Water and financial savings
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9257",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Electromagnetic Field Radiation in Matter",title:"Electromagnetic Field Radiation in Matter",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book is dedicated to the interaction of electromagnetic wave radiation in matter, such as the wave propagation in a plasmonic and conductive state, that are dispersive media. The different measurement methods of electrical properties of soils have been studied using several applications. The experimental results of the thermoelectric properties of a chalcogenide system and the electrical conductivity of molten salts and ionic conduction in electrolyte solutions are discussed. The application of an electric field impulse and its influence on the immune responses of animals by increasing different elements of the immune response is discussed. The electromagnetic radiation transmission through skin samples of pigs of different ages have been measured in order to understand the process of absorption and conversion. The methods and results are covered in the book.",isbn:"978-1-78984-519-8",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-518-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-568-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83257",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"electromagnetic-field-radiation-in-matter",numberOfPages:152,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"dda82e17d67826552d58b2e610f32435",bookSignature:"Walter Gustavo Fano, Adrian Razzitte and Patricia Larocca",publishedDate:"September 16th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9257.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3890,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:6,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 25th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 18th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 17th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 5th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 5th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"215741",title:"Prof.",name:"Walter Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Fano",slug:"walter-gustavo-fano",fullName:"Walter Gustavo Fano",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215741/images/system/215741.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Walter Gustavo Fano received his PhD in Engineering and Electronic Engineering from the University of Buenos Aires. He directs the FIUBA Electromagnetic Radiation Laboratory. He was a professor at the EST Army, ITBA, UNPSJB and currently at the University of Buenos Aires.\nHe was co-author of 3 books, 1 book chapter and 5 book chapters in press. He has published many papers in magazines and conferences. He was president of the IEEE AP & EMC Soc. Chapter, president of the IEEE Gemccon 2016, president of the Congress of AP & EMC IEEE and UBA in 2013, and president of Advances in Antenna Test and Measurement IEEE 2011. He collaborated in the organization of numerous conferences and was a senior member of IEEE.",institutionString:"University of Buenos Aires",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Buenos Aires",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"298704",title:"Dr.",name:"Adrian",middleName:"César",surname:"Razzitte",slug:"adrian-razzitte",fullName:"Adrian Razzitte",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298704/images/system/298704.gif",biography:"Adrián César Razzitte was born in Buenos Aires, Argentina. He obtained his BSc degree in Chemistry, his MSc degree in Physical Chemistry and his PhD in Physical Chemistry, all at the National University of La Plata. He is currently a Full Professor of Chemical Physics and Statistical Thermodynamics in the Chemistry Department of the Engineering Faculty of the Universidad de Buenos Aires. He was Director of that department from 2006 to 2017. He is Head of the research group of non-equilibrium thermodynamics. Professor Razzitte has had numerous research papers published in international journals and has participated in numerous international conferences on condensed matter, statistical thermodynamics and non-equilibrium thermodynamics. He has directed several PhD theses in engineering.",institutionString:"University of Buenos Aires",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Buenos Aires",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"298705",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",middleName:"Alejandra",surname:"Larocca",slug:"patricia-larocca",fullName:"Patricia Larocca",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298705/images/system/298705.jpeg",biography:"Patricia Larocca is a senior research scientist and the Director at the Institute of Applied Geodesy and Geophysics of the Faculty of Engineering of Buenos Aires University. She has a MSc degree in Physics received from the Faculty of Exact and Natural Sciences, and a PhD in Engineering received from Faculty of Engineering of Buenos Aires University. She has been an Associate Professor at the Facultad de Ingeniería for over ten years.\nIn 2007, Dr. Larocca joined the Institute of Applied Geodesy and Geophysics and has since worked on multiple scientific topics related to space weather, from the effects of geomagnetic storms on power systems and pipelines to satellite environment and to space weather forecasts. She has been a leader and collaborator on multiple research projects dealing with impacts of space weather on pipelines, power grids, and also investigated the ionized radiation on satellite orbits. She is the author or co-author of more than 40 peer-reviewed scientific articles on geomagnetic and space weather effects topics, one chapter of a published book and one chapter of a book currently in press.",institutionString:"University of Buenos Aires",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Buenos Aires",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1169",title:"Condensed Matter Physics",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials-material-science-condensed-matter-physics"}],chapters:[{id:"72015",title:"Introductory Chapter: Causal Models of Electrical Permittivity and Magnetic Permeability",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92313",slug:"introductory-chapter-causal-models-of-electrical-permittivity-and-magnetic-permeability",totalDownloads:388,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Walter Gustavo Fano",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72015",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72015",authors:[{id:"215741",title:"Prof.",name:"Walter Gustavo",surname:"Fano",slug:"walter-gustavo-fano",fullName:"Walter Gustavo Fano"}],corrections:null},{id:"71333",title:"Fields in Dispersive Media",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91432",slug:"fields-in-dispersive-media",totalDownloads:463,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"It is not just the case that matter affects the propagation of light—or more specifically electromagnetic (EM) radiation—it is also the case that light affects the matter through which it propagates. Conversely, this affects the propagation of light through the medium, but in a much more specific way; this effect is a function of the properties of both the material and the incident EM radiation. We will additionally discuss the effects of dispersion in confined (bounded) media, i.e., where the dispersion is a function of the arrangement of certain materials and unbounded media where EM radiation is free to propagate undisturbed. This will be important when we discuss the propagation electric field signals of such media as well.",signatures:"Emeka Ikpeazu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71333",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71333",authors:[{id:"312024",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Emeka",surname:"Ikpeazu",slug:"emeka-ikpeazu",fullName:"Emeka Ikpeazu"}],corrections:null},{id:"69456",title:"The Electrical Properties of Soils with Their Applications to Agriculture, Geophysics, and Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88989",slug:"the-electrical-properties-of-soils-with-their-applications-to-agriculture-geophysics-and-engineering",totalDownloads:775,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The electric properties of the soils are very important for several sciences like telecommunications, electrical engineering, geophysics, and agriculture. There are semiempirical dielectric models for soils, which represent the real and imaginary part of the dielectric permittivity as the function of the frequency. The measurement methods to obtain the dielectric properties of soils are described for different bands of frequencies from some kHz to several GHz. The parallel plate capacitors are widely used to measure dielectric properties. The transmission line method of a coaxial transmission line can be used in frequency domain and time domain. The time domain technique with transmission lines is usually called time-domain reflectometry (TDR), because it is based on the voltage measurement as a function of time of pulses. The frequency domain technique with transmission lines is based on the reflection coefficient measurement of the transmission line. The transmission line method is described with short load and open-circuit load because it is useful in obtaining the characteristic impedance and the electric permittivity of the media inside.",signatures:"Walter Gustavo Fano",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69456",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69456",authors:[{id:"215741",title:"Prof.",name:"Walter Gustavo",surname:"Fano",slug:"walter-gustavo-fano",fullName:"Walter Gustavo Fano"}],corrections:null},{id:"72933",title:"Thermoelectric Properties of Chalcogenide System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93248",slug:"thermoelectric-properties-of-chalcogenide-system",totalDownloads:425,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We will discuss the development of a new ternary and quaternary tellurium telluride chalcogenide nanoparticles used for efficient thermo-electric waste heat energy convertor called thermo-electric generator. Nanoparticles-based tellurium telluride chalcogenide nanoparticles, which will be used for thermoelectric generator, will eventually solve an important issue of the energy crises, that is, conversion of waste heat into useful electrical energy. By injecting charge carriers in the host matrix of Tl10-x-yAxByTe6 nanomaterials system, different types of dopants (A = Pb, Sn, Ca and B = Pb, Sb Sr, etc.), with x = 0–2.5 and y = 0–2.5 on tellurium telluride has been introduced to synthesize new materials by Co-precipitation techniques and also by solid state reaction techniques followed by Ball-Milling for the fabrication of nanomaterials. We will study the effect of reduction of charge carriers in thermal and transport properties using different dopants contents by replacing host atoms. The charge carrier’s concentration will affect the ratio of electron-hole concentration which in turns increases the electron scattering in these chalcogenide nanoparticles, which will affect the electrical conductivity and thermo-power. The prime purpose of doping with different ionic radii and different concentration is to enhance the power factor for the tellurium telluride nanosystem. At the end one will be able to control different physical parameters such as, thermally assisted electrical conductivity, and thermopower. Different characterization technique will be applied, for example, X-Ray diffraction techniques will be used for structural analysis, SEM will shows the morphological structure of the particles at 100 nm and energy dispersive x-rays spectroscopy will be used for elemental analysis. The electrical conductivity will be measured by four-probe resistivity measurement techniques, and Seebeck coefficient will be measured by standard temperature gradient techniques.",signatures:"Wiqar Hussain Shah and Waqas Muhammad Khan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72933",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72933",authors:[{id:"226139",title:"Prof.",name:"Wiqar Hussain",surname:"Shah",slug:"wiqar-hussain-shah",fullName:"Wiqar Hussain Shah"},{id:"295439",title:"Mr.",name:"Waqas Muhammad",surname:"Khan",slug:"waqas-muhammad-khan",fullName:"Waqas Muhammad Khan"}],corrections:null},{id:"71299",title:"Electrical Conductivity of Molten Salts and Ionic Conduction in Electrolyte Solutions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91369",slug:"electrical-conductivity-of-molten-salts-and-ionic-conduction-in-electrolyte-solutions",totalDownloads:781,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A microscopic description for the partial DC conductivities in molten salts has been discussed by using a Langevin equation for the constituent ions. The memory function γ(t) can be written as in the form of a decaying function with time. In order to solve the mutual relation between the combined-velocity correlation functions Zσ±(t) and the memory function γ(t) in a short time region, a new recursion method is proposed. Practical application is carried out for molten NaCl by using MD simulation. The fitted function is described by three kinds of Gaussian functions and their physical backgrounds are discussed. Also the electrical conductivity in aqueous solution of electrolyte has been obtained, based on a generalized Langevin equation for cation and anion in it. This treatment can connect and compare with the work of computer simulation. The obtained results for concentration dependence of electrical conductivity are given by a function of the square root of concentration. The electrophoretic effect and the relaxation one are also discussed.",signatures:"Shigeru Tamaki, Shigeki Matsunaga and Masanobu Kusakabe",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71299",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71299",authors:[{id:"101922",title:"Prof.",name:"Shigeki",surname:"Matsunaga",slug:"shigeki-matsunaga",fullName:"Shigeki Matsunaga"},{id:"104566",title:"Prof.",name:"Shigeru",surname:"Tamaki",slug:"shigeru-tamaki",fullName:"Shigeru Tamaki"},{id:"311340",title:"Prof.",name:"Masanobu",surname:"Kusakabe",slug:"masanobu-kusakabe",fullName:"Masanobu Kusakabe"}],corrections:null},{id:"69260",title:"Study of the Electromagnetic Radiation on the Animal Body",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89430",slug:"study-of-the-electromagnetic-radiation-on-the-animal-body",totalDownloads:626,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The rapid technical development of human society on Earth leads to the pollution of its atmosphere and an increase in the electromagnetic radiation of the Sun and its main part—light and ultraviolet radiation. In order to properly protect and control the effects of electromagnetic radiation on the human body, it is necessary to know and understand the process of absorption and conversion of electromagnetic radiation falling on the surface of the body. The material contains the original results of experimental studies on electromagnetic radiation transmission through a sample of quasi-vital skin with pigs of different ages. The reliable results of the percentage ratio of the amount of electromagnetic radiation of the optical spectrum that passes under the skin through the skin layer and the individual wool depending on the species and age of the animal are obtained. The results of the experiment showed that the electromagnetic radiation of the Sun affects the body of the animal through the skin, as well as inside the cylinders of separate wool. This new knowledge is important for biologists and applied engineers to monitor and control electromagnetic radiation for young and old animals with different wools.",signatures:"Leonid Chervinsky",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69260",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69260",authors:[{id:"307368",title:"Prof.",name:"Leonid",surname:"Chervinsky",slug:"leonid-chervinsky",fullName:"Leonid Chervinsky"}],corrections:null},{id:"70555",title:"Square-Wave Electric Impulses of 10 ms and 100 V/cm of Field Force, Produced by PGen-1 Impulse Generator Device, Affect the Proliferation Patterns of Different Animal Cells",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90506",slug:"square-wave-electric-impulses-of-10-ms-and-100-v-cm-of-field-force-produced-by-pgen-1-impulse-genera",totalDownloads:433,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The influence of the medium-strength electric forces (MSE) on the proliferation of adherent chicken embryo fibroblasts (CEF), VERO, MDBK, MRC-5, and HeLa; lymphoblast cells, FB1 and K562; and cell multiplications were analyzed by growth index (GI). Impulse generator device PGen-1 provided 100 V/cm square-wave impulses of 10 ms. Treatment: Samples were subjected to one or three MSE. GIs were compared with controls after 72 hours and one or three treatments: Monolayers: CEF: GI in the control is 16.76, and after one and three MSE, it is 15.81 and 7.09. Vero cells: GI in the controls is 8.39, and after one and three MSE, it is 5.39 and 5.69. MDBK cells: GI in controls is 8.39, and after one and three MSE, it is 5.39 and 5.69. MRC-5 cells: GI in controls is 5.58, and after one and three MSE, it is 4.18 and 2.60. HeLa cells: GI in controls is 13.69, and after one and three MSE, it is 10.16 and 5.37. Suspension cells: Lymphoblast FB1: GI in controls is 6.55, and after one and three MSE, it is 13.48 and 12.25. Lymphoblast K562: GI in controls is 9.07, and after one or three MSE, it is 12.37 and 13.55. To conclude: MSE in monolayer cells inhibits the GI, depending on the nature of cells. 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\r\n\tBioreactors have become an integral part of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine enterprise. In the traditional paradigm of tissue engineering, cells are added to scaffolds by seeding and then the living constructs need to be maintained in physiologic conditions of temperature, flow of nutrients and gases, and mechanical or electrical stimuli typical of the target tissues. In many instances, the living constructs need to be exposed to additional specific stimuli for adaptation and maturation. Depending on the intended application, constructs will be kept alive for extended periods to serve as in vivo testing platforms, or prepared for implantation by in vitro conditioning. During this phase, cell phenotypes need to be maintained quiescent, under ideal perfusion conditions, with manual or automatic control over all parameters. To achieve these requirements, we need to design modular systems capable of exposing the constructs to stimuli in a measurable and controllable manner. This requires specific expertise in CAD, 3D printing, sterilization, parameter controls, instrumentation, software, hardware, pneumatics, biomechanics and cell biology, among others.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with an overview of the requirements for bioreactor design and implementation as well as specific applications for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.
