Levels of psychosocial development 1
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It introduces a new way of the modeling and simulation of socioeconomic adaptation and mitigation to water scarcity. But the model can be used for all the resources that humans have to share on planet earth.
It tries to find an explanation for the reactions of different societies to water availability problems caused by climatic change. For that purpose a Knowledge Attributed Petri Net based discrete simulation model is used modeling these different reactions. The model is based on integrated psychosocial development theories.
The Knowledge Attributed Petri Net model is implemented in the CASSANDRA (Cognizant Adaptive Simulation System for Applications in Numerous Different Relevant Areas) system developed by the McLeod Institute of Simulation Sciences Hungarian Center at the Budapest University of Technology and Economics.
Many climate scenarios, socioeconomic models and digitized river networks show that water stress is already high in many parts of the world.
Latest edition of the UN World Water Development Report, Managing Water under Uncertainty and Risk (WWAP, 2012) launched at the World Water Forum in Marseille on 12 March 2012 warns that unprecedented growth in demands for water are threatening all major development goals. The growing pressure on global water resources comes from rising food demand, urbanization and climate change. According to the Report climate change will alter rainfall patterns, soil humidity, glacier-melt and river-flow and also causes changes to underground water sources. Floods or droughts are already rising in frequency and intensity.
Examples of current vulnerabilities of freshwater resources and their management (
The Report (WWAP, 2012) says that by the middle of the century 70 per cent more food will be needed. It means at least 19 per cent increase in the water required for agriculture. Many countries have already started to respond to water scarcity by acquiring fertile land outside their jurisdiction. Transnational land acquisition has risen from 15-20 million hectares in 2009 to more than 70 million hectares today. This is a problematic new tendency, a new kind of agro imperialism particularly happening in Africa by water scarce richer Arabian and western countries. Also as about 40 per cent of the world’s population is living in river basins shared by many countries the risk rises that global climate change and the anticipated alteration of precipitation patterns will very likely lead to water-based conflicts in these regions.
According to the Report (WWAP, 2012) climate change will drastically affect food production in South Asia and Southern Africa between 2012 and 2030. By 2070, water-stress will also be felt in central and southern Europe, affecting up to 44 million people. These pressures will exacerbate economic disparities between countries, sectors or regions within countries. Better governance of water resources is required including investments in infrastructure from both private and public sectors (as for instance more than 80 per cent of the world’s waste water is neither collected nor treated).
According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Technical Paper on Climate Change and Water (IPCC, 2008) the amount of water available for withdrawal is a function of runoff, groundwater recharge, aquifer conditions, water quality and water supply infrastructure. Safe access to drinking water depends more on the level of water supply infrastructure than on the quantity of runoff. However, the goal of improved safe access to drinking water will be harder to achieve in regions where runoff and/or groundwater recharge decreases as a result of climate change. In addition, climate change leads to additional costs for the water supply sector, e.g., due to changing water levels affecting water supply infrastructure, which might hamper the extension of water supply services to more people. This leads, in turn, to higher socio-economic impacts and follow-up costs (IPCC, 2008).
Researches show that current levels of human consumption, in combination with growing population are contributing to climate change (Dietz & Rosa, 1994; Myers & Kent, 2003; Stern, Dietz, Ruttan, Socolow, & Sweeney, 1997). Population growth will increase the global emissions anyway but a much larger increase would result if per capita emissions from energy consumption in developing countries increased to the developed countries level.
This makes it more imperative to understand how people make decisions that influence climate change through their behaviors (e.g. consumption) and to examine the values underlying that behavior. Consumption patterns represent classes of behaviors that explain the ways that human behavior contributes to climate change. In order to understand and address the links between consumption and climate change, it is useful to understand psychological, social, and cultural drivers of consumption and to understand what it is about consumption that influences climate change (APA, 2011).
Consumption is influenced strongly by social and cultural context. Cultural norms identify appropriate and desirable behaviors. It is important to see to which extent cultures value consumerism. Whereas environmental consumption is the use of resources and energy and economic consumption is spending money to acquire goods, consumerism is “a belief and value system in which consumption and acquisition rituals (e.g., shopping) are naturalized as sources of self-identity and meaning in life, goods are avidly desired for non-utilitarian reasons such as envy provocation and status seeking, and consuming replaces producing as a key determinant of social relations” (p. 231; Zhao & Belk, 2008).
Disciplines ranging from hydrology, politics, and international relations to law have in the recent past been tempted by the idea of „war over water”. This is a common belief or a projection that if a country runs out of water it will start a war (Ijjas, Valkó, 2011). However this belief is just a belief and as such it is the product of a certain belief system (also called value system). Such beliefs change automatically when the value system changes. Value systems mostly change when life conditions change. Climate change will definitely indicate changing life conditions. As a result conflicting water scarce countries of shared river basins will escape water deficit by economically invisible and politically silent processes just as likely as they will start a war over water.
It seems that there is a strong cross-coupling between climate change, population growth, economic development, and social development. Therefore the relevance of these subsystems and links between them cannot be neglected.
The way how people manage their resources that their environment provides them with is strongly determinded by the thinking of these people. Both individual and social acts are triggered by the set of values and thinking modes that those individuals and social groups have. Let it be acts as consumption behavior (energy consumption, water consumption, food consumption or buying consumer goods) or developing strategies and programs by companies or by the government, decisions are always based on certain set of values and cognitive structures. By missing the qualities or levels of these subjective realms of decision making, resources management cannot fully be understood and finding solutions for environmental-social-economical problems will easily be dismissed. The question is how to link the subjective with the objective - how to understand why people are handling conflicts related to rising water, food or energy demand in a certain way.
In our case in order to have a more complete view of real water availability it is necessary to consider interactions among climate change, integrated water management and human systems including societal adaptations to water scarcity.
Grumbine (1994) states that management scenarios for climate change, water and economical, human systems should make the role of human values explicit because people base their commitments on values rather than on facts and on logic. People having different value systems want to fulfill different needs. This applies to scenario development concerning river management in developing, and particularly in developed areas, where the landscape is largely man-made. There are already cases where values systems have been taken into account by managing water resources. The psychosocial evolution model of river management is a good example for that. The model has been created within the cooperation of the Utrecht University and another research institution in order to have a guide for selecting and positioning specific landscaping measures within a changing climatic, human and economical surrounding (Straatsma et al., 2009).
By social development we mean human activities organized at ever higher levels achieving greater results. Psychosocial development further integrates patterns of psycho development analogous to social development resulting in an integrated development model of both individual and collective human structures. Psychosocial development takes place when life conditions change in time. For example when water resources become scarce - different societies react differently according to their value systems and they may organize themselves at a higher level (regression to lower levels is also possible).
