Comparison of the FZG gear scuffing test and the methods designed by the authors
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8882",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advances in the Studies of the Benthic Zone",title:"Advances in the Studies of the Benthic Zone",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book is an unpretentious editing venture to fill the gap in our current knowledge on the ecological implications caused by anthropogenic disturbances upon benthic communities in several regions of the world, including the Western Atlantic, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Eastern Pacific Ocean, as well as the pristine environments of the Andes in South America. The common goal of the contributing authors in this book was to unravel the complex processes that make possible the life existence of bottom-living animals in different environmental scenarios. To achieve such a goal, the authors focus their attention on the emerging issues inherent to global climate change or the pollution of aquatic systems. These are all themes that might be of interest to scientists active in a wide range of oceanographic subdisciplines. Well-established researchers would appreciate the innovative approach adopted in each chapter of the book, which extends from the ecosystem level to refined molecular interpretations.",isbn:"978-1-83880-044-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-043-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-989-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81961",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"advances-in-the-studies-of-the-benthic-zone",numberOfPages:140,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"79f77db18a383e92371a06aa07937f90",bookSignature:"Luis A. Soto",publishedDate:"June 10th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8882.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4521,numberOfWosCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:17,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:33,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 20th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 20th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 19th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 7th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 7th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"256002",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Soto",slug:"luis-soto",fullName:"Luis Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256002/images/system/256002.jpg",biography:"Luis A. Soto, BS, Diploma FAO-VNIRO, MSc, PhD, is a biological oceanographer at the Institute of Marine Sciences and Limnology, UNAM, Mexico (2019). He was Dean of Graduate Students in the Marine Science Program (1983–1987) and was Head of the Benthic Ecology Laboratory. His research interest is focused on the functional ecology of benthic communities inhabiting shallow and deep waters of the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. His scientific production includes 137 peer-reviewed articles, 15 book chapters, and two edited books, receiving over 1600 citations. He has led more than 40 ocean surveys supported by national and international research institutions, and has served as a consultant on environmental issues to UNESCO, OEA, Guggenheim, Fulbright, Chevron-Texaco, Smithsonian, Philadelphia Academy of Science, and the Natural Environmental Research Council, UK. New genera and species of marine invertebrates have been named after him to honor his scientific career. His disciples include three postdoc, 12 PhD, 14 MSc, and 12 BS degrees He is a regular member of the Mexican Academy of Science, Sigma-Xi Society, and holds the highest ranking in the National Research System in Mexico.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"659",title:"Aquatic Ecosystem",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences-marine-biology-aquatic-ecosystem"}],chapters:[{id:"72092",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Benthic Realm",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92400",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-benthic-realm",totalDownloads:617,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Luis A. Soto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72092",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72092",authors:[{id:"256002",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Luis",surname:"Soto",slug:"luis-soto",fullName:"Luis Soto"}],corrections:null},{id:"68345",title:"Integrative Approach to Assess Benthic Ecosystem Functioning on the Southwest Brazilian Continental Shelf",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88308",slug:"integrative-approach-to-assess-benthic-ecosystem-functioning-on-the-southwest-brazilian-continental-",totalDownloads:543,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Continental shelf is a highly dynamic system controlled by water mass interactions, biogeochemical processes, and biological production of organic matter. Climatic and hydrological processes originate large variability in many scales of time and space that are responsible for its typical unsteady status, mainly at shallower depths. The southeastern Brazilian continental shelf is an important economic area that houses the commercial Port of Santos, the Petrobras oil terminal in São Sebastião, and fishery activities. This concise chapter explores the relationships of the benthic community structure facing a complex physical environment allied to human influences. It is built on previous studies developed in the southeast Brazilian continental shelf from the past 25 years. The shelf benthic system is governed by seasonal pulses of primary production promoted by the South Atlantic Central Water bottom intrusion and coastal upwelling allied to the passage of winter cold fronts. Self-structuring benthic community is achieved by the mobility of the organisms, feeding activity, and biogenic transformation of the habitat due to bioturbation.",signatures:"Ana Maria S. Pires-Vanin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68345",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68345",authors:[{id:"301285",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Maria",surname:"Pires-Vanin",slug:"ana-maria-pires-vanin",fullName:"Ana Maria Pires-Vanin"}],corrections:null},{id:"72117",title:"Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotopes in Hydrocarbon and Nitrogenous Nutrient Assessment of S and E Gulf of Mexico Marine Environments: Four Isotope Stories",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92376",slug:"stable-carbon-and-nitrogen-isotopes-in-hydrocarbon-and-nitrogenous-nutrient-assessment-of-s-and-e-gu",totalDownloads:466,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes were sampled in representative environments of southern and eastern Gulf of Mexico to trace carbon and nitrogen sources and processes affecting them. Sampled sites include a hydrocarbon seep area, a coastal zone influenced by terrestrial discharge, a productive oil field, a coral reef, and a deepwater environment. In Cantarell oil field, δ13C and δ15N values of suspended particulate matters, sediments, and benthic organisms show that the principal carbon source to the benthic food web is the downward flux of upper-layer primary production. In the coastal zone, the isotopic terrestrial signature of suspended particles across the low salinity plume indicates that the terrestrial contribution in nearshore waters is progressively diluted by marine organic matter. Hydrocarbon concentrations and δ13C values from a Bay of Campeche hydrocarbon seep sediment core suggest that the seep contributes to about 72.4% petrogenic carbon to its surface sediment layer. The δ13C values in corals suggest a carbon source from fixation by zooxanthellae. In the eastern Gulf, organic carbon (Corg) and total nitrogen (TN) concentrations and isotopes are indicative of low terrestrial contribution, and the principal long-term nitrogen source to primary producers appears to be nitrate diffusing from the thermocline into the photic zone.",signatures:"Diego López-Veneroni",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72117",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72117",authors:[{id:"317836",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",surname:"Lopez-Veneroni",slug:"diego-lopez-veneroni",fullName:"Diego Lopez-Veneroni"}],corrections:null},{id:"67496",title:"Benthic Macroinvertebrate Communities as Indicators of the Environmental Health of the Cunas River in the High Andes, Peru",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86734",slug:"benthic-macroinvertebrate-communities-as-indicators-of-the-environmental-health-of-the-cunas-river-i",totalDownloads:647,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Cunas River is a valuable natural freshwater heritage in the central region of Peru, where diverse economic activities depend on the quantity and quality of its waters. The environmental health of the Cunas River was assessed through indicators of the diversity of benthic macroinvertebrate communities and multivariate statistical methods. Water and sediment samples were collected in sectors of three populated centers during 2017. Indicators of water quality and diversity of benthic macroinvertebrates were determined. The results reveal that most of the water quality indicators are in the range of the water quality standards of rivers in Peru. Twenty-six families of benthic macroinvertebrates were identified. The principal component analysis (PCA) of the water quality indicators through the first two components explained 79.59% of the total variance. Cluster analysis in relation to the relative abundance of benthic macroinvertebrates grouped the sampling sites into groups with similar characteristics. Principal coordinate analysis (PCO) analysis of benthic macroinvertebrate communities showed a clear separation of sites. The percentage similarity (SIMPER) analysis at the family level showed the percentage of contribution of species to the benthic fauna community. The canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) identified water quality variables that influence the distribution of benthic macroinvertebrate communities. Therefore, the information obtained will be useful for the management of similar rivers.",signatures:"María Custodio, Richard Peñaloza and Heidi De La Cruz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67496",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67496",authors:[{id:"289143",title:"Dr.",name:"María",surname:"Custodio",slug:"maria-custodio",fullName:"María Custodio"},{id:"302550",title:"MSc.",name:"Richard",surname:"Peñaloza",slug:"richard-penaloza",fullName:"Richard Peñaloza"},{id:"302551",title:"MSc.",name:"Heidi",surname:"De La Cruz",slug:"heidi-de-la-cruz",fullName:"Heidi De La Cruz"}],corrections:null},{id:"70847",title:"Skeletons of Calcareous Benthic Hydroids (Medusozoa, Hydrozoa) under Ocean Acidification",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90933",slug:"skeletons-of-calcareous-benthic-hydroids-medusozoa-hydrozoa-under-ocean-acidification",totalDownloads:764,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The skeleton plays a vital role in the survival of aquatic invertebrates by separating and protecting them from a changing environment. In most of these organisms, calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is the principal constituent of the skeleton, while in others, only a part of the skeleton is calcified, or CaCO3 is integrated into an organic skeleton structure. The average pH of ocean surface waters has increased by 25% in acidity as a result of anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, which reduces carbonate ions (CO32−) concentration, and saturation states (Ω) of biologically critical CaCO3 minerals like calcite, aragonite, and magnesian calcite (Mg-calcite), the fundamental building blocks for the skeletons of marine invertebrates. In this chapter, we discuss how ocean acidification (OA) affects particular species of benthic calcareous hydroids in order to bridge gaps and understand how these organisms can respond to a growing acidic ocean.",signatures:"María A. Mendoza-Becerril, Crisalejandra Rivera-Perez and José Agüero",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70847",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70847",authors:[{id:"312172",title:"Dr.",name:"María A.",surname:"Mendoza-Becerril",slug:"maria-a.-mendoza-becerril",fullName:"María A. Mendoza-Becerril"},{id:"312284",title:"M.Sc.",name:"José",surname:"Agüero",slug:"jose-aguero",fullName:"José Agüero"},{id:"312285",title:"Dr.",name:"Crisalejandra",surname:"Rivera",slug:"crisalejandra-rivera",fullName:"Crisalejandra Rivera"}],corrections:null},{id:"70003",title:"Mesophotic and Deep-Sea Vulnerable Coral Habitats of the Mediterranean Sea: Overview and Conservation Perspectives",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90024",slug:"mesophotic-and-deep-sea-vulnerable-coral-habitats-of-the-mediterranean-sea-overview-and-conservation",totalDownloads:829,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:14,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Although the different communities distributed in the mesophotic and deep waters play a fundamental role in the functioning of the marine ecosystems, the assessment of their global distribution is still far to be achieved. This is also true in the Mediterranean Sea, where exploration technologies are revealing a large diversity of unknown communities structured totally or partially by corals, which represent vulnerable marine ecosystems (VMEs) according to FAO’s guidelines. This chapter aims to define and describe the main coral habitats of the mesophotic and aphotic zones of the Mediterranean, such as coralligenous formations, cold-water coral frameworks, coral forests and sea pen fields. The role of these habitats in providing benefit for a variety of invertebrates and fishes as well as a suite of ecosystem goods and services is highlighted. Fishing is one of the main anthropogenic impacts affecting Mediterranean coral habitats, and the current conservation measures are often ineffective. Ongoing attempts and future solutions aiming at the conservation of these VMEs are here discussed, including the fishing restriction in strategic areas characterized by lush coral communities, the implementation of controls against illegal fishery, the development of encounter protocols for vulnerable species and the use of observers onboard.",signatures:"Giovanni Chimienti, Francesco Mastrototaro and Gianfranco D’Onghia",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70003",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70003",authors:[{id:"308270",title:"Prof.",name:"Francesco",surname:"Mastrototaro",slug:"francesco-mastrototaro",fullName:"Francesco Mastrototaro"},{id:"308272",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Giovanni",surname:"Chimienti",slug:"giovanni-chimienti",fullName:"Giovanni Chimienti"},{id:"308273",title:"Prof.",name:"Gianfranco",surname:"D'Onghia",slug:"gianfranco-d'onghia",fullName:"Gianfranco D'Onghia"}],corrections:null},{id:"71362",title:"Mitochondrial Group I Introns in Hexacorals Are Regulatory Genetic Elements",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91465",slug:"mitochondrial-group-i-introns-in-hexacorals-are-regulatory-genetic-elements",totalDownloads:655,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Hexacoral mitochondrial genomes are highly economically organized and vertebrate-like in size, structure, and gene content. A hallmark, however, is the presence of group I introns interrupting essential oxidative phosphorylation (OxPhos) genes. Two genes, encoding NADH dehydrogenase subunit 5 (ND5) and cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI), are interrupted with introns. The ND5 intron, located at position 717, is obligatory in all hexacoral specimens investigated. The ND5-717 intron is a giant-sized intron that carries several canonical OxPhos genes. Different modes of splicing appear to apply for the ND5-717 intron, including conventional cis-splicing, backsplicing, and trans-splicing. Three distinct versions of hexacoral COI introns are noted at genic positions 884, 867, and 720. The COI introns are of the mobile-type, carrying homing endonuclease genes (HEGs). Some COI-884 intron HEGs are highly expressed as in-frame COI exon fusions, while the expression of COI-867 intron HEGs appear repressed. We discuss biological roles of hexacoral mitochondrial ND5 and COI introns and suggest that the ND5-717 intron has gained new regulatory functions beyond self-splicing.",signatures:"Steinar Daae Johansen and Åse Emblem",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71362",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71362",authors:[{id:"232959",title:"Prof.",name:"Steinar Daae",surname:"Johansen",slug:"steinar-daae-johansen",fullName:"Steinar Daae Johansen"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"304",title:"Sediment Transport in Aquatic Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0eb11af1d03ad494253c41e1d3c998e9",slug:"sediment-transport-in-aquatic-environments",bookSignature:"Andrew J. 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In modern machines the problems of the prevention of scuffing of the gear teeth is still very important. One of the reasons is that for many years the technique development is related to increasing the loading of the friction surfaces accompanied by decreasing their size [1]. In the case of gears, the risk of scuffing occurrence rises because of potential design and assembly mistakes, unexpected overloads, as well as extremely different speeds of the rotation of gears, because both very high speeds and very low speeds may cause scuffing [2]. The occurrence of one of the mentioned factors may lead to very serious gear failures.
