ended. But I am confidence to say that this fictious qubit information supremacy would be ended soon since information-transmission is supposed to be physically realizable.
Instead of getting into the argument of simultaneous existence particles at double-slit using Young’s experiment, which is a non-physical realizable paradigm as from temporal exclusive principle standpoint. Particle-wave dynamics is a mathematical equivalent duality principle as described; particle in motion is equivalent to wave dynamics or wave propagation is equivalent to particle dynamics. However, particle is not equaled to wave and wave is not equal to particle. Particularly as from De Broglie-Bohm theory as I quote: particles have “precise locations” at all times… [9]. But, in contrast within a temporal (t > 0) subspace, particle changes with time but not at precise location since future prediction is not deterministic. As we have shown earlier particle existed within a temporal (t > 0) space is quite difference as assumed within a virtual non-physically realizable subspace. For example, particle existed within our temporal (t > 0) universe, no matter how small it is, it has to be temporal (t > 0). Since temporal subspace is not empty, from which we see that particle cannot be totally isolated. For example, mass particle induces gravitational field, charged particle induces electric field, and others which cannot be ignored. Without the preexistent substances such as permittivity and permeability, wave dynamics has no way to exist. From which we see that particle-wave dynamics is a mathematical postulation existed only within an empty timeless (t = 0) or time independent virtual mathematical subspace, since the assumption of wave dynamics is not a time and band limited physically realizable wavelet.
Nevertheless, let me show a double slit set-up as depicted in Figure 12(a), which is a commonly accepted paradigm that has been used in decades, but it is not a physically realizable paradigm. Yet a photonic particle can be shown simultaneously and instantaneously existed at the double slits, since within an empty space it has no time and no distance. And this is precisely the same subspace that Schrödinger’s superposition principle derived from, but we had shown that superposition principle can only exist within an empty timeless (t = 0) virtual subspace.
Shows a hypothetical double-slit experiment. (a) Shows a non-physically realizable empty space paradigm, (b) shows a physically realizable paradigm.
However, if the double-slit hypothesis is situated within a temporal (t > 0) subspace as depicted in Figure 12(b), then it is very unlikely two particles will be instantaneously and simultaneously existing at both slits because time is distance and distance is time. Since wave is equivalent to particle as from particle-wave dynamics standpoint, but within our temporal (t > 0) universe any physical wave dynamic has to be time and band limited otherwise it is a virtual wave-dynamic. From which we see that it is very unlikely two wavelets (or particles) will be simultaneously arrived at both slits at the same time.
Yet, a question remains to be asked, why it works for a continuous emitting laser. It is apparently that a continuous light emitter has a longer time-limited duration. For example, if we assume that human has a 300-year life expectance, then it has a good chance that we may coexist with Einstein, Schrödinger, and may be coexisted with Newton at some time, but may not at the same place. On the other hand, if our universe is a time-independent (i.e., timeless) space, then in principle we can time-traveling back to visit them. What I have just given is that within our temporal (t > 0) universe everything has a price; an amount of energy ΔE and a section of time Δt (i.e., ΔE, Δt) to pay. But this is the necessary cost, and it is not sufficient. From which we see that superposition principle is limited by a section of time Δt, although ΔE and Δt are coexisted.
Nevertheless, we can hypothetically show that instantaneously and simultaneously superposition phenomenon does not hold by a postulated set-up shown in Figure 13, which is a physically realizable paradigm since substance and temporal (t > 0) space are mutually inclusive.
Shows a double-slit experimental setup using a band limited coherent light source.
However, if the difference path length between d1 and d2 is beyond the coherence length D of the coherent illuminator (i.e., laser) as given by.
where ds are the distances, Δts are the incremental times and c is the velocity of light. Then interference pattern cannot be observed at the diffraction screen of P. This means that photonic-particles (i.e., photons) emitted from the laser are not simultaneously and instantaneously arriving at the double-slit as from the coherence theory standpoint.
Let me further note that if one submerges any scientific model within a temporal (t > 0) subspace, then it is rather easy to find out any paradox as observed within an empty subspace is not existed. Notice that whenever a scientific model is submerged within a temporal (t > 0) subspace, the model becomes a part of the temporal (t > 0) space for analysis, from which many of the timeless (t = 0) paradoxes can be resolved rather easily, for instance such as Schrödinger’s Cat and Einstein’s theories. Nonetheless this is an inadvertently error that all scientists had have committed for centuries. For instance, all the laws, principles, theories, and paradoxes were developed from the same empty timeless subspace. For which most of the scientists believe that we can travel ahead and behind the pace of time, as Einstein’s special theory has suggested. Similarly, we can simultaneously and instantaneously exploit photonic particles for computing and communication as Schrödinger’s fundamental principle of superposition has indicated.