Water related problems are human related problems and for that they are not to be solved without showing and understanding the human factor that is behind them. In order to understand the role of value systems in forming different adaptation and mitigation techniques - according to water scarcity issues caused by climate change - several psychosocial developmental model can be used.
Psychosocial models relevant for our issue have been developed by Hamilton M. (Doctor of Philosophy in Administration and Management, Columbia Pacific University) Graves C. W. (Prof. Dr. Emeritus in Psychology, New York Union College) Cook-Greuter S. (doctorate for Postautonomous Ego Development, Harvard University) Maslow A. (Prof. Dr. Head of American Psychological Association) the psychologist Piaget J. or the developmental psychologist Erick Erickson (Harvard Medical School).
We’ve found that these models are based on the same principles and they are following similar dynamics. What we have done was synthetizing these models to get an integrated model. The most focus was given to Graves’ model as it proved to be the most applicable in practical questions and most applicable for modeling and simulation.
The psychosocial development model of Graves (1970) is also called an emergent, cyclical, double-helix model of adult psychosocial systems development. Graves identified (1974) eight levels of existence that can be described by life conditions and the brain’s coping conditions with those certain life conditions. The eight levels are: A-N
The model was later transformed by Wilber (1997); Beck and Cowen (1996) to be applicable in conflict resolution. (The result is called Spiral Dynamics Integral (SDI).) By further integrating the work of other researchers (e.g. Kohlberg, Armon, Mumford, Howe, Rawls, Piaget, Erikson, Maslow, Loevinger, Fromm) and inspired by the Book of Changes (Blofeld, 1965) we have formed a developmental model of ethical values in social systems which is useable to simulate optional adaptation strategies to the water challenges of our times.
This chapter describes the eight value systems that are forming society’s value systems and behaviors such as climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies according to shared and shrinking resources. The next chapter maps these behaviors into a Knowledge Attributed Petri Net model that simulates a case study taking river basins shared by many countries with different value-memes.
Following table shows these major value systems we have formed with the referring levels of other researchers such as Graves, Beck and Cowen and the main life conditions, with the mind/culture coping conditions and main needs of each level:
Fűr-Ijjas levels | Graves-Beck-Cowan levels | Main needs | Life conditions | Coping tools |
Surviving individuals | A-N Beige | biophysical needs | N - State of nature and biological urges and drives: physical senses dictate the state of being | A - Instinctive: as natural instincts and reflexes direct; automatic existence |
Superstitious clans/tribes | B-O Purple | temporary security within group | O - Threatening and full of mysterious powers and spirits that must be placated and appeased | B - Animistic: according to tradition and ritual ways of the group/tribe |
Egocentric warriors | C-P Red | individual security | P - The world is a jungle where the strong prevail and the weak serve. Nature is to be conquered. | C - Egocentric Ego wants dominance, conquest and power; exploitive, aggressive |
Conformist groups | D-Q Blue | long term safety within group | Q - Higher authority punishes bad behavior but rewards good work. | D- Absolutistic Obedient, conforming; conservative, hierarchic, driven by guilt |
Creative hedonists | E-R Orange | long term individual safety, mental, behavioral independence | R - The environment is full of resources; the world is full of possibilities. | E - Multiplistic Pragmatic to achieve results; testing options, rational, modern, effective, selfish, arrogant, creative |
Communities of human beings | F-S Green | long term individual safety within group, emotional freedom | S - Humanity is living in a habitat wherein people can find love and purpose through affiliation and sharing. | F - Relativistic Responding to human needs, affiliative, consensual, fluid, accepting, less efficient |
System-thinking humans | G-T Yellow | finding and realizing Self-worth | T - The world is a chaotic organism where change is the norm and uncertainty is an acceptable state of being. | G - Systemic Functional, integrative, interdependent, existential, flexible, questioning, needs more time for complexity |
Holistic communities of human beings | H-U Turquoise | finding and realizing self-worth within holistic system | U - Turquoise A delicately balanced system of interlocking forces in jeopardy at humanities hands | H - Holistic: experiential: transpersonal; collective consciousness; collaborative; interconnected |
Levels of psychosocial development 1
The defined levels represent also eight forms of behaviors that are related to the outer manifestation of an entity (group of human beings) in the environmental space. This relation is not easy to identify therefore oracles from different cultures have to be adopted and composed in such way that the common representatives can be examined within scientific frames. In order to understand how it can become possible to analyze a social action (e.g. regarding environmental resources) based on its internal level of psychosocial development linear independent types of attributes has to be found. These types of attributes should give the most elementary common description to each level regardless of their actions taken.
The elementary types of attributes that aim to the description of the connection between the level and its environment are following:
set of needs (N)
way of the actions taken to suffice needs by acquiring resources (A)
set of resources that are handled by the entity (R)
Fig. 2. highlights the direction of materialism of the three main model elements from the inner (soft) aim to the outer (sharp) result.
The 3-tuple of the basic psychosocial-environmental relation
After determining the elements of the basic psychosocial-environmental relation the domain of analysis should be appointed. This question is of great importance and also of enormous complexity. The needs can be ordered to clusters in many different ways and can also own different relevance in space and time regarding the environment. The set of actions, interventions taken by a social entity can also be infinite consequently the exact description and fragmented clustering of these elements is not suggestible at that level of examination. In point of the resources we face the same situation therefore the complicated formal descriptions can be replaced by binary qualities.
These binary qualities give relevant information about the elements of the 3-tuple of the basic psychosocial-environmental relation:
Needs can have two subsets:
Inner needs (e.g. need for express the existence, need for belonging to, need for freedom, need for “happiness” etc.)
Outer needs (e.g. need for nutriment, need for heat, need for space, etc.)
Resources can have also two subsets:
Inner resources (e.g. religion, art, education, social institutes, etc.)
Outer resources (e.g. water, soil, flora, fauna, fossil fuels, etc.)
Actions can be taken in two different ways:
Actively (the psychosocial entity makes effort to achieve the expected state in case of presence of need). This phenomenon is also called “need-driven” action.
Passively (the psychosocial entity is awaiting the optimal circumstances for its needs to be sufficed independently from the presence of need). This way of acting is marked as “resource-driven” action.
Fig. 3. highlights the possible behaviors through 8 different interconnections between needs and resources.
Interconnections between needs and resources
The actions – as transitions from the physical world to the psychical world – have a special role in the model through aiming to the maximization of the simultaneous occurrences of needs and resources over a given period of time or the maximization of collecting resources for sufficing further needs expectable in the future (buffering). Actions – in that explanation – are experiments on sufficing special type of needs by special type of resources. The number of the mentioned synchronism can be regarded as the indicator of “success” (S). The
The
Success of sufficing inner needs
Success of sufficing outer needs
Both of the success indicators have to be of high value in order to gain balanced and stable state of the psychosocial entity.