Apart from the above mentioned factors, the problems of using proper lubricating oils, with high extreme-pressure (EP) properties cannot be neglected.
In gears, the surface destroyed by scuffing appears at the addendum and dedendum of the tooth. This results from the sliding speed of the meshing teeth that reaches the highest values at these places of the gear tooth.
Failures of the gear teeth flanks due to scuffing are shown in Figure 1.
Photographs of failures of the gear teeth flanks due to scuffing: a) “non-symmetric” scuffing observed in gear service, resulting from the incorrect distribution of load along the tooth [
Another example of scuffing of gears concerns the rudder speed brake power drive unit of a space shuttle, observed during its inspection after grounding [4]. Figure 2 a) shows the pinion and ring gear of the power drive unit of the space shuttle. Figure 2 b) presents the pinion tooth with wear at the tip and scuffing on dedendum. It was postulated that early shutdown of one of three hydraulic motors driving the gearbox could cause scuffing - in a differential gearbox, early shutdown of one motor could cause the overloading with potential for scuffing.
Photographs of the components of the rudder speed brake power drive unit of a space shuttle: a) pinion and ring gear of the power drive unit, b) damaged pinion tooth [
From the above example, it is absolutely apparent that the prevention of scuffing is still an important challenge, even in the high-tech sector.
To better understand scuffing, Figure 3 presents the interpretative models of the phenomena in different phases of this process, caused by the continuously increasing load. The models concern the contact between two balls of the four-ball tribosystem (the rotating upper ball with one of the three stationary lower balls) during the testing of the automotive gear oils of API GL-4 and GL-5 performance levels. Such oils contain chemically active extreme-pressure (EP) lubricating additives to prevent scuffing. API GL-4 oils are used to lubricate synchronised manual transmissions of European cars and contain up to 4% of EP additives. API GL-5 oils containing up to 6.5% of EP additives are employed to lubricate automotive gears especially susceptible to scuffing, i.e. hypoid gears, in axles operating under various combinations of high-speed/shock-load and low-speed/high-torque conditions.
It should be emphasised here that a four-ball tribosystem is very often used for tribological testing of the performance of automotive gear oils.
The lower graph in Figure 3 presents the friction torque curve (Mt) obtained at continuously increasing load (P). The brackets over the graph indicate particular phases of the scuffing process. In these phases, the friction coefficient values (μ) were determined, and they are given in the red rectangles in the graph area. The thick red line below the graph denotes the time from the beginning of the run until the occurrence of the scuffing initiation reflected by a sharp rise in the friction torque.
The interpretative models of phenomena related to scuffing are presented over the graph in Figure 3. Because the models concern the contact zone between two balls of the four-ball tribosystem where the upper ball rotates and the lower ball is stationary, the direction of the movement was indicated in the upper part of the models by an arrow. If there is no arrow, the given model illustrates no movement of the balls, i.e. at the beginning of the run (before the motor of the tribotester starts).
For the phase “scuffing initiation,” the upper model in Figure 3 illustrates the surface that did not exhibit very rough topography typical of scuffing (shown in the surface topography image), while the lower one concerns the surface already destroyed by scuffing.
In the models, three characteristic zones in the wear scar surface layer were identified: a chemically modified zone through the action of the lubricating additives and the steel surface, a zone of plastic deformation, and a zone of elastic deformation. All of these zones are described in the legend above the models in Figure 3.
After immersing the test balls in the tested gear oil and applying the initial load close to 0, a phenomenon known as physical adsorption or physisorption appears. In this phase, adsorbed molecules constitute the boundary layer on the friction surface, which protects the surface asperities against direct contact. The model with the heading “Beginning of run” in Figure 3 illustrates this, reflecting the situation before the start of the relative movement of the test balls.
Models of scuffing in different phases for the automotive gear oils of the API GL-4 and GL-5 performance levels
In publications, the terms “mixed friction” and “mixed lubrication” are often used equivalently and concern the same phenomena. For the purpose of this chapter, one can assume that occurrences during the regime of the mixed lubrication result in the mixed friction with its specific friction coefficient.
The phase “Mixed friction” concerns the first stage of the run from the moment of the start of the relative movement between the test balls to the scuffing initiation reflected by a sharp rise in the friction torque. Its duration is denoted by the thick red line below the graph with the friction torque (Mt) and applied load (P) - Figure 3.
In this phase the mixed friction occurs. This can be stated on the basis of the fundamental criterion that is the friction coefficient value. The friction coefficients typical of particular types of friction were adopted from the work [5], where the four-ball tribosystem was also employed. From that work, it implies that the mixed friction occurs in the four-ball tribosystem when the friction coefficient is in the range between 0.07 and 0.1. Thus, the authors determined the friction coefficient at the 2nd second of the four-ball experiment, being 0.1, denote the mixed friction.
It is worth noting here that the idea of the occurrence of the mixed friction regime (instead of EHL, i.e. elastohydrodynamic lubrication) at the very start of the relative movement between the test balls (load is close to 0) is also supported in the mentioned work [5]. From that work it is apparent that “pure” EHL occurs in the four-ball tribosystem only under conditions of a low load and high speed.
At mixed friction, the micro-EHL films mainly carry the load and the mating surfaces are protected from direct contact by the boundary layer. But at some micro-zones, due to the failure of the micro-EHL film surface, asperities locally collide, which is illustrated in the model with the heading “Mixed friction” in Figure 3.
Due to collisions of surface asperities, the temperature in the micro-contact rises. At a higher temperature, physically adsorbed molecules may be attracted to the surface with greater forces, and chemical adsorption or chemisorption appears. The decomposition of the active compounds in the lubricating additives catalyses the transformation of some chemically adsorbed molecules into chemical compounds at higher temperatures.
The collision of the surface asperities and the local high pressure of the oil induced by the approaching asperities bring about elastic (reversible) and plastic (irreversible) deformations of the contacting surface. Due to the thermal (temperature rise) and mechanical activation (plastic deformation causing surface defects), the conditions exist for the initiation of the diffusion of “active” atoms from the lubricating compounds (e.g. sulphur atoms) into the surface layer.
The described phenomena lead to the formation of inorganic chemical compounds of iron with sulphur, phosphorus, and oxygen, coming from EP lubricating additives in the tested gear oil. Such additives (based on organic S-P compounds) form e.g. iron sulphide FeS [6]. FeS compounds, apart from hampering the creation of adhesive bonds with their shear strength being 1/5th that of steel and their hardness being 1/4th that of steel, facilitate shearing of the chemically modified surface asperities, and the shear plane is transferred to the thin FeS layer, which protects the surface from tearing out the material from deeper layers, reducing the wear intensity.
For the tested oil, containing EP lubricating additives, the surface asperities are covered by the protective layer of the above mentioned chemical compounds. This is illustrated in the respective model in Figure 3. Due to this, for the gear oils with EP lubricating additives, the scuffing initiation is delayed to appear at much higher loads than in the case of oils without lubricating additives (e.g. API GL-1 ones, not presented here).
In this phase, scuffing initiates - the friction torque (Mt) sharply increases and measured friction coefficient values exceed the maximum value assumed for the mixed friction, i.e. 0.1 [5].
The scuffing initiation occurs at a load called the scuffing load, which is characteristic for each tested lubricating oil. At this load, the lubricating film collapses, the number of colliding surface asperities drastically increases, and the destruction changes its occurrence from the micro- to macro-scale and scuffing appears. Initially only part of the friction surface undergoes scuffing. It can be observed in the surface topography image of the border between the surface that did not exhibit very rough topography typical of scuffing (left side) and the surface destroyed by scuffing (right side) - Figure 3.