For example, if one plunge two moving spaceships within an empty space, we cannot tell which one is moving with respect to the other. However, if we submerge the same scenario within a temporal (t > 0) subspace, inevitably we can figure out the relative position between them, since time is space, and space is time within a temporal (t > 0) subspace while within an empty space there has no time and no distance to distinguish. And this is precisely why Einstein’s special theory is relativistic-directional independent and as well his general theory of relativity is a deterministic principle. From which it is trivial for us to submerge a pair of entangled particles within a temporal (t > 0) subspace, then we would find out the instantaneous (i.e., Δt = 0) entanglement is not existed, since within our universe there is always a section of time Δt to pay aside an amount of energy ΔE, and there are not free.
Let me further stress that time speed is one of the most esoteric variables existed with our universe that cannot be changed, but it is the section of time ∆t we have to spend that can somewhat manipulate. From which we see that the section of Δt that we will spend can be squeezed as small as we wish yet we can never be able to squeeze it to zero (i.e., t = 0), even we have all the energy ΔE (i.e., ΔE ⟶ ∞) willing to pay for. And this is the well-known causality constraint within our temporal (t > 0) universe that cannot be violated.
Furthermore, a question remains to be asked; if the width of Young’s experiment is smaller than the wavelength of the illuminator, would you able to observe the diffraction pattern. If the answer is no, then we see that wave dynamics is equivalent to particle in motion but not equaled to particle since photonic particle has no size. From which we see that particle in motion is equivalent to wave-dynamic, but wave-dynamic is not particle and particle is not wave. Finally, I would say that when science turns to virtual reality for solution it is not a reliable answer. But when science turns to physical reality for an answer it is a reliable solution.
I would conclude that quantum scientists used amazing mathematical analyses added with their fantastic computer simulations provide very convincing virtual evidences. But mathematical analyses and computer animations are virtual and fictitious, and many of their animations are not physically realizable for example such as superimposing principle for quantum computing is not actually existed within our universe. One of the important aspects within our universe is that one cannot get something from nothing there is always a price to pay; an amount of energy ΔE and a section of time Δt and they are not free! Since science within our universe is temporal (t > 0), in which we see that any scientific law, principle, theory, and paradox has to comply with temporal (t > 0) condition within our universe, otherwise it is unlikely be physically realizable. Since science is mathematics but mathematics is not equaled to science. Yet, Schrödinger equation is a legacy of Hamiltonian classical mechanics, I had shown that Schrödinger equation is a timeless (t = 0) or time-independent formula which includes his superposition is not a physical realizable principle. Since Schrödinger’s cat is one of the most controversial paradoxes in modern science, I had shown that the paradox of Schrödinger’s cat is not a physical realizable paradox, which should not have been postulated.
Nevertheless, the most esoteric nature of our universe must be time, for which every fundamental law, principle, and theory is associated with a section of time Δt. I had shown that it is the section of Δt we had expended that cannot bring it back. For which I had shown that we can squeeze a section of time Δt closes to zero (i.e., ∆t → 0) but it is not possible reach zero (i.e., ∆t = 0) even though that we have all the energy ΔE to pay for it. In which we see that we can change a section of Δt, but we cannot change the pace of time. Since quantum computing and communication rely on qubit information logic, but qubit information can only exist within a timeless (t = 0) subspace. I had shown that qubit information is virtual and illusive as Schrödinger’ s cat. Which is not a physically realizable qubit information that can be used for quantum supremacy communication and computing.
Although double-slit hypothesis is a well-accepted postulation for showing the superposition principle holds, but unfortunately the postulation only holds within empty space paradigm, and it is not existed within our temporal (t > 0) universe. What I meant is that double-slit postulation is another false hypothesis aside the Schrödinger’s cat that had led us to believing superposition is actually existed within our universe. Since quantum supremacy relies on qubit information-transmission, which has caused a worldwide quantum conspiracy. I hope this conspiracy will be ended soon, otherwise we will forever trap within a timeless wonderland of quantum supremacy. From which we see that it is not how rigorous the mathematics is, it is the temporal (t > 0) subspace paradigm that produces viable realizable solution.
Greece historic route, is depicted in wetland landscape. Since antiquity detailed description of the reedbeds of lake Copais is included in the botanical work ‘Enquiry into plants’ (IV:10–12) of Theophrastus from the 4th century BCE. Related flora and fauna are entailed in works on natural science of Theophrastus (‘Enquiry into plants’, ‘On the causes of plants’), Aristotle (‘History of animals’, ‘Parts of animals’, “On the generation of animals”), Dioscorides (‘On medical matters’) [1]. First settlements were established along rivers and around lakes taking advantage of good grazing conditions and naturally irrigated land.