During the process of model synthesis a very important analogy cannot be left out of consideration. The eight value system defined in Table 1 and the 3-tuple structure of the basic psychosocial-environmental relation assuming the binary values of the tuple-elements indicates the 23=8 decomposition of the Fűr-Ijjas levels. That kind of interpretation is well-known in the philosophy of TaijiQuan. Fig. 4. shows the development of behaviors. In the first column the whole system of balanced psychosocial entities is represented therefore this system can be regarded as neutral from the outside. In the second column the system is split into two main parts causing the stress and giving the base of model. Two main qualities of the psychosocial entities can be differentiated that is analogous with the two main forces of TaijiQuan: Yin is the acceptor and Yang is the donor. This is called the base binary value.
Interpretation of the TaijiQuan philosophy within the Fűr-Ijjas model
The base binary value (second column of Fig. 4.) represents the direction how the psychosocial entity relates to the environment (effusing or receiving quality). The second binary value has a comprehensive meaning of purity of the base behavior in the dual interpretation (third column of Fig. 4.). Young psychosocial entity does not own a clear self-concept includes disturbances from the other behavior, contrarily the old entity is cleared perfectly and it can show well defined functioning.
The most complex interpretation (fourth column of Fig. 4.) is based on the Trigrams that are combinations of three independent elements given by the base binary values. The bottom binary value represents the resources (outer resource=Yang, inner resource=Yin). The middle binary value represents the action (active, need-driven behavior=Yang, passive, resource-driven behavior=Yin). The top binary value means the type of needs (outer need=Yang, inner need=Yin)
The next table shows these levels linked to the corresponding binary values we have adopted from the Book of changes. These binary values designate different bio-psychophysical qualities, forces and movements. The lowest line in the Trigram represents the aimed resources by the psychosocial entity (inner/outer resources) the line in the middle determinates the way of acquiring the resource (actively or passively) and the top line stands for the prevailing needs of the psychosocial entity (inner/outer needs).
Fűr-Ijjas levels | Book of changes - binary value | Book of changes - image in nature | Gender quality | Outer/inner needs the active/passive way outer/inner resources |
Surviving individuals | ☰ | The Creative, heaven | male individual | outer needs active outer resources |
Superstitious clans/tribes | ☵ | The Abysmal, water | female collective | inner needs active inner resources |
Egocentric warriors | ☱ | The Joyous, lake | male individual | inner needs active outer resources |
Conformist groups | ☴ | The Gentle, flood | female collective | outer needs active inner resources |
Creative hedonists | ☳ | The Arousing, earthquake | male individual | inner needs passive outer resources |
Communities of human beings | ☶ | The Keeping Still, mountain | female collective | outer needs passive inner resources |
System-thinking humans | ☲ | The Clinging, fire | male individual | outer needs passive outer resources |
Holistic communities of human beings | ☷ | The Receptive, earth | female collective | inner needs passive inner resources |
Levels of psychosocial development 2
In this chapter a Knowledge Attributed Petri Net based discrete simulation model is descripted that is suited to map the previously highlighted eight value systems into reasonable experimental frames. The model aims the examination of struggling of entities for resources based on the level of psychosocial development.
Proper describing of the physical reality in general has always been standing amongst the relevant questions of science. Several methodologies were developed based on classical mathematics, or statistics and also new disciplines – such as soft-computing techniques – appeared (Russel, S.J. – Norvig, P., 2002). Each methodology owns advantages in some fields of modeling, but none of them is adequate to describe complex processes in general. Multi-facetted problems require methodologies that are able to integrate high-level mathematical concepts in a natural way. An obvious solution of mapping reality to a well-structured form is given by the concept of Petri Nets (Petri, C.A. 1962).
Petri Nets follow an elementary abstraction of physical reality by describing containers as places, mobile entities representing temporal states as tokens, and rules – transitions – that determine the generation and elimination of tokens in space and time. These basic elements correspond to real or virtual elements: e.g. tokens to information, money, materials, living beings, and places to physical locations, or virtual containers – such as bank accounts, data storages or indicators – transitions can represent the static knowledge or rules of physical laws, economic or legal regulations.
During the last decades several extensions have been suggested to the original concept of Petri Nets in order to raise its describing power. Inhibitor arcs (Inhibitor Petri Nets, IPN), colored tokens (Colored Petri Nets, CPN), stochastic delayed streaming of mobile entities (Stochastic Petri Nets, SPN), object oriented architecture (Object Oriented Petri Nets, OOPN), numerical (Numerical Petri Nets, NPN) and linguistic attributes (Fuzzy Petri Nets, FPN) (Peterson, J.L., 1981, Jensen, K. Rosenberg, G., 1991, Balbo, G., 2002, Carl G. Looney 1994) broaden the range of capabilities.
In some fields of problem solving usage of static and mobile knowledge bases is needed: e.g. modeling of flexible manufacturing systems (Jávor, A., 1993), routing and treatment of patients in hospitals (Jávor, A. Benkő, M., Leitereg, A., Moré, G., 1994), or intelligent traffic simulation (Jávor, A., Szűcs, G., 1998). These problems to be investigated involved new conceptual developments of Petri Nets and led to the introduction of Knowledge Attributed Petri Nets (KAPN) (Jávor, A. 1993–2). At the same time artificial intelligence (AI) and distributed control in simulation appeared, intelligent demons (agents) (Jávor, A. 1992, 2006) supported the connection of mobile knowledge bases and static inference engines in an effective way.
In our research we decided to use the KAPN methodology that owns all the properties of High Level Petri Nets mentioned before and that is also able to host AI within the model. As simulation tool CASSANDRA (Cognizant Adaptive Simulation System for Application in Numerous Different Relevant Areas) simulation system was chosen. CASSANDRA is a KAPN based system with the accomplishment of the methodology of model identification by reconstruction (Fűr, A., Jávor, A., 2007). CASSANDRA was developed by the McLeod Institute of Simulation Sciences Hungarian Center where the authors contribute to the methodological research.
During the process of model synthesis there are several cases where simulation experts can face incomplete knowledge on structure, parameters or the algorithms describing the operation of the system to be investigated. Sometimes even the behavior of the system itself is not strictly defined. In these cases the usage of model identification by reconstruction can be suggested. This methodology is based on a special simulation entity (agent) that aims to the modification of the model based on observing the trajectory of its behavior. Fig. 5. illustrates the closed-loop controlled like modification of the simulation model by an intelligent agent.
Agent controlled simulation
The identification process starts with the definition of the initial model that gives a soft delineation of the system based on the available theories and assumptions. The initial model – often built as a network of objects – should give a rough, but functionally approximating description.