The described phenomena leading to scuffing are illustrated in the models with the heading “Scuffing initiation” in Figure 3. The upper model concerns the surface that did not exhibit very rough topography typical of scuffing, where still the mixed friction exists, while the lower one refers to the surface already destroyed by scuffing.
The upper model shows that the micro-scale phenomena in the zone intact by scuffing are similar to those described in the phase “Mixed friction” apart from the thickness of elastic and plastic deformations which increased due to rising load. Probably, in view of plastic deformation that causes surface defects, the reactive diffusion of “active” atoms from the EP lubricating additives (e.g. sulphur atoms) into the surface layer takes place and iron sulphides form, which is confirmed by other researchers, e.g. in the work [7]. The diffusively modified micro-zones inside the highest asperities are plastically deformed and are indicated in the respective model as orange spots - Figure 3.
By observing phenomena in the part of the friction surface that undergoes scuffing, one can indicate that the situation changes radically. The lower model illustrates that, in the first phase of scuffing, the lubricating film no longer exists, nor is there any boundary layer. This leads to a rapid intensification of the material destruction. Much plastic deformation appears, turning into the transfer, flowing and mingling of the material of the rubbing test balls. For the tested oils with EP lubricating additives, much of the surface layer starts to be chemically modified. This will be decisive for the scuffing propagation character.
This phase refers to the scuffing process, after its initiation. It is reflected by a sharp increase in the friction torque (Mt), accompanied by a high intensity of the lower test balls wear - Figure 4 a, b). This situation is illustrated in the models with the heading “Scuffing propagation” in Figure 3.
Development of the wear of the lower test balls due to scuffing: a) at scuffing initiation, b) at 12th seconds of the run (scuffing propagation), c) at the end of the run; images obtained at the same magnification
For the tested gear oils, after the scuffing initiation due to rapid chemical reactions of their EP additives with the surface, a rise in the friction torque is mitigated to quickly stabilise at relatively low value - Figure 3. It is accompanied by continuously evolving wear of the lower test balls that is not intensive - Figure 4 b, c). A drop in the pressure in the contact zone due to wear, brings about the possibility of oil introduction into the contact zone and the regeneration of the boundary layer on much of the friction surface. Such an action is indicated by the friction coefficient within the range 0.11 to 0.15, typical of boundary friction. On the basis of the work [5], which also concerns four-ball experiments, it was assumed that the boundary friction occurs in the four-ball tribosystem when the friction coefficient is in the range between 0.09 and 0.15. The determined values of the friction coefficient being in the middle and upper limit typical of boundary friction denote that some part of the friction surface must have undergone scuffing; It can be assumed from [5] that “full scuffing” occurs when the friction coefficient exceeds 0.3. The specific state of the surface layer in this phase is called the “Secondary Boundary Layer” (SBL) in the work [8]. The round model in the micro-scale concerning the scuffing propagation (Figure 3) illustrates the places of oil appearance in the contact zone. Let us call them “the micro-pockets.” One can presume that inside the oil micro-pockets the following phenomena take place: the intensive adsorption and desorption of the base oil and lubricating additives molecules on/from the steel surface, chemical reactions of the lubricating additives with the surface, and - in view of plastic deformation that causes surface defects - the diffusion of “active” atoms from the lubricating compounds (e.g. sulphur atoms) into the surface layer. In view of the transfer and mingling of the material of the rubbing test balls, the chemically modified zones appear across the entire zone of plastic deformations - orange spots. For the API GL-4 and GL-5 gear oils, the effective chemical modification of the surface mitigates the increase of the wear scar diameter - Figure 4 b, c) - in the phase of the SBL formation, accompanied by a mitigated rise in the friction torque and a decreasing friction coefficient (Figure 3).
Nowadays, two manners of the improvement of the resistance to scuffing of gears are in use in the world. One is focused on the improvement of extreme-pressure (EP) properties of gear oils. The other one is related to the improvement of the properties of gear materials, e.g. by the deposition of thin hard coatings onto the tooth flank surface.
The verification of the quality of gear oils and new techniques of surface engineering of the tooth surface of gears requires that gear testing should be used. The most known is a unique complex of gear test methods developed in the Gear Research Center (FZG) at the Technical University of Munich. Approximately, 500 FZG gear test rigs are used around the world [9].
The most often used and popular gear tests for lubricating oils are performed using the FZG A/8.3/90 scuffing test method. Unfortunately, this method makes it impossible to differentiate between gear oils having very good extreme-pressure (EP) properties, from the point of view of the resistance to gear scuffing [10]. This is why various scientific centres have developed their own test methods [10-13].
Recognising the problem of the low resolution of A/8.3/90 scuffing test, the FZG has developed two new scuffing methods denoted as A10/16.6R/90 and S-A10/16.6R/90 (S -
Nowadays, one of the research directions in numerous scientific centres in the world is an improvement in the scuffing resistance of toothed gears, achievable by the deposition of thin, hard, low-friction coatings onto the gear teeth, e.g. the a-C:H:W or MoS2/Ti coatings [20-22]. For the last several years, intensive research work has also been performed on this subject in the Tribology Department of ITeE-PIB. Until now, the FZG A/8.3/90 gear scuffing test method has been used most often in various scientific centres, which, like in the case of testing gear oils, exhibits a resolution that is too low to differentiate between the coated gears from the point of view of their resistance to scuffing [23-25] - Figure 5. It should be explained here that a-C:H:W and a-C:H coatings are DLC (diamond-like carbon) coatings, and the a-C:H:W coating has an outermost DLC layer doped with W (tungsten).
Failure load stages (FLS) obtained for the tested coatings (both gears coated) - FZG A/8.3/90 test method; data compiled from [
It is apparent from Figure 5 that the failure load stages (FLS), indicating the gear resistance to scuffing exceed the maximum number 12, so that the it is impossible to differentiate between the coated gears using the FZG A/8.3/90 test method.
To solve this problem, in the Tribology Department of ITeE-PIB, research was undertaken to apply the new FZG scuffing tests for coated gears to differentiate between their resistance to scuffing. Because the FZG test methods are dedicated exclusively to lubricating oils, their application for testing coated gears required introducing significant modifications - unique test methods have been developed, being the subject of this chapter. They are called the “Gear Scuffing EP Test for Coatings” and “Gear Scuffing Shock Test for Coatings.”
The main difference between the test methods designed by the authors and the gear scuffing tests A10/16.6R/90 and S-A10/16.6R/90, developed by FZG, is a rise in the initial oil temperature to 120 °C, adoption of a failure criterion related to wear of the wheel (big gear), and resigning from the criterion of invalidation of the test results when wear of the wheel exceeds 20 mg.
The tests are performed on a pair of lubricated test gears with a coating (it can be applied on one or both the gears) at a constant rotational speed, and at the initial temperature of the lubricating oil identical for all the runs - until a failure load stage (FLS) is determined, i.e., such a load at which at least one of the failure criteria is met. In the Gear Scuffing EP Test for Coatings, based on the FZG S-A10/16.6R/90 test, the load is increased stepwise, from the lowest to the highest value. According to the Gear Scuffing Shock Test for Coatings, based on the FZG S-A10/16.6R/90 test the load is not increased in stages from the lowest value, but the expected failure load is applied to an unused gear flank (hence, the name “shock test”). In the shock test, each change of the load requires an unused gear flank; therefore, before subsequent runs, the test gears should be disassembled and reversed or replaced with new ones.
Although the authors have introduced some significant changes to the FZG gear scuffing tests, the core procedures of performing the tests are the same as in the FZG tests, and they can be found in the relevant publications, e.g. in [14].
To better explain the differences between the “old” FZG gear scuffing test A/8.3/90 and the new test methods designed by the authors, the test conditions according to each method and the failure criteria are specified in Table 1.
\n\t\t\t | |||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Test gear type | \n\t\t\tFZG A-type (pinion and wheel width 20 mm) | \n\t\t\tFZG A10-type (pinion width 10 mm, wheel width 20 mm) | \n\t\t\tFZG A10-type (pinion width 10 mm, wheel width 20 mm) | \n\t\t
Test materials | \n\t\t\t20MnCr5 | \n\t\t\t20MnCr5, but at least one gear coated | \n\t\t\t20MnCr5, but at least one gear coated | \n\t\t
Motor rotational speed | \n\t\t\t1500 rpm | \n\t\t\t3000 rpm | \n\t\t\t3000 rpm | \n\t\t
Circumferential speed | \n\t\t\t8.3 m/s | \n\t\t\t16.6 m/s | \n\t\t\t16.6 m/s | \n\t\t
Direction of motor rotation | \n\t\t\t“Normal” | \n\t\t\t“Reversed” (R) | \n\t\t\t“Reversed” (R) | \n\t\t
Run duration | \n\t\t\t15 min. | \n\t\t\t7 min. 30 s | \n\t\t\t7 min. 30 s | \n\t\t
Maximum load stage | \n\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t
Maximum loading torque | \n\t\t\t535 N·m | \n\t\t\t373 N·m | \n\t\t\t535 N·m | \n\t\t
Maximum Hertzian pressure | \n\t\t\t1.8 GPa | \n\t\t\t2.2 GPa | \n\t\t\t2.6 GPa | \n\t\t
Loading type | \n\t\t\tStepwise, from load stage 1 | \n\t\t\tStepwise, from load stage 1 | \n\t\t\tShock (i.e. starting with a load at which the failure is expected) | \n\t\t
Initial lubricating oil temperature | \n\t\t\t90 ºC | \n\t\t\t120 ºC | \n\t\t\t120 ºC | \n\t\t
Temperature stabilisation during the run by cooling | \n\t\t\tNo | \n\t\t\tNo | \n\t\t\tNo | \n\t\t
Type of lubrication | \n\t\t\tDip lubrication | \n\t\t\tDip lubrication | \n\t\t\tDip lubrication | \n\t\t
Main failure criterion for FLS determination | \n\t\t\tAp ≥ area of one pinion tooth (≈200 mm2)a\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tAp > area of one pinion tooth (≈100 mm2) | \n\tAp > area of one pinion tooth (≈100 mm2), or Ww > 200 mgb\n | \n
Additional criteria of failure assessment | \n\tNone | \n\tFailures on the pinion teeth | \n\tFailures on the pinion teeth | \n
Criterion of invalidation of the run | \n\tNone | \n\tSignificant decohesion of the coating | \n\tSignificant decohesion of the coating | \n
Comparison of the FZG gear scuffing test and the methods designed by the authors
a Ap - total area of failures on the pinion
b Ww - wear (mass loss) of the wheel
After starting the run, the oil in the test chamber is heated by the heaters and friction. The oil temperature is allowed to rise freely. No cooling system is used in the tests.