Contemporary history major social economic events, wars, economic crisis, have put a fingerprint in wetland landscape. For thousand year people ignored the diverse function that wetland perform and also put on them the label of malaria Farmers were interest in wetland trying to drain them for crops and to prevent flooding and to abstract irrigation water. Greece socioeconomic history is linked with wetland status After 1920, a rapid increase area loss was observed for example the Greek state implements a large scale land reclamation projects in the plain of Serres town. This coincides with the fact that period 1928 to 1936, was a great refugee problem that followed the Greco-Turkish War in 1922. Another example Lake Karla, Greece, was almost completely drained in 1962 both to protect surrounding farmlands from flooding and to increase agricultural area. The reclamation did not attribute the expected benefits [2]. Loss of wetland functions and values resulted in environmental, social, and economic problems [3]. An estimated loss 63% in original wetland area in Greece has been occurred over the twentieth century. Large deltaic areas were shrinked with coastal erosion phenomena. These are attributed to hydrology modification due to dam construction [4].
A“first approximation” of National Wetlands Inventory was published in 1994, including a list of 400 wetlands, with inventory data on 271 of them by the Greek Biotope/Wetland Centre (E.K.V.Y) with the contribution of the former Greek Ministry for the Environment, Spatial Planning, and Public Works in 1994. Main focus of the original Inventory was the continental wetlands. Northern Greece (Anatoliki Makedonia, Thraki, Kentriki and Dytiki Makedonia and Thessalia) there are 118 wetlands, or 31% of the total number. The rest of the continental Greece (Ipeiros, Dytiki Ellada, Sterea Ellada, Peloponnisos and Attiki) contains 151 (40%), while 109 (29%) are in the islands and Crete (Ionia Nisia, Nisia Voreio Aigaio, Nisia Notio Aigaio and Kriti). As regards area or length, Northern Greece contains 48% (97479 ha) of the total wetland area and 56% (2389 km) of the total length of linear wetlands (e.g. rivers). The corresponding figures are, for the rest of continental Greece, 48% (97608 ha) and 37% (1588 km), and for the islands and Crete 4% (7530 ha) and 7% (294 km) [5].
However the morphology of Greece is unique with 6000 scattered islands and islets with a wealth of wetlands. Small wetlands which are spreading through the territory have received little attention and are not in the focus of conservation Nevertheless it is argued that play an important role in the maintenance of species biodiversity. Any loss reduces connectivity among species populations. Inadequate legal protection threatens its existence.
In an effort to fill this gap, in 2004 WWF Greece launched the “Conservation of Aegean Island Wetlands” project, striving to document the state of Greek island wetlands, highlight their importance and draw attention to whatever is needed for their preservation. The outcome of the project was the documentation and delineation of 824 natural and artificial wetlands (>0.1 ha) in 76 islands of Greece (100 on 8 Ionian Islands, 520 on 65 Aegean islands and 204 on Crete and 2 satellite Islands) have been documented and delineated. Of them, 602 are natural wetlands and 222 are artificial [6, 7]. Special issue needs to be mentioned is a priority freshwater habitat in Mediterranean the Mediterranean Temporary Pond (MTP) is a priority freshwater habitat type (3170*, NATURA 2000), that is mainly encountered in Mediterranean type arid and semi-arid climates. They are characterized by their ephemeral nature of their wet phase and the absence of any link with permanent aquatic body making them vulnerable to climate change. In Greece the MTP sites which are coincided in 18 Natura sites are concentrated in the southeastern part of the country [8].
Some of wetlands are international importance some are considered as European and national importance. Several of them are composite and form wetland mosaics or complexes. Ten Sites are designated as wetland of international importance as Ramsar sites with a surface area of 163,501 hectares varying size from 5,078 ha in lake Mikri Prespa to 33,687 ha in Messolonghi lagoons Greece the usual case is that the Natura 2000 site is much larger (average size 11,275 Ha) and engulfs the Ramsar site. A characteristic example of this relation between the two is the case of the lakes Kerkini and Mikri Prespa: the Ramsar boundaries are restricted to the water body whereas the relevant proposed Sites of Community Importance are large enough to include large part of the surrounding catchment area as well [6].
The most common wetland types in Greece are: rivers estuaries, deltas, lagoons, shallow lakes, shallow marine formations, marshes, springs, reservoirs. Their total area is still quite large (210,000 ha) in spite of the heavy losses that occurred during the last two generations [9]. Wetlands accordingly to their hydrology patterns are classified as precipitation dominated, groundwater fed and surface water dominated. With the exception of lake Mikri Prespa, which is not connected to a major river basin, all the others have been proposed as representative examples of wetlands which play a substantial hydrological, biological or ecological role in the natural functioning of a major river basin or coastal system (Figure 1).
Ramsar sites in Greece [
Nowadays threats of degradation are drainage, dam construction, irrigation networks, alteration in river morphology such as confinement of river beds, building embarkments, clearing of natural vegetation which alter hydrological regime and affect wetland function. Biodiversity governance is a continuous battle towards sustainable management in Greek wetlands despite the continuous threats.
