Suggested PEP according to exposure.
\r\n\tWe need such information of the environmental indicators day and night, from the crowded cities and the most remote locations. Therefore the study, development, and application of automated sensing systems have been booming during the last decades and the progress in this field is really fast.
\r\n\r\n\tThe current book intends to provide the reader with the most recent trends in the development of sensing technologies for environmental control and monitoring, application of these novel technologies for the detection and monitoring of different environmental indicators, but also identification of hazardous chemical compounds and pathogens, and to introduce various aspects of using the online sensing data for decision-making in different fields of social life.
\r\n\t
Trafficking in persons is a grave violation of human rights that affects every country in the world [1] It is a serious crime with significantly higher numbers of victims than are represented in official data and involves the buying and selling of girls, women, boys and men for economic gain with harmful costs for the individuals, the economy and society [2]. Measuring human trafficking is challenging. Progress has been made in the collection and provision of information on the characteristics of the victims. A further challenge is gaining an adequate understanding of the traffickers. This is essential given the increasing numbers of traffickers entering into the business [3]. Traffickers are sometimes written off, rather simplistically, as psychopaths [4], yet our increased knowledge of the business of trafficking, in particular, the profitability of such a business, suggests a more complex picture. This chapter explores the economics of the business of trafficking in human beings, by looking at recent statistics on prevalence of trafficking, the rewards that some have argued is the primary motivational factor for individuals and organisations and the place of the traffickers in the demand and supply chain. The chapter also explores the profile of the traffickers and the commonalities highlighted in the literature between traffickers and psychopaths, raising the question as to whether trafficking is motivated by profit or a consequence of psychopathic behaviour. Research in this area is limited, and it is difficult to reach clear conclusions, given the diversity inherent in trafficking and those who traffic. However, given the significant impact of trafficking on individuals who have been trafficked, their families and wider society, an understanding of traffickers is important to include in efforts to prevent this crime in the future.
Modern-day slavery continues to grow and enslave people around the world. Human trafficking involves various forms of exploitation which can be widespread in different sectors [5] The International Labour Organisation (ILO) has, since 2005, classified forced labour into three main categories: (1) forced labour imposed by the state, which includes every type of job exacted by public authorities, paramilitary or military organisations, forced prison labour and mandatory participation in general work; (2) forced labour imposed by private agents for sexual exploitation, including all types of sexual activities; and (3) forced labour imposed by private agents for labour exploitation, covering forced domestic labour, bonded labour, forced labour of migrants in various economic sectors and forced begging for gangs [6]. As of 2014, over 21 million men, women and children were estimated to be trapped in forced labour, debt bondage, trafficking or working in a slave-like state [7]. By 2016, an estimated 40.3 million people were described as trapped in modern-day slavery, implying that on any given day there were an estimated 40 million people forced to work against their will or to live in a forced marriage, with girls and women disproportionately affected [8]. This report revealed that women and girls constituted 99% of victims of forced labour for commercial sex, 58% in other forms of exploitation and in the past 5 years, some form of modern-day slavery had been experienced by an estimated 89 million people.
Despite the improved and updated methods being used to estimate the number of those trapped in one or other form of modern-day slavery, it may never be possible to get an accurate measure of prevalence due to the clandestine nature of the industry. For example, there are no data available on the numbers of migrant children trafficked from countries such as Pakistan, Bangladesh, and some East African Countries to Gulf state, such as the United Arab Emirates and sold to wealthy sheikhs as camel jockeys [9]. In 2005, the United Arab Emirate banned under 18 s from being used as jockeys in camel racing, a favourite sport in the Gulf region. The ban was as a result of pressure from human rights campaigners and the international community due to the severe injuries, trauma and sometimes death suffered by the young riders, who have either been bought or kidnapped from their country of origin. However, Anti-slavery International released photo evidence that suggests that children as young as 10 years continued to be used to race camels after the ban [10]. Neither is there accurate data on organ trafficking, a form of trafficking found mostly in Northern African, Central and Southern-Eastern Europe, and Eastern Europe despite the estimate of the United Nations Office of Drug and Crime (UNODC) that up to 10% of all liver and kidney transplants are carried out with unlawfully obtained organs [1].
The report from the UNODC observes that despite the trend analysis suggesting a global increase in trafficking convictions as a result of enhanced anti-trafficking measures, there are still “vast areas of impunity” ([1], p. 23). Conviction rates in Central Asia and some parts of Europe fell by 25% in comparison to the previous past 5 years despite the increase in the detection of victims. Kevin Bales, a professor of contemporary slavery in Nottingham University asserts that the fall in conviction rates in Europe results either from more stringent border controls across Europe or from an inability to recognise victims of abuse. Individuals who might have been identified as the victim of a crime in the past in most western European countries are now being treated as illegal migrants and not as victims, and are often deported [11].
According to the UNODC report, there are difficulties with relying on conviction data to establish prevalence rates. The Caribbean, Central America, North America, Central and South-Eastern Europe did not convict as many as traffickers as countries in Central Asia, East Europe, Western and South Europe, despite an increase in the detection of victims in the former regions. Similarly, in some regions such as Africa and the Middle East, convictions remain very low in spite of the rise in the detection of victims. Thus the trafficking business in Africa and the Middle East remains an almost risk-free enterprise for traffickers [1].
Human trafficking is, without doubt, a complex and complicated phenomenon. To help understand it better, one needs to examine the perpetrators, those who engage in the trafficking of vulnerable individuals, their motives, their citizenship and the structures of the trafficking business. Information on the gender of suspected, arrested and convicted offenders in human trafficking indicate that the majority were men [12]. A study of 64 countries carried out by the United Nations Global Plan Action to Combat Trafficking in Persons during the years 2010–2012 highlighted the importance of citizenship and gender, particularly in cross-border trafficking, suggesting that there is often a citizenship connection between traffickers and victims [13]. An earlier report from UNODC also stated that most perpetrators (6 in 10 traffickers) were citizens of the countries where they were convicted, suggesting that victims are acquired and sold to criminal networks in destination countries by the local criminals [14]. The TIP study demonstrated that in spite of high international mobility, people still operated mainly from within their own countries. The report further noted how traffickers go to great lengths to gain the trust of their victims, and local contacts are used to threaten retaliation on family members of victims that resist [15]. Unsurprisingly, the report from the European Union for Law Enforcement Agency (EUROPOL) also noted the high level of foreigner involvement. Thus, traffickers are often involved in both domestic and cross border trafficking [3].
The UNODC report suggests that the importance of trust between traffickers and victims may in part be the reason for the high rate of female offenders in human trafficking than in other crimes. For example, analysis for the number of prosecuted traffickers carried out by the European Commission stated that 25% of prosecuted traffickers were female while 75% were male [16]. A report from the European Parliament noted that the rate of female traffickers within the EU was as high as 30% and that this number was higher in specific regions like the Eastern part of Europe where women become traffickers to escape sexual exploitation themselves. The role played by Nigerian women living in Europe in a highly structured and established system of madam criminal networks was also noted by the report [17]. Broad’s [18] study of individuals convicted for human trafficking offences in the United Kingdom confirmed these figures. In 71 cases, 68% of the offenders convicted for various types of human trafficking offences were men while 32% were women. Interestingly, data from the European Union report revealed that while 74% of suspected traffickers with EU citizenship were male, 54% of non-EU nationals were male [2], suggesting that the prevalence of women as traffickers is higher in non-EU citizens.
Furthermore, Broad [18] argued the importance of understanding the pathways through which women become involved as traffickers, stating that sometimes, intimate relationships between a male and female trafficker will ease the woman’s path into offending. The previous victimisation is also a critical pathway to trafficking for women. To further illustrate the complexities, intricacies and power relations between the male and female traffickers she cites an extract from her interview with a police officer in which he described a case involving a former victim
The most recent research data collected by the European Commission show that between 2015 and 2016, over 7500 individuals were in contact with either the criminal justice system or police in connection with trafficking within the EU and that 78% of these cases concerned sexual exploitation [2]. Member states with the highest number of reported persons in contact with law enforcement in connection with human trafficking included Romania, Germany, the Czech Republic, Bulgaria and France [2]. The data revealed that the rate of citizenship for both EU and non-EU states varied depending on whether suspected, prosecuted and convicted traffickers are considered. However, over 84% of traffickers with EU citizenship were from Romania, France, Germany, Bulgaria and Latvia (in that order) while the top five countries of suspected traffickers with non-EU citizenship were China, Nigeria, Turkey, Albania and Morocco.
According to UNODC, more opportunists, such as those in armed conflicts and terrorist groups have become traffickers, taking advantage of this profit-rich and low-risk crime to fund their cause [1]. The United Nations Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee Executive Director (CTED) asserted that the Islamic State of Iraqi and the Levant (ISIL), a terrorist organisation, is known to openly trade and buy girls and unmarried women in slave markets. They are using encrypted applications to circulate details of their victims, such as age and marital status as well as photos and price of the women and girls before auctioning them off online [19]. ISIL is not alone as other terrorist groups are turning to trafficking in human beings, particularly women and children, to fund their organisations. The Kurdish Worker Party, now known as the Kurdistan People’s Congress, is another known terrorist organisation that uses trafficking in humans to financially support its organisation [20]. Al-Qa’ida in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) in West and Central Africa, Macina Liberation Front (FLM) in the centre and south of Mali [21], Boko Haram in north-eastern Nigerian, Al-Shabaab in Somali, are also some of the terrorist organisations that use one or another form of human trafficking to fund their organisation [22].
Cooper [23] referred to individuals involved in such terrorist organisations as psychopaths, maintaining that although the term ‘terrorist’ is not a medical diagnostic label, a medical approach comparable to that used in identifying psychopathy is required to describe the different manifestations and forms of terrorists. Cooper states that while not all psychopaths are terrorists, and not all terrorists have psychopathic personalities, the salient points of coincidence are too striking to be overlooked. Not everyone agrees with this. Rotman [24] has challenged the characterisation of a terrorist as a psychopath, asserting that while it is undeniable that some terrorists show traits of cold-bloodedness and insensitivity akin to specific personality disorder diagnostic criteria, this is insufficient rationale for conclusively diagnosing terrorists as psychopaths. Rotman warned against such labelling, arguing that it can lead to legal defences or act as a mitigating factor that undermines the criminalisation of serious human rights violations. Furthermore, others note that what is important is understanding the terrorist’s specific motivations, as there is evidence to suggest that terrorists are fundamentally ordinary people motivated by situational factors [25].