Like in the FZG gear scuffing tests, if the failures are observed only within 1 mm from the tooth addendum, they are only scratches, or the failures are so small that the original criss-cross-grinding pattern (Figure 6) is still intact, they should be neglected when calculating the total area of the failures.
Original criss-cross-grinding pattern on the test gear teeth - stylus profilometry image
The failure load stage (FLS) is the main measure of the resistance of the test gears to scuffing. According to the Gear Scuffing EP Test for Coatings, the FLS is such a load at which the main failure criterion specified in Table 1 has been met. According to the Gear Scuffing Shock Test for Coatings, the FLS is such a load at which at least one of the failure criteria has been met and, when at the load stage lower by 1, neither of the failure criteria has been met.
When there is significant decohesion of the coating due to poor adhesion to the surface, the run should be invalidated.
After run completion at a given load stage, the failures on the pinion teeth should be noted using the symbols from Table 2. These data are used for additional failure assessment, complementarily to FLS.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Polishing | \n\t\t\tW | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Scratches | \n\t\t\tR | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Scoring | \n\t\t\tB | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Scuffing | \n\t\t\tZ | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Modes of wear of the test pinion (small gear)
Polishing can be identified when the “mirror-like” surface on the tooth flank is observed with the disappearing criss-cross-grinding pattern shown in Figure 6.
Scratches appear as shorter or longer fine lines in the sliding direction of the tooth flanks.
Scoring marks run in the same direction as scratches. On the basis of CEC L-07-95 standard [26], it can be adopted that they occur singly or in zones as light, medium or deep grooves continuing towards the tip of the tooth and having a rougher appearance than the criss-cross-grinding pattern (Figure 6).
Scuffing marks occur as single, fine marks or strips, or areas covering a part or all of the flank width. According to CEC L-07-95 standard, they appear as dull areas with the roughness much greater than the original criss-cross-grinding pattern shown in Figure 6. In this case, the grinding pattern is no longer visible.
The difference between scuffing and scoring is that scuffing originates from the adhesive bond creation between the mating surfaces, which are then sheared, and scoring results from mechanical abrasion of the surface by the very hard wear particles under conditions of a very high load. Like scuffing, scoring is one of the most dangerous modes of gear wear.
When both test gears are uncoated, a respective standardised test method A10/16.6R/90 or S-A10/16.6R/90, developed by FZG should be used. However, to compare the results with the new test methods, it is necessary to start a run at the initial oil temperature of 120 °C rather than 90 °C.
A photograph of the FZG A10 scuffing test gears employed in the tests according to the developed methods is shown in Figure 7.
Photograph of the FZG A10 scuffing test gears
The A10 test gears are made of 20MnCr5 steel. They are carburized, case hardened, tempered and Maag criss-cross ground. The surface hardness is HRC = 60 + 2 and the case hardness depth (CHD) is 0.6 to 0.9 mm (Eht). The effective face width of the pinion is 10 mm, and the wheel is 20 mm. The number of pinion teeth is 16, and wheel 24. The gears are identical to the ones used to perform tests according to the FZG A10/16.6R/90 and S-A10/16.6R/90 methods.
For the complex testing of gears, a back-to-back gear test rig, denoted as T-12U, was designed in the Tribology Department of ITeE-PIB in Radom. Its photograph is presented in Figure 8 and kinematic schemes are presented in Figure 9.
The T-12U test rig is equipped with a control-measuring system, which consists of measuring transducers (thermocouple, speed transducer) and the controller (Figure 8).
Photograph of the T-12U gear test rig
Kinematic schemes of the T-12U gear test rig: a) front view, b) top view, c) loading equipment; 1 - thermocouple, 2 - test wheel, 3 - test pinion, 4 - vent, 5 - test chamber, 6 - shafts torsion angle indicator, 7 - load clutch, 8 - front shaft, 9 - slave chamber, 10 - drive clutch, 11 - electric motor, 12 - loading lever, 13 - weight hanger, 14 - weights, 15 - heaters, 16 - frame, 17 - concrete base
During runs, the following quantities are measured: rotational speed, lubricating oil temperature, motor current load, time, and the number of motor revolutions. The measured values are displayed on the controller.
The test rig is mounted on the concrete base equipped with vibration-dumping feet.
The T-12U gear test rig is a back-to-back rig (Figure 9) where the test gears (2) and (3), located in the test chamber (5), are connected by two shafts to the slave gears, located in the chamber (9). The front shaft (8) has two parts. Between them there is the load clutch (7). To apply the loading torque between the meshing gears, before the run, one part of the shaft (the left part of the front shaft (8) is fixed to the base with the lock-pin via the clutch and its support. A round-shaped loading lever (12) is placed on the right part of the clutch (7), and then the weight hanger (13) is suspended and the appropriate number weights (14) put on it. They give a static loading torque by twisting the shafts, which is measured indirectly using the torsion angle indicator (6). When the load has been applied, the two halves of the clutch (7) are firmly fixed against each other with the bolts. Then, the lock-pin is removed to close the safety cover. During the run, this loading torque “circulates” between the gears. In the back-to-back solution the motor (11) must overcome only the friction between gears, rolling bearings, and some minor components of friction (friction against seals, internal friction in the oil). Thus, the whole design is very simple and compact.
An AC squirrel-cage motor (11) of the nominal rotational speed of 3000 rpm is used to drive the rig. It is controlled by the frequency converter, which enables to change the rotational speed within a wide range.
In the gear scuffing tests the test gears are dip lubricated. In the test chamber where the test gears are located, there are heaters (15) to heat up the lubricating oil. The thermocouple (1), with the measuring point inserted in the lubricating oil, is to measure the oil temperature. A PID regulator is used to protect against overheating of the lubricating oil.
The motor (11) of the machine is automatically stopped when the preset time elapses. The required time is set on the controller panel. Additionally, the operator can read out the number of motor revolutions to confirm the correct duration of the run. The number of motor revolutions is displayed on the controller panel (Figure 8) connected to the speed transducer.
In the T-12U machine, the friction torque can be measured indirectly by measurement of the motor current load, which can be assumed to be proportional to the friction torque.
The test rig has a special support on the side cover of the test chamber (5) for mounting vibration transducers (accelerometers) to enable the operator to monitor the level of vibrations along different axes. However, now there is no possibility to automatically stop the motor when the vibration level is very high. This feature (together with other features like direct measurement of the friction torque) will be included in a new test rig, denoted as T-12UF, being developed at present.
Additional equipment includes a mass comparator for a very precise determination of the mass loss (wear) of the wheel.
The gears coated with the low-friction a-C:H:W coating (trade name: WC/C) of DLC type and composite low-friction MoS2/Ti coating (trade name: MoST) were tested. All material combinations were tested: coating-coating (both gears coated), coating-steel, steel-coating, and steel-steel for reference (both gears without the coating). In all cases, mineral, automotive gear oil of API GL-5 performance level and of SAE 80W-90-viscosity grade was used for lubrication.
To check statistical differences between the results obtained (FLS values), the uncertainty of measurement was assessed for the both developed test methods. This was done according to the procedures specified in the document EA-4/16 G:2003, which are binding in the accredited laboratories meeting the requirements of ISO/IEC 17025:2005.
Once the uncertainty of measurement has been calculated, the test result “y” and the uncertainty of measurement “U” should be reported as ”y ± U.”
As a normal practice, the uncertainty of measurement is given in relation to the average value of the measurement. For example, in the case of the gear scuffing shock tests, the respective formula derived by the authors is expressed as follows:
where:
U - uncertainty of measurement,
FLS - failure load stage.
According to ILAC-G8:03/2009, if the uncertainty intervals expressed by U do not overlap each other, one can say that the compared results are statistically different.
Failure load stages (FLS) obtained for the tested material combinations with the a-C:H:W coating are presented in Figure 10. The coated gear is dark grey coloured, and the uncoated one is light grey.
Failure load stages (FLS) obtained using the Gear Scuffing EP Test for Coatings for the tested material combinations with the a-C:H:W coating
Figure 10 shows that the Gear Scuffing EP Test for Coatings is unable to differentiate between the tested material combinations from the point of view of the main criterion - FLS. All the FLS values exceed the maximum load stage, i.e. 10th. Thus, the additional criteria of failure assessment, related to the wear of the pinion after runs at particular load stages, were taken into account - Table 3. The table presents the symbolic modes of the wear of the test pinion at particular load stages for the tested material combinations with the a-C:H:W coating, and the mode of wear that appeared most often on the pinion teeth was considered. Below are the symbols of the wear modes, the total area of failures on the pinion (Ap) are given. The used symbols of wear were presented earlier in Table 2.
Load stage | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
4 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t
5 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t
6 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t
7 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t
8 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t
9 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t
10 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t
Modes of the wear of the test pinion at particular load stages for the tested material combinations with the a-C:H:W coating, together with the total area of failures on the pinion (Ap); Gear Scuffing EP Test for Coatings
As can be observed in Table 3 for the tested material combinations, the three modes of wear that appear most often on the pinion teeth are scratches, polishing, and scoring. The uncoated pinion undergoes the process of polishing through the rubbing by the hard a-C:H:W coating deposited on the meshing wheel. Similar action was observed on the uncoated wheel meshing the coated pinion (results not shown here). The role of such polishing is to be explained in further experiments planned by the authors.
To sum up this part of the experiment, the Gear Scuffing EP Test for Coatings gives minor differences between the tested material combinations with the a-C:H:W coating, observed only when the pinion is uncoated and the wheel is coated. From the point of view of the practical applications of the a-C:H:W coating in gears, the situation when the both gears are coated seems to be better than in the case of one of the gears uncoated, because it is exposed to the abrasive action of the meshing coated gear, which results in polishing and scoring.
Failure load stages (FLS) obtained for the tested material combinations with the MoS2/Ti coating are presented in Figure 11. The coated gear is dark grey coloured, and the uncoated one is light grey.
Failure load stages (FLS) obtained using the Gear Scuffing EP Test for Coatings for the tested material combinations with the MoS2/Ti coating
Figure 11 shows that the Gear Scuffing EP Test for Coatings is unable to differentiate between the tested material combinations from the point of view of the main criterion - FLS. As in the case of testing the a-C:H:W coating, all the FLS values exceed the maximum load stage, i.e. 10th. Thus, the additional criteria of failure assessment, related to the wear of the pinion after runs at particular load stages, were taken into account - Table 4. The table presents the symbolic modes of the wear of the test pinion at particular load stages for the tested material combinations with the MoS2/Ti coating, which is the mode of wear that appeared most often on the pinion teeth was considered. Below are the symbols of the wear modes, and the total area of failures on the pinion (Ap) are given. The used symbols of wear were presented earlier in Table 2.