Environmental protection and legislation in Greece was very limited in the 1960s and 1970s. A basic national law for protected areas declaration is the Act on the Protection of the Environment of 1986 (No 1650) and its amendments by law 3937/2011 (ΦΕΚ 60/Α/31-3-2011). This complements previous legislation and introduces the designation further more classes of protected areas in Greek territory. These are characterized as Absolute Nature Reserve Area, Nature Reserve Area, National Park, Protected Significant Natural Formation and Protected Landscape and Ecodevelopment Area [11].
Local Authorities are called to play an important role in the implementation of the 1986 Act. The power to designate protected areas and to determine the boundaries of such areas may be transferred to the Prefectures (i.e. the representatives of the central government at local level) under article 21.5 of the 1986 Act. In addition, under article 27 of that same Act, any of the powers exercised by the Minister of the Environment under the Act may also be transferred to the Prefects.
Greece has moved one step forward, ratified international regulations for special commitment on the protection of the natural environment derived from international conventions. These conventions cover a) Wetlands of international importance according to the Ramsar Convention, b) World Heritage Sites (UNESCO), c) Biosphere Reserves (UNESCO, Man and Biosphere), d) Specially Protected Areas according to the Barcelona Convention, e) Biogenetic Reserves (Council of Europe) and f) Eurodiploma Sites (Council of Europe).
The turning point to Biodiversity birds is the adoption of Ramsar Convention. This entered into force on 21 December 1975. According to Convention “wetlands are areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tides does not exceed six meters”. According to the same Convention, wetlands are also “riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the wetlands, and islands or bodies of water deeper than six meters at low tide lying within the wetlands”. The Ramsar sites of Greece cover a total surface of 163,501 ha, and all of them also form part of Natura 2000 network.
Greece has currently 10 wetland complexes (consisting of 59 sites) as Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention Bureau, 1996) These are Kotychi lagoons, Amvrakikos, Mesolonghi laggons, Axios Loudias and Alakmonas delta, Lakes Volvi and Koronia, Artificail lake Kerkini, Lake Mikri Prespa, Nestos delta and adjoining lagoons, Lake Vistonis, Porto Lagos, Lake Ismaris and adjoining lagoons and Evros delta (Ramsar Sites Information Service). Moreover 100 sites were characterized as wetlands of national importance It However only ten wetlands of Greece are characterized as Ramsar sites International Importance and seven of them are included in Montreux Inventory with bad environmental status [9].
The trans-border Ramsar wetlands of Greece are the Evros delta and the lake Mikri Prespa (75% and 92% respectively belong to Greece). Three other sites, Axios delta, Nestos delta and lake Kerkini have trans-border watersheds. Eight out of the ten Greek Ramsar sites and their surrounding areas are a series of more than one wetlands. From the remaining two, lake Kerkini is a man-made wetland in an area that used to hold a series of marshes. Kotychi is an isolated wetland complex. Both of them are in strategic positions within migration routes for birds and thus are connected to other wetlands.
Designation of Special Protection Areas, according the Birds Directive 79/409/EC and pSCIs proposed Sites of Community Interest, according the Habitats Directive 92/43 are considered as keystones for Natura 2000 sites delineation in Greece. Sites Natura 2000 constitute environmental network of areas with high ecological, biodiversity or esthetic value. Greece includes at its National List 241 Sites of Community Importance (SCI) according to the EU Directive 92/43 and has declared 202 Special Protected Areas (SPA) according to EU Directive 79/409 [12, 13].
With the of Law 2742/99 there has been a shift, towards a more participatory approach in biodiversity governance. It was adopted mainly through the establishment of Management Agencies. Since 1999, 29 management agencies have been established in 94 of the 419 Greek Natura 2000 sites [14]. As a consequence, the majority of Greek Natura 2000 sites do not have a specific governance mechanism for their management. Management agencies should form the basis for periodic nationwide synthesis and reporting of information on the kinds, and outcomes of regulatory actions related to wetlands conservation. Stakeholders and local communities express their preference towards improving participation in decision making in conservation of Natura 2000 sites [15].
With the recently voted environmental law in Greece (Law 4685/2020) which is going to be the central Coordinator for all actions a new scientific, advisory and coordinating Organization, is established regarding protected areas in Greece. The new institution bears the name ‘Organization for Natural Environment and Climate Change’ and it is under the auspices of the Hellenic ministry of Environment and Energy Consolidation. In parallel this Organization is going to keep the 24 decentralized units, each one corresponding to a protected area [16]. It is argued consolidation of all management bodies to one central agency would improve administration of protected areas. In the other hand decentralized units must keep their dynamic and protect local wetlands with the active involvement of local communities.
People now want restore wetlands as in the case of Lake Karla, and take advantage of their benefits to the landscape [2, 17]. A National Strategy of Wetland Resources restoration, in 1990 was designed as a means for wetland conservation and restoration [18].