In 2017, The United Nations Security Council in resolution 2388 reiterated its deep concern that trafficking in persons in areas affected by armed conflicts continues to occur [26]. An intersection of various elements characterising armed conflicts increases the risk of trafficking in humans. One common consequence of armed conflict is the loss of the rule of law which is meant to protect and defend people in time of peace [27]. Trafficking is part of the strategy employed by armed groups not just to instil fear in the local population by projecting a violent image of themselves, but also to increase their military authority and economic resources [1]. For example, the crime of human trafficking persists in Libya as different armed groups have filled the vacuum created by civil unrest, lawlessness, and lack of government [28]. These groups sometimes clash with each other over the control of the business of human trafficking which is highly profitable, particularly of vulnerable migrants en route to Europe. Migrant women, especially Sub-Saharan women are exposed to forced prostitution and sex trafficking in brothels, particularly in the south of Libya by these armed groups and smugglers [29]. One of such clashes is the violent confrontation that took place in the town of Sabratha in Libya where wealthy smugglers and militias involved in human trafficking teamed up to fight against ISIL, whom they saw as a threat to their profitable business of human trafficking [28].
Traffickers vary in how they are organised but trafficking operations generally fall within three categories. The first category may involve a loose network of organised criminals, soloist or individual traffickers, or a highly structured international trafficking network. Individual traffickers, also known as amateur traffickers or soloists, are at the far end of the continuum and are involved in the recruitment, transportation and exploitation of their victims. In the second category of traffickers, there are no soloist/individual operations, instead, it is a small group of organised criminals who may be part of a small scale international trafficking or involved in local trafficking. This category of the criminal network is highly flexible and often comprised of friends and family members. Another form of this category may consist of the more sophisticated and middle size group, which provides the international sex market with its victims, selling victims to brothel owners in destination countries. These traffickers are sometimes involved in organising the rotation of victims between towns and states. The third category is an extremely structured criminal network that controls the entire trafficking process, from recruitment to the exploitation and disposal of victims. Other services which they may provide include forged documents and ensuring the continuity of relationship with corrupt government officials [30].
An examination of the reward/value/and financial worth of human trafficking enterprise may help our understanding of why more people are entering this illegal business, as data from 2013 to 2014 showed a 7% increase in the number of traffickers that entered the trafficking industry [3]. The exploitation of human beings is profitable for criminal networks and is second only to the drugs trade as a source of illicit profit. The ILO estimated in 2005 that the total illegal proceeds from the trafficking of people in 2005 were $32 billion per year. As of 2012, the profit on forced labour, including sexual exploitation, had risen to $150.2 billion per year, with forced sexual exploitation accounting for $99 billion and labour exploitation 51.2 billion, making it the fastest growing generator of illicit proceeds [8]. The highest total annual profits were in Asia and developed economies, at $51.8 billion and $46.8 billion respectively, while the regions of Africa, the Middle East, Latin America/Caribbean, and Central/South-eastern Europe accounted $51.6 billion [22]. The report estimated that the global profit per trafficked victim varied significantly based on the nature of the exploitation, which ranged from $21,800 yearly for sexual exploitation to $2300 for domestic labour.
Despite the lack of consensus on the estimate of persons whose organs have been trafficked illegally, a report from the Global Financial Integrity estimated that 10% of all transplants are carried out with organs that have been acquired unlawfully. According to the report, 120,000 organ transplants were performed worldwide in 2014. Thus, 12,000 operations performed that year were illegal, and this estimate comprises of only the sales of the five organs most sought after i.e., kidneys, livers, hearts, lungs, and pancreas. The report estimates that the illegal trade conservatively generates between $840 million and $1.7 billion, with the kidney as the most frequently transplanted organ, both illegally and legally [31].
In the context of terrorism and armed conflict, both the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) and the Financial Task Force (FATF) have described in detail how the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) fighters buy and sell Yazidi women, in slave auctions and online, for amounts ranging from $200 to $1500 [32]. An earlier report from FATF had reported on how internal guidance was provided to ISIL fighters on the number of slaves they were allowed to keep and maintain, and that the soldiers were allowed to pay as low as approximately $13 for a slave [33]. In 2016, ISIL gave the Yazidi families the choice of paying $850,000 for the return of 200 victims kidnapped from the Yazidi community in the town of Sinjar or for the victims to be sold in the slave auction. Evidence suggests that in 2014 alone, ISIL earned between $35million and $45million in payment from the Yazidi community alone [22]. The United Nations Security Council’s report states that Mahamadou Ag Rhissa, a businessman alleged to be involved in terrorism and human smuggling, holds women captive and allows them to be sexually exploited until payment of between 150,000–175,000CFA Franc, approximately $300–$350 is paid to him United Nations Security Council [34].
Human Trafficking is a market that treats people like commodities through buying and selling. Demand for cheap labour and prostitution has always existed, and while the intricate and complex link between demand and supply is undeniable, increased wages in highly industrialised nations, specifically in the unskilled labour market, has contributed to this growth in demand [30]. According to Taylor and Jamieson [35], the supply of trafficked persons from specific developing countries is a function of specific economic conditions in these countries, while the demand for the services they are expected to give is also a function of specific social and economic processes in the industrialised nations. This aligns with Siddharth Kara’s analysis of sex trafficking, who explains that for market forces to create a supply that meets a specific demand, other market forces must have generated the demand for that particular product in the first place since an industry needs both forces to exist [36]. Collins dictionary defines demand as to claim as a right (www.collinsdictionary). Referencing the Nordic model on prostitution, Raymond asserts that without male demand, the supply of women for commercial sex will decrease, as the market cannot survive without its consumers [37]. The implication is that traffickers must be sure of the profitability of the business to continue in the industry. Thus, the profit traffickers make from trafficking their victims must exceed the cost of bringing these victims from the source countries [38].
Using the analogy of sex trafficking as a disease infecting humanity to illustrate his point, Kara notes that trafficking has two components, slave trade (supply) and slavery (demand). He asserted that an understanding of sex trafficking’s molecular anatomy acquisition, movement and exploitation, means understanding the modus operandi of the industry, which in turn will expose the business’s vulnerable points, the forces of demand and the drivers of profit. He claimed that not only will the best strategies for treating the infection (sex trafficking) be found but it will also ensure that the long-term eradication of the condition in the “host organism”, namely economic globalisation and poverty that gave rise to the infection in the first place, is addressed [36]. While traditional market theories operate on the presumption that it is a demand that creates supply, other scholars have challenged this theory, arguing that constant supply of unskilled migrant workers forced or willing to provide specific services or accept jobs can generate the demand for such services/labour rather than vice versa [39]. To support their argument, these scholars provide the following as an example:
Agreeing with this argument, Aronowitz [40], posits that the availability of certain services creates the demand for them. He argues that the market supply of trafficked women as a result of various socioeconomic factors has generated the demand for them and that the exploitation of these women in the destination country should be blamed on the uneven power relations that occur in patriarchal communities, that objectifies woman for consumption, and other factors that disempower and marginalise. These authors concluded that demand does not just happen, waiting to be answered and that individuals are not born needing or wanting particular products and services. Instead, they learn to want what is available and seen as normal by society.
While their argument has merit and cannot be overlooked, how then can the supply of certain services, particularly in post-conflict areas where large military and predominantly male peacekeeping forces are sent, be explained if not that there was a demand for that specific services? [1] Perhaps one could agree that increased supply can lead to increased demand, but it is quite a different thing and possible going too far to suggest that supply can create demand where no demand previously existed.
Robert Hare has expanded the construct of psychopathy as a personality disorder, first developed by Hervey Cleckley, exemplified in what is now known as the Hare’s Psychopath Checklist-Revised (PCL-R), a 20-item clinical rating scale used in the diagnosis of psychopathy [41]. Cleckley described a small group of patients who appeared sane yet lacked empathy and remorse, were deceptive, impulsive and manipulative, and suffered from “emotional poverty” ([42], p. 230), detailing symptoms that Hare has subsequently developed upon [41]. Hare and colleagues, building on Cleckley’s work, developed the PCL-R, which describes psychopathy as a pattern of interpersonal, affective, lifestyle and antisocial traits and behaviours. High scores in this area are associated with outcomes such as greater criminality [43].
The PCL-R 20 items include glibness and superficial charm, grandiose sense of self-worth, need for stimulation and/or proneness to boredom, pathological lying, cunning and manipulation, lack of remorse or guilt, shallow affection, callousness and/or lack of empathy, parasitic orientation, poor behavioural controls, promiscuous sexual behaviour, early behavioural problem, lack of realistic, long term goals, impulsivity, irresponsible, failure to accept responsibility for own actions, having had many short term marital relationships, juvenile delinquency, revocation of conditional release [41]. The PCL-R has evolved from a two factor model of (1) interpersonal and affective factor, reflecting unemotional and callous traits and (2) lifestyle and anti-social factors reflecting reckless, impulsive and criminal behaviour to a four-factor model that identifies features in four domains: (1) interpersonal, (2) affective, (3) lifestyle, and (4) antisocial [44].
Malatesti and McMillian [45] have defended philosophically the use of Hare’s concept of psychopathy against criticism from some quarters questioning the validity of the scale as a diagnostic tool for identifying psychopathy. They asserted that in a practical sense the PCL-R is a robust scientific (p. 12) concept because it allows empirical research to be conducted upon the neural bases of individual functional impairment. The view of psychopathy as a personality disorder has also been criticised. Cowan [46] argues that the diagnosis of psychopathy as an antisocial personality disorder reduces the appalling moral insanity of the psychopath. According to Cowan, psychopaths, are capable of learning the rules of public interaction and social conducts, not because they care about these things but because it serves their purpose. The problem is not necessarily what the psychopath does, but his relationship to what he does; the psychopath understands right from wrong but does not understand why [47].
Cowan ([46], p. 296) describes psychopathy as an ‘absence and deficit’ of relatedness the absence of Aidos (the winged goddess of ancient Greece, also known as “shame”, that exposes us to condemning eyes for what we have said or done that we should not have), and Eros (the ancient Greek god that brings things out of chaos, infusing a conscience in us that allows desires to be fulfilled in such a way that our loving is rewarding to ourselves and our beloved). She therefore focuses on the principle of relatedness and those capacities that allow us to be able to relate to each other ethically. She maintained that being a psychopath means that the character structures lack something important at the core that enables individuals to relate to each other empathically. This deficit is understood to explain the apparent absence of morality, ethics, shame or guilt.