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He has published more than 95 peer-reviewed papers in highly ranked journals such as Circulation, Cardiovascular Pathology, American Journal of Pathology, Tissue Engineering, and Biomaterials and has more than 180 peer-reviewed conference proceedings presented worldwide. Dr. Simionescu’s general research interests include cardiovascular biology, pathology, and regeneration using scaffolds, stem cells and bioreactors. 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Akin to the pathological modifications noticed in grafts implanted in diabetic patients, my group showed that collagen and elastin-based scaffolds implanted in diabetic animals were also adversely remodeled. Currently, my work focuses on understanding the mechanisms underlying diabetes-related complications that occur in implanted tissues, in order to develop viable tissue engineered grafts that could withstand these complications. I published and presented multiple peer reviewed papers and patents in the field of cardiovascular engineering (HI=16) and received several presentation awards. I serve as a grant reviewer for NIH and AHA and for several prominent journals. In my lab I have built a variety of bioreactors for heart valve, myocardial and vascular studies. Using these bioreactors we develop models for vascular complications in diabetes, using an optimized vascular bioreactor.",institutionString:"Clemson University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Clemson University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"320322",title:"Dr.",name:"Leslie",middleName:null,surname:"Sierad",slug:"leslie-sierad",fullName:"Leslie Sierad",profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/a043Y00000eYgRLQA0/Co1_Profile_Picture-1584980719011",biography:"As the Founder and President of Aptus Bioreactors, one of my primary goals is to advance the fields of Biomedical and Tissue Engineering so clinical applications can one day be made. I hold a PhD degree in Bioengineering from Clemson University and have been involved with bioreactor development since my graduate work in the lab.\r\nAptus Bioreactors’ historic role in that advancement is to provide sophisticated cardiovascular bioreactor systems to researchers all around the world. To date, we have leased or sold 26 cardiovascular bioreactor systems to 8 different research groups on 3\r\ncontinents. Currently we are preparing for a significant shift in focus from providing bioreactor equipment to performing the research necessary to bring a tissue-engineered heart valve to the market. I have extensive experience designing and developing bioreactor systems for decellularizing, seeding, and testing heart valves, blood vessels, and other tissues for regenerative medicine applications, as highlighted by the company activities and the numerous patent issued and pending in the field.\r\nI have experience servicing multiple types of projects from many principal investigators, which has required coordination between multiple service provider and customer groups in broad geographical and technical areas. These collaborations have been forged between groups on the same campus as well as between universities in multiple nations.\r\nOver many years participating in the leadership of various professional and philanthropic groups, I have also had many opportunities to mentor, train, and advance those under my supervision.\r\nMy technical background in the field of bioreactors and my experience in leading a diverse team has directly fueled my ability\r\nand desire to serve in this capacity in cooperation with the other members of this team-based book project.",institutionString:"Aptus LLC",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"301331",firstName:"Mia",lastName:"Vulovic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/301331/images/8498_n.jpg",email:"mia.v@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Such concepts promote the minimization of fresh water consumption, a reduction in wastewater production and the recycling of wastes. Hence, in a world where water scarcity and climate change are a reality, actions to protect fresh water resources and enhance renewable energy capacity are mandatory for any type and size of industry. With reference to solid wastes, social and environmental responsibility goes beyond the obligations determined by law and relies on substantial technical research to establish a strict environmental management policy.
Meat processing plants worldwide use approximately 62 Mm³ per year of water. Only a small amount of this quantity becomes a component of the final product. The remaining part becomes wastewater with high biological and chemical oxygen demands, high fat content and high concentrations of dry residue, sedimentary and total suspended matter as well as nitrogen and chloride compounds (Sroka et al., 2004). Of the components usually found in these effluents, blood can be considered as the most problematic due to its capacity to inhibit floc formation during physicochemical wastewater treatment and its high biochemical (BOD5, biochemical oxygen demand during decomposition over a 5-day period) and chemical oxygen demand (COD). In fact, even with correct handling during meat processing, this activity generates 2.0 and 0.5 liters of blood as effluent for each bovine animal and pig, respectively (Tritt & Schuchardt, 1992). The treatment of both the solid wastes and the wastewater from the meat processing industry represents one of the greatest concerns associated with the agro-industrial sector globally, mainly due to the restrictions that international trade regulations have imposed over their use and the related environmental issues.
In order to meet this challenge, one of the largest meat processing companies in Brazilian initiated a series of investments in scientific research to improve its environmental performance. Biomass as an energy source, air pollution control, and water and wastewater management were the main issues addressed in research projects carried out from 2003 to 2010.
The Brazilian agro-industrial sector consumes large amounts of fresh water and produces large amounts of residues and by-products, which can potentially be used as energy sources. The Brazilian legislation itself admits the need for water management in industrial plants to implement cleaner production techniques, which include the conscious uses of water. There are several legal documents that promote the recognition of water as public property and a finite resource with economic value. These legal norms and legislation are gathered in a single official document called “Set of legal regulations: water resources” (Brazil, 2011) and promote: (1) the rationalization of water use and its conservation, reconditioning and sustainable management; (2) investment in pollution control, reuse, protection and conservation as well as the use of clean technologies to protect water resources; (3) the practice of water reuse to reduce discharges of pollutants into receiving waters, conserving water resources for public supply and other uses which demand high quality water; (4) the practice of water reuse to reduce the costs associated with pollution, contributing to the protection of the environment and public health; and (5) the creation of guidelines to regulate and encourage the practice of direct reuse of non-potable water. Official Brazilian reports highlight that the costs of water treatment have been raised by the contamination of water resources and water shortages (aspects of quality and quantity) in certain regions of the country. Consequently, they emphasize that high quality water should not be used in activities that tolerate water of lower quality (Brazil, 2011).
Regarding the solid waste materials generated in agro-industries, these are commonly generated during the processing of crops, but are also produced by all sectors of the food industry including everything from meat production to confectionery, such as peelings and scraps from fruit and vegetables, food that does not meet quality control standards, pulp and fiber from sugar and starch extraction, sludge from physicochemical and biological wastewater treatment and filter sludge. The co-digestion of energy crops and a variety of residual biomasses may be a good integrated solution for energy recovery from such waste materials, particularly with wastes that are unsuitable for direct disposal on land, as proposed by Schievano et al. (2009). These authors evaluated the suitability and the costs associated with many substitutes for energy crops in biogas production such as: swine manure, municipal solid waste, olive oil sludge, glycerine from biodiesel production and other agro-industrial by-products and residues. They concluded that farms could implant biogas plants to treat their own biomass generated and other urban and agro-industrial organic wastes, providing power for the neighborhood and improvements in the agrarian economy.
The use of the biosolids originating from the physicochemical treatment of meat processing wastewater can reduce the costs associated with its disposal (which has been prohibited in many locations by strict regulations) as it can directly and significantly reduce the mass and volume of such wastes, allowing energy recovery and generally lower toxic gas emissions when compared to fossil fuels. As long as emissions are below the specified legislative limits, changing energy policies lend support to the use of this type of biomass as a fuel source, as part of a move towards achieving low carbon economies.
The EIA Annual Energy Outlook 2011 reported that the global marketed energy consumption is expected to rise by nearly 50 percent from 2009 through 2035 (US EIA, 2011). Unless the world energy matrix is altered, fossil fuels will account for 90% of this increase.
The requirement to reduce carbon dioxide emissions has sparked interest in the use of many types of biomass as alternative energy sources. Since biomass is produced by the photosynthetic reduction of carbon dioxide, its utilization as biofuel can essentially be carbon neutral with respect to the build-up of atmospheric greenhouse gases, increasing both the demand for the characterization of alternative fuels and encouraging the proliferation of scientific papers concerned with this subject (Demirbas, 2004, 2005; de Sena et al., 2008, 2009; Floriani et al., 2010; Obernberger et al., 2006; Virmond et al., 2010, 2011\n\t\t\t\t2012a, 2012b; Werther et al., 2000).
Brazil is currently implementing advanced programs aimed at the use of biomass energy, and several experimental and commercial projects are being implemented, such as those presented by Lora and Andrade (2009), to provide important information in order to overcome the technical and commercial barriers which inhibit the extensive implementation of bioenergy. The solid wastes produced by the meat industry have been applied mostly to the production of animal feed, which include the slaughter wastes and the wastewater treatment solids as main ingredients (Johns, 1995; Tritt and Schuchardt, 1992). However, diseases such as BSE (Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy) have led to restrictions over the use of these wastes for feed production.
