\r\n\tNotably, the book encourages academic scholars and researchers to contribute to the modern concepts of CSR. Fundamentally, it speaks for well-developed literature for entrepreneurs and managers, thus assisting them in the decision-making process. \r\n\tFurthermore, this book is of great value to policymakers, practitioners, and corporations, thus contributing to various disciplines (e.g., social science and management). \r\n\tThese proposed themes encourage future researchers and professionals to share their ideas, concepts and work concerning these subject domains. All these suggested topics had recommended under the rubrics of CSR. Perhaps, all the professionals, researchers, and scholars are welcome to submit their piece of work, in particular to the suggested topics. \r\n\tIndeed, the recommended topics include the following but are not limited to these only. \r\n\t• Corporate Governance and Sustainability \r\n\t• Green Innovation and CSR \r\n\t• Social Entrepreneurship \r\n\t• Green Economy and Social and Environmental Sustainability \r\n\t• Sustainable Development and Industrialization
",isbn:"978-1-80356-165-3",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-164-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-166-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"e3be182f32c4d9b8e44e95e86ee1366b",bookSignature:"Dr. Muddassar Sarfraz",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg",keywords:"Sustainability, Stakeholders, Corporate Citizenship, Sustainable Development, Decision-making Process, CSR, Organizational Performance, Financial Performance, Corporate Reputation, Environmental Performance, Environmental Strategy, Green Innovation",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 2nd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 2nd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 1st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 20th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 18th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in Business Management and Sustainability, Associate Editor of Frontiers in Psychology Journal, and published several research articles.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"260655",title:"Dr.",name:"Muddassar",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muddassar-sarfraz",fullName:"Muddassar Sarfraz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260655/images/system/260655.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Muddassar Sarfraz works as an assistant professor at Wuxi University, China. He completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Business Management at the Business School of Hohai University, China. He has published numerous papers in foreign authoritative journals and academic conferences at home and abroad. He is senior editor of Cogent Business & Management, associate editor of Frontiers in Psychology, Energies, and Future Business Journal, and guest editor of Frontiers in Environmental Sciences and INQUIRY. He is a member of the British Academy of Management, Chinese Economists Society (USA), World Economic Association (UK), and the American Economic Association, and an ambassador of the MBA program at Chongqing University, China. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10226",title:"Risk Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b65afaff43ec930bc6ee52c4aa1f78f",slug:"risk-management",bookSignature:"Muddassar Sarfraz and Larisa Ivascu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10226.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"260655",title:"Dr.",name:"Muddassar",surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muddassar-sarfraz",fullName:"Muddassar Sarfraz"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9337",title:"Sustainable Management Practices",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef070ee744c15a1084cca5bb546816df",slug:"sustainable-management-practices",bookSignature:"Muddassar Sarfraz, Muhammad Ibrahim Adbullah, Abdul Rauf and Syed Ghulam Meran Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9337.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"260655",title:"Dr.",name:"Muddassar",surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muddassar-sarfraz",fullName:"Muddassar Sarfraz"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"72642",title:"Soil and Water Conservation Measures for Agricultural Sustainability",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92895",slug:"soil-and-water-conservation-measures-for-agricultural-sustainability",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
Soil and water are indispensable for the existence and survival of all terrestrial life. These are the basic resources to the requirement for food, feed, fuel, and fiber of human beings. Soil supports plant life by providing a medium for their growth and development [1, 2]. It is a non-renewable natural resource and susceptible to rapid degradation through various forms of erosion processes. Worldwide, around 52% of total productive land has been degraded by various kinds of degradation processes and almost 80% of the terrestrial land is affected by water erosion [3, 4]. Further, annually ~10 million hectares (mha) of cropland becomes an unproductive at the global level due to soil erosion with an average rate of 30 t ha−1 year−1 soil erosion [5]. It has been estimated that water erosion results in a global flux of sediments of 28 Pg year−1 [6]. This, extensive degradation of finite soil resources can severely jeopardize global food security while deteriorating environmental quality. On the other hand, the future of living beings and agricultural production systems is at stake due to continuously depleting aquifers and increasing pressure on underground water under projected climate change scenarios [7]. Moreover, climate change will increase water demand globally by about 40% of the water needed for irrigation [8]. Hence, under the emerging scenario of acute water shortages and land degradation, we must focus our effort on the development and adoption of efficient approaches for soil and water conservation as well as for agricultural sustainability. Even the theme for “World soil day,” 2019 was “stop soil erosion, save our future” to raise awareness on the importance of sustaining healthy ecosystems and human well-being. Judicious use and management soil and water resources are more vital now than ever before to satisfy the needs of the ever-growing world population [9]. Conservation of soil and water has several agronomic, environmental, and economical benefits. Worldwide, around US$ 400 billion annual cost of on- and -off-site erosion has been estimated for replenishing lost nutrients, cleaning of water reservoirs and conveyances, and preventing erosion [10, 11].