In analysing the link between psychopathy and crime, Hare and colleagues [41] highlight disproportionate representation of those diagnosed as psychopaths, using the PCL-R, in the criminal justice system. Hare and his colleagues particularly noted that psychopaths have high crime rates, arguing that their poor behavioural control and impulsivity might lead to reactive forms of violence and aggression, which is perhaps why they can easily intimidate and victimise the vulnerable with force as a tool to achieve control and power over others. It has been argued that these traits of violence, aggression, control and power are not unlike those associated with human traffickers. Spidel et al. [48] comment on the prevalence of psychopathic offenders with regard to sex trafficking, expressing their discontent at the fact that little attention has been paid to examining the role of psychopathy in traffickers who pimp women in prostitution for profit. In their analysis of 22 perpetrators using the PCL-R, they found that one-third of the pimps examined met the diagnostic cut-off point in the PCL-R for a diagnosis of psychopathy. The characteristics of the pimps were consistent with those of a psychopath. Spidel and colleagues described how at the recruitment stage, these pimps employed charm by professions of love/friendship for his victim, and the promise of material and financial gains to lure his victim into the sex trade. As he becomes more controlling and domineering, he eventually resorts to violence, or the threat of violence to control the victims that resist. Reid [49] made a similar observation in her analysis of the parallels between the characteristics and strategies employed by traffickers to entrap and keep their victims and those associated with psychopaths. Some of the characteristics and tactics used by the traffickers that Reid identified include romancing or flattering the victim, building trust or becoming an ally with her, drugging or isolating her, lies and false promises, and the use of coercion through intimidation or the threat of violence.
A review of the literature on the methods used by traffickers on their victims also demonstrates this similarity, as traffickers use manipulations to charm and lure victims into the sex industry, seize their earning and use psychological coercion, violence and intimidation to extract complete obedience and authority [50]. Greer and colleagues compared the characteristics of traffickers to those of psychopaths that include acts of brutality and violence, lack of guilt, empathy or remorse for their victims. Referencing several court cases where traffickers have used the most extreme kind of violence and threat to control and manipulate the victims, they stated that when a comparison is made on the most extreme sexual offenders, it is essential to remember that traffickers have similar character and behaviour profiles to psychopaths.
The above discussion has highlighted trafficking as a profitable industry and raised the question as to whether the business rewards of trafficking act as a primary motivator for trafficking or whether motivation for trafficking might be better or alternatively explained by the presence of psychopathic features in traffickers. Research is limited on this question preventing us making definitive conclusions. It must also be acknowledged that there is considerable diversity inherent in the phenomenon of trafficking and it may be too simplistic to consider all traffickers within the same lens. However, given the cost to society of trafficking, the physical and mental health consequences of trafficking for victims that places a considerable burden not only on those individuals trafficked but also on health systems, it is important to examine the motivations and characteristics of those who traffic if attempts to intervene in trafficking are to be successful. While mental health-related issues are the most dominant in trafficking cases due to psychologically traumatic events, other experiences associated with trafficking includes chronic physical pain, sexually transmitted disease such as HIV/AIDS, reproductive and sexual health complications, unwanted pregnancies, complications from unsafe termination, physical disability, acute injuries, sleep problem, torture and even death [51]. The financial gain to traffickers is undisputed. However, the authors suggest that in order to understand the motivation for trafficking better, it is necessary to examine the characteristics of the trafficker. It is evident from the research conducted in this field that traffickers are often charming and display a grandiose sense of self-worth to convince their victims of their importance. There is also evidence to suggest that they are pathological liars, cunning and manipulative as they knowingly make false promises of jobs and a better life to vulnerable victims, but more importantly, they have no remorse for their action, as the victim is seen merely as a commodity to use and re-use for profit. In the global efforts to prevent human trafficking, a better understanding of the motivation for trafficking is essential. This understanding will shape interventions for prevention. The question of whether human traffickers are in it for the profits or are motivated by psychopathic tendencies, or both, is one worthy of further investigation.
The authors wish to acknowledge Dublin City University for providing funding towards the first author’s dissertation work.
Rabies is a highly fatal viral infection of the central nervous system caused by the Rabies virus, which belongs to the genus Lyssavirus of the
Rabies is sustained in two epidemiological cycles, one urban and the other sylvatic. Dogs are the principal reservoir host in the urban rabies cycle. This cycle is most prevalent in areas of Africa, Asia, Central and South America where there are a large number of unvaccinated, semi-owned or stray dogs. In Europe and North America, the sylvatic (or wildlife) cycle is the most common. In animals, disease patterns might be relatively stable or evolve into a slow-moving epidemic.
The skin or mucous membrane is the most common site of rabies virus entrance in humans and animals, where the virus enters the muscle and subcutaneous tissue through biting, licking or scratching by a rabies-virus-infected animal. Acute encephalomyelitis is the pathogenic manifestation in the CNS. In animals, disease can manifest itself in two ways. The classical or encephalitic (furious) form of rabies accounts for 80–85% of rabies cases. Hydrophobia, pharyngeal spasms and hyperactivity are all symptoms of the furious type of rabies, which can lead to paralysis, coma and death. The dumb type, also known as the paralytic form, is characterised by the development of pronounced and flaccid muscular weakness and is less prevalent. In humans, symptoms of cerebral dysfunction, agitation, anxiety and confusion develop. Later the person experiences abnormal behaviour, delirium, hallucinations, insomnia and respiratory failure. Once the symptoms develop, the disease is often fatal.
Even though Louis Pasteur achieved his first breakthrough against rabies with post-exposure vaccination in 1885, the disease continues to haunt the mankind, particularly in impoverished countries, more than 125 years later [4]. Despite recent advances in diagnosis, post-exposure treatment, the production of human and veterinary vaccines and the control of rabies in dogs and wild animals, rabies remains a major health hazard in many countries in Africa, South America and Asia and an economic burden for both developed and developing countries. Rabies is currently found on all continents except Antarctica, although Asia and Africa account for more than 95% of human mortality. Domestic/wild animals, as well as humans, are the primary transmitters. Many countries, including Japan, the United Kingdom, Denmark, Sweden, Greece, Scandinavia, Iceland, Portugal, New Zealand and Australia, are rabies-free, according to the World Health Organisation (WHO). Vaccination, public awareness, responsible participation, continued cooperation among stakeholders and the removal of the stray dog population are some of the measures to avoid rabies [5].
The deity of death was accompanied by a dog as the ambassador of death in India about 3000 BC. Rabid canines continue to kill 20,000 people each year in modern-day India. The Mosaic Esmuna Code of Babylon, written around 2300 BC, is the first documented record of rabies causing death in dogs and humans. Babylonians had to pay a fine if their dog communicated rabies to another person. Democritus, in the fifth century BC, accurately described the disease in dogs, as did Aristotle in the third century BC [6].
The medical literature of the ancient world was littered with ineffective folk cures. Scribonius Largus, a physician, proposed a poultice of cloth and hyena skin, while Antaeus suggested a concoction prepared from a hung man’s skull. The Roman scholar Celsus correctly predicted that rabies was transmitted through the saliva of the bitten animal in the first century A.D. He wrongly suggested that placing the victim under water would cure rabies. Those who did not drown succumbed to rabies. In eighteenth-century America, the most intriguing rabies therapy was the usage of madstones. Madstones are calcified hairballs found in ruminant stomachs including cows, goats and deer. They were supposed to have healing properties since they drew the craziness from the bite wound.
In the 1880s, the first effective rabies treatment was developed. When Louis Pasteur, a French chemistry instructor, was experimenting with chicken cholera, he discovered that virulent cultures exposed to the elements no longer caused sickness. He also discovered that chickens inoculated with this weaker or ‘attenuated strain’ were immune to fresh, virulent cultures. Pasteur then attempted an attenuated anthrax vaccination in cattle. It was successful! He next turned his attention to the world’s scourge, rabies. Pasteur wanted more time to purify his attenuated vaccine before trying it on himself, despite the positive results of his initial animal experiments. In the year 1885, a rabid dog mauled a 9-year-old kid named Joseph Meister. The wounds were treated by a local doctor, who informed Joseph’s family that Louis Pasteur was the only person who could rescue him. Pasteur consented only after speaking with a few of genuine doctors, who stated Joseph was a ‘dead lad walking’. Joseph recovered completely after receiving 13 inoculations in just 11 days. The nerve tissue vaccine developed by Louis Pasteur in 1885 was a success, and it was modified over time to decrease the typical severe side effects [7].
Although dogs are the predominant reservoirs, other domesticated animals and wildlife also play a role in rabies transmission [8]. The virus can easily be passed from one mammal to another, whether they are of the same species or not. Humans are most infected with rabies after being bitten or scratched by an infected dog or cat. Bats, foxes, coyotes, skunks, raccoons, wolves, opossums and other animals are among the commonly infected wild or feral animals. Rabid dogs infect most people in poor countries. These dogs are frequently aggressive and drool frequently, although they act very withdrawn. Humans and domestic animals contract the disease after coming into contact with infected saliva.
Bites, non-bite exposure and human-to-human transmission are all possible routes for rabies transmission. The most common way to contract rabies is through a bite from a rabid animal, although infection can also be spread through skin wounds contaminated by infected saliva. The incubation period is the time between the bite and the onset of symptoms, and it can span anywhere from weeks to months. Because the virus has not yet made it to the saliva, a bite by the animal during the incubation stage carries no danger of rabies. Other inoculation routes are uncommon. The rabies virus can enter the body through wounds or direct contact with mucous membranes. The virus cannot pass through intact skin. The chance of contracting rabies from a bite (5–80%) is at least 50 times higher than the risk of contracting it from a scratch (0.1–1%). Virus particles are present in all the body secretions 2 days after it first enters the CNS, and the victim is fully contagious. At or shortly after this point, clinical symptoms develop.
Non-bite exposures are uncommon sources of transmission. Non-bite exposure includes scratches, abrasions, open wounds or mucous membranes infected with saliva or materials such as rabid animal brain tissue. Inhalation of aerosolised rabies virus is another non-bite route of infection, although most people, except for laboratory personnel, are unlikely to encounter an aerosolised rabies virus. Rare cases of rabies in humans have been reported because of breathing air in a cave home to thousands of bats. As rabies virus can be found in the milk of infected animals, milk can be a vehicle for virus transmission. During the consumption of infected milk, an ulcer, abscess or other lesion in the mouth may trigger rabies. Transmission between humans is extremely rare, although it can happen through transplant surgery or even more rarely through bites, kisses or sexual relations. There were outlined a number of cases of rabies transmission from human to human through cornea transplant. Some dogs slaughtered for human consumption may be infected with the rabies virus, exposing handlers of dog meat to the disease because the virus may be present in the meat’s nerves. Rabies transmission to butchers is increased during handling, catching, loading, transportation and holding prior to slaughter.