The first actions taken by the case study meat processing company, between the years 2003 and 2004, as shown by de Sena et al. (2008), were related to the in-depth investigation of the physicochemical treatment carried out at the wastewater plant with regard to its solids removal, mainly to achieve an increase in the chlorine-free biomass obtainment with a view to its utilization as a biomass fuel for steam generation. The data obtained indicate that the raw wastewater has a high organic load comprised basically of blood and organic materials that cause the red color, the greater part of the turbidity, the high concentration of total solids, oils and greases, the BOD5 and the COD. The combustion of these wastes, especially the sludge from the wastewater treatment plants, might be a nobler utilization for economic reasons, however, many parameters related to the combustion must be monitored due to the formation of pollutants such as polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDD), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDF), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), NOx, and SO2. The authors showed that the physicochemical treatment carried out at the meat processing wastewater plant provides around 20% of sludge, an organic solid residue, using the chlorine-free coagulant ferric sulfate (instead of aluminum or ferric chloride). In order to avoid discharge and subsequent environmental problems, the authors performed a preliminary combustion test with a mixture of biosolids and sawdust in a mass ratio of 4:1. The results suggested that the use of the biosolids as an alternative energy source would offer a favorable solution, reducing disposal and processing costs, as well as avoiding environmental and health problems for staff and the community close to these processing plants, thus establishing a cheaper and cleaner energy source for the meat industry segment (de Sena et al., 2008).
Another point related to sustainability in the meat processing industry is the associated farm residues, like pig and chicken manure. A reasonable solution for these wastes is their anaerobic digestion to produce biogas and/or fertilizers. Many farms in Brazil are implementing biodigestors in order to obtain biogas to produce electrical or thermal energy. Boersma et al. (1981), for example, studied the energy recovery from biogas produced from pig waste and verified an economy of 86%, showing a very good potential for this kind of solution. Also, carbon credits could be sold when the biodigestion process together with the energy recovery are applied to the farms.
Biogas is composed basically of methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and other components in lower concentration. The gas production and the proportion of each compound are dependent on the biodigestor parameters and the chemical composition of the substrates (Lucas Jr., 1994).
A typical composition of a biogas is 55-65% of CH4, 35-45% of CO2 and a low concentration of H2S. The presence of H2S can cause corrosion problems when using the biogas as a fuel and also, when it is emitted to the atmosphere, its greenhouse potential is 21 times higher than that of CO2. A high concentration of methane is desirable, as its presence increases the calorific value of the gas, making it more attractive for energy production.
In this context, this chapter was designed to highlight complementary research projects that have been carried out between 2005 and 2010 to implement actions to reduce the fresh water consumption, promoting water recycling and reuse, and to further investigate the application of biomass residues as energy sources and gaseous emissions in combustion processes.
The industrial plant which formed the basis of this case study is located in the west of Santa Catarina State (southern Brazil), where water pollution and overexploitation, the uneven distribution of rainfall over the seasons and long periods of drought, especially in summer, have become a significant problem. The activities of the meat processing plant of this case study include the slaughtering and processing of poultry and swine, while the poultry hatchery plant includes all activities involved in poultry growth: breeding, hatching, rearing, food production and waste handling.
The meat processing plant has its own drinking water treatment plant (DWTP) and wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). The major water resource of this unit is from a river called Rio do Peixe. Its DWTP produces around 8,600 m3 d-1 of drinking water, and the WWTP treats around 7,900 m3 d-1 of wastewater. As described by de Sena et al. (2008), after the flotation process with a continuous capacity of 350 m3 h-1, the treated effluent undergoes a biological treatment, while the biosolids are transported by pumps to a three-phase centrifugal system, which separates oil, water and solid parts (biomass). Afterwards, the biomass is dried in an industrial rotating granulator drier with an operating capacity of 400 kg h-1 (model Bruthus, Albrecht, Brazil), where the moisture content was reduced from approximately from 80 wt% to 10-20 wt% in order to make the burning process feasible.
Figure 1 shows the wastewater treatment process of the case study meat processing plant.
Processes involved in the wastewater treatment plant and obtainment of biofuel (de Sena et al., 2008)
The wastewater treatment plants of meat processing units in Brazil usually undergo the same type of treatment process, where a flotation system is the most commonly used solid-liquid separation step, due to the natural characteristics of these effluents, which possess high oil and grease contents. To increase the flotation performance the use of coagulants and coagulation aids are mandatory. Dissolved air flotation (DAF) has become an attractive separation process because of its well-known higher efficiency in terms of organic matter abatement, although the increase in costs associated with the production of micro-bubbles and system maintenance must be considered. Flotation processes are preferred in relation to sedimentation considering their faster solids separation, the lower moisture content of the sludge produced and the smaller area requirements. Coagulants themselves are very efficient for floc formation during the coagulation process, but the use of coagulation aids (
When the flotation of the solids is complete, the froth on the surface is separated from the water and skimmed off. It is collected in chambers and is pumped to a three-phase centrifuge where another polymer, a cationic polyacrylamide, is added to improve the oil-water-sludge separation. The water undergoes biological treatment and the oil is collected and sold as a raw material for the soap and detergent manufacturing industries. The remaining solid fraction is the sludge which was formerly used as an ingredient for animal food and feeds, especially the pet segment. However, due to the above-mentioned restrictions regarding its use in feeds, there are currently two other available options for the correct discharge of this so-called waste: combustion/incineration or land disposal. The combustion of the sludge for steam generation was the option chosen in this case study due to both economic and environmental aspects, since the use of an existing waste as part of the fuel content will decrease the fuel costs for internal energy supply, and the amount of sludge added to the fuel used (wood chips) could be properly controlled with regard to the gaseous emissions. On the other hand, land disposal might bring extra costs associated with transportation and long-term storage. All of the results obtained, as well as their pros and cons, are discussed in detail in the following sections.
The importance of the Brazilian poultry industry can be verified by its strong presence in the rural regions, mainly in the southern and south-eastern states. In many cities, poultry production is the main economic activity. The poultry hatchery unit of this case study, as in the case of the meat processing unit, also has its own WWTP. The wastewater originated from the processes of this unit is characterized by a high organic content, with the presence of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus, as well as persistent organic compounds such as the residues of sanitizing products (
The water and wastewater management (W2M) proposed for the pilot plant aimed to minimize the water consumption and evaluate the possibilities for water and wastewater reuse in the food industry. The W2M, described in a previous publication (Luiz et al., 2012a), proposed strategies for water management in slaughterhouses considering the restrictions imposed by Brazilian legislation and hygiene concerns particular to the food industry. The objective was to present alternatives for the minimization of water consumption and wastewater production.
The proposed W2M is a practical model of industrial water management, which consists of seven stages:
Collection and analysis of documents;
Measurement of water consumption and wastewater production (water balance);
Verification of the points of greatest water consumption;
Minimization of water consumption with emphasis on the points of greatest water consumption;
Evaluation of the potential for water reuse and recycling without reconditioning;
Evaluation of the potential for water reuse and recycling after reconditioning; and
Maintenance of water management.
The points identified as being associated with major water consumption were: (1) pre-cooling of giblets, (2) washing of poultry carcass before pre-chilling, (3) transportation of giblets, poultry necks and feet, and (4) washing of swine carcass after buckling. The potential for reducing the fresh water consumption in-line with the current Brazilian legislation in these four process steps was approximately 806 m3 d-1 (Luiz et al., 2012a).
After the minimization of water use, the most important action is the evaluation of direct recycling and reuse of wastewater without reconditioning or treatment (direct reuse). The direct reuse could be “in processes without direct contact with food products, that is, in non-potable uses (
The theoretical reduction in water consumption, after applying the principles of water minimization and wastewater reuse, was 25.6%, representing a financial saving of around $434,000 per year (Table 1). However, new regulations need to be elaborated together with national environmental, sanitary and water supply agencies, processing industries and research institutions aiming at the legalization and promotion of water reuse in the food industry.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t|||
Production in 2007 | \n\t\t\t8616.0 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t1,539,353 | \n\t\t
Theoretical production after water minimization | \n\t\t\t7810.0 | \n\t\t\t9.4 | \n\t\t\t1,366,000 | \n\t\t
Theoretical production after wastewater reuse | \n\t\t\t7216.8 | \n\t\t\t16.0 | \n\t\t\t1,256,996 | \n\t\t
Theoretical production after water minimization and wastewater reuse | \n\t\t\t6410.0 | \n\t\t\t25.4 | \n\t\t\t1,104,731 | \n\t\t
Water and financial savings
1Considering costs in 2007: $0.10 and $0.42 per m3 to treat water (DWTP) and wastewater (WWTP), respectively, in the case study meat processing plant. Data reproduced from Luiz et al., 2012a.
Additionally, tertiary treatments are a good alternative to produce high quality indirect reuse water, reducing the percent of fresh water consumption. Tertiary treatments can be applied to recondition secondary effluents (
To improve the quality of the wastewater to be reused, it is necessary to disinfect it and to decrease or eliminate the concentration of biologically persistent organic compounds. The inefficient removal of these organic compounds from the wastewater before reuse or discharge into natural watercourse is promoting their accumulation in fresh water bodies and causing environmental and human health problems and, especially, harming the aquatic animals (Esplugas et al, 2007; Liu et al., 2009; Luiz et al., 2009, 2010, 2011; Oller et al., 2011).
Biologically resistant pollutants or persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are compounds which are not eliminated through the metabolic activity of living organisms (mainly bacteria and fungi) in natural waters and soils (Oller et al., 2011). Thus, conventional primary (removal of suspended compounds) and secondary (such as activated sludge) wastewater treatments are inefficient in removing these pollutants (Luiz et al., 2009). These compounds are present in municipal wastewaters primarily as pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) (Esplugas et al., 2007), and also in industrial wastewaters which contain a large number of synthetic and toxic compounds, mainly polar and non-polar hazardous compounds, pharmaceuticals, phenols, pesticides, endocrine disruptor compounds (EDCs), and non-biodegradable and toxic chlorinated solvents (Esplugas et al., 2007; Liu et al., 2009; Luiz et al., 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012a; Petrović et al., 2003).
Due to the large variety of recalcitrant organic contaminants, the tertiary treatment applied to produce water for reuse must be exceptionally efficient. The advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are an excellent alternative. During AOPs, highly reactive oxidizing radicals are formed, mainly hydroxyl radicals (•OH) (Koning et al., 2008). These radicals are non-selective, promoting the oxidation of all organic and inorganic contaminants and, in the presence of a sufficient amount of oxidant and optimized reaction conditions, complete mineralization can be reached, the final products being CO2, H2O and inorganic anions. Thus, AOPs are applied to totally or partially remove recalcitrant organic compounds, increasing the biodegradability of wastewater (Rizzo, 2011).
In previous studies carried out by our group we evaluated the different options of tertiary treatments to produce high quality reuse water to be used in processes without contact with food products, that is, non-potable uses (
The tertiary treatments evaluated for the slaughterhouse secondary wastewater included: UV, H2O2, O3, and AOPs (H2O2/UV, O3/UV; O3/H2O2/UV; TiO2/UV; and H2O2/TiO2/UV). Additionally, for the best combinations, the kinetics of the photo-induced degradation of color, UV254, total organic carbon (TOC) and/or total coliforms were evaluated (Luiz et al., 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012a,b).
Two main problems were encountered during this research. The first issue was the variation in the quality of the target slaughterhouse wastewater over time, which affected the treatment efficiency and the determination of the best treatment (Luiz et al., 2011). The second issue was the high concentration of nitrate and nitrite: 45.9(±17.7) mg NO3--N L-1 and 3.74-3.77 mg NO2--N L-1, respectively (Luiz et al., 2012). The Brazilian drinking water standard (Brazilian Ministry of Health Administrative Ruling 518/2004) allows 10 mg NO3--N L-1 and 1 mg NO2--N L-1, respectively.
In order to remove the recalcitrant organic compounds and the nitrate/nitrite, to reduce the color and turbidity, and to disinfect the secondary wastewater in a single treatment, micro-filtration followed by an AOP employing H2O2/TiO2/UV was identified as the best combination evaluated (Figure 2).
Process proposed for the treatment of secondary wastewaters with high concentration of nitrate/nitrite and recalcitrant organic compounds.