Load stage | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
4 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t
5 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t
6 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap = 5 mm2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
7 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap = 10 mm2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
8 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap = 10 mm2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
9 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap = 10 mm2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
10 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap = 10 mm2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Modes of the wear of the test pinion at particular load stages for the tested material combinations with the MoS2/Ti coating, together with the total area of failures on the pinion (Ap); Gear Scuffing EP Test for Coatings
As can be observed in Table 4 for the tested material combinations, the two modes of wear that appear most often on the pinion teeth are scratches and scoring. In the material combination of the uncoated pinion meshing the coated wheel, the pinion bears the mark of scoring caused by the rubbing by the hard coating deposited on the meshing wheel.
Thus, the Gear Scuffing EP Test for Coatings gives minor differences between the tested material combinations with the MoS2/Ti coating, observed only when the pinion is uncoated and the wheel is coated. From the point of view of the practical applications of the MoS2/Ti coating in gears, the situation when the both gears are coated seems to be better than in the case of one of the gears uncoated as it is exposed to the abrasive action of the meshing coated gear, which results in scoring. However, when one of the gears needs to remain uncoated, using the a-C:H:W coating is more preferable than MoS2/Ti, because a-C:H:W causes less wear of the uncoated gear.
Failure load stages (FLS) obtained for the tested material combinations with the a-C:H:W coating are presented in Figure 12. The coated gear is dark grey coloured, and the uncoated one is light grey. The assessed uncertainties of measurement for each result obtained are also shown in the Figure.
Failure load stages (FLS) obtained using the Gear Scuffing Shock Test for Coatings for the tested material combinations with the a-C:H:W coating
Figure 12 shows that the Gear Scuffing Shock Test for Coatings makes it possible to differentiate between the tested material combinations. The best resistance to scuffing (highest FLS) is observed when both gears are coated.
Under “shock” conditions, when the pinion is uncoated and the wheel is coated with the a-C:H:W coating, the resistance to scuffing is slightly higher than in the case when the pinion is coated and the wheel is uncoated. Hypothetically, there is a transfer of graphite (solid lubricant) from the a-C:H:W coated gear to the teeth of the uncoated one, which is more effective for the wheel coated than in the opposite situation, because the area of the coated steel surface of the wheel (larger gear with 24 teeth) is greater than in the case the coating is deposited on the pinion (small gear having only 16 teeth). However, one must have in mind that the difference in the scuffing resistance of the two material combinations is not statistically significant, because the measurement uncertainties overlap each other.
In comparison to the case of the both gears uncoated, when the a-C:H:W coating is deposited on one or two gears, much higher resistance to scuffing is observed. This is a result of a high surface energy for metals (here for steel) promoting adhesive bonding in the steel-steel contact, and smaller affinity in the different materials than when both of them are identical (i.e. steel-steel), which protects the surface from adhesive bonding. Yet another phenomenon can be attributed to it. When one of the mating materials (coating) is much harder than the other one (steel), or when two very hard materials are in contact (coating-coating) there is a reduction in the tendency to adhesive bonding, hence scuffing.
The additional criteria of failure assessment, related to the wear of the pinion after runs at particular load stages, were also taken into account - Table 5. The table presents the symbolic modes of the wear of the test pinion at particular load stages for the tested material combinations with the a-C:H:W coating, which is the mode of wear that appeared most often on the pinion teeth was taken into account. The photographs of the most often appearing mode of wear of the pinion at the highest load stage are shown also shown in the table. Red-shadowed cells in the table denote the failure load stage (FLS). Below are given the symbols of the wear modes, the total area of failures on the pinion (Ap), and wear of wheel (Ww). The used symbols of wear were presented earlier in Table 2.
As can be observed in Table 5 for the tested material combinations, the three modes of wear that appear most often on the pinion teeth are scratches, scuffing, and scoring. When one or both gears are a-C:H:W-coated, only scratches and scoring predominate on the pinion teeth.
What was observed also during the Gear Scuffing EP Test for Coatings, and what seems to by typical of “the action” of the a-C:H:W coating, the uncoated gear undergoes the process of polishing or scoring through the rubbing by the hard coating deposited on the meshing gear. The polishing on the wheel teeth flanks can be seen in Figure 13.
Photograph of the tooth flank of the uncoated wheel, polished by the a-C:H:W-coated pinion; Gear Scuffing Shock Test for Coatings
Load stage | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
7 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap = 26 mm2\n\t\t\t\t Ww = 1 mg | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
8 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t Ap = 703 mm2\n\t\t\t\t Ww - not measured | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
9 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
10 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 Ww = 180 mg | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
11 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 Ww = 338 mg | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap = 5 mm2\n\t\t\t\t Ww = 76 mg | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 Ww = 2 mg | \n\t\t
12 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t Ap = 6 mm2\n\t\t\t\t Ww = 145 mg | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t Ap = 318 mm2\n\t\t\t\t Ww = 3 mg | \n\t\t
Modes of the wear of the test pinion at particular load stages for the tested material combinations with the a-C:H:W coating, together with the total area of failures on the pinion (Ap), and wear of wheel (Ww), obtained in the Gear Scuffing Shock Test for Coatings; red-shadowed cells - the failure load stage (FLS)
Scuffing is observed only when both gears are uncoated - Table 5. This is one of the most dangerous modes of gear wear. As mentioned earlier, scuffing marks occur as single, fine marks or strips, or areas covering a part or all of the flank width. They appear as dull areas with the roughness much greater than the original criss-cross-grinding pattern shown in Figure 6. In this case, the grinding pattern is no longer visible.
To sum up this part of the experiment, the Gear Scuffing Shock Test for Coatings gives a much better resolution than the Gear Scuffing EP Test. However, one needs to have in mind that the cost of the former is about four-times higher than in the case of the latter, because the “shock tests” require more test gears to be used. From the point of view of the practical applications of the a-C:H:W coating in gears, the situation when the both gears are coated seems to be better than in the case of one of the gears uncoated, because it is exposed to the abrasive action of the meshing coated gear, which results in polishing or scoring. This positively verifies the observations taken during performing the Gear Scuffing EP Test for Coatings.
Failure load stages (FLS) obtained for the tested material combinations with the MoS2/Ti coating are presented in Figure 14.
Failure load stages (FLS) obtained using the Gear Scuffing Shock Test for Coatings for the tested material combinations with the MoS2/Ti coating
Figure 14 shows that the best resistance to scuffing (highest FLS) is observed when both gears are coated with the MoS2/Ti coating, or when the uncoated pinion meshes the coated wheel.
As in the case of the a-C:H:W coating, when only the wheel is MoS2/Ti-coated, under “shock” conditions the resistance to scuffing is higher than in the situation when only the pinion coated. Hypothetically, there is a transfer of MoS2 (solid lubricant) from the teeth of the coated gear to the uncoated one. The transfer is more effective in the case of the MoS2/Ti-coated wheel meshing the uncoated pinion than in the opposite situation, because the area of the coated steel surface of the larger gear (wheel) is greater than in the case when the coating is deposited on the small gear (pinion).
In comparison to the case when both gears are uncoated, a much higher resistance to scuffing is observed when the MoS2/Ti coating is deposited on one or two gears. The respective mechanisms of this behaviour were described earlier.
Table 6 presents the symbolic modes of wear of the test pinion at particular load stages for the tested material combinations with the MoS2/Ti coating. As in the case of the a-C:H:W coating, the mode of wear that appeared most often on the pinion teeth was taken into account. The photographs of the most often appearing mode of wear of the pinion at the highest load stage are also shown in the table. Red-shadowed cells in the table denote the failure load stage (FLS). Below are given the symbols of the wear modes, the total area of failures on the pinion (Ap) and wear of wheel (Ww). The symbols of wear were presented earlier in Table 2.
As can be observed in Table 6 for the tested material combinations, the two modes of wear that appear most often on the pinion teeth are scuffing and scoring. When one or both gears are coated, only scoring predominates on the pinion teeth.
When the pinion is coated and the wheel is uncoated, and when both the gears are coated, identical results were obtained for the two investigated coatings - FLS values are respectively 11 and higher than 12 (Figures 12 and 14). Therefore, the main criterion of assessment of the resistance to scuffing (FLS) makes it impossible to differentiate between these two situations. Under these circumstances, the analysis of additional criteria of failure assessment, related to the modes of wear at particular load stages, like in the previous cases can give additional, valuable information. In the case of the material combinations with the a-C:H:W coating, the predominating mode of wear of the pinion were only scratches. For the material combinations with the MoS2/Ti coating, the pinion wear was much more sever, and scoring instead of scratches could be met most often. Thus, the a-C:H:W coating provides better protection against severe wear than MoS2/Ti, especially when it is deposited on the both gears. This positively verifies the observations taken during performing the Gear Scuffing EP Test for Coatings.
Load stage | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t
7 | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t Ap = 26 mm2\n\t\t\t Ww = 1 mg | \n\t\t\n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t |
8 | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\t Ap = 703 mm2\n\t\t\t Ww - not measured | \n\t\t\n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t |
9 | \n\t\t\n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t |
10 | \n\t\t\n\t\t | \n\t\t\t Ap = 32 mm2\n\t\t\t Ww = 11 mg | \n\t\t\n\t\t | \n\t |
11 | \n\t\t\n\t\t | \n\t\t\t \n\t\t\t Ap = 109 mm2\n\t\t\t Ww = 25 mg | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 Ww = 16 mg | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 Ww = 9 mg | \n\t
12 | \n\t\t\n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t\t\t \n\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 Ww = 16 mg | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\t Ap ≈ 0 Ww = 9 mg | \n\t
Modes of wear of the test pinion at particular load stages for the tested material combinations with the MoS2/Ti coating, together with the total area of failures on the pinion (Ap), and wear of wheel (Ww), obtained in the Gear Scuffing Shock Test for Coatings; red-shadowed cells - the failure load stage (FLS)
The authors have developed unique test methods, being the subjects of this chapter. They are called the “Gear Scuffing EP Test for Coatings” and “Gear Scuffing Shock Test for Coatings.”
The analysis of the values of the failure load stage (FLS), reflecting the resistance to scuffing, shows that the developed Gear Scuffing EP Test for Coatings has too little resolution to differentiate between the tested material combinations - coating-coating (both gears coated), coating-steel, steel-coating, and also steel-steel (both gears without a coating). Additional criteria of failure assessment need to be employed to reveal minor differences between the tested material combinations observed only when the pinion is uncoated and the wheel is coated.