The virus enters the body via transdermal inoculation (wounds) or direct contact with infectious materials (saliva, cerebrospinal fluid, nerve tissue) on mucous membranes or skin lesions. The virus is incapable of penetrating intact skin. After its entry in the skin, it can undergo eclipse phase, which is not easily detected. Virus replication begins in non-nervous tissue such as striated muscle cells at the site during this phase [9]. The virus can survive for a long time here, influencing the incubation period (the time between exposure and the development of sickness) in different individuals. The virus uses nicotinic acetylcholine receptors to connect to the cells at the inoculation site. The amount of virus acquired through the bite, the amount of tissue innervated and the tissue’s proximity to the brain all influence how long it takes for clinical indications to appear. The faster the signals appear, the higher the dose and the closer it is to the central nervous system. It can last anywhere from 4 days to several years, but it usually lasts between 20 and 90 days. Muscle cell replication occurs without causing any noticeable signs. It normally does not elicit an immunological response at this time, but if antibodies are present, it can be neutralised. Because the virus is neurotropic, its absorption into peripheral neurons is critical for infection progression. The neuromuscular spindles are a critical entrance point for viruses into the neurological system. Motor end plates can also be used to gain access to the nervous system by the virus [9].
The rabies virus can infect a variety of cell types, although it is most seen in neurons. Virus infection and replication include several processes, including:
Adsorption: It is the process of fusing the rabies virus envelope to the host cell membrane, which may entail contact with the G protein and certain cell surface receptors.
Penetration: Infection of the host cell by the virus by pinocytosis (via clathrin-coated pits).
Uncoating: Virions clump together in large endosomes (cytoplasmic vesicles), and viral membranes merge with endosomal membranes, which results in uncoating which exposes the virus’s genetic content.
Transcription:
mRNA: RNA that acts as a template for the synthesis of proteins.
Translation: The process of converting the mRNA code into N, P, M, G and L proteins.
Replication: In the host cell, the virus genetic material is amplified.
Assembly: Virus components are assembled. The ribonucleoprotein (RNP) core is formed by the N–P–L complex encasing negative-stranded genomic RNA, while the M protein forms a capsule, or matrix, surrounding the RNP.
Budding: The completed virus buds from the M–RNP complex’s interaction with the glycoprotein in the plasma membrane.
After replication in the originating neuron’s cell body, infection spreads through multiple neurons by retrograde axonal transport and transsynaptic dissemination. The ability of a virus to proliferate within the CNS via synaptic connections is known as transsynaptic spread. The rabies virus infects neurons, causing changes in neurotransmitter function that impact serotonin, GABA and muscarinic acetylcholine transmission. After that, acinar cells are infected, and the virus is discharged into the oral cavity. This explains why the virus can be found in saliva.
In rabies, there are no visible lesions. Rabies lesions are microscopic, restricted to the CNS and have a wide range of severity. Except for early necrosis of neurons with cytoplasmic inclusion bodies in the afflicted nerve cells, they may be difficult to detect. Pathologic evidence of rabies encephalomyelitis (inflammation) in brain tissue and meninges includes the following:
Mononuclear infiltration
Perivascular cuffing of lymphocytes or polymorphonuclear cells
Lymphocytic foci
Babes nodules consisting of glial cells
Negri bodies
There are diffuse perivascular cuffing, neuronophagic nodules and other alterations for neuron destruction throughout the brain in some cases. The hippocampus in the brain stem and the gasserian ganglia are notably affected. Lesions in the gasserian ganglia are more particular, occur earlier and are more consistent than lesions in other parts of the body. Babes nodules, which are clumps of growing glial cells, are the major lesion. Most of the histopathologic markers of rabies were identified by 1903, but rabies inclusions had yet to be discovered. Dr. Adelchi Negri reported the discovery of the Negri body, which he believed to be the etiologic agent of rabies. Negri bodies are round or oval inclusions within the cytoplasm of nerve cells of rabies-infected animals. The size of Negri bodies can range from 0.25 to 0.27 metres. The pyramidal cells of Ammon’s horn and the Purkinje cells of the cerebellum are the most potential sites for them. They’re also found in medulla cells and a variety of other ganglia. Negri bodies can be detected in the salivary glands, tongue and other organs’ neurons. They’re generally found in the hippocampus in dogs, but they are more common in the Purkinje cell of the cerebellum in cattle. In preparations stained with Mann’s or Seller’s stain, a granular, somewhat basophilic interior structure can be detected. When the virus infects the salivary glands centrifugally, the acinar epithelium undergoes degenerative alterations that lead to necrosis, primarily affecting the mucogenic cells of the mandibular salivary glands. Fluorescent antibody methods and electron microscopy can easily show virus within these cells. The degenerative alterations are accompanied by a moderate infiltration of lymphocytes and plasma cells.
Rabies clinical indications are rarely conclusive. Rabid animals of all species show similar symptoms of CNS abnormalities, with slight differences across species. It’s likely that the animal is seeking solitude. Rabid wild animals may lose their fear of humans, and traditionally nocturnal species may be found walking around during the day. The clinical course can be split into three stages: prodromal, furious and dumb.
Prodromal form—The term prodromal is initial period of rabies with non-specific period.
Furious form—It refers to animals in which the aggression is pronounced.
Dumb form—It refers to animals in which the behavioural changes are minimal, and the disease is manifest principally by paralysis.
It is initiated when rabies virus travels up the peripheral nerve axons to the spinal ganglia which form the junction between the peripheral and central nervous systems.
During this stage, there is very little evidence of paralysis. The animal becomes restless and may lash out with its fangs, claws, horns or hooves at the slightest provocation. These animals lose their fear of other animals and lose their caution. Carnivores infected with this strain of rabies are known to roam freely, attacking other animals, including humans and moving objects. Rabid dogs may shatter their teeth by chewing the wire and frame of their cages. Saliva either flows out of the mouth or is churned into a foam that can stick to the lip and face. Progressive paralysis leads to death.
The paralysis of the throat and masseter muscles is the initial symptom, which is typically accompanied by excessive salivation and the inability to swallow. Dogs tend to drop their lower jaw. These animals aren’t violent and only bite occasionally. The paralysis spreads quickly to all regions of the body and may lead to coma, and many die within a few hours.
Incubation takes about 3 weeks on average, although it can take anywhere from a few weeks to several months. Early indications of paralysis include knuckling of the hind fetlocks, sagging and swaying of the hindquarters while walking and typical deviation or flaccidity of the tail to one side. In this species, yawning is a common phenomenon. Soon after yawning, the animal begins to bellow, which continues until it reaches paralysis. One of the most common symptoms is saliva drooling. The penis of bulls in this stage is paralysed. Animals may attack other animals or inanimate objects with ferocity. Lactation in dairy cows ends abruptly. Sexual arousal is common. These symptoms linger during 24–48 hours, after which the animal collapses in a paralysed state and dies within a few weeks.
The signs are comparable to those of cattle. Sexual arousal, attacks on humans or each other and intense wool pulling have all been observed. There are twitches in the muscles, and salivation is observed. There is no excessive bleating. Most sheep are quiet and anorectic.
Aggressive and continuous bleating seen.
Excitement, a tendency to strike, dullness and incoordination are some of the indications that have been identified. There is nasal twitching, quick chewing movements, profuse salivation and clonic convulsions.
Show signals of anguish and agitation on a regular basis. These indications are frequently accompanied by rolling. They can bite or strike with ferocity. Abnormal postures, frequent whining, kicking, biting, colic and abrupt onset of lameness in limbs followed by recumbency are all the symptoms. Paddling convulsions and ultimate paralysis are followed by sternal and lateral recumbency.
The symptoms are identical to those seen in dogs. Two to four days after the initial symptoms start, the posterior part of the body is paralysed.
Incubation, prodromal stage, acute neurological phase, coma and death are the five stages of clinical manifestations.
It takes 30–90 days for rabies to develop, although it can take anything from 5 days to more than 2 years after initial exposure. It may be slightly shorter in children and vary depending on the bite place.
During this period, the first signs and symptoms appear. Some of the symptoms include fever, fatigue, sore throat, cough, dyspnea, anorexia, dysphagia, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhoea, headache, vertigo, anxiety, irritability and anxiousness. Agitation, photophobia, priapism, increased libido, sleeplessness and depression are all symptoms that could indicate encephalitis, psychiatric problems or brain conditions.
This stage starts with symptoms of central nervous system dysfunction, such as anxiety, insomnia, disorientation, agitation, strange behaviour, paranoia, terror and hallucinations and progresses to delirium. During the later stages, significant amount of saliva is produced together with an inability to swallow, resulting in hydrophobia due to paralysed throat and jaw. If hyperactivity is present, the condition is classed as furious, and if paralysis is present, the disease is categorised as dumb. Periods of rapid, uneven breathing may begin near the end of this phase, followed by coma and death.
Rabies virus is a single-stranded, negative-sense, unsegmented, enveloped RNA virus with a rod or bullet shape. Five proteins are encoded by the viral genome. In the cytoplasm of infected cells, viral RNA uncoils. A virion-associated RNA-dependent RNA polymerase transcribes the genome. Individual viral proteins are subsequently translated from viral RNA. The creation of progeny negative-stranded RNA begins with the synthesis of positive-stranded RNA templates [10]. The RNA is responsible for coding five genes:
Isolated from infected animal or human | Isolated from several intracranial passages from rabbits |
Causes several encephalopathies after varying incubation period | Less infective but cause disease after a fixed incubation of 7–10 days |
Negri bodies can be demonstrated | Negri bodies are not produced |
Not utilised for vaccine production | Suitable and utilised for the vaccine production |
A case of human rabies is described in Siberia’s polar region by Kuzmin [11] In the year 1999. The victim had been bitten by a wolf. Monoclonal antibodies revealed that the isolate was from arctic fox virus strain. This finding reaffirmed the importance of strain typing rabies virus isolates in areas where it has not yet been done: such characterisation is important for identifying the reservoir host, learning about the virus’s natural history in the reservoir and planning future surveillance, post-exposure treatment and public education in the area.
Epidemiology is the study of distribution and the determinants of the disease. For the better understanding of the topic, epidemiology is given in two separate sections.