The photocatalytic removal of nitrate/nitrite is more effective in the absence of dissolved oxygen, because if O2 is present this oxidant agent will be a better final electron acceptor than nitrate or nitrite. The catalyst is activated by the absorption of high energy photons, promoting the excitation of the electrons from the valence band (VB) to the conduction band (CB), and consequently an electron (e-) and a positive hole (h+) are formed in the CB and VB, respectively (Luiz et al., 2012b). The electron reduces the oxidizing agent adsorbed on the catalyst, and the hole oxidizes the organic compound or H2O. In the latter case, the oxidation of H2O produces •OH radicals, which will also oxidize organic matter (Ahmed et al., 2010).
Therefore, during the photocatalytic removal of nitrate/nitrite by UV/TiO2, nitrate and nitrite ions will be the final electron acceptor and they will be reduced to N2 gas. The natural organic compounds or residual, biologically persistent, organic pollutants (in the case of industrial wastewaters) will be the hole scavengers (electron donors, reducing agent). In cases where the natural concentration of organic compounds in the aquatic medium is not sufficient to promote the reduction of nitrate/nitrite to below the desired concentration, a carbon source should be added. Formic acid is a good alternative since its residue can be completely decomposed into the harmless compounds CO2 and H2O (Luiz et al., 2012b; Rengaraj and Li, 2007; Sá et al., 2009; Wehbe et al., 2009; Zhang et al, 2005). Finally, the heterogeneous AOP system UV/TiO2/H2O2 was applied in the presence of O2 to remove residual organic matter and achieve the required standard of drinking water quality (Luiz et al., 2012b).
The proposed treatment was also successful in removing recalcitrant organic compounds present in the secondary treated slaughterhouse wastewater, which include antibiotics, pharmaceuticals and personal care products which are commonly found in industrial, but predominantly in sanitary and domestic, wastewater (Luiz et al., 2009). One such compound found was the macrolide antibiotic erythromycin A and its removal and degradation products resulting from direct ozone attack and hydroxyl radical attack (AOPs O3/UV, O3/H2O2 and UV/H2O2) were evaluated. However, the research indicated that the degradation of organic micropollutants, such as erythromycin, in the AOP may be faster than under ozone treatment, because the hydroxyl radical attack (AOP treatments) is not selective and is usually diffusion-controlled. On the other hand, the direct attack of ozone is selective and is typically targeted toward functional groups with a lone valence electron pair where the electrophilic addition of ozone occurs (unsaturated compounds with carbon-carbon double or triple bonds - π bonds, aromatic rings, amines and sulfides) (Luiz et al., 2010, 2012a).
Industrial wastewater is generally comprised of various effluent streams generated at different points in a particular process. Its physicochemical characteristics can present considerable variation over time due to, for instance, changes in operating procedures and cleaning activities. Therefore, the complexity and variation of its composition are typical attributes of industrial wastewater (Genena, 2009).
The poultry hatchery wastewater of this case study was collected and passed through the stages of screening and equalization. The wastewater variability was investigated over a period of 48 h and its quality was evaluated by chemical oxygen demand (COD) analysis, which is an overall pollution indicator and represents the amount of organic matter present in the sample. The COD values ranged from 218±2 to 997±5 mg O2 L-1, which confirms the high variability in the nature of the poultry hatchery wastewater (Genena, 2009).
Wastewater in the poultry hatcheries originates mainly from the washing of equipment and utensils. Therefore, a series of diverse compounds may be present, such as veterinary drugs administered to the animals through feed and excreted by them in urine, and sanitizer agents and pesticides used in the cleaning and disinfection of the work environment (Genena, 2009). These compounds, which are persistent compounds, are very harmful to the environment, presenting high toxicity and bioaccumulation (Almeida et al., 2004). They are complex and often difficult to degrade in the biological treatment systems commonly present in industrial wastewater treatment plants.
The food industry is constantly seeking ways to improve the quality of its wastewater through changes in treatment systems. The growing concern regarding emerging and persistent compounds has resulted in researchers focusing their attention on alternative methods of wastewater treatment to minimize or avoid the discharge of these pollutants into water resources, since the biological treatment processes typically used by the food industry are not able to destroy these types of compounds (Genena et al., 2011). The application of oxidative elimination methods,
The proposal for the use of physicochemical processes for the treatment of the poultry hatchery wastewater of this case study was based on the value of 4.6 for the COD/BOD5 ratio (low biodegradability) and the presence of persistent compounds. Therefore, the application of different AOPs (H2O2/Fe2+ – Fenton, H2O2/Fe2+/UV – photo-Fenton and H2O2/UV) for the poultry hatchery wastewater treatment was investigated. The wastewater treatment process by photo-Fenton reaction was found to be the most appropriate, resulting in better organic matter removal efficiency (approximately 91.9% of COD and 66.3% of TOC). Additionally, the COD/BOD5 ratio obtained for the treated wastewater indicates that all physicochemical treatments applied improved the biodegradability,
An important consideration in the degradation processes is the potential for the generation of toxic intermediates or compounds which are even more toxic than their parent molecule, and thus it is necessary to monitor the process using toxicity assays (Bila et al., 2005). The
Photo-Fenton and Fenton processes result in the formation of a sludge, which is usually deposited in landfills. Thus, better alternatives are being proposed and among them is sludge combustion for power generation. However, in this case study the amount of sludge obtained was insufficient for the determination of its calorific power (Genena, 2009).
The poultry hatchery wastewater was submitted to analysis by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC/MS) with the objective of investigating the presence of persistent compounds. The presence of imazalil (pesticide) was confirmed among the investigated compounds. Imazalil is an organochloride compound used as a fungicide in the industry for sanitization (Genena, 2009, Genena et al., 2011). Organochlorine pesticides are typical persistent organic pollutants and are the subject of worldwide concern due to their persistence, bioaccumulation and potential negative impacts on humans and animals (Guan et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2007). The biological treatment of wastewater containing micropollutants, like pesticides, is often very complicated or even impossible, because many pesticides are highly toxic to wastewater biocoenosis (Genena et al., 2011).
The treatment of ultrapure water to remove imazalil has been investigated applying the photo-Fenton (AOP) and ozonation processes.
The biosolids originating from the wastewater treatment system of the meat processing plant, sawdust and their mixture in a mass ratio of 1:9 (w/w) were characterized as fuels. The correlations between the fuel properties, the operating parameters for the combustion and the gaseous emissions were then investigated in order to evaluate the feasibility of applying this organic residue as a substitute fuel for thermal energy generation.
The fuel properties often form the basis for the selection of the most appropriate technology for the biomass-to-energy conversion process. Depending on these properties, a biomass fuel may not be suitable for specific conversion options, partially for technical and sometimes for environmental reasons. The characteristics of the biomass are influenced by its origin and also by the entire processing system preceding any conversion step. Biomass presents a wide variation in its physical and chemical properties. Many publications have investigated the effects of the biomass properties on thermal conversion processes (Demirbas, 2004; Jenkins et al., 1998; Obernberger et al., 2006; van Paasen et al., 2006; Werther et al., 2000; Werther, 2007). The use of biomass as a fuel in combustion processes is frequently desirable in the agro-industry sector because the residues, such as wastewater sludge, usually present high calorific value. However, burning biomass containing different mineral matter compositions may create various problems which can affect the boiler operation or make the firing of the biomass in conventional combustion systems unprofitable.
Wood and wood-based materials are extensively used as fuel for thermal energy generation particularly in the Brazilian food industry, which requires large amounts of steam.
In order to evaluate the potential for the utilization of the biosolids originating from the case study plant for co-combustion with sawdust, a sample of the biosolids obtained from the physicochemical treatment (LFP) was chemically and physically characterized, and its composition was compared to that of sawdust (SD), taken as a reference fuel. Additionally, a sample of a mixture of LFP and SD in a mass ratio of 1:9 w/w (LFPSD1:9) was also characterized and the results compared to SD and LFP properties.
The methodology applied for the biomass characterization and the results obtained for LFP, SD and LFPSD1:9 were reported by Floriani et al. (2010) and Virmond et al. (2008, 2011), and are summarized in Table 2.
Carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) are the main components of solid biofuels. Carbon and hydrogen contribute positively to the HHV (higher heating value). The content of hydrogen also influences the LHV (lower heating value) due to the formation of water. The content of greases was also measured in the LFP composition (34.39 wt%, raw) and it contributes considerably to the high energy content of the LFP (LHV of 25.77 MJ kg-1, daf). The presence of chlorine in the biomass (0.18 wt%) occurs due to the utilization of chlorine-based products for hygiene purposes at the plant and is incorporated into the wastewater as well as into the remaining biosolids (LFP). The nitrogen content of the fuel mixture LFPSD1:9 (1.36 wt%), even though much lower than the concentration found in LFP, can still cause problems in terms of NOx emission during its combustion. The variability of components present in the biomass is mainly due to the chemical compounds used as ingredients during meat processing operations, especially salts and additives. The sulfur content in LFP is mainly due to the conversion of sulfur-containing proteins, but some may remain from the precipitation agent used in the wastewater treatment (ferric sulfate).
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Proximate analysis3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t||||
Ash | \n\t\t\t(wt%, db) | \n\t\t\t0.43 | \n\t\t\t12.30 | \n\t\t\t1.75 | \n\t\t
Moisture | \n\t\t\t(wt%, raw) | \n\t\t\t19.97 | \n\t\t\t15.00 | \n\t\t\t50.23 | \n\t\t
Volatiles | \n\t\t\t(wt%, daf) | \n\t\t\t79.78 | \n\t\t\t85.29 | \n\t\t\t83.08 | \n\t\t
Fixed carbon | \n\t\t\t(wt%, daf) | \n\t\t\t20.22 | \n\t\t\t9.58 | \n\t\t\t17.01 | \n\t\t
Ultimate analysis3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t||||
Carbon | \n\t\t\t(wt%, daf) | \n\t\t\t55.30 | \n\t\t\t58.04 | \n\t\t\t51.06 | \n\t\t
Hydrogen | \n\t\t\t(wt%, daf) | \n\t\t\t7.14 | \n\t\t\t9.01 | \n\t\t\t6.64 | \n\t\t
Nitrogen | \n\t\t\t(wt%, daf) | \n\t\t\t0.21 | \n\t\t\t9.24 | \n\t\t\t1.36 | \n\t\t
Sulfur | \n\t\t\t(wt%, daf) | \n\t\t\t< 0.01 | \n\t\t\t0.34 | \n\t\t\t0.03*\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Oxygen | \n\t\t\t(wt%, daf) | \n\t\t\t37.34 | \n\t\t\t22.68 | \n\t\t\t40.94 | \n\t\t
Chlorine | \n\t\t\t(wt%, daf) | \n\t\t\t< 0.01 | \n\t\t\t0.18 | \n\t\t\t< 0.01 | \n\t\t
Fluorine | \n\t\t\t(wt%, daf) | \n\t\t\t< 0.20 | \n\t\t\t< 0.20 | \n\t\t\tn.d. | \n\t\t
Phosphorus | \n\t\t\t(wt%, daf) | \n\t\t\t0.01 | \n\t\t\t1.03 | \n\t\t\tn.d. | \n\t\t
Lower Heating Value3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t||||
LHV | \n\t\t\t(MJ kg-1, daf) | \n\t\t\t16.62 | \n\t\t\t25.77 | \n\t\t\t20.31 | \n\t\t
LHV | \n\t\t\t(MJ kg-1, raw) | \n\t\t\t16.55 | \n\t\t\t22.60 | \n\t\t\t19.76 | \n\t\t
Biomass properties
1Data reproduced from Virmond et al. (2011); 2Data reproduced from Floriani et al. (2010); 3Maximum experimental uncertainties equal to 0.30%; db is on a Dry Basis; daf is on a Dry and Ash Free basis; *Value previously presented by Floriani et al. (2010) corrected; n.d. is Not Determined; LHV is Lower Heating Value
In previous publications (Floriani et al., 2010; Virmond et al., 2008, 2011), the authors have addressed the effects of the LFP ash composition on the fouling and slagging tendency in the combustion systems, showing that the occurrence of this problem can be reduced when burning a mixture of the biosolids with wood residues such as SD compared to LFP alone.