In comparison, Gear Scuffing Shock Test for Coatings makes it generally possible to differentiate between the tested material combinations from the point of view of the main criterion of assessment of the gear resistance to scuffing, i.e. FLS. Thus, this test method has a sufficient resolution. However, as in the case of the Gear Scuffing EP Test for Coatings, apart from the analysis of only FLS values, analysis of the additional criteria of failure assessment related to predominating modes of wear at particular load stages is recommended and may give additional, valuable information. For the two coatings tested (a-C:H:W and MoS2/Ti), the best resistance to scuffing/scoring (FLS > 12) is observed when both gears are coated; however, the a-C:H:W coating gives a slightly better protection against severe wear than MoS2/Ti - only scratches instead of scoring are observed for a-C:H:W.
Although the Gear Scuffing Shock Test for Coatings gives a much better resolution than the Gear Scuffing EP Test, one needs to have in mind that the cost of the former is about four-times higher than in the case of the latter, because the “shock tests” require more test gears to be used.
In the both tests, when one or both gears are coated, three modes of wear occur most often on the pinion teeth - polishing, scratches, or scoring. Scuffing is observed only when the two gears are uncoated.
The following conclusions can be drawn:
The developed Gear Scuffing Shock Test for Coatings has been successfully verified by the testing of thin, hard coatings deposited on the gears; therefore, it can be implemented in the laboratories of the R&D centres devoted to surface engineering and the engineering of advanced materials intended for modern toothed gears, having in mind that this test is rather expensive.
If the coating is intended for application on gears, from the point of view of the highest achievable resistance to scuffing/scoring, it is recommended that both meshing gears are a-C:H:W-coated.
Although the T-12U gear test rig has been effectively employed in the performed research, it is suggested that its research capacities should be extended by the measurement and data acquisition of the friction torque, which will make it possible to investigate, as postulated by gear transmissions manufacturers, the possibility of the reduction of friction between the meshing teeth by the application of a low-friction coating. At present, a new version of the T-12U test rig, denoted as T-12UF, is being developed within the framework of the Strategic Programme executed at ITeE-PIB in Radom, and the planned deadline of this work is in 2013.
Both the differentiation between the tested objects (lubricating oils, material combinations) and the predictability of gear failures in real applications (transmissions) are important when assessing gear tests. This is why the authors plan to verify the results obtained by application of coated gears in transmissions (speed reducers) of different devices manufactured by one of the Polish producers. What is more, at present another test rig - a back-to-back bevel gear test rig, denoted as T-30 - is being developed in the Tribology Department of ITeE-PIB in Radom with the deadline in 2012. The reason is that until now widely used test devices and methods have allowed researchers to perform runs on only spur gears having the tooth geometry significantly different than the geometry of bevel gears. The new tribotester will allow researchers to better predict the failures of bevel gears.
Scientific work was financed:
From the means of the Minister of Science and Higher Education, executed within the Strategic Programme “Innovative Systems of Technical Support for Sustainable Development of the Country’s Economy” within Innovative Economy Operational Programme.
By the National Centre for Research and Development (NCBiR) within the scope of the R&D project No. N R03 0019 06.
The authors wish to express their thanks also to Dr. Maksim Antonov from Tallinn University (Estonia) for his support with the gear scuffing tests and helpful discussions, within the framework of Marie Curie RTN (6th EU FP); Contract No MRTN-CT-2006-035589.
Syllabusitis is the name of an educational disease. It consists of identifying the mastering of a subject with proficiency related to a syllabus [1, 2, 3]. This is a sometimes convenient, but severely damaging reduction of complexity, among other things because it defocuses the teaching and learning of the subject. Everyone with a sense of mastering a subject will agree that there is much more to it than proficiency related to a syllabus, and this ‘much more’ is forgotten (or neglected) in a system infected by syllabusitis.
My impression is that syllabusitis is widely disseminated in mathematics education systems around the world. My intention here is not to defend the validity of this impression, but to use it as a framing of a more constructive analysis initiated by the questions: How can we describe the content of mathematics-laden education in a way that supports the fight against syllabusitis? In particular: How can such a description become a source of inspiration for teachers’ work and professional development?
The first question was one of the dominating points of departure for the Danish KOM Project, whose basic approach to the question of mathematical mastery I lay out in the next section, cf. Højgaard [4] of which the following sections of this chapter is an edited version. In section three, I address the second question by arguing that a two-dimensional structure has proven to be a crucial element when attempting to put the competency idea into educational practice, and in section four I present a specific example: using the two-dimensional structure to challenge and focus the planning of mathematics-laden education at university level. In section five, I finish by discussing some general perspectives for future curriculum development.
In many countries, Denmark being one of them, the traditional way of specifying a mathematics curriculum is structured around the following components (cf. [5]):
The
A
The instruments of
Sometimes the purpose is determined first and used as a basis for the establishment of the syllabus and the modes of assessment and testing. Often, though, the syllabus is determined first and the purpose added as a sort of politically oriented foreword, the modes of assessment and testing only referring to the syllabus-specific goals and the formal settings (‘A four-hour written test’ etc.). The establishment of the syllabus becomes the hub of curriculum development and, consequently, the central arena for discussions between the teachers, the recipient bodies and institutions and the curriculum developers.
In such a system, syllabusitis is systematically fertilised, not only at the system level of curriculum development, but also – and this is the core of the problem – in the minds and practices of mathematics teachers. To my experience, it is a generally accepted claim that the main channel of communication between ‘the system’ and the mathematics teachers regarding the content and orientation of the teaching is a list of guiding tasks for the written exam. If this list is structured mainly as an attempt to cover the syllabus, because it is constructed by people who are in the heart of a system infected by syllabusitis, then it should be no surprise that the minds and practices of the teachers are formatted in the same way.
One of the causes for the syllabus-focused curriculum structure is that we have nothing else to turn to when searching for a structure that is well suited for communication between the different bodies involved in mathematics-laden education. The purpose of the teaching, being the natural alternative, is a much more general kind of statement with no direct relation to the planning and orchestration of the teaching. This creates a ‘missing link’ between the purpose and planning of a structure for classroom activities, and only a minority of the teachers are able to create this link themselves.
This problem was one of the reasons for the initiation of the Danish KOM Project (‘Kompetencer Og Matematiklæring’, Danish for ‘Competencies and Mathematical Learning’), which took place in the years 2000–2002 (cf. [5, 6, 7]) and was directed by Mogens Niss for whom I acted as academic secretary. Based on previous work by Niss [8] the important analytical steps carried out in this project were (cf. [9]) to:
move from a general understanding of the concept
to a focus on
and then identify, explicitly formulate and exemplify
A visual representation of the eight mathematical competencies presented and exemplified in the KOM report [
In short, these competencies can be described as someone’s insightful readiness to …
Such a set of mathematical competencies has the potential to replace the syllabus as the hub of the development of mathematics-laden education, because it offers a vocabulary for a focused discussion of the aims of mathematics education that can make us feel comfortable for the same reasons that we are comfortable with the traditional specificity of the syllabus [1].
The work with mathematical competencies laid out in the KOM report is one of many attempts to generate a more broad and ambitious framing of the design of mathematics-laden curricula, where ‘something more’ than just mere syllabus reproduction is expected. The most well-known example is probably the American “Principles and Standards for School Mathematics” [10, 11], but many other countries have been through similar developmental processes during the last two to three decades.
For me an interesting experience was when I had the opportunity during a sabbatical leave in 2009 to get acquainted with a by then ongoing process of developing a new national curriculum for general education in Australia, including a new framework for mathematics education ([Australian] [12]). The main feature of this framework is to distinguish between content strands, which I read as parallel to a syllabus, and proficiency strands, which I (cf. [13]) read as the chosen approach to fill out the ‘something more’ part of the curriculum. In the short version, the approach chosen in the Australian framework is described as follows:
The content strands describe the ‘what’ that is to be taught and learnt while the proficiency strands describe the ‘how’ of the way content is explored or developed i.e. the thinking and doing of mathematics.
Since the whole quote is emphasized is an unusually clearly stated example of what I based on unsystematic experience believe to be a very common way to relate the syllabus and the ‘something more’ part of a curriculum. It can be described as supplementing the syllabus with specific subject-related goals (‘acquire computational fluency with …’, ‘develop a general understanding of …’ etc.), and is also used in the American Standards mentioned above.
The problem with this ‘syllabus with comments’ approach depicted in Figure 2 is that it does not once and for all fundamentally depart from the tradition of writing up the content of mathematics education in a linear fashion, it just ‘dresses it up’ with some new ambitions. Hence, it is still possible to forget or neglect the new ambitions of the curriculum and carry out the much to easy transformation of the linearly described content into a by nature also linear plan for the teaching of the content: ‘Algebra’ as the heading for part one of the plan, ‘Geometry’ as the heading for part two, etc.
A ‘syllabus with comments’ structuring of the content of mathematics education.
In the KOM Project we suggested the alternative of using a matrix structure for incorporating mathematical competencies in mathematics curricula [7]. Figure 3 is an adapted version of this model with the combinatorial cell structure left out. One of the consequences of this approach is that it makes didactical considerations necessary when planning from a two-dimensional content structure to a timewise one-dimensional teaching plan.
A two-dimensional structuring of the content of mathematics education (adapted from [
In the last decade or so, the two-dimensional structuring of content suggested here has been used for various curriculum developments in Denmark from primary school to university (cf. [5]). In this chapter I will exemplify how that can be approached at university level, based on the elaborated presentation in Højgaard & Jankvist [14].
The School of Education at Aarhus University in Denmark offers a master’s programme in mathematics education, parallel to several other educational master’s programmes (cf. [15]). I have been the person responsible for that programme since its latest major educational re-design in 2005, of which I was the main architect. That process took place only a few years after the intense work with the KOM Project, so it is of little surprise that the educational design is not least framed by a competency approach to mathematics education. There is, however, also a more substantial reason for this choice made by my colleagues and I in the mathematics education group at Aarhus University: We acknowledge the fundamental challenge of fighting syllabusitis in mathematics-laden education across educational levels, and we agree that a set of mathematical competencies is a useful developmental tool to address this challenge.
Hence, we have chosen to use the framework of mathematical competencies as a basis for the design of the mathematically focused part of the master’s programme. That part covers two compulsory course modules;
A visualization of the content of the educational module: ‘Mathematics in a Didactical Perspective I’ ([
The generalizability of this model can and should be tested and challenged. To make a long story short, my experience from participating in several research and development projects framed by a two-dimensional mathematical content description is twofold (cf. [14]):
One of the main advantages of using a two-dimensionally structured competency perspective on mathematics-laden education is that it inherently fosters reflections among the teachers involved about the foci of the different mathematical competencies involved in the two-dimensional content structure [9].
Such reflections promote the more ambitious kind of work processes aimed at in mathematics-laden education, if the teachers involved get the necessary time and support (as was the case with the example given above) to learn how to use the two-dimensional structure as a developmental tool (cf. [17]).