The next step is triggering the model input by historical data and monitoring the output by the agent that compares it with the historical behavior of the system. In case when the agent finds significant deviations it may change the model until acceptable correspondence between reality and the model is achieved. The changes which the intelligent agent can execute are the following (Fűr, A., Jávor, A. 2007):
Change the topology of the model network
Change the parameters of the model elements
Change the functions describing the effects of one model element on an other
There are several strategies how model reconstruction can be carried out, and also the complexity of the iterating algorithms can vary in a wide range from the multi-criteria estimation of parameters to the structure synthesis. After having reconstructed the initial model in such way that the output behavior corresponds to the reality the model can be used for further virtual experiments (e.g. prediction, or analysis) affording acceptable reliability regarding the simulation results (see Fig.6.).
Identification by reconstruction using an intelligent agent (Fűr, A., Jávor, A. 2007)
The basic concept of the model is based on two natural phenomena of the Petri Nets. The first one is the way of resource allocation. If there are two places given (the one representing the container of needs, the other the container of resources) and these are assigned to a transition object that has a place (container of results, state or success) at the output, the whole structure can be interpreted as a simple Petri Net model of resource allocation. In that case both input places (needs, and resources) has to contain tokens (representing the presence of need and resource at the same time) in order to trigger the event (this is called firing). After the process of resource allocation (firing) is finished the next state of the Petri Net model is that the resource (token) is destroyed in order to eliminate the need (token) and a result state (satisfaction, success) is generated (in also form of a token).
Basic Petri Net model of the process of resource allocation
The model delineated in Fig.7. shows deterministic functioning. In order to turn the model behavior more realistic an extension to the transition firing condition can be suggested. At each simulation step to each transition a random number can be generated (of a given distribution, within the range of [0,1]) and it has to be compared with the threshold of the transition (constant ∈ [0,1] ∪ {-1}) and the firing is executed depending on the result of this comparison. The threshold parameter (TRP) controls the permeability of the transition regarding the tokens during a given time interval. TRP=-1 “closes” the transition (see Fig.8).
Knowledge Attributed Petri Net model of the process of resource allocation
The other main advantage of the Petri Net (or KAPN) based description lays in the power of handling the conflict situations (see Fig.9.). In the case when e.g. needs of two different entities require the same type of resource and in the container of the common resources there is only one resource (token) present – although both of the competitors are marked to be satisfied – in reality only one of them can access the resource (the one who fires before).
The common resource conflict situation
The firing order can be random or can follow priority considerations. (In our model the firing order is chosen to be random.)
In the following part a short description is given about the basic processes and their KAPN models that are subnets of the Fűr-Ijjas model. The basic consumption chain of a psychosocial entity (according to Fig.3.) can be need-driven (active) or resource-driven (passive). The main difference between the two approaches is the interpretation of the state of “success”.
The model of a Need-driven Psychosocial Entity (NPE)
In the case of the Need-driven Psychosocial Entity (NPE) the success is defined as the simultaneous occurrences of needs and resources at a given time instant. The detailed network (see Fig. 10.) shows that the NPE collects tokens from the place of common resources transforming them into accessible resources (that can be utilized at any time instant by the NPE). This can correspond to the transportation or the exploitation of the resource. Each NPE possesses its own efficiency (TRP3) on accessing the common resources consequently the available base of sufficing needs is different for each of them. The accessible resources have natural diminution (represented by DRAIN-2) that is independent of the consumption intents of NPE. Reasons for the diminution can follow from the nature of the resource (if it is hard to store over a long period of time – e.g. food, electricity, water under given conditions, etc.) or can be caused by disasters, epidemics, or the unforeseen annihilation of the already acquired resource. The generator of needs awakes necessities during simulation run with given intensity (TRP1). The simultaneous occurrence of needs and resources triggers the transition causing the generation of a token in the place of SUCCESS. The efficiency of resource allocation can be adjusted by the parameter TRP2. If efficiency is low (e.g. thanks to backward governmental systems or infrastructure) then generated needs cannot be sufficed in time and thereunder natural diminution can happen. DRAIN-1 is responsible for not to get stuck the simulation because of the finite capacity of SUCCESS place (infinite number of tokens in a place is not acceptable therefore each place possess given capacity – that corresponds to natural behavior).
The model of a Resource-driven Psychosocial Entity (RPE)
Resource-driven Psychosocial Entities (RPE) appear to be different in their behavior. In the resource allocation process of these entities the annihilation of the accessible resources is independent of the presence of need. The consumption happens anyway hoping that in the future upcoming needs will be sufficed. That kind of buffering has a great advantage. This preventing behavior can possibly lower the number of cases when needs cannot be sufficed, but as a main disadvantage a new drain (see. Fig. 11. DRAIN-2) can appear that destroys that pre-buffered consumptions. Success is interpreted as simultaneous occurrence of needs and consumed resources. The main difference between NPEs and RPEs can be highlighted by the following metaphor:
As previously delineated the Fűr-Ijjas levels consider eight value systems with eight dominant behavior and relation to environmental resources. The given basic networks representing NPE and RPE (Fig. 10 and Fig. 11.) have to be integrated into a general KAPN model to ensure the possibility of modeling transitional (fuzzy) behavior between the clearly defined, dominant functioning of NPE and RPE. Also the two different types of needs and resources (inner/outer) have to be visualized in the model therefore the possible ways of resource allocation increases due to the different cross-couplings.
The following figure (see Fig.12.) outlines a possible KAPN implementation of the eight levels integrated into one psychosocial entity (PE). The aim of this general purpose entity is – beyond reproducing the original eight levels – the possibility of combination of the crisp behaviors. That corresponds to natural behavior of PEs because there are several cases when subdominant properties become also noticeable.
KAPN model of the Fűr-Ijjas levels (screenshot from the CASSANDRA system)
In the figure it can be seen that the model owns symmetric configuration with processes of inner needs and resources on the left side and outer needs and resources on the right side. The subnets marked by numbers on the picture correspond to the followings:
Input from the outer world for outer resources (connected to the place of common outer resources outside the PE)
Place of accessible (own) outer resources
Natural diminution of accessible resources (drain)
Generator of outer needs
Place of outer needs
Need-driven functioning (Or2OnA=Actively destroying outer resource on demand of outer need, Ir2OnA=Actively destroying inner resource on demand of outer need)
Resource-driven functioning (Or2OnP=Destroying outer resource anyway, consumption gets into buffer, then buffer is emptied when outer need is present, Ir2OnP=Destroying inner resource anyway, consumption gets into buffer, then buffer is emptied when outer need is present)
Cross-coupling between outer and inner resources. We assume that there are some cases possible when the resources of different types can be converted into each other. Outer resources can be converted into inner resources (e.g. the amount of water can have influence on the social, economic system) and inner resources can be converted into outer resources (with faith or a different approach inaccessible water resources can be accessed or even accessible water resources can be saved).