As shown in Table 3, the ash melting temperatures of LFP are much lower than the values estimated for LFPSD1:9 through mass balance analysis considering a homogeneous mixture, and its utilization is recommended in low blending proportions.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Ash composition3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t||||
Fe2O3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t(wt%, db) | \n\t\t\t4.44 | \n\t\t\t32.40 | \n\t\t\t9.34 | \n\t\t
CaO | \n\t\t\t(wt%, db) | \n\t\t\t31.27 | \n\t\t\t17.40 | \n\t\t\t22.77 | \n\t\t
MgO | \n\t\t\t(wt%, db) | \n\t\t\t11.64 | \n\t\t\t1.30 | \n\t\t\t4.59 | \n\t\t
Na2O | \n\t\t\t(wt%, db) | \n\t\t\t1.67 | \n\t\t\t1.70 | \n\t\t\t1.14 | \n\t\t
K2O | \n\t\t\t(wt%, db) | \n\t\t\t10.44 | \n\t\t\t1.70 | \n\t\t\t8.77 | \n\t\t
SiO2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t(wt%, db) | \n\t\t\t15.69 | \n\t\t\t4.90 | \n\t\t\t17.84 | \n\t\t
Al2O3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t(wt%, db) | \n\t\t\t12.30 | \n\t\t\t1.70 | \n\t\t\t8.22 | \n\t\t
TiO2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t(wt%, db) | \n\t\t\t3.94 | \n\t\t\t0.00 | \n\t\t\t3.07 | \n\t\t
P2O5\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t(wt%, db) | \n\t\t\t2.74 | \n\t\t\t36.30 | \n\t\t\t8.50 | \n\t\t
MnO | \n\t\t\t(wt%, db) | \n\t\t\t2.06 | \n\t\t\tn.d. | \n\t\t\tn.d. | \n\t\t
SO4\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t(wt%, db) | \n\t\t\t3.02 | \n\t\t\tn.d. | \n\t\t\tn.d. | \n\t\t
Ash melting temperatures | \n\t\t||||
Deformation temperature | \n\t\t\t(°C) | \n\t\t\t>1150*\n\t | \n\t750 | \n\t1335 | \n
Softening temperature | \n\t(°C) | \n\t>1170*\n | \n990 | \n1359 | \n
Hemispherical temperature | \n\t(°C) | \n\t>1190*\n | \n1010 | \n1361 | \n
Fluid temperature | \n\t(°C) | \n\t>1230*\n | \n1040 | \n1364 | \n
Biomass ash properties
1Data reproduced from Virmond et al. (2011); 2Data reproduced from Floriani et al. (2010); 3Maximum experimental uncertainties equal to 0.30%; db is on a dry basis; n.d. is not determined; 4Data reproduced from Llorente & García (2005) for eucalyptus sample
It was observed that the main element found in the sludge ash was phosphorus, followed by iron. This is considered a problem because P forms compounds with lower melting temperature, which may have influenced the results presented in Table 3. As expected, the mixture of biomasses maintained a relatively high ash melting temperature, which is a desirable aspect when considering the combustion of solid fuels. Additionally, the design of the equipment and the definition of the operating conditions are extremely important to control, or even avoid, the occurrence of such problems.
Besides the determination of the biomass properties for biofuel applications, the organic and inorganic contents of the sludge generated from the WWTP were characterized, since it is necessary to assure that sludge containing high pollutant loads is not applied as fertilizer, in order to avoid contamination of agricultural soil and cultivated plants,
\n\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t|||
\n\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t
Trace metal | \n\t\t\n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t |
Hg | \n\t\t5 | \n\t\t< 0.50 | \n\t\t< 0.50 | \n\t\t< 0.50 | \n\t
Cd | \n\t\t5 | \n\t\t< 0.50 | \n\t\t< 0.50 | \n\t\t0.64 | \n\t
Cr | \n\t\t800 | \n\t\t6.7 | \n\t\t28.4 | \n\t\t26.7 | \n\t
Cu*\n\t\t | \n\t\t800 | \n\t\t16.2 | \n\t\t29.8 | \n\t\t182.1 | \n\t
Ni | \n\t\t200 | \n\t\t1.9 | \n\t\t9.9 | \n\t\t22.0 | \n\t
Pb | \n\t\t500 | \n\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t3.4 | \n\t\t6.1 | \n\t
Zn*\n\t\t | \n\t\t2000 | \n\t\t88.2 | \n\t\t183.8 | \n\t\t1090.3 | \n\t
As | \n\t\t75 | \n\t\t0.57 | \n\t\t< 0.50 | \n\t\t< 0.50 | \n\t
Mo*\n\t\t | \n\t\t75 | \n\t\t0.50 | \n\t\t1.7 | \n\t\t4.4 | \n\t
Co*\n\t\t | \n\t\t5 | \n\t\t< 0.50 | \n\t\t< 0.50 | \n\t\t4.1 | \n\t
Micronutrient | \n\t\t\n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t |
K | \n\t\t- | \n\t\t427 | \n\t\t599 | \n\t\t6903 | \n\t
Fe | \n\t\t- | \n\t\t9360 | \n\t\t25600 | \n\t\t20900 | \n\t
Al | \n\t\t- | \n\t\t1750 | \n\t\t498 | \n\t\t3420 | \n\t
P | \n\t\t- | \n\t\t6350 | \n\t\t15900 | \n\t\t28400 | \n\t
Secondary nutrients | \n\t\t\n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t |
Ca | \n\t\t- | \n\t\t1520 | \n\t\t5080 | \n\t\t18600 | \n\t
Mg | \n\t\t- | \n\t\t148 | \n\t\t259 | \n\t\t7185 | \n\t
S | \n\t\t- | \n\t\t3140 | \n\t\t6630 | \n\t\t9810 | \n\t
Results for the determination of trace metals and nutrients in the sludge samples
db is Dry Basis; 1Upper limit of pollution for the disposal of sewage sludge in the environment (EU, 2000); * Trace elements, biologically essential in small quantities. Reproduced from de Sena et al. (2009)
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t|||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t|
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) | \n\t\t\n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t |
Naphthalene (Nap) | \n\t\t- | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 110.0 | \n\t\t< 40.0 | \n\t\t< 30.0 | \n\t
Acenaphthylene (Acy) | \n\t\t- | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 84.0 | \n\t\t< 30.0 | \n\t\t< 30.0 | \n\t
Acenaphtene (Ace) | \n\t\t- | \n\t\t\n\t\t | < 7.0 | \n\t\t< 7.0 | \n\t\t< 6.0 | \n\t
Fluorene (Flu) | \n\t\t0.001 | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 20.0 | \n\t\t< 7.0 | \n\t\t< 6.0 | \n\t
Phenanthrene (Phe) | \n\t\t0.001 | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 84.0 | \n\t\t< 8.0 | \n\t\t< 7.0 | \n\t
Anthracene (Ant) | \n\t\t- | \n\t\t\n\t\t | < 2.0 | \n\t\t8.0 | \n\t\t8.0 | \n\t
Fluoranthene (Fla) | \n\t\t0.001 | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 320.0 | \n\t\t510.0 | \n\t\t< 10.0 | \n\t
Pyrene (Pyr) | \n\t\t0.001 | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 97.0 | \n\t\t72.0 | \n\t\t11.0 | \n\t
Chrysene (Cry)3\n\t\t | \n\t\t0.01 | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 92.0 | \n\t\t< 1.0 | \n\t\t5.0 | \n\t
∑ PAHLMW\n\t\t | \n\t\t- | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 816.0 | \n\t\t616.0 | \n\t\t113.0 | \n\t
Benzo[a]anthracene (BaA)3\n\t\t | \n\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 24.0 | \n\t\t< 1.0 | \n\t\t4.0 | \n\t
Benzo[b]fluoranthene (BbF)3\n\t\t | \n\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 38.0 | \n\t\t25.0 | \n\t\t< 3.0 | \n\t
Benzo[k]fluoranthene (BkF)3\n\t\t | \n\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 11.0 | \n\t\t< 1.0 | \n\t\t< 1.0 | \n\t
Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP)3,4\n\t\t | \n\t\t1.0 | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 2.0 | \n\t\t< 1.0 | \n\t\t5.0 | \n\t
Dibenzo[a,h]anthracene (DbA)3,4\n\t\t | \n\t\t5.0 | \n\t\t\n\t\t | < 4.0 | \n\t\t< 4.0 | \n\t\t< 4.0 | \n\t
Benzo[g,h,i]perylene (BgP) | \n\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 12.0 | \n\t\t< 6.0 | \n\t\t< 6.0 | \n\t
Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene (InD)3\n\t\t | \n\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t\n\t\t | < 10.0 | \n\t\t< 10.0 | \n\t\t< 10.0 | \n\t
∑ PAHHMW\n\t\t | \n\t\t- | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 101.0 | \n\t\t48.0 | \n\t\t33.0 | \n\t
∑ PAH | \n\t\t\n\t\t | ≤ 6000 | \n\t\t917.0 | \n\t\t664.0 | \n\t\t146.0 | \n\t
∑ TEFPAH\n\t\t | \n\t\t- | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 11.0 | \n\t\t3.0 | \n\t\t6.0 | \n\t
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB) | \n\t\t\n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t |
PCB non-ortho | \n\t\t\n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t |
PCB 77, 81, 126*, 169 | \n\t\t< 0.1 | \n\t\t\n\t\t | < LOQ | \n\t\t< LOQ | \n\t\t< LOQ | \n\t
PCB mono-ortho | \n\t\t\n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t |
PCB 105, 114, 118, 123, 156, 167, 189 | \n\t\t< 0.005 | \n\t\t\n\t\t | < LOQ | \n\t\t< LOQ | \n\t\t< LOQ | \n\t
∑ PCB | \n\t\t- | \n\t\t≤ 800 | \n\t\t< LOQ | \n\t\t< LOQ | \n\t\t< LOQ | \n\t
Results for the determination of PAHs and PCBs in the sludge samples
db is Dry Basis; 1TEF for dioxin and dioxin-like compounds (Nisbet et al., 1992; van den Berg et al., 2006); 2Limit for solid disposal onto soil (EU, 2001); 3Carcinogenic isomers; 4Isomers of PAH with TEF comparable to the most toxic polychlorinated dibenzo-dioxins and -furans; *Isomer of PCB with highest TEF; LOQ is Limit of Quantification. Reproduced from de Sena et al. (2009)
\n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t||
\n\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t
Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDD) | \n\t\t\n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t |
2,3,7,8 – TCDD2\n\t\t | \n\t\t1.0 | \n\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t0.4 | \n\t\t0.4 | \n\t
1,2,3,7,8 - PeCDD | \n\t\t1.0 | \n\t\t0.6 | \n\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t2.2 | \n\t
1,2,3,4,7,8 - HxCDD | \n\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t0.3 | \n\t\t1.5 | \n\t\t1.7 | \n\t
1,2,3,7,8,9 - HxCDD | \n\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t0.2 | \n\t\t1.9 | \n\t\t3.3 | \n\t
1,2,3,6,7,8 - HxCDD | \n\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t0.7 | \n\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t1.8 | \n\t
1,2,3,4,6,7,8 - HpCDD | \n\t\t0.01 | \n\t\t0.8 | \n\t\t4.2 | \n\t\t4.6 | \n\t
OCDD | \n\t\t0.0003 | \n\t\t2.1 | \n\t\t21.1 | \n\t\t23.1 | \n\t
∑ PCDD | \n\t\t- | \n\t\t4.8 | \n\t\t31.7 | \n\t\t37.1 | \n\t
Polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDF) | \n\t\t\n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t |
2,3,7,8 – TCDF | \n\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t0.2 | \n\t\t0.3 | \n\t\t1.3 | \n\t
2,3,4,7,8 – PeCDF | \n\t\t0.3 | \n\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t2.1 | \n\t\t2.1 | \n\t
1,2,3,7,8 – PeCDF | \n\t\t0.03 | \n\t\t0.7 | \n\t\t1.5 | \n\t\t3.8 | \n\t
1,2,3,4,7,8 – HxCDF | \n\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t0.6 | \n\t\t1.2 | \n\t\t2.0 | \n\t
1,2,3,6,7,8 – HxCDF | \n\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t0.6 | \n\t\t1.6 | \n\t\t2.3 | \n\t
1,2,3,7,8,9 – HxCDF | \n\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t1.7 | \n\t\t2.9 | \n\t\t3.1 | \n\t
2,3,4,6,7,8 - HxCDF | \n\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t0.7 | \n\t\t1.9 | \n\t\t3.8 | \n\t
1,2,3,4,6,7,8 - HpCDF | \n\t\t0.01 | \n\t\t2.6 | \n\t\t4.2 | \n\t\t5.3 | \n\t
1,2,3,4,7,8,9 – HpCDF | \n\t\t0.01 | \n\t\t1.4 | \n\t\t3.1 | \n\t\t3.6 | \n\t
OCDF | \n\t\t0.0003 | \n\t\t2.1 | \n\t\t4.4 | \n\t\t10.2 | \n\t
∑ PCDF | \n\t\t- | \n\t\t11.1 | \n\t\t23.2 | \n\t\t37.3 | \n\t
PCDD:PCDF Ratio | \n\t\t- | \n\t\t0.43 | \n\t\t1.37 | \n\t\t0.98 | \n\t
\n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t |
∑ TEF PCDD/PCDF | \n\t\t100*\n\t\t | \n\t\t1.4 | \n\t\t3.8 | \n\t\t5.4 | \n\t
TEF and concentrations of PCDDs/PCDFs in the sludge samples
db is Dry Basis; 1TEF for dioxins and dioxin-like compounds (van den Berg et al., 2006; WHO, 2005); 2Isomer with highest acute toxicity; *TEF (ng kg-1) limit for solid disposal onto soil (EU, 2001). Reproduced from de Sena et al. (2009)
A study by de Sena et al. (2009) verified low pollution loads for the sludge (BS) originating from the WWTP, with respect to the most relevant inorganic and organic priority pollutants as monitored by the US EPA, at the case study meat processing plant located in the south of Brazil. Although other pollutants such as veterinary drugs, pesticides and surfactants were not investigated in this first analytical approach, they are of high concern. However, this study was a preliminary report for future monitoring of other food processing segments located in different regions of Brazil.