Wetlands cannot be understood hydrologically as a site in isolation but as an essential part of catchment system. Processes operating in the higher part of the basin or in the higher recharge zone to an aquifer controlled wetland feed the biotope. On the other coastal morphology and water quality is dependent of wetland function. Water Frame Directive as it has been harmonized in Greek legislation with the law 3199/2003 (ΦΕΚ280Α/09.12.2003) and the Presidential Decree 51/2007 (54/Α/08.03.2007), puts the concept of integrated management at the geographic scale of River basins and helps understanding wetland function [19, 20, 21, 22, 23].
Wetlands occupy a dominant role in Environmental Education that is becoming increasingly important. They are considered particularly attractive areas for training in Environmental Education, because of their high scientific value and the fact that one can observe more and faster changes in images, sounds and events than in terrestrial ecosystems. It is a laboratory in the nature. Environmental Education Centers (EEC) is an institution with 30 year history in Greece consists of a network dispersed geographically in 53 distinct areas in country. Local wetlands ecosystems, biodiversity, protected areas conservation is on the core of provided environmental education. An outdoor component diversifies it from traditional education teachers, pupils and all the citizens. Despite difficulties arise from unsecure funding, unflexible school schedule, lack of specialized environmental knowledge centers seem to offer multiple benefits to the participants [23]. Operation of the Information Centre in ecosystem area, museum of natural and cultural history, points of observations in suitable locations, serve as environmental interpretation activities.
Contributors to the environmental education in the country are also NGOs (Non-Government Organizations), and Protected Area Management Agencies [24]. NGOs that are actively participate in the environmental protection are Hellenic Ornithological Society, the Greek branch of WWF, Medsos, Mom, Kallisto, Arktouros, Hellenic Society for the Protection of the Environment and the Cultural Heritage, EKBY, Archelon Medies (Mediterranean Education Initiative for Environment and Sustainability), and MIO-ECSDE (Mediterranean Information Office for Environment, Culture and Sustainable Development).
Wetlands are normally not very easy to access so many people do not visit them. Photographers and film makers take snapshot of a beautiful scenery which thrives in watefowl, rare plants and reptiles. These powerful images attract the public but not educate them deeply in wetland science. In many case degradation could have been avoided if there was sufficient knowledge.
Although the high level of endemism, the biodiversity of Mediterranean wetlands is not well-known by the general public, with the possible exception of waterbirds, which gather in amazing numbers at some sites. The deltas of the Evros, Nestos, Acheloos, the double-delta area of the Arachthos and Louros, as well as the Lakes Kerkini, Shkodra and Prespa contain rich bird faunas often with more than 300 bird species per site. Delta Evros as a crossroad in waterfowl corridor is renowned as great value delta [25]. Illegal hunting is an activity related with wild bird fauna in delta regions as Amvrakikos gulf (Barelos, personal communication).
Wetlands constitute an ecological laboratory. A mosaic of phyto communities with varied chorological interest such as ‘communities’ saline and subsaline soils, freshwater soils periodically inundated and phytocommunities without particular habitat reference and riparian forests [26]. They possess one or more morphological or anatomic adaptions to enhance their ecological tolerance and adopt highly specialized life strategies in the wet dynamic environment. Aquatic bed plants, Nymphea alba, Potamogenon sp., Lemna sp., shrubs as Tamarix, Vitex agnus castus coastal dune such as Juniperus sp., Pancratium maritium, emergent plants as Phragmites austalis, Typha Latifoli, Salicornia and trees such as Populus Alba, Salix alba, Platanus orientalis Pinus pine asp. are the most conspicuous component of Greek wetland ecosystems (Figure 2). Some species are endemic and encountered in particular rare priority habitats with a great value for its conservation. As the base of the food chain and support a critical habitat for birds, fishes, macroinvertebrates of all the wetland communities [27, 28].
1. Thickets of Vitex agnus castus L.in a natural habitat of community interest 2. Coastal dune with Juniperus spp (priority habitat). 3. Coastal dune Pancratium maritium 4. Populus alba 5. Broadly distributed wetland grass, Phragmites australis 6. Salt tolerant Tamarix alba.(photos Mpeza).
Wetland area have a great economic value in Greece. Wetland features and agriculture are intimately linked. Agriculture is by far the most important water consumer in Greece (89%).
The Evros, Pinios, Strymon plains as well as the lower Axios and Acheloos, including their main deltas, are fertile landscapes, intensively cultivated and densely populated. Water abstraction for irrigation purposes, construction of dams and ditches, fertile soils in the riparian valleys are the causes of an intense agriculture interest [29]. The Evros, Pinios drain the most intensively cultivated basins (53.4–40.6% of the basin). Plains of Serres (Strymon basin), Thessaloniki (lower parts of Axios and Aliakmon basins), Thessaly (Pinios basin) and Arta (lower Arachthos basin) have been designated as Nitrogen Vulnerable Zones [19].