Rabies is found everywhere across the planet, except for islands. Except for Australia and Antarctica, rabies is endemic in many of the countries. Bahrain, Cyprus, Hong Kong, Japan, Malaysia, Maldives, Qatar, Singapore, Lakshdweep, India’s Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Timor-Leste are among the Asian countries free of rabies. Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Falkland Islands, Jamaica, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Trinidad and Tobago, Uruguay of the Americas subcontinent, and Albania, E.Y.R. of Macedonia, Finland, Gibraltar, Greece, Iceland, Isle of Man, Malta, Portugal, Norway (except Svalbard), United Kingdom and Spain (except Melilla and Ceuta) have all been declared rabies-free. Cape Verde, Congo, Libya, Mauritius, Reunion and Seychelles are the only African countries free of rabies. Fiji, Cook Islands, Vanuatu, Guam, French Polynesia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea are among the Oceana group of islands that are rabies-free [12, 13]. Bangladesh and India are the most affected, followed by Nepal, Myanmar, Bhutan, Thailand and Indonesia. Nepal is one of the countries in the world with the highest number of human rabies deaths [12, 13].
Rabies is a unique disease as it can contract a wide range of all the warm-blooded hosts.
Children lack fundamental ethology understanding about dogs, children are more vulnerable to the sickness and animal bites. When children disturb dogs while they are feeding, resting, mating or terrified, dogs get violent and bite them. According to research, the disease claimed the lives of 37% of children aged 5–14. [14]. Although the people from all the age groups are susceptible to the disease. The common site of bite in case of children is the face, and often children tend to hide the animal bite marks due to fear of scolds from the parents [15].
Males are more prone to contract to the disease as they are usually accessed to go out of the homes for earning or playing. In a study it was found that the ratio of men to women suffering from the disease was 4:1 [16].
Awareness plays a major role in the succession of the disease. In urbanised area, availability of the medical facilities and awareness is a factor which may show reduced cases of the disease contrary; in rural areas, many socio-economic and religious factors are responsible for the disease spread as in many part of Gujarat, India, there are temples of ‘Hadkai mata’, mythologically protecting the people bitten by dogs from the rabies. The bite of a rabies-infected dog causes over 95% of human cases, which disproportionately afflict rural people, particularly children, in economically challenged countries of Africa and Asia [17].
Majority of the rabies cases are occurring in the Southeast Asia and that too from the dogs. More the dogs are the factors significantly contributing to the spread of the disease. Stray dogs are generally naive towards the disease while only scanty dogs are vaccinated against the disease. The unvaccinated stray dog population is the biggest factor for the spread of the disease. At least 70% vaccination in the canine population will be taking care of spread of the disease in the animal population [18].
The disease occurs in two phases. First phase of the disease occurs once rabid dog bites any animal or human. The live viruses travel from the site of the bite to the brain in centripetal manner. The second phase starts when the virus after reaching the brain starts travelling from the brain to the peripheral nerves and induces the clinical signs. The course of the occurrence is directly related to the site of bite. If the site is nearer to the head, disease progression is rapid.
The rabies virus is spread by direct contact with saliva or brain/nervous system tissue from an infected animal (such as through broken skin or mucous membranes in the eyes, nose or mouth). Aside from bites and scrapes, there aren’t many injuries. One non-bite form of exposure is inhalation of aerosolised rabies virus, although most people, except for laboratory personnel, will not meet an aerosol of rabies virus. Rabies has been transmitted through corneal and solid organ transplants, but these cases are extremely rare [19].
Although all warm-blooded animals are susceptible to rabies and can transmit the RABV, there is significant interspecies heterogeneity in the ability of mammals to act as reservoirs. Rabies is mostly spread by carnivores all over the world [12]. Main cause for the transmission of the virus is wildlife or stray animals, lesser than 10% cases are reported from the domesticated animals such as dogs or cats [20]. Equine and bovine are generally susceptible to the disease, but they are considered as the dead end hosts as they generally do not transmit the disease [21].
There are two types of epidemiological cycle for the occurrence of the disease. Urban and Sylvatic cycles, both the cycles are overlapping to each other and interrelated. Dog, cat, fox, raccoon, jackal, wolf, badger, etc. are the reservoir of the disease while bats are the vector of the disease. In Asian subcontinent, majority of the cases are dog-mediated rabies while in American and European countries, bat-mediated rabies is seen [12]. In India, there are some factors which promote the growth of the stray dogs.
Mythologically dogs are related to ‘Kal Bhairav’, a god of Hinduism, and so from almost all the homes, last feed is offered to the dogs, which helps in the maintenance of the dog population.
Vulture population is getting declined day by day which is competitive exclusion parameter for dog food.
Open slaughter policies are providing food for sustainability to the dogs outdoor.
Open garbage disposal attracts dogs, and many a times they can be utilised as a source to the feed.
Accurate and timely diagnosis is very important for proper management of the post-exposure prophylaxis and application of the public health control efforts. The disease is diagnosed using a variety of techniques. However, adequate proper collection and submission of post-mortem materials, particularly brain tissues from animals suspected of having rabies, can provide basis for rabies confirmatory diagnosis [22]. Rabies can be difficult to diagnose because, in the early stages, it is easily confused with other diseases or even with a simple aggressive temperament. The reference method for diagnosing rabies is the fluorescent antibody test (FAT), an immunohistochemistry procedure, which is recommended by the World Health Organisation (WHO).
Primary diagnostic methods, such as the direct fluorescent antibody (DFA) test, the direct rapid immunohistochemistry test (dRIT) or pan-lyssavirus polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays, are used to identify agents. If a proper conjugate or primer/probe is employed, the DFA test, dRIT and PCR offer an accurate diagnosis in 98–100% of cases for all lyssavirus strains. In highly equipped facilities, conventional and real-time PCR may produce speedy results for a large number of samples. Histological procedures such as Seller staining (Negri bodies) are no longer suggested for diagnosis. In the incidence that main diagnostic tests (DFA test, dRIT or pan-Lyssavirus PCR) give unsatisfactory findings, further confirmatory testing (molecular tests, cell culture or mice inoculation tests) on the same sample or repeat primary diagnostic tests on different samples are recommended. Virus isolation in cell culture should be used instead of mice inoculation testing whenever possible. In specialised laboratories, the agent can be characterised utilising monoclonal antibodies, partial and whole genome sequencing and phylogenetic analyses. These approaches can tell the difference between field and vaccine strains, as well as the geographical origin of the field strains. These extremely sensitive tests should only be performed and evaluated by highly experienced experts.
Pre-exposure vaccination and boosters are necessary for all persons and laboratory workers engaged in the management of rabies suspected cases. These individuals are at risk of contracting rabies in a variety of ways. As a result, personal protection equipment (PPE) must be always worn, beginning with the necropsy procedure.
Because the rabies virus inactivates quickly, the specimens should be delivered on ice to the laboratory as soon as possible. Various approaches are used to diagnose rabies, with a focus on brain tissue, although other organs such as salivary glands are also used. Both the cerebellum and the brain stem are recommended for laboratory testing since the virus will be abundant in them and will help in laboratory detection. These portions of the brain can be acquired when the complete brain is removed during necropsy using the skull open approach.
The virus can be found in the brain, spinal cord, saliva and salivary glands of a rabies-infected animal. B rain tissue is the preferred specimen for rabies diagnosis, the animal suspected of having rabies should be euthanised in such a way that the brain is not damaged. Only vaccinated and well-trained veterinarians or animal control personnel should remove the animal heads.
Brain sample collection for the accurate diagnosis of rabies is very difficult work and that can be dangerous in the field or if the person is not properly trained. The occipital foramen route of brain sampling is an alternative way of collecting brain samples that does not need open the skull.
The brain sample is collected through the occipital foramen by inserting a 5 mm drinking straw or a disposable plastic pipette with a capacity of about 2 mL or by inserting an artificial insemination sheath about 10 cm long into the foramen in the direction of the eye. Brain stem and cerebellum samples can be obtained through the juice straw or artificial insemination sheath (Figure 1). This technique of collection should be user-friendly, quick and risk-free for reliable rabies diagnosis [22]. This technique speeds up the more number of brain samples collection simultaneously.
Brainstem collection through the foramen magnum technique in a dog (captured by the authors).
Laboratory procedures for diagnosing rabies were developed as early as 1800 BC. Adelchi Negri discovered the Negri bodies in 1903, and their diagnostic significance was proved by his wife Lina Negri-Luzzani in 1913 [22]. This cleared the way for the development of a multiplicity of laboratory procedures for rabies confirmation, which are described in the WHO book ‘Laboratory Techniques in Rabies’ [23] as well as the ‘OIE Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals’ [24].
Seller’s staining method is a quick and easy test. It is a histological test used on brain impressions to show the unique cell lesions known as ‘Negri bodies’. These are viral particle aggregates visible as intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies ranging in size from 3 to 30 m in infected neural cells. The Negri bodies are round or oval structures that include basophilic granules in an eosinophilic matrix. This technique has relatively poor sensitivity for the diagnosis of rabies, that’s why nowadays this test is no longer recommended [23].
The World Health Organisation (WHO) and the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) both endorse the direct fluorescent antibody assay as the most extensively used test for post-mortem confirming diagnosis of rabies. Goldwasser and Kissling created this gold standard test in 1958. The ‘Nucleoprotein antigen’ (N) of the rabies virus is shown here to be present in fresh brain impressions of rabies suspect animals (Figure 2). Such rabies viral inclusions do not exist in the brain impressions of non-rabid animals (Figure 3). Furthermore, in a normal laboratory, the DFA has a specificity and sensitivity of about 99% [22].
Rabid animal brain impression, counterstained with Evan’s blue and stained with rabies virus antinucleocapsid IgG-FITC conjugate (rabies DFA III, light diagnostics, cat # 6500, captured by authors).
Non-rabid animal brain impression stained with rabies virus anti-nucleocapsid IgG-FITC conjugate (rabies DFA III, light diagnostics, cat # 6500, captured by authors).
The DFA is accurate and sensitive. The sensitivity of this test is determined by the quality of the sample (how carefully the brain is sampled as well as the degree of autolysis), the type of lyssavirus and the diagnostic staff’s expertise. Impressions are obtained from a composite sample of brain tissue that includes the brainstem. It is air-dried before being immersed in 100% high-grade cold acetone for 1 hour to set the impressions. The impression is withdrawn from the acetone, air-dried and stained with a drop of the appropriate conjugate.