Co-combustion of agro-industrial residues in thermal power plants is not necessarily a low cost alternative for the thermal treatment of wastes. There is the possibility of interaction between the components and the main fuels in such a way that either the operating behavior of the conversion system is improved or the emissions are reduced (Werther, 2007). The emission of pollutants generated during combustion is strongly related to the biomass properties. Pollutant formation mechanisms and many other parameters related to the combustion process must be monitored due to the formation of highly problematic compounds such as NOx, SO2, benzene, toluene, ethyl-benzene, and (o-,m-,p-)xylenes (BTEX), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDD/PCDF) (Chagger et al., 1998; Kumar et al., 2002; Mckay, 2002; Stanmore, 2004; Watanabe et al., 2004), and have to be controlled in order to comply with the stringent limits set by recent environmental legislation. Chlorine-associated, high-temperature corrosion and the potential corrosion problems associated with burning biomass fuels have been previously discussed (Nielsen et al., 2000). Fuel nitrogen can be a problem in terms of NOx emissions. The conversion of nitrogen in systems fired by solid fuels (mainly coal, but also biomass) has been reviewed in detail, as well as the combustion characteristics of different biomass fuels, the potential applications of renewable energy sources as the prime energy sources in various countries, and the problems associated with biomass combustion in boiler systems (Demirbas, 2004; Werther, 2000).
The pollutant emissions due to incomplete biomass combustion can be effectively controlled by an optimized combustion process,
Given the higher energy value of the biosolids (LHV equal to 22.60 MJ kg-1) compared to sawdust (LHV equal to 16.55 MJ kg-1), as shown in Table 2, the substitution of 10 wt% of sawdust with this residue can increase the thermal energy production by approximately 4% compared to the combustion of sawdust alone, leading to a sawdust saving of 1950 ton per year, besides the economic benefits related to reduced landfill disposal. However, the gaseous emissions have to be monitored so as not to infringe current legislations.
The evaluation of the feasibility of the utilization of the biosolids originating from the WWTP studied was performed through combustion testing of the biosolids as the sole fuel in a pilot-scale cyclone combustor (model Drako, Albrecht, Brazil) with a burning capacity of 100 kg h-1, as described by Virmond et al. (2011), and in a furnace equipped with a reciprocating-grate coupled to a boiler at the meat processing plant with the capacity to process 12000 kg h-1, as reported by Virmond (2007).
Grate firing is one of the main technologies that are currently used for biomass combustion aiming at heat and power production. Grate-fired boilers can fire a wide range of fuels with varying moisture content and show great potential in biomass combustion (Goërner, 2003). The plant-scale furnace was operated at a fuel feed rate of 2604 kg h-1 (moisture content of approximately 50 wt%) at 900 °C, with 59% excess air and without gas recirculation. The combustion test lasted for approximately 2 h after the system had reached steady state.
In the pilot-scale plant the combustion of SD was carried out at a fuel feed rate of 32 kg h-1 (moisture content of 9.16 wt%), with gas recirculation of 20% at an average temperature of 642 °C in a cyclone combustor (Drako, Albrecht, Brazil), which has been described by Virmond et al. (2011). The average temperature at the front stage of the combustor was 1052 °C and at the outlet it was 1024 °C, and an air-to-fuel (A/F) ratio of 9.08 (theoretical A/F ratio of 7.23 based on the fuel composition) was used. For the LFP combustion test, the conditions applied to the cyclone combustor were: fuel feed rate of 43 kg h-1 (moisture content of 11.44 wt%), with gas recirculation of 20% at an average temperature of 800 °C. The average temperature at the front stage of the combustor was 868 °C, at the outlet of the combustor it was 1080 °C, and the A/F ratio was 11.82 (theoretical A/F ratio of 7.76 based on the fuel composition). CO, O2, SO2, CxHy (measured as CH4), NO, and NO2 emissions were measured using a Greenline MK2 (Eurotron) analyzer and BTEX emission measurements were based on the adsorption and desorption of gases which were analyzed by gas chromatography. Emissions of BTEX were expressed as Total Organic Carbon (TOC). The detailed methodology for emissions sampling and analysis during the combustion tests, as well as the complete set of results, have been previously reported by Floriani et al. (2010) and Virmond et al. (2007, 2008) for LFPSD1:9 combustion, and by Virmond et al. (2011) for SD and LFP. Thus, only the main points are highlighted herein. The gaseous emissions observed in the combustion tests and the respective regulation limits were corrected to the reference oxygen content (O2ref) of 7% and are given in Table 7.
\n\t\t | ||||||
SD biomass2\n\t\t | \n\t\t93.58 ±21.97 | \n\t\t10.32 ±0.03 | \n\t\t0.00 ±0.00 | \n\t\t241.58 ±26.31 | \n\t\t0.00 ±0.00 | \n\t\t1.27 ±0.57 | \n\t
LFP biomass2\n\t\t | \n\t\t63.33 ±10.30 | \n\t\t10.33 ±0.05 | \n\t\t0.00 ±0.00 | \n\t\t1727.43 ±229.93 | \n\t\t363.54 ±90.80 | \n\t\t1.23 ±0.12 | \n\t
LFPSD1:9 biomass3\n\t\t | \n\t\t734.83 ±12.39 | \n\t\t10.39 ±0.02 | \n\t\t554.44 ±7.91 | \n\t\t497.94 ±19.04 | \n\t\t128.69 ±4.31 | \n\t\t1.72 ±0.83 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t
Gaseous emissions from the combustion tests at O2ref=7%
1NOx expressed in terms of NO2; TOC is Total Organic Carbon; 2Data from Virmond et al. (2011); 3Data from Floriani et al. (2010) and Virmond et al. (2007, 2008); 4CONAMA 316/02, thermal treatment of wastes (CONAMA, 2002); n.a. is Not Applicable; 5US EPA, solid waste incineration (US EPA, 2000); 617.BlmSchV 24 h, <50 MW, co-combustion of wastes (17.BlmSchV, 2003); 717.BlmSchV 24 h, direct combustion of wastes (17.BlmSchV, 2003)
Since no data on the combustion of meat processing or slaughterhouse wastes had been previously published, no comparison was possible. However, the results for the contaminants reported were compared with the emission limits established by national and international environmental agencies, such as the Brazilian guidelines issued by The National Council of the Environment (CONAMA, 2002) for gaseous emissions in the thermal treatment of wastes; the American guidelines issued by the US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA, 2002) for emissions from commercial and industrial solid waste incineration units; and the German Guidelines 17.BlmSchV (17.BlmSchV, 2003) for emissions from biomass combustion and from biomass co-combustion. Concerning the combustion tests performed in the pilot-scale cyclone combustor with SD and LFP as fuels, the emissions of CO, CO2, CxHy and TOC were well controlled and their concentrations remained below the regulation limits considered for both biomasses, except CO in the SD combustion test in relation to the German guidelines, which refer to waste incineration and are stricter than the other regulations.
The effect of the biomass composition on gaseous emissions was clearly observed, especially considering the N and S fuel contents in LFP, which led to concentrations of these pollutants being higher than the established limits.
The use of the biosolids originating from the meat processing plant investigated in this study as a fuel in the pilot cyclone combustor was shown to be feasible; however, further research is required concerning the control of SO2 and NOx emissions to avoid exceeding the very strict emission limits as well as the occurrence of fouling and slagging.
In relation to the combustion test performed with the mixture of SD and LFP (LFPSD1:9), the high levels of CxHy and CO emitted indicate incomplete combustion. This can be attributed to the high moisture content of the biomass (50.23 wt%, as shown in Table 2), the lower combustion temperature (approximately 900 °C) compared to the other two tests performed in the pilot-scale combustor (approximately 1000 °C) and the absence of gas recirculation. Additionally, the control of the operating conditions of the large-scale plant is more difficult to achieve, due to the restricted testing time or minimal variation from the normal operation with the SD. Firing a biomass with low moisture content and flue gas recirculation could provide better oxidation conditions. Due to the lower nitrogen concentration found in LFPS1:9 compared to LFP, as well as to the low operating combustion temperature, NOx emissions remained below the limits established by CONAMA and US EPA.
The co-combustion of LFP and SD with lower-N fuel content reduced the NOx in the gaseous emissions compared to the burning of LFP alone. In fact, this option is the most feasible in Brazil considering the relatively high NOx emissions related to both the fuel nitrogen and to the fact that wood and wood-based materials are extensively used as fuel for thermal energy generation in the Brazilian food industry. Chlorine, PAHs and PCBs are among the elements or compounds that must be studied in greater depth as they are precursors to the formation of dioxins and partly of furans.
Industrial solid wastes must be disposed of safely, and co-firing them with SD has been shown in other studies by the authors, which are currently underway, to be profitable using the same pilot-scale cyclone combustor and different biomasses. The advantages are both a reduction in the consumption of primary fuels and the recovering of energy from wastes inside the plant, which would normally be disposed of in landfills, potentially causing environmental problems.
During this study, only preliminary tests were performed, such as the determination of the chemical composition of the biogas and the exhaust gases when the biogas was burned. Measurements were performed at several partner pig farms close to the case study plant that rear pigs from 45 to 110 days of life. At these farms there were relatively small horizontal-type biodigestors (approximately 450 m3) in which the input consisted only in pig wastes without previous treatment. The hydraulic retention time was approximately 30 days and the entrance flow 8 m3 d-1.