About 60% of the total rice production and 2/3 of the total mussel production (>30 000 tons/year) of Greece occurs in the Axios Delta and estuary. The most important lakes for fisheries are production: 950 tons/year), Trichonis (500 tons/year), declining in recent years, Kerkini (150 tons/year) and Prespa (100 tons/year) [30]. It is worth noting that the former Karla Lake which was fed from Pinios river had an average annual production of 1000 tons. Even if the total quantity of fish caught in the most important lagoon system Amvrakikos has undergone a reduction because of a dramatic decrease in eel production, local fishermen catch great quantities of mullets (40.4%), sea bass (28.4%), eels (38.2%) sea bream catches have increased by 178.6% [31].
Spiritual and cultural values are arisen in wetland area. From antiquity people concentrate around water and stories of water civilization were written. Wetlands hosts archeological sites of major cultural, historic and scientific interests are, ancient theaters, mills, lighthouse (faros) monuments, geological formations, churches depicting history in the centuries from the Neolithic period to post-Byzantine period [32].
Small farmers, fishermen, aquaculturists are living around wetlands. Local communities develop traditional water management practices, use traditional tools and boats, fairy houses, old customs as the bird dance where children mimic the movements of birds was in the Lake Mikri Prespa, reminiscent of the past Greece [33].
A traditional shilt house (called “pelada” in Greek) is unique in the lagoon of Kotychi, Etoliko in Messsolonghi Central Greece, is made from lake plants Small boats with lack of keel, so that they are easily navigates and easily drawn in the land are all connected with civilization in the perimeter of the lagoons. These traditional boats called priaria in Western Greece and “plava” in Northern Greece [34].
Intangible values as seasonal changing color palette. Salicornia’s reddish marsh fall color, outstanding Flamingos color in the winter landscape sounds of rustling leaves, bird song, water flow, are emerged from the unique landscape (Figure 3).
Salicornia sp colonized mud as sand in National Park of Amvrakikos gulf, NW. Greece. Habitat code 1310 (photo Mpeza).
Wetland functions are seriously impeded from human activities in Greece. Hydrology regime is wetland signature. Are dependent on rainfall, runoff, and seasonal flooding for their water supplies. All Mediterranean wetlands suffer more often in prolonged periods of extreme, high temperatures which lead to diminution of water or total drought. Human induced climate change make signs to wetland function. Lowering of water table and extended shortage rainwater cause stress to vulnerable aquatic ecosystems. Signs of climate change make their appearance in local communities.
Kalodiki calcareous fen is an inland belonging to the western chain of Greek wetlands. It possesses a great ecological value that as it protects 8 species of the Nature Directives and 4 habitat types of the Habitats Directive and one priority habitat 7210* Calcareous fens with Cladium mariscus and species of the Caricion davallianae [35]. Soil moisture, water depth and to a lesser extent dissolved nitrogen determine their 18 vegetation types relative composition [35]. The wetland struggles for its survival as it might be dry much of the year, but that are maintained by repeated seasonal saturation or inundation, require protection even at times when they are completely dry if they are to retain their functions (Figures 4 and 5).
Submerged plant Nymphea alba situated inland wetland of Kalodiki Natura 2000, code GR2120002 (Mpeza).
Dry Kalodiki fen at October 2019 (Mpeza).
Ecological state of the whole ecosystem is strongly dependent on a small dam. Farmers often damage the dam in order to irrigate their fields. The dam is badly maintained and leaks. Phytocommunities respond impressive in water level Height. When water levels exceed 4 m, the Phragmito Magnocaricetea communities disappear, while Potametea communities disappear when the level drops below the soil surface. However, disappearance of emergent plants and their communities due to excessively high water levels would influence bird species by the absence of breeding places [36, 37]. Fen acts as carbon storage and take attention in mitigating climate change.
Coastal wetlands receive the burden of human activities like the flux of massive visitors or suffer from erosion phenomena, climate change, eutrophication and construction of small enterprises and roads or establishment of settlement area. Coastal systems land valuable habitats and contribute to biodiversity. Priority habitats such as type 2250” Salt dunes with
Intense agriculture activity in the perimeter of wetland area is a non –point source for agrochemicals and pesticides inputs to receiving waters [40]. In the period 1995–1996, water samples from Louros estuary revealed a continuous presence of triazines, alachlor and metolachlor and sporadic peaks in May and June for other herbicides as, atrazine, simazine and degradation product desethyl-atrazine (DEA) The inputs of the five major herbicides, atrazine, simazine, alachlor, metolachlor and desethyl-atrazine (DEA) to the Louros River are mainly from tributaries and the agricultural area draining to the river estuary. Atrazine and its degradation product DEA are the most abundant herbicides discharged into Amvrakikos Gulf, followed by metolachlor, simazine and alachlor [41, 42].