Cross-coupling between outer and inner needs. Several observations can give the ground to the assumption that inner and outer needs can substitute each other (within reasonable frames). In countries where the outer needs (e.g. need for nutriment) are hard to suffice PEs often turn to inner needs (e.g. need for family, need for express the existence by music, dance, art, etc.) in order to deflect attention from the real situation. In contrast developed countries often forget about their natural inner needs concentrating on sufficing their outer needs.
The figure below represents a possible test environment with different PEs accessing common outer and inner resource bases.
Conflict situation between Psychosocial Entities (PEs)
The KAPN model of the PE can be encapsulated into another object that hides the inner functioning from the higher level (see. Fig. 13.). Based on these hierarchical models multiple PEs and their conflicts can be examined under different boundary conditions.
Our aim is to simulate the behavior of different psychosocial entities living along e.g. Jordan River Basin, facing the growing water scarcity. In order to do that the parameters of the models have to be fine-tuned by the methodology of model identification by reconstruction.
After achieving the correct internal parameters of those countries that are involved in a resource allocation conflict we intent to forecast water usage at different climate scenarios. That should be our future work.
In this paper we identified eight levels of psychosocial development based on integrated theories. By the aid of TaijiQuan philosophy we found a way how to map these complex and fuzzy defined levels into concrete actions taken by an entity. The elaborated model gives well defined relation between the entity and the environmental resource considering the needs. This model is also able to combine the eight different levels with different intensity into a contemporary complex entity. Based on agent controlled simulation by the CASSANDRA system the changing behavior of entities during simulation run can become also possible. This ensures the simulation of the adaptation process of a psychosocial entity.
We believe that in the future cross-coupling between inner and outer needs and resources explored by the model become more important and narrowing outer resources or growing outer needs should be partially substituted by inner resources and inner needs. That is the key to successful adaption of future generations.
We also have a vision of our model in policy applications, especially in the identification of dominant psychosocial behavior patterns of different countries aiming to the recognition of adequate response in their adaptation process. We do hope that the model helps to understand – beyond the frequently communicated materialized problems – the inner aspects of the upcoming environmental-social-economical challenge caused by climate change.
We would like to express our acknowledgment to Prof. András Jávor who supported the research and development of this model within the McLeod Institute of Simulation Sciences Hungarian Center.
The work reported in the paper has been developed in the framework of the project „Talent care and cultivation in the scientific workshops of BME" project. This project is supported by the grant TÁMOP-4.2.2.B-10/1--2010-0009.
Biocomposite materials derived from biodegradable, renewable sources have perceived substantial attention in current times, in particular due to the amplified consciousness towards more environmentally sustainable technologies. In most of the cases bio-composites offer weight reduction, supplemented capabilities (e.g., structural, electrical, electronic, and medical) and occupational health benefits. These bio-composites have great potential for their use in electronic, automobile, packaging, insulations and construction industries with a potential to disassociate material costs from the fluctuating price of oil and energy.
Addition of reinforcements to a bio-composite matrix does more than just enhance on the properties of the composite but also imparts some other “unexpected” properties that can satisfy these requirements. For example, bio-composites with conductive polymer matrices impart unique functional properties which makes them useful for medical applications. On the other hand, use of clay nanotubes as reinforcement materials not only enhances mechanical properties but also opens the way for surface topology enhancements resulting more unique applications. Moreover, smart choice of matrix-reinforcement combinations and understanding their surface interactions can result in applications never even thought about. Such as, keeping both the in-situ surface interactions and interactions with the environment in the mind, choice of appropriate matrix-reinforcement combination can reward us with bio-degradable food packaging materials. This creates a situation where the excellent design of bio-composites provides an extension of the composite functionality. By combining the filler and manipulating the parameter space, bio-composite research holds a vast possibility to produce a wide range of functional materials with controllable properties. To illustrate functionality-based designs, a few of the bio-composites that have been formulated with functional properties are presented here.
There is an emerging attention in the field of natural fiber fortified conductive polymer combinations in numerous aspects of technical functions. Such attention ascends from the fact that the natural fiber supported polymer matrix composites show conjoined possessions of useful insulation and elevated degree of anticipated mechanical strength that allows it to be magnificent structural provision for conductors. Such exclusive characteristics allow these composite structures to be exploited in broadened regions for instance terminals, connectors, switches, insulators, printed circuit boards, industrial and house hold plugs, panels and so on [1, 2]. Moreover, the dielectric features of materials greatly control the transformation of the electromagnetic energy toward heat [3]. At present, several textile fibers and fabrics such as cotton, nylon, lycra, polyester, viscose rayon, and wool, are being employed with technical polymers for diverse functions e.g. conductive textiles, heating appliances, electro-magnetic interference, super-capacitor, shielding and antimicrobial cloths and so on [4, 5, 6]. Nonetheless, conducting polymers with receptive to electrical stimulation are competent to bio- functions such as tissue scaffolds for the restoration or replacement of damaged or malfunctioning tissues [7]. A graphic demonstration showing the significance of designing biomimetic conducting polymer-based materials is exhibited in Figure 1. A continuing push to foster more bio-conforming and intrinsically ecological conductive polymer types with various functionalization techniques are evolved for different possible applications. Optimization of various properties (e.g., conductivity, roughness, porosity, hydrophobicity and degradability) in combination with the attachment of biological molecules have made the conductive polymers as a promising candidate for biomedical applications. This binding of organic molecules can be conducted via four key synthetic ways [8] (Figure 2). First process is adsorption where a solution of functionalizing chemical is put together with the synthesized polymer. The organic molecules are attached to the polymer structure due to the stable contacts with ionic interaction [9]. Secondly, engrossing the functional molecules within the polymer matrix. The entrapment is usually carried out by combining the matrix monomer and functionalizing chemical agent with the polymerization reaction afterwards [10]. Thirdly, by cementing the biomolecules to the polymer matrix with covalent bonding. In this case, functionalization of the polymer is more stable and long-lasting [8]. Lastly by doping practice with a wide variety of charged molecules for inducing the polymers to conductive character [8, 11]. The obvious benefit of conductive polymers is their immense flexibility in terms of dopant selection for proper functionalization to suit a particular usage [12]. Therefore, the fundamental understanding of these dielectric properties is essential for various industrial applications.