Table 8 shows the average chemical composition and calorific values of the biogas. To analyze the composition of biogas, a biogas analysis kit was used (Alfakit, Brazil) which is based on colorimetric methods.
\n\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t
CH4 (v/v%) | \n\t\t45-65 | \n\t\t57 | \n\t
CO2 (v/v%) | \n\t\t35-55 | \n\t\t34 | \n\t
H2S (v/v%) | \n\t\t>1020 | \n- | \n
CH4/CO2\n\t | \n\t0.82-1.86 | \n\t1.7 | \n
HHV (kJ Nm-3) | \n\t17996-25995 | \n\t\n\t\t | \n
LHV(kJ Nm-3) | \n\t16200-23400 | \n\t\n\t\t | \n
Average chemical composition of biogas
1Data reproduced from Silva et al. (2005); HHV is Higher Heating Value; LHV is Lower Heating Value
At the time this study was completed the farms were burning only biogas to avoid harmful emissions and to provide a better disposal/reuse options for the waste. At all farms there were simple flares to burn the gas, and thus the gaseous emissions were evaluated. CO, SO2, NO, NO2, O2, and CxHy were measured using a Greenline MK2 (Eurotron) analyzer and the sampling point was located at the top of the chimney. Results are not presented in this document because each burner presented different burning efficiencies and they were still in the adjustment phase. However, by the end of the project, all gaseous emissions were below the limits imposed by Brazilian Legislation. The SO2 requires greater caution due to the presence of H2S and therefore a pre-treatment has to be considered before the process can be considered adequate. H2S can easily react with iron oxides and hydroxides, requiring the presence of water, and this can thus be considered a good method to remove the H2S from biogas (Zichari, 2003).
The water balance analysis carried out considering all processing steps at the case study plant indicated that the minimization of the fresh water consumption at the four major consumption points could account for some 806 m3 d-1. Concerning wastewater reuse, the four streams identified as having a real possibility for reuse totaled approximately 1383 m3 d-1. These need simple reconditioning treatment before application to processes without direct contact with food products, that is, in non-potable uses (
Additionally, to reduce even further the percentage of fresh water consumption, indirect wastewater reuse could be carried out after reconditioning by applying tertiary treatments, such as advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), to treat the secondary effluent (after secondary activated sludge treatment). The tertiary-treated water effluent could then be used in other processes without contact with food products. The tertiary treatment model proposed was a heterogeneous AOP system (UV/TiO2/H2O2) which can be applied to urban, rural or industrial effluents where the factors inhibiting their reuse as water of potable quality are the presence of suspended solids (even at low concentration), dissolved organic matter, recalcitrant micro-pollutants (trace compounds) and high concentrations of nitrate and nitrite. However, laboratory tests should be carried out with real wastewater to evaluate the efficiency of each process step.
For the treatment of the effluent from the case study poultry hatchery, a chemical or physicochemical process would be the best option due to the low biodegradability of the effluent (COD/BOD5 = 4.6) and the presence of persistent compounds, which are not removed by biological processes. All treatments evaluated, particularly the photo-Fenton reaction, resulted in an increased biodegradability of the effluent, in other words, an increase in the portion of the material susceptible to degradation by biological processes. Thus, a biological process should be added as a final step in the effluent treatment, as a post-treatment mainly to remove the previously-formed more biodegradable compounds (with lower molar mass) and the nutrients that are not eliminated by the physicochemical process,
Regarding the solid wastes, the substitution of 10 wt% of the sawdust with the biosolids originating from the physicochemical wastewater treatment can increase the thermal energy production by approximately 4% compared to the combustion of sawdust alone, leading to an economy of 1950 tons per year of sawdust besides providing savings in relation to landfill disposal. Additionally, co-combustion is the most feasible option for energy recovery from this waste in Brazil, making it possible to control the burning process, to avoid the occurrence the fouling and slagging and to meet the emission limits established in the relevant legislation. Considering that wood and wood-based materials are extensively used as fuels for thermal energy generation in the Brazilian food industry, the mixture of such a small mass fraction of this solid waste with sawdust should not require significant changes to the current operating conditions.
Industrial solid wastes must be disposed of safely, and co-firing them with sawdust was shown to be profitable using a pilot-scale cyclone combustor in studies currently underway in our research group. The biogas produced from pig wastes has great potential to become another important bioenergy option for the Brazilian agroindustrial sector. Additionally, anaerobic digestion has other environmental benefits besides the production of a renewable energy carrier, which include the possibility of nutrient recycling and reduction of waste volumes. Nevertheless, studies are needed to investigate the effects of variations in the input to a biodigestor, how the waste composition influences the overall stability of the process and the product quality, and options for the biogas application.
The comprehensive technical-scientific analyses of the actions concerning water, wastewater and solid waste management carried out in the case study meat processing plant indicated that environmentally, financially and socially sustainable practices can be successfully implemented in any type and size of food processing plant.
AOPs – Advanced Oxidation Processes
BSE – Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy
BTEX – Benzene, Toluene, Ethyl-benzene and (o-,m-,p-)xylenes
BOD5 – Biochemical oxygen demand (5 days)
COD – Chemical oxygen demand
DWTP – Drinking Water Treatment Plant
HHV – Higher Heating Value
LFP – Biosolids originating from the physicochemical treatment of the meat processing industry wastewater
LFPSD 1:9 – Mixture of LFP and SD in a mass ratio of 1:9
LHV – Lower Heating Value
PAH – Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
PCB – Polychlorinated Biphenyls
PCDD/PCDF – Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and Polychlorinated dibenzofurans
SD – Wood Sawdust
TEF – Toxicity Equivalent Factor
TOC – Total Organic Carbon
W2M – Water and Wastewater Management
WWTP – Wastewater Treatment Plant
The authors would like to acknowledge BRF - Brasil Foods for providing the infrastructure and financial support, as well as the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) and the Brazilian Federal Agency for Support and Evaluation of Graduate Education (CAPES) for the grants supporting this study.
The term cancer is not the name of a single disease, but the name was given to all malignant tumors, the main reason for which is uncontrolled growth. The tumor, which becomes a mass as a result of uncontrolled cell proliferation, also attacks the surrounding cells and tends to spread throughout the body in the later stages of the disease (metastasis). Although cancer is an important health problem, it is not a common disease in childhood. On the other hand, statistics show that cancer affects one in three adults, causes up to 20% of all deaths, and covers about 10% of treatment costs in developed countries [1]. Cancer, which develops as a result of uncontrolled cell growth and development, is a phenomenon that occurs as a result of a complex series of cellular mechanisms working differently from normal. It is known that cancer occurs as a result of mutations in somatic cells and these mutations affect the expression of a series of genes. Cancers can develop in each tissue group depending on age, gender, and environmental factors [2, 3, 4]. Although it is known that cancer develops under the influence of genetic and environmental factors, environmental factors are more prominent in the formation of some types of cancer. It is now known to affect [5, 6]. There are two gene groups known to be involved in cancer formation. These are (1) Tumor suppressor genes and (2) proto-oncogenes [7, 8]. Breast cancers are the leading cancer types known to have tumor suppressor genes in their etiology. BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are the leading tumor suppressor genes specific to breast cancers [9]. Studies have shown that these two genes are particularly effective in the development of familial breast cancers. While the majority of cancers are sporadic, a small percentage can be hereditary, that is, familial. While the first mutation in the genes involved in hereditary cancers is inherited familial, the fact that the second mutation occurs in a limited number of somatic cells after birth is sufficient for cancerization. These types of cancers occur much earlier than non-familial cancers [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16]. According to World Health Organization; When cancer-related deaths in women were investigated between 2019 and 2020 worldwide, the most common type of cancer in all ages and genders is breast cancer, followed by prostate cancer and lung cancer, the least common cancer is thyroid cancer. However, the most common cause of death is lung cancer and breast cancer is the second most common type of cancer. According to International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization; new cases and death rates of cancer the worldwide for 2020 are given below (Figure 1) [17, 18, 19, 20], https://gco.iarc.fr/.
Estimated age-standardized incidence and mortality rates (world) in 2020, worldwide, for both sexes, all ages [
Although a lot of important information about the etiology of cancer has been obtained in recent years, the molecular mechanisms that cause cancer formation, that is, the excessive proliferation of a normal cell out of control, are still not fully clarified, and a new mechanism may emerge every year and hereditary factors are known to play a role together. Environmental factors include some chemical agents (nicotine), nutrition, radiation, viruses, living environmental conditions, and lifestyle [16, 21, 22].
There is a threshold value for many carcinogens, amounts that do not exceed this threshold value are harmless. One-third of cancers seen in the USA and Europe are cancers that develop due to the use of cigarettes and other tobacco products. Working conditions and some occupational chemicals are among the other environmental factors that cause cancer. It is known that chemical agents such as asbestos and nicotine cause cancer formation [23, 24, 25, 26].
Ionizing Radiation. Skin cancers were common in the hands of radiologists in the periods when primitive devices were used and prevention methods were not well known. In studies conducted in the following years, it has been shown that bone, thyroid, lung, breast cancer, leukemia, and lymphoma develop with the effect of radiation [27, 28, 29]. Ultraviolet Rays (U.V). U.V rays have been shown to be associated with skin cancers. These include basal cell skin cancer, squamous (stratified squamous epithelium) skin cancer, and skin cancers such as melanoma [30, 31, 32, 33, 34].
Although cancer is a genetic disease, very few cancer cases show hereditary characteristics. Among all cancer types, the rate of hereditary cancers is less than 1%. In families with hereditary cancer cases, cancer occurs more frequently than in the normal population. In families where cancer is inherited; The probability of passing the cancer gene from mother or father to child is 50%. Cancer cases in individuals in such families occur at an earlier age than in the general population. The tissues with the most familial cancer cases are colon, endometrium, ovary, and breast [35, 36, 37]. Two groups are very important in the formation of cancer. These; proto-oncogenes are tumor suppressor genes.
It is known that proto-oncogenes that regulate cell growth and differentiation have important roles in normal cell physiology (30). If a proto-oncogene differentiates or starts to be expressed more than normal as a result of mutation or change in external stimulus; These changes cause uncontrolled growth and therefore malignant formations in the cell. With the mutation of proto-oncogenes, they turn into genes called oncogenes that stimulate continuous cell division [38, 39]. Proto-oncogenes can be grouped into 4 groups according to the biochemical properties of protein products [40, 41].
FGF has also been studied in various animal models; After topical application to the wound in the guinea pig ear, basic FGF has been shown to accelerate epithelialization. Cell number and collagen content increased with subcutaneous injection in guinea pigs. Topical basic FGF has a positive effect on wound healing problems that can be caused by infection and diabetes in mice [46, 47, 48, 49].
Tumor suppressor genes were found for the first time as a result of studies on retinoblastoma, one of the very rare hereditary cancer types. Retinoblastoma is the most common type of cancer among childhood eye cancers and occurs bilaterally in 20–30% of cases [68, 69]. All bilateral cases and 15% of unilateral cases show autosomal dominant inheritance. The gene responsible for this disease is the Rb1 gene located proximal to the long arm of chromosome 13 [70, 71]. As a result of chromosomal changes or point mutations, the functional protein related to this gene is either absent or unable to function in cells in tumor tissue. In such cases, hereditary mutation; is found in only one of the gene pairs and is therefore in a heterozygous state. In order for a tumor to develop in a person carrying the mutant gene, a new mutation must also occur in the normal partner of the mutant gene in the retinal cell(9). As a result of a second mutation, a tumor occurs when the other intact allele is changed or lost. This situation is also called loss of heterozygosity [72, 73], (Figure 2).
Cancer formation model.