Mussels were used in another study to assess possible pesticide pollution impacts in the Amvrakikos Gulf in the period 1992–1996. Around Louros and Arachthos rivers in the flood plain of Arta there is an intensive agriculture activity. Riverine flows are discharged for in the swallow lagoons of the deltaic formation. Scientists used mussels to detect general oxidative stress effects on the health status of mussels. They used special biomarkers of oxidative stress as decreased acetylcholinesterase activities that indicated exposure to organophosphate and carbamate pesticides. Responses of the antioxidant enzyme glutathione peroxidase suggested the presence of contaminants capable of reactive oxygen species generation that could be related to organochlorine pesticide contamination in the area [43, 44].
It has been considerable research on the ability of wetlands in agricultural settings to serve as sinks for fertilizers such as phosphate and nitrate and a limited number of studies show the potential for wetlands to adsorb agricultural pesticides [45].
Research confirms the continuous presence of pesticides in river waters in catchment with intense agriculture activity. As regarding pesticides, the most polluted rivers are the Axios and Aliakmon. S-triazines, amide herbicides and organophosphorous insecticides are the most frequently detected, while organochlorine pesticides as legacy pesticides (banned in Greece in 1972) occur at very low concentrations [30, 45].
Wetlands as a land between terrestrial and open water ecosystems have proven to play a key role in trapping plastic liter, including large items Rivers are an important pathway for plastic litter transport. High flow takes away large items towards the coast while during low flow, plastic waste is stranded on riverbanks During high flow, thinner plastic bags are many times trapped from the overhanging vegetation at the bank of the rivers (Figure 6). Furthermore, plastic items on the river route are obstructed at dams [17, 46].
Illegal dumping site in river banks in an intensively cultivated area in Natura 2000 site B. “Christmas tree” transport solid waste with river flow C. Old Delta of Kalamas river, NW. Greece D. dumping site in lagoon n delta Kalamas (Ieronimaki).
Rural communities, farmers, cattlemen, fishermen throw their wastes into rivers and coastal lagoons. Illegal hunting takes place in areas rich in waterfowl species and an example is Amvrakikos [33]. Agriculture nets, plastic films, pesticide empty bottles, ropes are abandoned in the field from farmers. These items are degraded under sun break into smaller pieces and are carried away from wind and surface run off into wetland Causes are arisen from inadequate solid waste management scheme and lack of environmental awareness. While a lot of research is conducted in coastal litter, little is known about the accumulation of the plastic litter in the transition zone of wetland. Moreover, little is known about the mechanisms that control the transport of microplastics and their accumulation in on wild life [47].
Many rivers receive untreated effluents from rural communities that are not connected with WWTPs (Water Waste Treatment Plants) and this causes stress to all receiving water bodies. For example, the Aoos basin, most of the catchment remains in a wild, almost untouched state with restricted agriculture, forestry, cattle breeding and some aquaculture. The river receives untreated effluents from five urban settlements (Konitsa, Permet, Argirokastro, Tepelen, Mamalje, Selenica), small-scale industrial areas and by-products of petroleum extraction in the lower section [30].
Nevertheless, wetland function can be beneficial for agriculture also. Wetland ecosystems are characterized with outstanding biodiversity, longer and more complex food chains which may reveal biotic interactions useful for designing pest management strategies. Birds that live in these ecosystems, nearby cultivations eat insects which cause harm to crops. Special mention is made for soil borne pests as they are serious pests eating seeds and seedlings grown in winter. This also diminishes toxic insecticides usage in field and adverse impacts to the ecosystems.
Pollinating insects find water in humid wetland soils especially in arid regions. Crops such cotton, sunflower is adapted to insect pollination, although insects are nuisance for farmers in the area. A unique crop which occurs exclusively around lake Prespa “Phaseolus multifolio” takes advantage of the pollinator’s abundance in the neighborhood wetland [48].
Plants of wetland such as riparian woodland (
Alternative new ideas about purification potential of wetlands have been recognizing. Halophytes in conjunction with associated entophytic and rhizosphere bacteria are involved in organic contaminants biodegradation in contaminated water and soil. Species of genus Tamarix and its associated bacteria have been shown to contribute to degradation of bisphenol-A a widespread xenobiotic and endocrine disruptor [49, 50].
Depositional features of deltas such as Lagoons, sand bars, thin land forms towards the sea, barrier islands, are well formed in the geological past. Physical or human interventions alter river’s geomorphology, destroy these geoforms. Construction of two high dams inland in river Nestos and diversion of the flow to the east resulted to drying river channels and erosion of coastal landforms. This affects crop’s yield in the vicinity of the river and fish catch in lagoons [51].
A positive example of human activities in the conservation of wetlands are found in the wet meadow issue a fringe wetland biotope in the lake Mikri Prespa in the core of the National Park of Prespa. Wet meadow has been a valuable biotope in the ecosystem. Since the mids 1970’s a dramatic reduction of wet meadow area and a concomitant expansion of reed beds was observed in the littoral zone. Tall helophytes such as P. australis, T. angustifolia, Schoenoplectus lacustris and related taxa tend to expand on drier substrates excluding less competitive species.