The impression is then incubated for 60 minutes at 37°C. Anti-rabies fluorescent conjugates are commercially available as polyclonal or monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) that are specific to whole virus or the N protein of the rabies virus and have been conjugated to the fluorescing dye, fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC). The DFA slides should be inspected under a fluorescent microscope with a filter that corresponds to the wavelength of the fluorescent conjugate employed. FITC, which is stimulated at 490 nm and re-emits at 510 nm, is the most often used fluorescent dye. The presence of nucleocapsid protein aggregates can be seen by the fluorescence of associated conjugate in an apple green colour. When fresh brain tissue is used, this test is reliable. Bacterial contamination of partially decomposed brains causes nonspecific fluorescence that is difficult to differentiate from specific fluorescence owing to N antigen, making it inappropriate for this test.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta, Georgia, developed dRIT, which is one of the most important breakthroughs in the diagnosis of Rabies. This test also detects the N protein of the rabies virus in rabies brain impressions. A suspected animal brain smear is fixed with buffered formalin before being processed further. Following appropriate viral fixation, the antigen was treated with a biotinylated monoclonal antibody cocktail that was highly concentrated and purified (to N protein). After that, an indicator and streptavidin peroxidase are added. The aggregation of viral clusters is seen as brick red clusters within the cell, along the axons and throughout the brain impression (Figure 4). Negative brain impressions show no such brick red inclusions.
Rabid animal brain impression tested by dRIT, captured by authors.
This 1-hour test method is helpful in field conditions since the results may be examined with an ordinary light microscope. It has been tested in several nations and confirmed to be 100% as sensitive and specific as DFA. This simple, low-cost test will be extremely useful in enhancing rabies epidemiology monitoring, particularly in underdeveloped countries where expensive fluorescence microscopes and cold storage facilities may not be accessible [22].
The lateral flow assay is a simple and quick immunochromatographic technique. The rabies virus nucleoprotein is recognised by this test kit, which was produced utilising monoclonal antibodies. It has been tested as a quick rabies screening test. This assay is an immunodiagnostic test that provides quick findings in the field by detecting RABV antigen in post-mortem samples without the need of laboratory equipment. In summary, the detector antibodies are coupled to a membrane at two separate zones, and when the processed material is added to the device at the appropriate slot, coloured lines appear, indicating the presence of viral antigen [25].
In the case of rabies-virus-positive brain samples, coloured lines may be observed in both the ‘C’ (Control) and ‘T’ (test) zones; however, in the case of negative samples, only the ‘C’ zone displays colour development (Figure 5). Furthermore, this assay might be used to successfully identify rabies virus in cell culture [26].
Lateral flow test of rabies-positive brain sample suspensions (captured by authors).
Other less common antigen detection techniques are as follows:
A quick sandwich ELISA is used to identify lyssaviruses belonging to all seven genotypes that circulate in Europe, Africa, Asia and Oceania [27]. Dot-blot immunoassay for brain tissues and enzyme immunoassay (EIA) for quick diagnosis in humans and animals [28].
Various PCR-based tests are now being developed for ante-mortem and post-mortem rabies diagnosis. Because the nucleoprotein (N) gene is extremely conserved, most of these PCR variants amplify it. This method has shown to be quite efficient in detecting rabies ante-mortem.
RT-PCR tests based on gels are also used to identify rabies virus RNA in clinical samples [29, 30, 31, 32]. The amplicons produced in these tests, notably those targeting N, G and G-L intergenic regions, have been sequenced in order to characterise the virus and analyse its phylogeny [33]. However, these assays are vulnerable to cross-contamination, which is a major problem that prevents them from being used routinely for rabies diagnosis [27].
Real-time PCR is used to identify and quantify genome copies while reducing the probability of cross-contamination. The SYBR Green real-time PCR technique is applied for rabies ante-mortem diagnosis [34] as well as finding lyssaviruses [35]. TaqMan real-time PCR tests have been shown to have high specificity [27, 36]. This was shown to be 100 times more sensitive than typical nested RT-PCR [36].
Although they have certain drawbacks, the rabies virus neutralisation test, notably FAVN or RFFIT, is the test of choice for determining neutralising antibodies [37]. Various varieties of ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) are also utilised as an alternative since they are safe, simple and quick. Furthermore, because these tests do not involve the handling of live virus, they do not require use of high-containment facilities. The ELISA findings are shown to correspond well with the RFFIT results. ELISA based on N and G protein Mab was developed to the specially trap the rabies antigen during ante-mortem diagnosis [38].
A second-generation ELISA kit, the Platelia Rabies II, was designed to detect antibodies against the glycoprotein in blood and CSF samples. This ELISA was tested and shown to correlate well with RFFIT, making it suitable for use in laboratories without cell culture facilities [39]. However, when compared with neutralisation tests, ELISA is less sensitive [40].
PrEP (vaccination) is the most efficient way of rabies control. It not only saves the budget of the management, but it assures the prevention of the disease. There are several protocols for the prophylaxis of the disease. There are two routes for the vaccination: intra-muscular (IM) and intra-dermal (ID). Intra-dermal vaccine saves the quantity of the vaccine by 80%. The detailed protocol is given below. PrEP is recommended to the people who are associated to specific group vulnerable to rabies such as veterinarians, para-vets, animal welfare activists or people residing in endemic area. The dosage for ID is 0.1 ml at two sides while the dose of IM vaccine is whole vial. The vaccine should not be given at gluteal muscle. The protocol suggests two shots of vaccine on 0 and 7 days.
PEP is suggested after the exposure of rabies. There are three categories of the exposure listed in Table 1. There are three dosage regimes given by different institutions, Institut Pasteur du Cambodge regimen, Essen regimen and Zagreb regimen.
Category | Immunologically naive | Previously immunised |
---|---|---|
1 Touching or feeding animals, animal licks on intact skin (no exposure) | Wash exposed skin surfaces. No PEP required. | |
2 Nibbling of uncovered skin, minor scratches, or abrasions without bleeding (exposure) | Wound washing and immediate vaccination: - 2-sites ID on days 0, 3 and 7 OR - 1-site IM on days 0, 3, 7 and between days 14 and 28 OR - 2-sites IM on days 0 and 1-site IM on days 7, 21 RIG is not indicated. | Wound washing and immediate vaccination*: - 1-site ID on days 0 and 3; OR - at 4-sites ID on day 0; OR - at 1-site IM on days 0 and 3); RIG is not indicated. |
3 Single or multiple transdermal bites or scratches, contamination of mucous membrane or broken skin with saliva from animal licks, exposures due to direct contact with bats (severe exposure) | Wound washing and immediate vaccination - 2-sites ID on days 0, 3 and 76 OR - 1-site IM on days 0, 3, 7 and between days 14 and 287 OR - 2-sites IM on days 0 and 1-site IM on days 7, 218 RIG administration is recommended. | Wound washing and immediate vaccination*: - 1-site ID on days 0 and 3; OR - at 4-sites ID on day 0; OR - at 1-site IM on days 0 and 3; RIG is not indicated. |
Suggested PEP according to exposure.
The major between immunologically naïve and previously immunised person with the PEP is no requirement of RIG in previously immunised person. The maximum dose of RIG is 20 (hRIG) or 40 (eRIG). If RIG is not available, thorough, prompt wound washing, together with immediate administration of the first vaccine dose, followed by a complete course of rabies vaccine, is highly effective in preventing rabies. Vaccines should never be withheld, regardless of the availability of RIG. Rabies virus is enveloped virus and so through washing of bite wound with soap solution under running tap water is advised. (Adopted from [41])
The rabies vaccine with the potency of RIVM >2 I.U. may be used for the vaccination. The vaccine is approved for the use for the prophylaxis of apparently healthy mammals. The vaccine may be given by the IM or SC route. Generally, a temporary palpable nodule at the site of the SC injection may be noticed, which will disappear by the time. Rarely anaphylactic reaction can be seen which can be managed by SC injection of adrenalin. It is always recommended to give the vaccine a bit earlier than the due date to ensure the protection. Many a times it is possible that the whole dose of vaccine may be failed to be administered to the animals due to faulty administration. Vaccination can begin as early as 3 months of age in dogs, ferrets and livestock. Vaccines for cats can be administered as early as 2 months of age [42].
The schedule is given below in Table 2.
Species | Age at Primary Vaccination | Revaccination |
---|---|---|
Dog & Cat | After 3 months of age* | 3 years** |
Cattle, Horse, Sheep & Goat | After 6 months of age* | 2 years** |
Ferret | After 3 months of age* | 1 year** |
Vaccination schedule for animals.
Primary vaccination can be administered at an earlier age, but then a repeat vaccination must be given at the age of 3 or 6 months depending on the species.
Annual revaccination is recommended in endemic areas.
Source: [43].
The rabies vaccine bait RABORAL V-RG® contains an attenuated (‘modified-live’) recombinant vaccinia virus vector vaccine that expresses the rabies virus glycoprotein gene (V-RG). Since 1987, when the first licenced recombinant oral rabies vaccine (ORV) was released into the environment to immunise wildlife populations against rabies, over 250 million doses have been distributed globally with no reports of adverse responses in wildlife or domestic animals. V-RG is genetically stable, does not remain in the oral cavity for more than 48 hours after ingestion, is not shed into the environment by vaccinated animals and has been tested for thermostability in a variety of laboratory and field settings. V-RG has been tested in over 50 vertebrate species, including nonhuman primates, and no adverse effects have been reported regardless of method or dose. Immunogenicity and efficacy in a variety of target species have been established in the lab and in the field (including fox, raccoon, coyote, skunk, raccoon dog and jackal). The liquid vaccine is placed within edible baits (such as RABORAL V-RG, the vaccine-bait product) that are released into animal areas for target species to consume. The use of RABORAL V-RG in the field has helped to eradicate wildlife rabies in three European nations (Belgium, France and Luxembourg), as well as the dog/coyote rabies virus form in the United States (USA). With the final case reported in a cow in 2009, an oral rabies vaccination programme in west-central Texas has effectively removed the grey fox rabies virus strain from Texas. In the United States, a long-term ORV barrier effort using RABORAL V-RG is preventing significant geographic spread of the raccoon rabies virus strain. For more than a decade, RABORAL V-RG has been used in Israel to control wildlife rabies [44].
PEP of the rabies should include five administrations of the vaccine on the days 0, 3, 7, 14, 28/90 days. If the animal is not immunised previously, eRIG is advised to be administered at the site of bite.
The disease is a classical example of neglected zoonosis. The disease can be well managed by the multi-disciplinary approach. Control of the rabies in the dogs is very important. World Health Organisation (WHO) has strong measures in place to prevent rabies in dogs. These guidelines include:
Notification of suspected cases, with euthanasia of dogs with clinical signs and those bitten by suspected rabid animals
Leash laws and quarantine to limit contact between susceptible dogs
A mass immunisation programme with ongoing boosters
Stray dog control and euthanasia of unvaccinated dogs roaming freely
Dog registration programmes [45].