As for the third dimension of the model in Figure 4, it has proven both important and helpful for my colleagues and I when communicating with each other and with the students about the focus of the different modules. The didactics of mathematics perspective reminds us all that this is the context in which the mathematical content should be taught, learned and assessed, and I see no reason why that could not be replaced with “engineering perspective”, “biology perspective”, etc., to form a useful developmental tool in other educational settings.
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These physiological events occur smoothly in normal healthy individual and/or under normal conditions. However, in certain cases, these molecular events are retarded resulting in hard-to-heal or chronic wounds arising from several factors such as poor venous return, underlying physiological or metabolic conditions such as diabetes as well as external factors such as poor nutrition. In most cases, such wounds are infected and infection also presents as another complicating phenomenon which triggers inflammatory reactions, therefore delaying wound healing. There has therefore been recent interests and significant efforts in preventing and actively treating wound infections by directly targeting infection causative agents through direct application of antimicrobial agents either alone or loaded into dressings (medicated). These have the advantage of overcoming challenges such as poor circulation in diabetic and leg ulcers when administered systemically and also require lower amounts to be applied compared to that required via oral or iv administration. This chapter will review and evaluate various antimicrobial agents used to target infected wounds, the means of delivery, and current state of the art, including commercially available dressings. Data sources will include mainly peer-reviewed literature, clinical trials and reports, patents as well as government reports where available.",book:{id:"5290",slug:"wound-healing-new-insights-into-ancient-challenges",title:"Wound Healing",fullTitle:"Wound Healing - New insights into Ancient Challenges"},signatures:"Omar Sarheed, Asif Ahmed, Douha Shouqair and Joshua Boateng",authors:[{id:"183108",title:"Dr.",name:"Joshua",middleName:null,surname:"Boateng",slug:"joshua-boateng",fullName:"Joshua Boateng"},{id:"183399",title:"Dr.",name:"Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Sarheed",slug:"omar-sarheed",fullName:"Omar Sarheed"},{id:"188082",title:"Mr.",name:"Asif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"asif-ahmed",fullName:"Asif Ahmed"},{id:"188083",title:"Ms.",name:"Douha",middleName:null,surname:"Shouqair",slug:"douha-shouqair",fullName:"Douha Shouqair"}]},{id:"51825",doi:"10.5772/64611",title:"Roles of Matrix Metalloproteinases in Cutaneous Wound Healing",slug:"roles-of-matrix-metalloproteinases-in-cutaneous-wound-healing",totalDownloads:3598,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:35,abstract:"Wound healing is a complex process that consists of hemostasis and inflammation, angiogenesis, re-epithelialization, and tissue remodeling. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) play important roles in wound healing, and their dysregulation leads to prolonged inflammation and delayed wound healing. There are 24 MMPs in humans, and each MMP exists in three forms, of which only the active MMPs play a role in the pathology or repair of wounds. The current methodology does not distinguish between the three forms of MMPs, making it challenging to investigate the roles of MMPs in pathology and wound repair. We used a novel MMP-inhibitor-tethered affinity resin that binds only the active form of MMPs, from which we identified and quantified active MMP-8 and active MMP-9 in a murine diabetic model with delayed wound healing. We showed that up-regulation of active MMP-9 plays a detrimental role whereas active MMP-8 is involved in repairing the wound in diabetic mice. These studies identified MMP-9 as a novel target for therapeutic intervention in the treatment of chronic wounds. A selective inhibitor of MMP-9 that leaves MMP-8 unaffected would provide the most effective therapy and represents a promising strategy for therapeutic intervention in the treatment of diabetic foot ulcers.",book:{id:"5290",slug:"wound-healing-new-insights-into-ancient-challenges",title:"Wound Healing",fullTitle:"Wound Healing - New insights into Ancient Challenges"},signatures:"Trung T. Nguyen, Shahriar Mobashery and Mayland Chang",authors:[{id:"183405",title:"Prof.",name:"Mayland",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",slug:"mayland-chang",fullName:"Mayland Chang"},{id:"191152",title:"Mr.",name:"Trung",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",slug:"trung-nguyen",fullName:"Trung Nguyen"},{id:"191153",title:"Prof.",name:"Shahriar",middleName:null,surname:"Mobashery",slug:"shahriar-mobashery",fullName:"Shahriar Mobashery"}]},{id:"63675",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81208",title:"Wound Healing: Contributions from Plant Secondary Metabolite Antioxidants",slug:"wound-healing-contributions-from-plant-secondary-metabolite-antioxidants",totalDownloads:1309,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Plants by their genetic makeup possess an innate ability to synthesize a wide variety of phytochemicals that help them to perform their normal physiological functions and/or to protect themselves from microbial pathogens and animal herbivores. The synthesis of these phytochemicals presents the plants their natural tendency to respond to environmental stress conditions. These phytochemicals are classified either as primary or secondary metabolites. The secondary metabolites have been identified in plants as alkaloids, terpenoids, phenolics, anthraquinones, and triterpenes. These plant-based compounds are believed to have diverse medicinal properties including antioxidant properties. Plants have therefore been a potential source of antioxidants which have received a great deal of attention since increased oxidative stress has been identified as a major causative factor in the development and progression of several life-threatening diseases, including neurodegenerative and cardiovascular diseases and wound infection. Consequently, many medicinal plants have been cited and known to effect wound healing and antioxidant properties. This chapter briefly reviews antioxidant properties of medicinal plants to highlight the important roles medicinal plants play in wound healing.",book:{id:"7046",slug:"wound-healing-current-perspectives",title:"Wound Healing",fullTitle:"Wound Healing - Current Perspectives"},signatures:"Victor Y.A. Barku",authors:[{id:"261027",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor Y. A.",middleName:null,surname:"Barku",slug:"victor-y.-a.-barku",fullName:"Victor Y. A. Barku"}]},{id:"66793",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85020",title:"The Impact of Biofilm Formation on Wound Healing",slug:"the-impact-of-biofilm-formation-on-wound-healing",totalDownloads:1405,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Chronic wounds represent an important challenge for wound care and are universally colonized by bacteria. These bacteria can form biofilm as a survival mechanism that confers the ability to resist environmental stressors and antimicrobials due to a variety of reasons, including low metabolic activity. Additionally, the exopolymeric substance (EPS) contained in biofilm acts as a mechanical barrier to immune system cells, leading to collateral damage in the surrounding tissue as well as chronic inflammation, which eventually will delay healing of the wound. This chapter will discuss current knowledge on biofilm formation, its presence in acute and chronic wounds, how biofilm affects antibiotic resistance and tolerance, as well as the wound healing process. We will also discuss proposed methods to eliminate biofilm and improve wound healing despite its presence, including basic science and clinical studies regarding these matters.",book:{id:"7046",slug:"wound-healing-current-perspectives",title:"Wound Healing",fullTitle:"Wound Healing - Current Perspectives"},signatures:"Rafael A. Mendoza, Ji-Cheng Hsieh and Robert D. Galiano",authors:[{id:"253607",title:"M.D.",name:"Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Mendoza",slug:"rafael-mendoza",fullName:"Rafael Mendoza"},{id:"254018",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Galiano",slug:"robert-galiano",fullName:"Robert Galiano"},{id:"271116",title:"Mr.",name:"Ji-Cheng",middleName:null,surname:"Hsieh",slug:"ji-cheng-hsieh",fullName:"Ji-Cheng Hsieh"}]},{id:"63086",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80215",title:"Medicinal Plants in Wound Healing",slug:"medicinal-plants-in-wound-healing",totalDownloads:2845,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Wound healing process is known as interdependent cellular and biochemical stages which are in trying to improve the wound. Wound healing can be defined as stages which is done by body and delayed in wound healing increases chance of microbial infection. Improved wound healing process can be performed by shortening the time needed for healing or lowering the inappropriate happens. The drugs were locally or systemically administrated in order to help wound healing. Antibiotics, antiseptics, desloughing agents, extracts, etc. have been used in order to wound healing. Some synthetic drugs are faced with limitations because of their side effects. Plants or combinations derived from plants are needed to investigate identify and formulate for treatment and management of wound healing. There is increasing interest to use the medicinal plants in wound healing because of lower side effects and management of wounds over the years. Studies have shown that medicinal plants improve wound healing in diabetic, infected and opened wounds. The different mechanisms have been reported to improve the wound healing by medicinal plants. In this chapter, some medicinal plants and the reported mechanisms will be discussed.",book:{id:"7046",slug:"wound-healing-current-perspectives",title:"Wound Healing",fullTitle:"Wound Healing - Current Perspectives"},signatures:"Mohammad Reza Farahpour",authors:[{id:"253340",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammadreza",middleName:null,surname:"Farahpour",slug:"mohammadreza-farahpour",fullName:"Mohammadreza Farahpour"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55736",title:"Haemodynamic Monitoring in the Intensive Care Unit",slug:"haemodynamic-monitoring-in-the-intensive-care-unit",totalDownloads:3316,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Monitoring is a cognitive aid that allows clinicians to detect the nature and extent of pathology and helps assessment of response to therapy. The cardiovascular system is the most commonly monitored organ system in the critical care setting. It helps identify the presence and nature of shock and guides response to resuscitation by detection of cardiac rate and rhythm, evaluation of volume state, cardiac contractility and systemic vascular resistance. Newer technologies allow greater assessment of oxygen delivery to vulnerable tissues. We discuss the nature, history, modalities and interpretation of the most commonly available haemodynamic monitoring methods in clinical use currently.",book:{id:"5756",slug:"intensive-care",title:"Intensive Care",fullTitle:"Intensive Care"},signatures:"Mainak Majumdar",authors:[{id:"86678",title:"Dr.",name:"Mainak",middleName:null,surname:"Majumdar",slug:"mainak-majumdar",fullName:"Mainak Majumdar"}]},{id:"51825",title:"Roles of Matrix Metalloproteinases in Cutaneous Wound Healing",slug:"roles-of-matrix-metalloproteinases-in-cutaneous-wound-healing",totalDownloads:3598,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:35,abstract:"Wound healing is a complex process that consists of hemostasis and inflammation, angiogenesis, re-epithelialization, and tissue remodeling. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) play important roles in wound healing, and their dysregulation leads to prolonged inflammation and delayed wound healing. There are 24 MMPs in humans, and each MMP exists in three forms, of which only the active MMPs play a role in the pathology or repair of wounds. The current methodology does not distinguish between the three forms of MMPs, making it challenging to investigate the roles of MMPs in pathology and wound repair. We used a novel MMP-inhibitor-tethered affinity resin that binds only the active form of MMPs, from which we identified and quantified active MMP-8 and active MMP-9 in a murine diabetic model with delayed wound healing. We showed that up-regulation of active MMP-9 plays a detrimental role whereas active MMP-8 is involved in repairing the wound in diabetic mice. These studies identified MMP-9 as a novel target for therapeutic intervention in the treatment of chronic wounds. A selective inhibitor of MMP-9 that leaves MMP-8 unaffected would provide the most effective therapy and represents a promising strategy for therapeutic intervention in the treatment of diabetic foot ulcers.",book:{id:"5290",slug:"wound-healing-new-insights-into-ancient-challenges",title:"Wound Healing",fullTitle:"Wound Healing - New insights into Ancient Challenges"},signatures:"Trung T. Nguyen, Shahriar Mobashery and Mayland Chang",authors:[{id:"183405",title:"Prof.",name:"Mayland",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",slug:"mayland-chang",fullName:"Mayland Chang"},{id:"191152",title:"Mr.",name:"Trung",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",slug:"trung-nguyen",fullName:"Trung Nguyen"},{id:"191153",title:"Prof.",name:"Shahriar",middleName:null,surname:"Mobashery",slug:"shahriar-mobashery",fullName:"Shahriar Mobashery"}]},{id:"63086",title:"Medicinal Plants in Wound Healing",slug:"medicinal-plants-in-wound-healing",totalDownloads:2845,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Wound healing process is known as interdependent cellular and biochemical stages which are in trying to improve the wound. Wound healing can be defined as stages which is done by body and delayed in wound healing increases chance of microbial infection. Improved wound healing process can be performed by shortening the time needed for healing or lowering the inappropriate happens. The drugs were locally or systemically administrated in order to help wound healing. Antibiotics, antiseptics, desloughing agents, extracts, etc. have been used in order to wound healing. Some synthetic drugs are faced with limitations because of their side effects. Plants or combinations derived from plants are needed to investigate identify and formulate for treatment and management of wound healing. There is increasing interest to use the medicinal plants in wound healing because of lower side effects and management of wounds over the years. Studies have shown that medicinal plants improve wound healing in diabetic, infected and opened wounds. The different mechanisms have been reported to improve the wound healing by medicinal plants. In this chapter, some medicinal plants and the reported mechanisms will be discussed.",book:{id:"7046",slug:"wound-healing-current-perspectives",title:"Wound Healing",fullTitle:"Wound Healing - Current Perspectives"},signatures:"Mohammad Reza Farahpour",authors:[{id:"253340",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammadreza",middleName:null,surname:"Farahpour",slug:"mohammadreza-farahpour",fullName:"Mohammadreza Farahpour"}]},{id:"67217",title:"Nursing Implications in the ECMO Patient",slug:"nursing-implications-in-the-ecmo-patient",totalDownloads:2496,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Effective care and positive outcomes of the extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) patient necessitate optimal interdisciplinary management from the healthcare team, including expert care from specially trained registered nurses (RNs). It is incumbent upon the RN caring for the ECMO patient to excel in both time management and assessment skills, as this population often demands care delivery at the pinnacle of intensive care unit (ICU) acuity. Astute and nuanced monitoring of neurological status, bleeding risk with potential (often massive) transfusions, poor hemodynamics, and integrity of the ECMO pump itself are only the few specialized areas of focus that must share priority with traditional nursing considerations involving the critically ill, such as prevention of pressure injuries and bloodstream infections. These high-intensity medical foci must be balanced with ethical considerations, as the ultimate goal of returning the patient to their normal life is not always possible. These demands highlight the dynamic proficiency of the RN caring for the ECMO patient. The following chapter will highlight the importance of specialized nursing care in the critically ill patient supported with ECMO.",book:{id:"7878",slug:"advances-in-extracorporeal-membrane-oxygenation-volume-3",title:"Advances in Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation",fullTitle:"Advances in Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation - Volume 3"},signatures:"Alex Botsch, Elizabeth Protain, Amanda R. Smith and Ryan Szilagyi",authors:[{id:"298623",title:"Mr.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Botsch",slug:"alexander-botsch",fullName:"Alexander Botsch"}]},{id:"66239",title:"Echocardiography Evaluation in ECMO Patients",slug:"echocardiography-evaluation-in-ecmo-patients",totalDownloads:2145,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) is a special form of organ support for selected cases of cardiovascular and severe respiratory failure. Echocardiography is a diagnostic and monitoring tool widely used in all aspects of ECMO support. The pathophysiology of ECMO, and its distinct effects on cardiorespiratory physiology, requires an echocardiographer with high skills to understand the interaction between the ECMO and the patient. In this chapter, we present the main application of echocardiography in ECMO patients and some general concepts on the ECMO working. ECMO, such as the standard cardiopulmonary bypass employed in cardiac surgery, V-V (veno-venous), can support the insufficient respiratory system by oxygenating and removing carbon dioxide from the blood. VA-ECMO (venous-arterial) can support haemodynamics by providing mechanical circulatory assistance. Today, ECMO can be used as bridge to decision, waiting for the development of the clinical conditions to support with other devices the evolution of cardiorespiratory failure or stop the assistance. Echocardiography (transthoracic (TTE) or transoesophageal (TOE)) can be used primarily to take decisions regarding appropriateness of ECMO support, therefore to control cannula insertion and confirm final position, to modify number and position of the cannulae in case of malfunctioning of these, and, finally, to assess clinical progress and suitability for weaning from ECMO.",book:{id:"7878",slug:"advances-in-extracorporeal-membrane-oxygenation-volume-3",title:"Advances in Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation",fullTitle:"Advances in Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation - Volume 3"},signatures:"Luigi Tritapepe, Ernesto Greco and Carlo Gaudio",authors:[{id:"284893",title:"Prof.",name:"Luigi",middleName:null,surname:"Tritapepe",slug:"luigi-tritapepe",fullName:"Luigi Tritapepe"},{id:"294005",title:"Prof.",name:"Ernesto",middleName:null,surname:"Greco",slug:"ernesto-greco",fullName:"Ernesto Greco"},{id:"294006",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlo",middleName:null,surname:"Gaudio",slug:"carlo-gaudio",fullName:"Carlo Gaudio"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"173",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 11th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"19",title:"Animal Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/19.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"259298",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward",middleName:null,surname:"Narayan",slug:"edward-narayan",fullName:"Edward Narayan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Edward Narayan graduated with Ph.D. degree in Biology from the University of the South Pacific and pioneered non-invasive reproductive and stress endocrinology tools for amphibians - the novel development and validation of non-invasive enzyme immunoassays for the evaluation of reproductive hormonal cycle and stress hormone responses to environmental stressors. \nDr. Narayan leads the Stress Lab (Comparative Physiology and Endocrinology) at the University of Queensland. A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). She is the head of the Reproduction and Embryology Laboratories and was lecturer of Reproduction and Reproductive Biotechnologies at Veterinary Medicine Faculty. She has over 25 years of experience working in reproductive biology and biotechnology areas with a special emphasis on embryo and gamete cryopreservation, for research and animal genetic resources conservation, leading research projects with several peer-reviewed papers. Rosa Pereira is member of the ERFP-FAO Ex situ Working Group and of the Management Commission of the Portuguese Animal Germplasm Bank.",institutionString:"The National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research. Portugal",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{id:"82285",title:"Parvovirus Vectors: The Future of Gene Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105085",signatures:"Megha Gupta",slug:"parvovirus-vectors-the-future-of-gene-therapy",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"81793",title:"Canine parvovirus-2: An Emerging Threat to Young Pets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104846",signatures:"Mithilesh Singh, Rajendran Manikandan, Ujjwal Kumar De, Vishal Chander, Babul Rudra Paul, Saravanan Ramakrishnan and Darshini Maramreddy",slug:"canine-parvovirus-2-an-emerging-threat-to-young-pets",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"81271",title:"The Diversity of Parvovirus Telomeres",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102684",signatures:"Marianne Laugel, Emilie Lecomte, Eduard Ayuso, Oumeya Adjali, Mathieu Mével and Magalie Penaud-Budloo",slug:"the-diversity-of-parvovirus-telomeres",totalDownloads:38,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"79209",title:"Virtual Physiology: A Tool for the 21st Century",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99671",signatures:"Carmen Nóbrega, Maria Aires Pereira, Catarina Coelho, Isabel Brás, Ana Cristina Mega, Carla Santos, Fernando Esteves, Rita Cruz, Ana I. Faustino-Rocha, Paula A. Oliveira, João Mesquita and Helena Vala",slug:"virtual-physiology-a-tool-for-the-21st-century",totalDownloads:151,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7233",title:"New Insights into Theriogenology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7233.jpg",slug:"new-insights-into-theriogenology",publishedDate:"December 5th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rita Payan-Carreira",hash:"74f4147e3fb214dd050e5edd3aaf53bc",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"New Insights into Theriogenology",editors:[{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7144",title:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7144.jpg",slug:"veterinary-anatomy-and-physiology",publishedDate:"March 13th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Catrin Sian Rutland and Valentina Kubale",hash:"75cdacb570e0e6d15a5f6e69640d87c9",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",editors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"8524",title:"Lactation in Farm Animals",subtitle:"Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements, and Modelization",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8524.jpg",slug:"lactation-in-farm-animals-biology-physiological-basis-nutritional-requirements-and-modelization",publishedDate:"January 22nd 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Naceur M'Hamdi",hash:"2aa2a9a0ec13040bbf0455e34625504e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements, and Modelization",editors:[{id:"73376",title:"Dr.",name:"Naceur",middleName:null,surname:"M'Hamdi",slug:"naceur-m'hamdi",fullName:"Naceur M'Hamdi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/73376/images/system/73376.jpg",biography:"Naceur M’HAMDI is Associate Professor at the National Agronomic Institute of Tunisia, University of Carthage. He is also Member of the Laboratory of genetic, animal and feed resource and member of Animal science Department of INAT. He graduated from Higher School of Agriculture of Mateur, University of Carthage, in 2002 and completed his masters in 2006. Dr. M’HAMDI completed his PhD thesis in Genetic welfare indicators of dairy cattle at Higher Institute of Agronomy of Chott-Meriem, University of Sousse, in 2011. 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Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. 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Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. 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He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334239",title:"Prof.",name:"Leung",middleName:null,surname:"Wai Keung",slug:"leung-wai-keung",fullName:"Leung Wai Keung",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hong Kong",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"302145",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Bongomin",slug:"felix-bongomin",fullName:"Felix Bongomin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302145/images/system/302145.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gulu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}},{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",slug:"payam-behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45803/images/system/45803.jpg",institutionString:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"80954",title:"Ion Channels and Neurodegenerative Disease Aging Related",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103074",signatures:"Marika Cordaro, Salvatore Cuzzocrea and Rosanna Di Paola",slug:"ion-channels-and-neurodegenerative-disease-aging-related",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"81647",title:"Diabetes and Epigenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104653",signatures:"Rasha A. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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