Schematic illustration of the critical considered aspects for designing biomimetic conducting polymer-based materials. Redrawn from [
Methods of functionalizing conductive polymers: (a) physical absorption, (b) entrapping, (c) covalent bonding and (d) exploiting the doping mechanism.
Conductive polymers have more extensive favorable circumstances over other electro-active biomaterials (for example electrets, piezoelectric and photovoltaic materials) according to electrical perspective [13]. They have astounding authority over electrical stimulus, have a high conductivity to weight ratio, can have generally excellent electrical just as optical properties, and can likewise add to making biodegradable, permeable, and biocompatible items [14, 15, 16, 17]. Their physical, synthetic, and electrical properties can be custom fitted for providing explicit necessities of their applications and viewed as one of their exceptional focal points. This can be possible by fusing antibodies, proteins and other organic moieties [14, 16, 18]. In addition, such helpful properties of conductive polymers can be controlled, and changed even after combination through incitement (for example using various methods like electricity, light, pH and so forth.) [19, 20, 21].
Recently, their unexpected applications in functional papers just as packaging industries have drawn exceptional consideration. A few investigations affirmed critical need of utilizing such conductive polymers in electrical applications. Coated paper with conducting properties can be utilized to produce anti-static and electro-magnetic shielding papers, anti-bacterial papers, novel wall coverings and electrical resistive heating papers [22, 23, 24]. Johnston’s group designed conducing paper using natural strands and conductive polymers, where unbleached bagasse as well as rice straw filaments were injected into polyaniline (PANi). Results demonstrated that increased conductivity was achieved with the increase of PANi in the composite [22]. Youssef et al. also architectured a composite system based on unbleached cellulosic bagasse or rice straw fibers and PANi as conducting polymer by means of emulsion polymerization. In this context, PANi was formulated with in situ polymerization via oxidative reaction with help of ammonium persulfate accompanied with a specific quantity of emulsifier n-dodecylbenzenesulfonic acid (DBSA) and dopant HCl. DBSA was used as emulsifier to catalyze the polymerization reaction of aniline via cation-radical mechanism in the presence of unbleached pulp fibers and also to increase the electrical conductivity of the formed PANi/pulp fiber composites.
In addition, Pramila Devi’s group have studied the cure characteristics, thermal and microwave properties, DC conductivity, and mechanical properties of both natural rubber (NR)/polypyrrole and natural rubber/polypyrrole/polypyrrole-coated short nylon fiber composite. The composites were designed by a two-step process: in situ polymerization in NR latex followed by compounding in a two-roll mill. It was noted that the natural rubber/polypyrrole composite’s DC conductivity was only improved at very high polypyrrole load and a maximum conductivity of 8.3 × 10−4 S/cm was reached at loading time of 100 phr [25].
In addition to this, Jabbour’s group developed conductive papers of graphite particles (GPs)/ carbon fibers (CFs)/cellulose fibers (FBs) composites with low cost of production, good mechanical properties, and tunable electrical conductivity. Flexible GP/FB, CF/FB and GP/CF/FB composite papers with tunable conductivity and good mechanical properties were obtained by means of a papermaking production process. It was perceived that ultraviolet absorbance in UV–vis spectroscopy amplified with adding Carboxymethyl cellulose [26].
In addition, effective current carrying passages were established across agglomerates or scattered nano-fillers [27]. It was also determined that resistivity varied drastically with the distribution of carbon nanofiber into polycarbonate regulated by sonication facilities.
In addition, conductive polymer with silk fiber bunch was effectively used in the manufacturing of thread-fashioned electrodes. In this case, conductive polyelectrolyte, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) -poly(styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT-PSS) and silk bundle were amalgamated electrochemically to produce the electrodes. It has been shown that the polymer composite has conductivity of 0.00117 S/cm. Adding glycerol to the PEDOT-PSS silk thread has allowed the conductivity to increase to 0.102 S/cm. It has also been stated that such biocompatible electrodes can be implemented in both the biomedical and health promotion sectors [28].
Different research groups investigated the dielectric properties of composites made from natural fibers with various polymers including the conductive ones. Chicken feather fiber (CFF)/Epoxy composites’ electrical resistivity was found to be two to four orders of magnitudes higher than that of E-glass fiber composites. Composites with hybrid (CFF-E-glass/Epoxy) fibers were also found to typically have a low dielectric constant value [29].
On the other hand, Xia and Lu fabricated highly conductive polymers with composite silk fibroin fibers through in-situ polymerization. Polypyrrole/silk fibroin, polyaniline/silk fibroin, and poly3,4-ethylene-dioxythiophene/silk fibroin composite fibroins were reported to exhibit differed conductivity in the range of
Gelfuso’s group also studied the electrical resistivity of composites based on composites made from polypropylene/coconut fibers. They aimed to investigate the electrical properties of low-cost and composites that are environmentally friendly in order to enhance their implementation in industrial applications [31].
Moreover, W. Jia’s group researched and analyzed the electrical conductivity of composites based on epoxy resin with polyaniline-dodecylbenzenesulfonic acid (DBSA) fillers. They used both conductive filler PANI-DBSA in powder and paste forming the composite with matrix polymer bisphenol, hydride hardener, and epoxy resin as well as accelerator. Results showed a conductivity of the order 10−3 at high filler content [32].
In addition, Wang’s group had introduced the theory of percolation and its principles by conducting experiments to study the effect of absorption of moisture on electrical conductivity in natural plastic composites. It was confirmed that there is no observable electrical conductivity in the dry natural fiber-reinforced polymer composite. But electrical conductivity for the natural fiber composite was achieved successfully after water submersion [33].
Moreover, there was investigation of the dielectric properties of date palm fiber/epoxy composite where three relaxation processes were found. These processes were primarily relaxation in the α mode, relaxation due to diffusion of carrier charges for high temperatures above glass transition and low frequencies, and relaxation in the interfaces or Maxwell -Wagner-Sillars relaxation [34, 35, 36].
Similarly, as a biodegradable material, conductive nanocomposite using polypyrrole/dextrin was synthesized. The conductivity of the nanocomposites was investigated using four probe methods and analyzed with 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl assay (DPPH) for antioxidant activity. It was shown that by increasing the polypyrrole in the matrix, both the conductivity and antioxidant activity have improved. The nanocomposites were indicated to be considerably effective against all such bacteria studied. It was also stated that composites in the range of 30.18–74.52% degradation is biodegradable in the natural environment [37].
In addition, Pavlović’s group studied the effects of electrical conductivity of electrodeposited copper powder material filled into the lignocellulose matrix. The conductivity measurements were shown to have S-shaped dependence with a percolation transition from non-conductive to conductive region. The concentration percolation threshold was reached at a copper fraction of 14.4% (v/v) volume [38].