\n
\n
\n
2. The extent of land degradation
\n
Globally, changes in land use and management practices accelerated soil erosion and have led to irrevocable land degradation, which is affecting 23.5% of the earth’s land area [12, 13]. Soil erosion is one of the serious problems which not only impair the quality of land and water resources but also harm agricultural production and the socio-economic condition of farmers. Soil erosion has degraded about 32% of total land area in the USA, 30.7% in China, 16% in Africa, 17% in Europe, and 45% in India through a wide range of degradation processes [14]. Among various land degradation processes, water erosion is a major problem affecting 68.4% of the total land area in India [15, 16]. In India, various organizations have estimated the extent of land degradation (Table 1). NBSS and LUP has been reported about 146.8 mha degraded land area in India [17].
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Agency
\n
Estimation year
\n
Degraded area (mha)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
National Commission on Agriculture
\n
1976
\n
148
\n
\n
\n
Ministry of Agriculture-Soil and Water Conservation Division
\n
1978
\n
175
\n
\n
\n
Department of Environment
\n
1980
\n
95
\n
\n
\n
National Wasteland Development Board
\n
1985
\n
123
\n
\n
\n
Society for Promotion of Wastelands Development
\n
1984
\n
130
\n
\n
\n
National Remote Sensing Agency
\n
1985
\n
53
\n
\n
\n
Ministry of Agriculture
\n
1985
\n
174
\n
\n
\n
Ministry of Agriculture
\n
1994
\n
107
\n
\n
\n
National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning (NBSS&LUP)
\n
1994
\n
188
\n
\n
\n
NBSS&LUP (Revised)
\n
2004
\n
147
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Extent of land degradation estimated by different agencies in India.
\n
A harmonization exercise was done involving various organizations, to work out the water erosion, wind erosion, physical, and chemical degradation in India [18]. The harmonized data on degraded and wastelands with all possible combination classes is given in Table 2.
Harmonized data of degraded and wastelands in India.
Area with <40% tree canopy cover.
pH < 5.5 and areas under paddy and plantation crops were also included in the total acid soils.
Sub-surface water logging is not considered.
\n
\n
\n
3. Soil Erosion and erosion causing agents
\n
Soil erosion is the removal of topsoil by the physical forces of erosion causing agents at a greater rate than the rate of its formation. Initially, erosion removes the nutrient-rich fertile top layer of soil which leads to the reduced production potential of soil. Soil erosion is classified into two categories, i.e., accelerated and geological erosion. Geological erosion is the natural phenomenon, occurs through the constant process of weathering and disintegration of rocks in which the rate of erosion remains lower than the soil formation rate. In contrast, in accelerated erosion, the rate of soil erosion exceeds a certain threshold level and becomes rapid. Anthropogenic activities such as slash-and-burn agriculture, overgrazing, deforestation, mining, and intensive and faulty agriculture practices are accountable for accelerated soil erosion [9]. This higher rate of soil erosion leads to the removal of organic matter and plant nutrients from the fertile topsoil and eventually lowering crop productivity. Hence, the conservation and management of natural resources are essential. Although the soil erosion cannot be eliminated, however it must be reduced to the level that can minimize its adverse impact on productivity and agricultural sustainability.