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Tranquilli",authors:[{id:"57017",title:"Prof.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Stoppa",slug:"francesco-stoppa",fullName:"Francesco Stoppa"},{id:"62737",title:"Dr.",name:"Gianluigi",middleName:null,surname:"Rosatelli",slug:"gianluigi-rosatelli",fullName:"Gianluigi Rosatelli"},{id:"62738",title:"Mr",name:"Mariangela",middleName:null,surname:"Schiazza",slug:"mariangela-schiazza",fullName:"Mariangela Schiazza"},{id:"62739",title:"Mr",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Tranquilli",slug:"andrea-tranquilli",fullName:"Andrea Tranquilli"}]},{id:"51948",doi:"10.5772/64129",title:"Fumarolic Minerals: An Overview of Active European Volcanoes",slug:"fumarolic-minerals-an-overview-of-active-european-volcanoes",totalDownloads:2269,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"The fumarolic mineralogy of the Icelandic active volcanoes, the Tyrrhenian volcanic belt (Italy) and the Aegean active arc (Greece) is investigated, and literature data surveyed in order to define the characteristics of the European fumarolic systems. They show broad diversity of mineral associations, with Vesuvius and Vulcano being also among the world localities richest in mineral species. Volcanic systems, which show recession over a longer period, show fumarolic development from the high-temperature alkaline halide/sulphate, calcic sulphate or sulphidic parageneses, synchronous with or immediately following the eruptions, through medium-temperature ammonium minerals, metal chlorides, or fluoride associations to the late low-temperature paragenesis dominated by sulphur, gypsum, alunogen, and other hydrous sulphates. The situation can be different in the systems that are not recessing but show fluctuations in activity, illustrated by the example of Vulcano where the high-temperature association appears intermittently. A full survey of the mineral groups and species is given in respect to their importance and appearance in fumarolic associations.",book:{id:"5311",slug:"updates-in-volcanology-from-volcano-modelling-to-volcano-geology",title:"Updates in Volcanology",fullTitle:"Updates in Volcanology - From Volcano Modelling to Volcano Geology"},signatures:"Tonči Balić-Žunić, Anna Garavelli, Sveinn Peter Jakobsson, Kristjan\nJonasson, Athanasios Katerinopoulos, Konstantinos Kyriakopoulos\nand Pasquale Acquafredda",authors:[{id:"183593",title:"Dr.",name:"Tonci",middleName:null,surname:"Balic-Zunic",slug:"tonci-balic-zunic",fullName:"Tonci Balic-Zunic"},{id:"183700",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Garavelli",slug:"anna-garavelli",fullName:"Anna Garavelli"},{id:"183701",title:"Dr.",name:"Sveinn Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Jakobsson",slug:"sveinn-peter-jakobsson",fullName:"Sveinn Peter Jakobsson"},{id:"183702",title:"Prof.",name:"Athanasios",middleName:null,surname:"Katerinopoulos",slug:"athanasios-katerinopoulos",fullName:"Athanasios Katerinopoulos"},{id:"188833",title:"Dr.",name:"Kristjan",middleName:null,surname:"Jonasson",slug:"kristjan-jonasson",fullName:"Kristjan Jonasson"},{id:"188834",title:"Dr.",name:"Konstantinos",middleName:null,surname:"Kyriakopoulos",slug:"konstantinos-kyriakopoulos",fullName:"Konstantinos Kyriakopoulos"},{id:"188835",title:"Dr.",name:"Pasquale",middleName:null,surname:"Acquafredda",slug:"pasquale-acquafredda",fullName:"Pasquale Acquafredda"}]},{id:"51105",doi:"10.5772/63486",title:"How Polygenetic are Monogenetic Volcanoes: Case Studies of Some Complex Maar‐Diatreme Volcanoes",slug:"how-polygenetic-are-monogenetic-volcanoes-case-studies-of-some-complex-maar-diatreme-volcanoes",totalDownloads:1939,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"The increasing number of field investigations and various controlled benchtop and large‐scale experiments have permitted the evaluation of a large number of processes involved in the formation of maar‐diatreme volcanoes, the second most common type of small‐volume subaerial volcanoes on Earth. A maar‐diatreme volcano is recognized by a volcanic crater that is cut into country rocks and surrounded by a low‐height ejecta rim composed of pyroclastic deposits of few meters to up to 200 m thick above the syn‐eruptive surface level. The craters vary from 0.1 km to up to 5 km wide and vary in depth from a few dozen meters to up to 300 m deep. Their irregular morphology reflects the simple or complex volcanic and cratering processes involved in their formation. The simplicity or complexity of the crater or the entire maar itself is usually observed in the stratigraphy of the surrounding ejecta rings. The latter are composed of sequences of successive alternating and contrastingly bedded phreatomagmatic‐derived dilute pyroclastic density currents (PDC) and fallout depositions, with occasional interbedded Strombolian‐derived spatter materials or scoria fall units, exemplifying the changes in the eruptive styles during the formation of the volcano. The entire stratigraphic sequence might be preserved as a single eruptive package (small or very thick) in which there is no stratigraphic gap or significant discordance indicative of a potential break during the eruption. A maar with a single eruptive deposit is quantified as monogenetic maar, meaning that it was formed by a single eruptive vent from which only a small and ephemeral magma erupted over a short period of time. The stratigraphy may also display several packages of deposits separated either by contrasting discordance surfaces or paleosoils, which reflect multiple phases or episodes of eruptions within the same maar. Such maars are characterized as complex polycyclic maars if the length of time between the eruptive events is relatively short (days to years). For greater length of time (thousands to millions of years), the complex maar will be quantified as polygenetic. These common depositional breaks interpreted as signs of temporal interruption of the eruptions for various timescales also indicate deep magma system processes; hence magmas of different types might erupt during the formation of both simple and complex maars. The feeding dikes can interact with groundwater and form closely distributed small craters. The latter can coalesce to form a final crater with various shapes depending on the distance between them. This observation indicates the significant role of the magmatic plumbing system on the formation and growth of complex and polygenetic maar‐diatreme volcanoes.",book:{id:"5311",slug:"updates-in-volcanology-from-volcano-modelling-to-volcano-geology",title:"Updates in Volcanology",fullTitle:"Updates in Volcanology - From Volcano Modelling to Volcano Geology"},signatures:"Boris Chako Tchamabé, Gabor Kereszturi, Karoly Németh and\nGerardo Carrasco‐Núñez",authors:[{id:"51162",title:"Dr.",name:"Károly",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"karoly-nemeth",fullName:"Károly Németh"},{id:"62029",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabor",middleName:null,surname:"Kereszturi",slug:"gabor-kereszturi",fullName:"Gabor Kereszturi"},{id:"182834",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",middleName:null,surname:"Chako Tchamabé",slug:"boris-chako-tchamabe",fullName:"Boris Chako Tchamabé"},{id:"183809",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Carrasco-Núñez",slug:"gerardo-carrasco-nunez",fullName:"Gerardo Carrasco-Núñez"}]},{id:"49656",doi:"10.5772/61974",title:"Optical Satellite Remote Sensing of the Coastal Zone Environment — An Overview",slug:"optical-satellite-remote-sensing-of-the-coastal-zone-environment-an-overview",totalDownloads:2463,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Optical remote-sensing data are a powerful source of information for monitoring the coastal environment. Due to the high complexity of coastal environments, where different natural and anthropogenic phenomenon interact, the selection of the most appropriate sensor(s) is related to the applications required, and the different types of resolutions available (spatial, spectral, radiometric, and temporal) need to be considered. The development of specific techniques and tools based on the processing of optical satellite images makes possible the production of information useful for coastal environment management, without any destructive impacts. This chapter will highlight different subjects related to coastal environments: shoreline change detection, ocean color, water quality, river plumes, coral reef, alga bloom, bathymetry, wetland mapping, and coastal hazards/vulnerability. The main objective of this chapter is not an exhaustive description of the image processing methods/algorithms employed in coastal environmental studies, but focus in the range of applications available. Several limitations were identified. The major challenge still is to have remote-sensing techniques adopted as a routine tool in assessment of change in the coastal zone. Continuing research is required into the techniques employed for assessing change in the coastal environment.",book:{id:"5104",slug:"environmental-applications-of-remote-sensing",title:"Environmental Applications of Remote Sensing",fullTitle:"Environmental Applications of Remote Sensing"},signatures:"Ana C. Teodoro",authors:[{id:"18485",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Teodoro",slug:"ana-teodoro",fullName:"Ana Teodoro"}]},{id:"49851",doi:"10.5772/62122",title:"Detection of Tree Crowns in Very High Spatial Resolution Images",slug:"detection-of-tree-crowns-in-very-high-spatial-resolution-images",totalDownloads:3240,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"The requirements for advanced knowledge on forest resources have led researchers to develop efficient methods to provide detailed information about trees. Since 1999, orbital remote sensing has been providing very high resolution (VHR) image data. The new generation of satellite allows individual tree crowns to be visually identifiable. The increase in spatial resolution has also had a profound effect in image processing techniques and has motivated the development of new object-based procedures to extract information. Tree crown detection has become a major area of research in image analysis considering the complex nature of trees in an uncontrolled environment. This chapter is subdivided into two parts. Part I offers an overview of the state of the art in computer detection of individual tree crowns in VHR images. Part II presents a new hybrid approach developed by the authors that integrates geometrical-optical modeling (GOM), marked point processes (MPP), and template matching (TM) to individually detect tree crowns in VHR images. The method is presented for two different applications: isolated tree detection in an urban environment and automatic tree counting in orchards with an average performance rate of 82% for tree detection and above 90% for tree counting in orchards.",book:{id:"5104",slug:"environmental-applications-of-remote-sensing",title:"Environmental Applications of Remote Sensing",fullTitle:"Environmental Applications of Remote Sensing"},signatures:"Marilia Ferreira Gomes and Philippe Maillard",authors:[{id:"177110",title:"Dr.",name:"Philippe",middleName:null,surname:"Maillard",slug:"philippe-maillard",fullName:"Philippe Maillard"},{id:"177172",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Marilia",middleName:"Ferreira",surname:"Gomes",slug:"marilia-gomes",fullName:"Marilia Gomes"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66703",title:"P-Wave Teleseismic Tomography: Evidence of Imprints of Deccan Mantle Plume below the Kachchh Rift Zone, Gujarat, India",slug:"p-wave-teleseismic-tomography-evidence-of-imprints-of-deccan-mantle-plume-below-the-kachchh-rift-zon",totalDownloads:2602,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The Indian plate had experienced the Deccan volcanism at 65 Ma when it moved over the Re-union