Halloysite clay is a natural medium of tubules formed by rolled kaolin sheets. Halloysite is alumosilicate and is chemically identical to kaolin although in some position of aluminum usually, contains a small amount of metal ions replacing it. Usually, 10–15 layers of alumosilicate roll into the cylinder and its wall packing can be monitored with 0.72 nm X-ray reflection (001) for dry halloysite [39, 40, 41, 42]. Halloysite tube surface is silica, and its innermost surface is alumina, having a good negative zeta-potential of ca. -30 mV on the surface of the tube and + 25 mV on the innermost tube in aqueous dispersions at standard pH. The diameter of the halloysite tubes is 40-70 nm with an inner lumen diameter of 10-15 nm and a length of 1500 ± 500 nm (Figure 3) [42, 44, 45]. It is interesting that sonication leads to the formation of halloysite-like tubes over a long time of kaolin aqueous dispersion, although the concentration of the substance is very low and the tube shape is rather poor [46].
Scheme of tightening halloysite tube walls during heating dehydration (a). Aqueous dispersion TEM and dry powder SEM images of halloysite from Dragon Mine, Utah, Applied Minerals Inc. (b–c). Redrawn from [
In contrast with platy clays such as montmorillonite, kaolin and laponite packed in larger crystallites, halloysite has an important advantage that these nanotubes do not need exfoliation and can easily be dispersed in water or polar polymers. Halloysite-water dispersion is stable for a few hours and can be re-dispersed with quick shaking or brief sonication. It was proven that nano clay-tubes have a solid interfacial characteristic with biopolymers (e.g., polysaccharides, polyamides) and also with polar polymers (e.g., polyacrylates, epoxy, polyvinylchloride, polyethylene). Most importantly, these nanotubes can be incorporated into polymer matrix with proper dispersion. These clay-based nanotubes develop a sort of “structural framework” in bulk polymers which enhances the strength the composite. In addition, these “skeleton bones” can be filled with bioactive substances, such as loading real bones with a marrow offering additional functionality. Halloysite is biocompatible “green” material and its simple processing combined with low cost makes it a prospect for polymeric composites in nano-architecture.
The straightforward application of clay nanotubes is their use in the modification of biological devices’ surface topography, such as microfluidic devices, to distinguish the circulating tumor cells from non-malignant. Halloysite nanotubes functionalized with human selectin protein have been successfully used to isolate myeloid leukemia from colon cancer cells [47]. The system was based on internal-coated 300 μm glass tubes with P or E-selectin molecules and alternated with negatively charged halloysite nanotubes with poly-L -lysine. Microscopic experiments showed that halloysite nanotubes adapted to the glass surface greatly decreased the speed of rolling and increased the number of cells captured. Improving cell separation is caused by the increase in the total surface area following the immobilization of clay nanotubes and the resulting increase in the amount of selectin molecules responsible for the cell capture. In some other situations, the same method can be used where we can pick a suitable molecular agent (i.e., antibodies, receptors, and aptamers), and then exclusively remove the cells accordingly.
In addition, it was found that the nano clay tubes could be functionalized with sensory stimulus molecules and could be stuffed with gradually liberating molecules, enhancing the coating functionality. It was also established that enriched human dermal fibroblast addition on halloysite nanotube coatings which spread, proliferate and sustain the cellular phenotype [48].
An emerging application of halloysite nanotubes in biomaterials is their use in tissue and dental engineering scaffolds. Bottino’s group investigated the manufacture of three-dimensional endodontic regenerative scaffolds based on electro spun polymers doped with halloysite nanotubes. Nanotubes were found predominantly inside the polydioxanone fibers and allowed an increase in the diameter of the fiber. Halloysite addition also impacted the mechanical properties of scaffolds. It has been shown that fibroblast cells derived from human dental pulp exhibited the usual proliferation rate, indicating high biocompatibility of polymer scaffolds doped with electro spun halloysite [49].
Liu’s group have used the idea of using halloysite nanotubes as dopants in the fabrication of chitosan-based tissue engineering scaffolds. Nanocomposite halloysite-doped scaffolds demonstrated the enhanced mechanical and thermal properties of compressive power, compressive assembly, and temperature stability compared to pure chitosan scaffolds. Human fibroblasts had effectively colonized these scaffolds [50].
Another fascinating field of research is the tailoring of nanomaterials to cell surfaces that enables living microbial cells to make new functionalities. Max Planck Institute’s team led by Helmuth Möhwald proposed layer-by-layer (LbL) encapsulation of biological cells and it was first demonstrated for surface modification of
Halloysite-coated cells can be used as adaptable patterns for the manufacture of hollow inorganic microcapsules by calcination.; On the other hand, the fascinating uses are anticipated from live cells carrying a vehicle of halloysite nanotubes packed with different ingredients in advance of the confinement process. These “nanocarrier” cells could be considered as an active composite structure that provides a load of nutrients, defensive antibodies or biocides, DNA, and enzymes for the cells. For example, the extended release of glucose loaded into halloysite nanotubes immobilized on yeast cells has been demonstrated as a proof of principle [57].
Packaging must ensure its fundamental function as container and food damage against physical damage, by displaying adequate mechanical properties, but also by regulating the properties of mass transfer to restrict food degradation reactions. It has been shown that lignocellulosic fibers frequently act as defects that affect both mechanical and permeability properties, degrading the former and increasing the latter. Increasing material permeability by choosing the right formulation seems to be a valuable approach, especially for the packaging of respiring products such as fruit and vegetables.
Mechanical properties for multiple combinations of bioplastics and lignocellulose fibers were widely explored and published. Despite the value of the properties of mass transit, however, the state of information on this subject remains very weak. Clearly, a need for fundamental research turned towards full-bio-composites emerges from this context, by developing understanding and modeling methods capable of considering the entire intricacy of the systems. The present blockages are the deficiency of proper know-how on the underlying characteristics of vegetable yarns in mass transfer and the function of the interphase between the fiber and matrix. Because of the high complexity of vegetable fibers and their vulnerability to ecological surroundings (e.g., humidity, temperature), the assessment of numerical physical factors that could be additionally exploited in standards continues a challenge. Lastly, owing to the great variety, heterogeneity, and sophistication of raw constituents, we are presented with a multitude of systems and composite structures. Thus, the overall performance of complete bio-composites is very system-dependent, which makes the design of packaging materials with a reverse engineering approach difficult. To overcome this bottleneck, a few main parameters showing key effects of overall functional properties required to be established.