\n
Water and wind are two key agents that degrade soils through various kinds of erosion processes. Globally, around 1100 mha is affected by water erosion (56% of the total degraded land) and around 28% of the total degraded land area is affected by wind erosion [19]. Runoff removes the soil particles from sloping and bare lands while the wind blows away loose and detached soil particles from unprotected lands. Other processes of land degradation are soil compaction, waterlogging, acidification, alkalinization, and salinization depends on parent material, climatic conditions, and crop management practices. In this chapter, we will discuss about the soil erosion by water, different types, processes, factors, and management.
\n
\n
\n
4. Water erosion
\n
Worldwide, water erosion is the most severe type of soil erosion. In this form of erosion, detachment, and transportation of soil particles from their parental source take place by water through the action of rainfall, runoff, hailstorm, and irrigation. Water erosion is a prevailing form of erosion in humid and sub-humid agro-ecosystems. It also creates the problem in arid and semiarid regions, characterized by an intensive rainstorm and scanty vegetation cover. Water erosion comprises three basic phases, i.e., detachment, transportation, and deposition. Rainfall is one of the major factors which causes the movement and detachment of soil particles. The detached soil particles seal the open-ended and water-conducting soil pores, reduce water infiltration, and cause runoff. The first two phases determine the quantity of soil to be eroded and the third phase determines the distribution of the eroded material along the landscape. If there is no dispersion and transport of soil particles, there will be no deposition. Hence, detachment and transport of soil particles are the primary processes of soil erosion. Understanding the mechanisms and extent of water erosion is crucial to manage and develop erosion control practices. Splash, sheet, rill and gully erosion are main forms of soil erosion by water (Figure 1). The other forms of water erosion are ravine formation, slip, tunnel, stream bank, and coastal erosion [20, 21]. The different forms of water erosion are described below:
\n
Figure 1.
Four basic forms of soil erosion by water.
\n
\n
4.1 Splash erosion
\n
Splash erosion is the first form of soil erosion by water. Falling raindrops on the soil surface break the soil aggregates and disperse and splash soil particles from their source, known as splash erosion. The process of splash erosion involves raindrop impact on soil particles, a splash of soil particles, and the formation of craters [22]. The raindrops falling on soil surface act like a small bomb which disintegrates soil particles and forms cavities of contrasting shapes and sizes. The depth of craters is equal to the depth of raindrop penetration which is a function of raindrop velocity, size, and shape. In this form, soil particles can move only a few centimeters away from their source.
\n
\n
\n
4.2 Sheet erosion
\n
This is the next phase to splash erosion, which promptly initiates sheet erosion. The fertile topsoil surface is removed uniformly as a thin layer from the entire sloping surface area of the field by runoff water. Sheet erosion is a function of particle detachment, rainfall intensity, and land slope. The shallow flow of runoff water causes this type of soil erosion in which small rills are formed. This is the most common and severe form of soil erosion from an agricultural point of view as it removes the nutrient-rich top layer of soil. Out of total soil erosion, nearly 70% is caused by splash and sheet erosion only.
\n
\n
\n
4.3 Rill erosion
\n
It describes the flow of runoff water loaded with soil particles and organic matter in finger-like small channels, known as rill erosion. This is the advanced form of sheet erosion for soil loss. Water flow in small channels erodes soil at a faster rate than sheet erosion. Rill erosion is the second most common form of water erosion. These rills can be easily managed by tillage operations but can cause higher soil loss during intensive rainfall. The key factors that cause rill erosion are soil erodibility, land slope, runoff transport capacity, and hydraulic shear of water flow.