hotspot, which has altered lithospheric structure below the Kachchh rift zone (KRZ). To quantify the influence of Deccan volcanism on the crust-mantle, the present chapter focuses on the delineation of the upper mantle structure below the KRZ, through the modeling of crust corrected P-residuals and P-wave teleseismic tomography. The crust corrected normalized P-residuals suggest dominant negative residuals associated with the central KRZ, indicating crustal and lithospheric thinning below the KRZ. A low velocity down to a depth of 170 km below the central KRZ is detected through the teleseismic tomography using these P-residuals. However, these residuals also show positive values for the surrounding un-rifted zones. Note that a low shear velocity zone extending from 100–120 km to 170–220 km depth beneath the central KRZ has already been revealed by the modeling of P-RFs. This reduction in seismic velocity in the upper mantle could be explained by the presence of trapped carbonatite/partial melts related to the Deccan volcanism. The influx of volatile CO2 emanating from the carbonatite melts in the asthenosphere might be generating lower crustal earthquakes occurring in the KRZ.",book:{id:"7677",slug:"forecasting-volcanic-eruptions",title:"Forecasting Volcanic Eruptions",fullTitle:"Forecasting Volcanic Eruptions"},signatures:"Prantik Mandal",authors:[{id:"279344",title:"Dr.",name:"Prantik",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"prantik-mandal",fullName:"Prantik Mandal"}]},{id:"49608",title:"Remote Sensing of Mountain Glaciers and Related Hazards",slug:"remote-sensing-of-mountain-glaciers-and-related-hazards",totalDownloads:2386,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Mountain glaciers are highly sensitive to temperature and precipitation fluctuations and active geomorphic agents in shaping the landforms of glaciated regions which are direct imprints of past glaciations, providing reliable evidence of the evolution of the past Cryosphere and contain important information on climatic variables. But most importantly, glaciers have aroused a lot of concern in terms of glacier area changes, thickness change, mass balance and their consequences on water resources as well as related hazards. The contribution of glacier mass loss to global sea-level rise and increasing number of glacier-related hazards are the most important and current socioeconomic concerns. Therefore, understanding the dynamics of the changes and constant monitoring of glaciers are essential for studying climate, water resource management and hydropower and also to predict and evade glacier-related hazards. The recent advances in the techniques of earth observations have proved as a boon for investigating glaciers and glacier-related hazards. Remote sensing technology enables extraction of glacier parameters such as albedo/reflectance/scattering, glacier area, glacier zones and facies, equilibrium line, glacier thickness, volume, mass balance, velocity and glacier topography. The present chapter explores the prospective of remote sensing technology for understanding and surveying glaciers formed at high, inaccessible mountains and glacier-induced hazards.",book:{id:"5104",slug:"environmental-applications-of-remote-sensing",title:"Environmental Applications of Remote Sensing",fullTitle:"Environmental Applications of Remote Sensing"},signatures:"Pratima Pandey, Alagappan Ramanathan and Gopalan\nVenkataraman",authors:[{id:"18342",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramanathan",middleName:null,surname:"Alagappan",slug:"ramanathan-alagappan",fullName:"Ramanathan Alagappan"},{id:"177179",title:"Dr.",name:"Pratima",middleName:null,surname:"Pandey",slug:"pratima-pandey",fullName:"Pratima Pandey"},{id:"178231",title:"Prof.",name:"Gopalan",middleName:null,surname:"Venkataraman",slug:"gopalan-venkataraman",fullName:"Gopalan Venkataraman"}]},{id:"60548",title:"Volcanic Glass and its Uses as Adsorbent",slug:"volcanic-glass-and-its-uses-as-adsorbent",totalDownloads:1601,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Volcanic glasses are an amorphous phyllosilicates formed by the fast cooling of the magma. The physicochemical properties of volcanic glasses are directly related to their chemical composition. Thus, the rhyolitic magma, which presents the highest SiO2 percentage, displays a high viscosity, which leads to explosive eruptions by the ex-solution of H2O, CO2, and SO2, when the pressure diminishes generates a macroporous structure with interesting applications in construction, as abrasive, acoustic, filter as well as in the agriculture field. The macroporosity of volcanic glass allows to host large molecules as biomolecules, tensoactives, or dyes. On the other hand, the existence of hydroxyl groups in this amorphous aluminosilicate also favors the adsorption of cations and anions, so the volcanic glass is an economical adsorbent to retain heavy metals or radioactive cations.",book:{id:"6104",slug:"volcanoes-geological-and-geophysical-setting-theoretical-aspects-and-numerical-modeling-applications-to-industry-and-their-impact-on-the-human-health",title:"Volcanoes",fullTitle:"Volcanoes - Geological and Geophysical Setting, Theoretical Aspects and Numerical Modeling, Applications to Industry and Their Impact on the Human Health"},signatures:"Juan Antonio Cecilia, Miguel Armando Autie-Pérez, Juan Manuel\nLabadie-Suarez, Enrique Rodríguez Castellón and Antonia Infantes\nMolina",authors:[{id:"126325",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique",middleName:null,surname:"Rodríguez-Castellón",slug:"enrique-rodriguez-castellon",fullName:"Enrique Rodríguez-Castellón"}]},{id:"57502",title:"The Characteristics of Volcanic Eruption in Indonesia",slug:"the-characteristics-of-volcanic-eruption-in-indonesia",totalDownloads:1846,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter discusses the unique characteristics of the volcanic eruptions in Indonesia. We know that Indonesia has 147 volcanoes and 76 of them are active volcanoes and spread along the islands of Java, Lesser Sunda, Sumatra, and Celebes. The characteristics of Indonesian volcanoes are quite unique in terms of the formation process, eruption phenomenon, and the resulting natural disasters. Most volcanoes in Indonesia consist of stratovolcanoes, but this does not mean that the resulting eruptions are always explosive and they have a long period. This can be seen from the activity of Semeru that always erupts effusively every day, Sinabung that has a very short eruption period, Tangkuban Perahu eruption that occurs suddenly with the lack of early signs, and Merapi and Kelud that have eruption period that is getting shorter. Based on the results of our study it can be known that the types of volcanic eruption are influenced by the structure of the constituent rocks of the volcanoes. However, the presence of external control factors in the form of large-scale earthquakes will affect their periodicity. The large earthquakes can affect the stability of the magma chamber that can trigger a premature eruption.",book:{id:"6104",slug:"volcanoes-geological-and-geophysical-setting-theoretical-aspects-and-numerical-modeling-applications-to-industry-and-their-impact-on-the-human-health",title:"Volcanoes",fullTitle:"Volcanoes - Geological and Geophysical Setting, Theoretical Aspects and Numerical Modeling, Applications to Industry and Their Impact on the Human Health"},signatures:"Eko Hariyono and Liliasari S",authors:[{id:"214360",title:"Dr.",name:"Eko",middleName:null,surname:"Hariyono",slug:"eko-hariyono",fullName:"Eko Hariyono"},{id:"219699",title:"Prof.",name:"Liliasari",middleName:null,surname:"S",slug:"liliasari-s",fullName:"Liliasari S"}]},{id:"51105",title:"How Polygenetic are Monogenetic Volcanoes: Case Studies of Some Complex Maar‐Diatreme Volcanoes",slug:"how-polygenetic-are-monogenetic-volcanoes-case-studies-of-some-complex-maar-diatreme-volcanoes",totalDownloads:1939,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"The increasing number of field investigations and various controlled benchtop and large‐scale experiments have permitted the evaluation of a large number of processes involved in the formation of maar‐diatreme volcanoes, the second most common type of small‐volume subaerial volcanoes on Earth. A maar‐diatreme volcano is recognized by a volcanic crater that is cut into country rocks and surrounded by a low‐height ejecta rim composed of pyroclastic deposits of few meters to up to 200 m thick above the syn‐eruptive surface level. The craters vary from 0.1 km to up to 5 km wide and vary in depth from a few dozen meters to up to 300 m deep. Their irregular morphology reflects the simple or complex volcanic and cratering processes involved in their formation. The simplicity or complexity of the crater or the entire maar itself is usually observed in the stratigraphy of the surrounding ejecta rings. The latter are composed of sequences of successive alternating and contrastingly bedded phreatomagmatic‐derived dilute pyroclastic density currents (PDC) and fallout depositions, with occasional interbedded Strombolian‐derived spatter materials or scoria fall units, exemplifying the changes in the eruptive styles during the formation of the volcano. The entire stratigraphic sequence might be preserved as a single eruptive package (small or very thick) in which there is no stratigraphic gap or significant discordance indicative of a potential break during the eruption. A maar with a single eruptive deposit is quantified as monogenetic maar, meaning that it was formed by a single eruptive vent from which only a small and ephemeral magma erupted over a short period of time. The stratigraphy may also display several packages of deposits separated either by contrasting discordance surfaces or paleosoils, which reflect multiple phases or episodes of eruptions within the same maar. Such maars are characterized as complex polycyclic maars if the length of time between the eruptive events is relatively short (days to years). For greater length of time (thousands to millions of years), the complex maar will be quantified as polygenetic. These common depositional breaks interpreted as signs of temporal interruption of the eruptions for various timescales also indicate deep magma system processes; hence magmas of different types might erupt during the formation of both simple and complex maars. The feeding dikes can interact with groundwater and form closely distributed small craters. The latter can coalesce to form a final crater with various shapes depending on the distance between them. This observation indicates the significant role of the magmatic plumbing system on the formation and growth of complex and polygenetic maar‐diatreme volcanoes.",book:{id:"5311",slug:"updates-in-volcanology-from-volcano-modelling-to-volcano-geology",title:"Updates in Volcanology",fullTitle:"Updates in Volcanology - From Volcano Modelling to Volcano Geology"},signatures:"Boris Chako Tchamabé, Gabor Kereszturi, Karoly Németh and\nGerardo Carrasco‐Núñez",authors:[{id:"51162",title:"Dr.",name:"Károly",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"karoly-nemeth",fullName:"Károly Németh"},{id:"62029",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabor",middleName:null,surname:"Kereszturi",slug:"gabor-kereszturi",fullName:"Gabor Kereszturi"},{id:"182834",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",middleName:null,surname:"Chako Tchamabé",slug:"boris-chako-tchamabe",fullName:"Boris Chako Tchamabé"},{id:"183809",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Carrasco-Núñez",slug:"gerardo-carrasco-nunez",fullName:"Gerardo Carrasco-Núñez"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"658",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],testimonialsList:[]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. 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