The key parameters evoked for regulating water vapor permeability (WVP) include fiber content and size, fiber/matrix adhesion, and matrix crystallinity and plasticization [59, 60]. In principle, assuming fibers are impermeable and well distributed in the matrix, WVP is likely to decrease due to tortuosity effect. In fact, lignocellulosic fibers are not impermeable. Thus, in most cases the composite WVP increased with the addition of fiber. Thus, the hygroscopic fiber character should be added to the list of the key parameters that govern WVP. Owing to aggregation and percolation phenomena WVP will increase. For small fibers and/or weak fiber/matrix adhesion the first one may occur. Weak adhesion of the fiber/matrix would also create voids in the polymers which could allow the transport of water molecules across these regions [61].
Shortly afterwards agglomeration, percolation will appear for higher fiber content and also, more likely, for higher fiber size. WVP will also increase due to a reduction in the crystallinity of the matrix and/or plasticization of the matrix caused by the addition of fiber.
Sonia and Dasan examined cellulose microfibers (CMF)/poly (ethylene-co-vinyl acetate) (EVA) with the amount of up to 13 wt.% of fiber. The introduction of low fiber content (up to 5 wt.%) resulted in an improvement in the barrier properties, while over this limit value, the 200 mm fibers induced an increase in oxygen permeability through the materials [62].
Valdés García’s group studied a composite in a poly (b-caprolactone) matrix, based on almond skin residues. Since composites produced 10, 20, and 30 wt.% of 50 mm fibers, no information is given on low fiber content, and the oxygen transfer rate (OTR) showed the same evolution as Sonia and Dasan observed for highest fiber loads. In all cases, the introduction of fiber increased OTR, with a 5-times rise in the fiber content at 30 wt.%. On the contrary, Valdés García’s group, measuring 10, 20, and 30 wt.% of almond skin residue content in PCL, observed a steady increase in WVP, although no major differences were noticed for smooth PCL and 10% composite PCL (p > 0.05). Such findings were due solely to fiber agglomeration that caused reduction in the homogeneity and cohesion of the matrix [62, 63].
Ludueña’s group also reported a rise in WVP with content of cotton-based fibers (0,.5, and 15 wt.%) in PCL, but also assessed the effect of size of fibers. There is a competitive influence between the size of fibers and their water-related affinity, thus with the matrix. The smallest type of fiber (0.20 mm), being the most hydrophilic form, increases WVP composites almost to the same degree as the longest fibers (59 mm), while the medium size fiber (9.1 mm), the most hydrophobic, retains WVP composite at the same level as pure PCL [60].
The bio-composites nowadays emanate with superior biocompatibility which perform in contemporaneous manner with the body. The architecture of these biocomposite materials is designed in such a manner that some exceptional characteristics are evolved eventually.
A combination of hydroxy apatite (HA) layer with high-density polyethylene (HDPE) as a substitution material for bone has been designed and commercialized as HAPEXTM [64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70]. In these cases, the span of HA was selected between 20 to 40 volume%. Recently, bone graft consisted of demineralized bone powder between two collagen layers was fostered and exhibited cell migration both in Vitro and in vivo investigation [71]. In another development, hydroxyapatite and a PEG/PBT (polyethylene glycol and poly-butylene terephthalate) block copolymer composites were designed with enhanced chemical linkages by using hexamethylene diisocyanate as a coupling agent. They showed that the HA particles in conjunction with polymeric matrix with covalent bonding helps in achieving bone replacement [72].
A complicated bilayer coating of graphene oxide (GO) and Poly (ε-caprolactone) (PCL)/Gelatin-forsterite nanofibers on 316 L stainless steel (SS) were developed and ultimately it showed increased suitability as orthopedic implant with improved corrosion resistance of SS [73]. However, toxicity of metallic materials is still remained as a major concern for health safety. In this connection, the biocompatibility of the scaffolds was enhanced by designing new nanocomposite system with the activation of functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes, kappa-carrageenan, and chitosan in hydroxyapatite (MHAp) [74].
The pursuit for targeted and coordinated drug release achieved a new dimension with the manipulation of composite structure. Nanocomposites of N-isopropyl acrylamide (NIPAAm) hydrogel with magnetic nano iron oxide particles was formulated for the pulsatile drug delivery system. By alternating the high frequency magnetic field, the heat generation in nanocomposites was controlled to regulate the swelling transition of the hydrogel [75, 76]. For another instance, nanocomposites of paclitaxel were organized using poly- (D,L-lactide-co-glycolide)/montmorillonite (PLGA/MMT) nanoparticles decorated by human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (HER2) antibody were designed for targeted chemotherapy treatment. The NP formulation exhibited a biphasic drug release with a moderate initial burst followed by a sustained release profile. The surface decoration speeded the drug release. PLGA-MMT demonstrated increased cellular uptake by CaCo-2 and HT-29 cells [77].
With the development of biocomposite technology, there are various types of dressings for different wounds were studied for better wound healing. Consequently, many therapeutic dressings with different architecture with diverse activity have materialized and employed medically, such as natural dressings, synthetic dressings, medical dressings, and tissue engineering dressing. A promising bio-nanocomposite from nanocellulose (NC), poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) (PVP), and chitosan was fabricated by solution casting method for in vitro wound dressings [78]. The solution blended PVP and chitosan mixer formed a biocompatible combination with nanocellulose particles via hydrogen bonding. The nanocomposite showed enhanced swelling, blood compatibility and antibacterial activity. Recently, Kamel’s group have fabricated distinctive biocomposite membranes from banana peel nano powder (BPnP) reinforcement in chitosan matrix. In this structure, glycerol was added as plasticizer and crosslinker to the membranes. It was found that the swelling properties of chitosan were reduced with the incorporation of BPnP. Furthermore, the results also showed that chitosan/BPnP membranes have a collaborative action with the highest activity at 10 wt% of BPnP loading [79].
In this chapter we have tried to show the usefulness of functional design concepts through variety of biocomposites design ideas and processes found in the literature. To devise a biocomposite with the expected functionality, it is indispensable to comprehend the meticulous effect of size, shape, volume fraction, orientation, distribution of filler and its compatibility with matrix. Additionally, grasping the interaction among these aspects is vital for fruitful design of biocomposites. Also cost, environmental requirements, weight, complexity and processing are the key drivers that should influence the design of biocomposites. Often, the priority of the design drivers will determine the optimum design. Consequently, this chapter has illuminated the development attained by scientists in engineering biocomposites with different functionality.
The authors would like to thank the Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET) for providing assistance regarding for the computational facilities.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:229,paginationItems:[{id:"318170",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneesa",middleName:null,surname:"Moolla",slug:"aneesa-moolla",fullName:"Aneesa Moolla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/318170/images/system/318170.png",biography:"Dr. Aneesa Moolla has extensive experience in the diverse fields of health care having previously worked in dental private practice, at the Red Cross Flying Doctors association, and in healthcare corporate settings. She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. 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Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. 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