\n
\n
\n
4.4 Gully erosion
\n
Gully erosion is the advanced form of rill erosion. When the volume and velocity of concentrated runoff water increase, the rills become deep and broad and forms gullies. The gullies are linear incision channels with 0.3 m width and 0.3 m depth. Concentrated runoff flow is a primary factor for gully formation. Continuous gully erosion results in the removal of the entire soil profile. The extreme form of gully erosion may results in failure of crops, expose plant roots, reduce the groundwater level, and adversely affects landscape stability. It can cut apart the fields and aggravate the non-point source pollution (e.g., sediment, chemicals) to nearby water bodies. Gullies cannot be corrected by usual tillage operations. The dominant factors affecting gully erosion are shear stress of flowing water and critical shear stress of the soil. The further erosion of gullies results in ravines formation. Based on the size, depth, and drainage area, gullies can be classified as:
U-shaped gullies: These types of gullies are usually formed in alluvial soils where the characteristics of both the surface and subsurface soils are similar.
V-shaped gullies: This is the most common shape of gully erosion which occurs in the areas where the subsurface of soil is more resistant than the topsoil surface.
\n\n
\n
\n
4.5 Ravine formation
\n
It is referred to as a network of deep and narrow gullies that flows parallel to each other while linking with the river system. Mismanagement and non-judicious use of land result in enlargement of rills and gullies and eventually lead to ravine formation. Abrupt changes in elevation of the river bed and the adjoining land surface, deep and permeable soil with high erodibility, sparse vegetation, and backflow of river water during the recession period causes severe bank erosion which consequently results in ravine formation.
\n
\n
\n
4.6 Tunnel erosion
\n
It is the sub-soil erosion through runoff flow in channels while surface soil remains intact. Tunnel erosion is also known as pipe erosion and commonly occurs in arid and semiarid regions where the soil permeability for water varied with the soil profile. The further widening and deepening of tunnels form large gullies which degrade the productive agricultural lands. Soil with erodible characteristics, having sodic B horizon and stable A horizon are highly prone to tunnel erosion. Runoff flow through natural cracks and animal burrows initiates tunnel formation by infiltrating thorough dispersible subsoil layers. Seepage, lateral flow, and interflow are key indicators of tunnel erosion. It alters the geomorphic and hydrologic characteristics of the affected areas. Management practices for tunnel erosion are ripping, contour farming, vegetation including trees and deep-rooted grasses with proper fertilization and liming, consolidation of surface soil, and diversion of concentrated runoff.
\n
\n
\n
4.7 Slip erosion or landslip erosion
\n
It is the downward and outward movement of slope forming materials composed of natural rocks and debris from sloppy lands. It is also known as mudslide or mass erosion. This type of erosion mostly occurs in hilly regions having water-saturated soils slips down the hillside or mountain slope. Banks along highways, streams, and ocean fronts are often subject to landslides. The large masses of land slip down which destroy the vegetation and degrade the productivity of lands. The slope can be stabilized through developments of diversion drains, contour trenches, crib structures, geotextiles, kutta—crate structures, and retaining walls.
\n
\n
\n
4.8 Stream bank erosion
\n
The scouring of soil material from the stream bed and cutting of stream bank by the action of flowing water is known as stream bank erosion. Streams and rivers change their direction of flow by cutting the bed from one side and depositing the sediment to the other side of the stream. Flash floods enhanced the stream bank erosion which is more destructive. Stream and gully erosion are relatively comparable. Primarily, stream bank erosion predominantly occurs at the lower end water tributaries which have a relatively flat slope and continuous flow of water.
\n
\n
\n
4.9 Coastal erosion
\n
Sea level is incessantly rising due which can increase the frequency of occurrence of natural disasters like the tsunami in the coastal areas in the future. Such natural hazards produce strong water waves which can severely erode the seaside areas. It is projected that the erosion rate will be higher in coastal regions in the coming years. The anthropogenic activities leading to coastal erosion are port construction, destruction of mangroves, and beach and river bed mining [23].