In hereditary retinoblastoma cancers, the first mutation occurred in the person either as a result of germline mutations or inherited from one of the parents. In people carrying this gene, retinoblastoma occurs at a very early age [74]. As a result of studies on the localization of many tumor types that show oss of heterozygosity for chromosome 13 and the localization of other tumor suppressor genes, more than 20 tumor suppressor gene regions were identified, the main ones being p53, retinoblastoma, BRCA 1, BRCA 2 (Table 1) [76, 77, 78, 79, 80].
Gene | Cancer | Localization | Function | Hereditary Syndrome |
---|---|---|---|---|
APC | Colon cancer | Cytoplasm | Cellular adhesion | Familial |
DCC | Colon cancer | Cell membrane | Cell adhesion molecule | — |
NF1 | Neurofibromas | Cytoplasm | GTPase activator | Neurofibromatosis Type 1 |
NF2 | Schwannomas and Meningioma | Cell membrane | Cell membrane | Neurofibromatosis Type 2 |
p53 | Colon cancer and many other cancers | Nucleus | Transcription factor | Li-Fraumeni syndrome |
RB | Retinoblastoma | Nucleus | Transcription factor | Retinoblastoma |
RET | Thyroid cancer pheochromocytom | Cell membrane | Tyrosine kinase receptor | Multiple endocrine neoplasm Type 2 |
VHL | Kidney cancer | Cell membrane | Transcription factor | Von Hippel–Lindau disease |
WT-1 | Nephroblastoma | Nucleus | Transcription factor | Wilms tumor |
BRCA1 | Breast cancer | Breast tissue | DNA repair, mismatch repair | Familial breast cancers |
BRCA2 | Breast cancer | Breast tissue epithelium | DNA repair, mismatch repair | Familial breast cancers |
Some tumor suppressor genes and the types of cancer they cause [75].
The p53 gene is located in band 13 of the short arm of human chromosome 17. This gene, which is about 20 kb long; encodes a 2.8 kb mRNA and its product is a core phosphoprotein of 393 amino acids of 53 kD (10). Nucleotide and amino acid sequence analyzes have shown that; The p53 gene contains 5 conserved regions from neopus to human during evolution. This region includes exons 1, 4, 5, 7, and 8. These conserved regions are thought to be essential sites for the p53 wild-type protein. Specifically, the DNA binding region of the p53 gene contains 2 SV40 tumor antigen binding (T-ag), a nuclear localization signal, and multiple phosphorylation sites (Figure 3). The p53 protein controls gene expression positively or negatively by stopping the cell cycle in the G1 phase and binding to specific sequences and transcription factors. Normal p53 protein stops the cell cycle and leads the cell to programmed cell death in the absence of appropriate differentiation or proliferation factors [81, 82, 83, 84, 85].
Schematic structure of the p53 gene; TAS: Transcription activation region, protein binding region (HSP), SV40 wide T-antigen region, adenovirus E1b and papillomavirus E6 binding region, cellular Mdm2 binding region, nuclear localization signal (NLS), oligomerization region (OLIGO) and phosphorylation region (cdc2 and CDK). The 5 conserved regions in evolution are indicated by the letters I, II, III, IV, and V, and the hot spot regions are indicated by the letters A, B, C, D.
The chromosomal location of the BRCA 1 gene (Breast cancer susceptibility gene) was first identified in 1990 and cloned in 1994 [86]. The BRCA1 gene has 24 exons (20) with approximately 100,000 base pairs, occupying 4 cM, located in the q12–21 region of chromosome 17; It is a gene that encodes a tumor suppressor protein. The 11th exon of the BRCA1 gene, which is very large, constitutes 61% of the entire gene. The BRCA1 gene encodes a tumor-suppressing protein with DNA binding properties that negatively affect cancer formation [87]. Recent studies have shown that the product of the BRCA1 gene; It has been shown to be a zing-finger protein with a zinc-binding site at the amino end [87, 88, 89].
Breast tumors occur with the loss of both the wild-type allele of the BRCA1 gene at 17q [90]. Since there are 500 different types and the BRCA 1 gene is a large gene, the frequency of mutation is quite high. Several clinically important mutations have been found in this gene. While approximately 90% of these mutations are frameshift or nonsense mutations, the rest are mutations that cause changes in the stop codon and cause the immature protein to be made at the translation stage [35, 91, 92, 93, 94]. Studies have been ongoing since the gene was cloned to develop a test that could detect familial cancer risk by detecting BRCA 1 mutations. The second most common group of mutations in the BRCA1 gene are 185delAG and 5382insG mutations [95, 96]. These constitute 10% of all mutations in the BRCA1 gene. These two mutations are seen with a frequency of approximately 10% in Ashkenazi and non-Ashkenazi Jews. The carrier rate of these mutations in the same group is 1%. Mutations 185delAG and 5382insG have also been shown to be found in Moroccan and non-Jewish families. The high incidence of deletions in the AG sequence at position 185 of BRCA1 has caused this region to be called the ‘Hotspot’ region. In germ-line mutation studies in all women, the incidence of breast cancer before the age of 40 was found to be 20% in 185delAG carriers [95, 97, 98, 99]. While the 5832insC mutation is most common in Russians and Jews of European origin, it is very low in Israeli Jews [100, 101]. The most common mutation in the Russian population is 4153delA4 (Figure 4) [102].
Mutation distribution in the BRCA1 gene.
The BRCA 1 protein is a ring-finger protein of 1863′ amino acids (45, 46, 47). BRCA 1 is made in the differentiated epithelial cells of developing organs during embryonic development and puberty development. A significant increase in the mRNA level of BRCA 1 has been observed in breast epithelial cells during pregnancy in women without cancer. BRCA 1 expression in humans is stimulated by estrogen and decreases after birth (38,48). Suppression of BRCA 1 expression increases growth in both normal cells and malignant mammary epithelial cells [86, 90, 93]. Since the BRCA1 gene was isolated, its functions have been thought to play a role in transcription, control the cell cycle, and be associated with DNA repair mechanisms. It is a gene that participates in DNA repair mechanisms by interacting with basic transcriptional mechanisms (with RNA polymerase II, Transcription factors TFIIH, TFIIE, and RNA helicase A). BRCA1 and BRCA2 proteins together provide a repair of DNA double-strand breaks in mitotic cells [103, 104] BRCA1 protein interacts with the gamma-tubulin subunits of the centrosome during mitosis, stopping the cell cycle and providing damage control in DNA [105].
BRCA2 is another tumor suppressor gene that was mapped to the long arm of the 13th chromosome by Wooster et al. in 1994 (7). The 13q12-13 region containing BRCA2 is also a region close to the retinoblastoma gene (36, 39). The BRCA2 gene is a 70 kb gene with 27 exons, occupies 6 cM, and the product of the gene is a protein consisting of 3418 amino acids(36). The fact that exon 3 is similar to transcription factors indicates that it may have a function in this direction (33,). BRCA2 has a large 11th exon just like BRCA1(50). This exon makes up about 58% of the whole gene [86, 106, 107, 108]. While the risk of breast cancer and ovarian cancer is higher in patients with germline mutations in this gene, 30–40% loss of heterozygosity is observed in patients with sporadic breast and ovarian cancer [109, 110]. Interestingly, almost all BRCA2 mutations are familial [111]. This theorizes that BRCA mutations can theoretically be traced back to an initial sporadic case and may indicate the presence of a ‘founder effect’. The majority of mutations in the BRCA 2 gene cause a frameshift condition. The most common frameshift mutation is the 999del5 mutation, which is also seen in Iceland. Other than that, the mutations seen in other populations are as follows. Ashkenazi Jewish-6174delT, Dutch-5579insA, Finns- 8555 T > G, 999del5, IVS23-2A > G, French Canadians 8765delAG, 3398delAAAAG, Hungarians-9326insA, Pakistanis-3337C > T, Slovenians-IVS16-2A > G [112]. People with certain mutations of the BRCA2 gene increase the risk of breast cancer by causing hereditary breast-ovarian cancer syndrome. As a result of research, hundreds of mutations in the BRCA2 gene, many of which cause an increased risk of cancer, have been identified. BRCA2 mutations are usually the addition or loss of a small number of DNA base pairs in the gene. As a result of these mutations, the protein product of the BRCA2 gene is abnormal and does not work properly. Research emerges as a result of the inability of the dysfunctional BRCA2 protein to repair the damages in the DNA that make up the genome. As a result, there is an increase in mutations due to this faulty synthesis after unrepaired DNA damages, and some of these mutations can lead to uncontrolled division of cells and the formation of a tumor [107, 113, 114].
By revealing the environmental and genetic factors that are effective in the development of breast cancer, which is a very important social problem, studies to prevent breast cancer gain hope. The incidence of breast cancer differs from country to country in the world. While Hawaii, California, and Canada are in the first place with an incidence of 80–90 per hundred thousand per year, the same value is only between 12 and 15 per hundred thousand in Japan. Although the majority of breast cancers are sporadic cases, 5–10% of all cases are hereditary. BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are known to be effective in the development of breast cancer. The BRCA1 gene is thought to be responsible for 4–5% of all breast cancers and 45% of hereditary breast cancers. The risk of developing breast cancer up to the age of 70 in BRCA1 gene carriers is 94%. The rate of breast cancer cases occurring before the age of 30 is 25%. The BRCA 1 gene is responsible for half of all familial breast cancer cases and 80–90% of multiple breast and ovarian cancer cases. This shows that due to the importance of BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes in the etiology of breast cancer, detecting both BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes, especially in familial breast cancer cases, is important for public health. As a result, routine applications with rapid, reliable, and inexpensive methods to detect BRCA1 and BRCA2 gene mutations are known to be involved in the etiology of breast cancer in patients and families with multiple breast cancer or ovarian cancer or diagnosed with breast cancer at an early age may need to be seen as potential chemotherapy targets.
There is no conflict of interest.
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\\n\\n\\n\\nWith the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
\\n\\nIn line with publication ethics practices recommended by COPE, ICMJE, and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible conflicts of interest.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:
\\n\\nAll scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
\\n\\n\\n\\nThe Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\\n\\n\\n\\nTo identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
\\n\\n\\n\\nWhen faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.
\\n\\nIntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.
\\n\\nIn order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.
\\n\\nIntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIn line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nAt IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nAll chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\\n\\nOnline First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\\n\\nChapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\\n\\nYou are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\\n\\nIf there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
\\n\\nReaders and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
\\n\\nIntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIntechOpen publishes different types of publications.
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
\n\n\n\nWith the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
\n\nIn line with publication ethics practices recommended by COPE, ICMJE, and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible conflicts of interest.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:
\n\nAll scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
\n\n\n\nThe Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\n\n\nTo identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
\n\n\n\nWhen faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.
\n\nIntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.
\n\nIn order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.
\n\nIntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
\n\n\n\nIn line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
\n\n\n\nAt IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
\n\n\n\nAll chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\n\nOnline First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\n\nChapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\n\nYou are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\n\nIf there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
\n\nReaders and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
\n\nIntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen publishes different types of publications.
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Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8018",title:"Extracellular Matrix",subtitle:"Developments and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8018.jpg",slug:"extracellular-matrix-developments-and-therapeutics",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula, Joseph Orgel P.R.O. and Zvi Loewy",hash:"c85e82851e80b40282ff9be99ddf2046",volumeInSeries:23,fullTitle:"Extracellular Matrix - Developments and Therapeutics",editors:[{id:"212416",title:"Dr.",name:"Rama Sashank",middleName:null,surname:"Madhurapantula",slug:"rama-sashank-madhurapantula",fullName:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212416/images/system/212416.jpg",institutionString:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institution:{name:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Proteomics",value:18,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Metabolism",value:17,count:6},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell and Molecular Biology",value:14,count:9},{group:"subseries",caption:"Chemical Biology",value:15,count:14}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:9},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:12},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:2}],authors:{paginationCount:148,paginationItems:[{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",biography:"Vahid Asadpour, MS, Ph.D., is currently with the Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California. He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. 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