The drivers for this ecological change was water level fluctuations and dynamics of vegetation management. Habitants abandoned their traditional occupations such as livestock grazing, stop use of reeds as an animal feed and as construction material for ceilings, fishing moved to deeper waters from littoral zone and they diverted farming exclusively in beans.
An innovated restoration programme the LIFE Nature project titled “Conservation of Priority Bird Species at Lake Mikri Prespa, Greece was planned and implemented with encouraging results. A combination of adjustment water level and vegetation management with cutting and grazing by water buffalo herds gave rehabilitation to wet meadow biotope. Wet meadows are key habitats for spawning fish, amphibians, and feeding ground for endangered water birds, while they also hold socio-economic importance related to fish populations (carp) and grazing [52].
Wetland restoration and conservation is complicate ecological-socioeconomic projects in Greece. Restoring wetland value for the society goes together with wetland functions which are physical, chemical, and biological processes that are performed in the area and the interconnections in the whole catchment processes [2, 53].
Wetlands are ultimately linked from the ancient time with history culture and local economy. Despite the wetlands value there is a long road to the sustainable management and their harmonized relations with human activities. Although they suffer from degradation in the past, they still support endemic and threatened species and encompass priority habitats with a great value of conservation. Main economic activities as agriculture, aquaculture, fishing, livestock are taking place in estuaries in lakes and ponds in deltaic formations, which constitute wetland areas.
A wealth of small wetlands is scattered in the numerous remote islands in the Greek landscape which provide ecosystem services which cannot be ignored. With the law Law 4685/2020 a new institution ‘Organization for Natural Environment and Climate Change’ which is under the auspices of the Hellenic ministry of Environment and Energy Consolidation is going to be the central Coordinator for all actions in protected areas in Greece.
COVID-pandemic may influence the attitudes and the ideas about development and nature conservation in all over the world. In the new era Mediterranean Wetlands face ecological challenges with diminution and pollution which are intensified in the view of climate crisis. Physical issues as increasing average and maximum temperatures declining total precipitation increasing frequency and intensity of storms and sea level rise under the umbrella of climate crisis and the risks they pose for the survival of Greek wetlands must be foreseen.
New priorities and reevaluation of the National Strategy for the conservation of wetlands must be put a barrier in the Interface between science and policy science and local communities need to be strengthen.
In this direction implementation of agro-environmental (sustainable) management measures in rural areas neighboring wetlands as wise use of agrochemicals, choice of crops requiring fewer inputs. Assimilation of new knowledge about wetlands with systematic monitoring of water quality data, census of bird population trends mapping every plant role in wetland phytocommunity, harmonization with the use artificial intelligence for data processing and drone technology for large scale monitoring of monitoring of trends in bird population, characterize genetic material from biological populations. Novel education wetland projects need to be delineated which embedding wetland curriculum in school education and engage citizen science projects with activities and conservation action in the field.
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Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. 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He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. 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Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:"Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Spain",institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain. She is a Full Professor at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery at the same University. She developed her research activity in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry and Immunology of horses. She is a scientific reviewer of several international journals : American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Comparative Clinical Pathology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology. Since 2014, she has been the Head of the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the Hospital Clínico Veterinario from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University.",institutionString:"CEU-Cardenal Herrera University",institution:{name:"CEU Cardinal Herrera University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"208123",title:"Dr.",name:"Mari-Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Uribe",slug:"mari-carmen-uribe",fullName:"Mari-Carmen Uribe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"345713",title:"Dr.",name:"Csaba",middleName:null,surname:"Szabó",slug:"csaba-szabo",fullName:"Csaba Szabó",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"345719",title:"Mrs.",name:"Márta",middleName:null,surname:"Horváth",slug:"marta-horvath",fullName:"Márta Horváth",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"420151",title:"Prof.",name:"Novirman",middleName:null,surname:"Jamarun",slug:"novirman-jamarun",fullName:"Novirman Jamarun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Andalas University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"10",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Physiology",keywords:"Physiology, Comparative, Evolution, Biomolecules, Organ, Homeostasis, Anatomy, Pathology, Medical, Cell Division, Cell Signaling, Cell Growth, Cell Metabolism, Endocrine, Neuroscience, Cardiovascular, Development, Aging, Development",scope:"Physiology, the scientific study of functions and mechanisms of living systems, is an essential area of research in its own right, but also in relation to medicine and health sciences. The scope of this topic will range from molecular, biochemical, cellular, and physiological processes in all animal species. Work pertaining to the whole organism, organ systems, individual organs and tissues, cells, and biomolecules will be included. Medical, animal, cell, and comparative physiology and allied fields such as anatomy, histology, and pathology with physiology links will be covered in this topic. Physiology research may be linked to development, aging, environment, regular and pathological processes, adaptation and evolution, exercise, or several other factors affecting, or involved with, animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11406,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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