\n
\n
\n
4.10 Universal soil loss equation for water erosion
\n
The universal soil loss equation (USLE) was given by Wischmeier and Smith (1978) based on the soil erosion causing factors [24].
\n
\n\nA\n=\nRKL\n\nSCP\n\nE1
\n
where A, mean annual soil loss (metric tons hectare−1 year−1);
\n
\nR, rainfall erosivity factor;
\n
\nK, soil erodibility factor
\n
\nL, slope-length factor
\n
\nS, slope-steepness factor;
\n
\nC, cover and management factor;
\n
\nP, support practice factor.
\n
Among the above-listed factors, vegetation and to some extent soil can be managed to reduce the rate of the soil erosion but the climatic and topographic factors, except slope length, are not manageable. Primarily, soil loss through erosion is a function of erosivity of raindrops and erodibility of the soil which can be mathematically expressed as follows:
where Erosivity is the potential of rainfall to cause erosion under given soil type and climatic condition; Erodibility is the vulnerability or susceptibility of the soil to erosion which depends on soil bio-physico-chemical properties, and land use and crop management practice. Sandy soils can be easily detached while well aggregated clayey soils are more resistant to erosion than sandy soils. When clay particles detached they can be easily removed by runoff due to their smaller size. Silt soils are the most erodible type of soil [9].
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Impact of soil erosion on agriculture
\n
The accelerated soil erosion significantly influences the soil quality, agricultural production and nutritional quality [25]. Higher soil erosion results in the removal of fertile topsoil along with nutrients which leads to reduced agronomic yield, land degradation, and terrain deformation [25, 26, 27]. The main causal factors affecting the rate of soil erosion are parent material, soil texture, slope steepness, plant cover, tillage, and climate [13]. According to an estimate of existing soil loss data, the mean annual rate of soil erosion in our country is approximately 16.4 ton ha−1 which results in annual total soil loss of 5334 million tons (m t) and nutrient loss of 8.4 m t throughout the country [17]. However, the mean annual permissible limit of soil loss is 12.0 tons ha−1. Out of total eroded soil around 29% is permanently lost to the sea, while 61% is transported by runoff from one place to another and the remaining 10% is directly deposited in reservoirs [21]. Higher nutrient concentration has been recorded in soil samples collected from runoff loads over the soil of agricultural fields [28]. Further, around 45.9 kg C ha−1 and 4.3 kg N ha−1 were recorded in eroded soil during the month of July [29].
\n
The soil organic matter (SOM) is vital for improving soil bio-physico-chemical properties and contains nearly 95% of N and 25–50% of phosphorus [30]. Higher rate of erosion results in loss of soil and fine organic particles. The soil removed by erosion has 1.5–5 times higher SOM than the soil left behind [31]. The availability of SOM also affects the biological activities and soil biodiversity in a particular agro-ecosystem. Moreover, the intensive and erratic rainfall results in higher soil erosion which leads to reduced infiltration and eventually less water availability to the vegetation. Sharda et al. studied the impact of the harshness of water erosion on agricultural productivity and advocated that water erosion reduced the annual crop production by 13.4 Mt in 2008–2009 at the national level [32]. Thus, the soil loss by water and wind severely affects the productive efficiency of all ecosystems [17, 33, 34]. The comprehensive impacts of erosion on soil and water resources which are liable to reduce agricultural productivity are given in Figure 2 [21].
\n
Figure 2.
Impact of erosion on soil and water resources.
\n
The vegetation cover is imperative for moderating surface runoff and water erosion from agricultural lands [35]. The rate of runoff, soil, and nutrient loss is predominantly determined by the type of vegetation, canopy cover, slope gradient, and rainfall characteristics [36]. The higher canopy cover and crop residues mulching on soil surface results in the reduced rate of surface runoff and also reduces the impact of rainfall erosivity and soil erodibility [13, 35, 37]. Vegetation cover reduces the detachment of soil particles along with the protection of soil surface from intensive rainfall. Moreover, it also conserves soil moisture and retains sediment and organic materials [38]. To sustain agricultural productivity, it is imperative to reduce runoff, soil loss, and nutrient loss through water erosion [13].
\n
\n
\n
6. Soil and water conservation measures
\n
There are two types of measures for soil and water conservation, that is, mechanical/engineering/structural measures and biological measures. Mechanical measures are permanent and semi-permanent structures that involve terracing, bunding, trenching, check dams, gabion structures, loose/stone boulders, crib wall, etc., while biological measures are vegetative measures which involve forestry, agroforestry, horticulture and agricultural/agronomic practices [21].
\n
\n
6.1 Biological measures (agronomic/agricultural and agroforestry)
\n
Agronomic measures are applicable in the landscape of ≤2% slope. Agronomic measures reduce the impact of raindrops through the covering of soil surface and increasing infiltration rate and water absorption capacity of the soil which results in reduced runoff and soil loss through erosion [39]. These measures are cheaper, sustainable, and may be more effective than structural measures, sometimes [4]. Important agronomic measures are described below.
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6.1.1 Contour farming
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Contour farming is one of the most commonly used agronomic measures for soil and water conservation in hilly agro-ecosystems and sloppy lands. All the agricultural operations viz. plowing, sowing, inter-culture, etc., are practiced along the contour line. The ridges and furrows formed across the slope build a continual series of small barriers to the flowing water which reduces the velocity of runoff and thus reduces soil erosion and nutrient loss [40, 41]. It conserves soil moisture in low rainfall areas due to increased infiltration rate and time of concentration, while in high rainfall areas, it reduces the soil loss. In both situations, it reduces soil erosion, conserves soil fertility and moisture, and thus improves overall crop productivity. However, the effectiveness of this practice depends upon rainfall intensity, soil type, and topography of a particular locality.
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6.1.2 Choice of crops
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The selection of the right crop is crucial for soil and water conservation. The crop should be selected according to the intensity and critical period of rainfall, market demand, climate, and resources of the farmer. The crop with good biomass, canopy cover, and extensive root system protects the soil from the erosive impact of rainfall and create an obstruction to runoff, and thereby reduce soil and nutrient loss. Row or tall-growing crops such as sorghum, maize, pearl millet, etc. are erosion permitting crops which expose the soil and induce the erosion process. Whereas close growing or erosion resisting crops with dense canopy cover and vigorous root system viz. cowpea, green gram, black gram, groundnut, etc. are the most suitable crops for reducing soil erosion [42]. To increase the crop canopy density, the seed rate should be always on the higher side.
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6.1.3 Crop rotation
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Crop rotation is the practice of growing different types of crops in succession on the same field to get maximum profit from the least investment without impairing the soil fertility. Monocropping results in exhaustion of soil nutrients and deplete soil fertility. The inclusion of legume crops in crop rotation reduces soil erosion, restores soil fertility, and conserves soil and water [43]. Further, the incorporation of crop residue improves organic matter content, soil health, and reduces water pollution. A suitable rotation with high canopy cover crops helps in sustaining soil fertility; suppresses weed growth, decreases pests and disease infestation, increases input use efficiency, and system productivity while reducing the soil erosion [42].
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6.1.4 Cover crops
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The close-growing crops having high canopy density are grown for protection of soil against erosion, known as cover crops. Legume crops have good biomass to protect soil than the row crops. The effectiveness of cover crops depends on crop geometry and development of canopy for interception of raindrops which helps in reducing the exposure of soil surface for erosion. It has been reported that legumes provide better cover and better protection to land against runoff and soil loss as compared to cultivated fallow and sorghum. The most effective cover crops are cowpea, green gram, black gram, groundnut, etc.
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Advantages
Protection of soil from the erosive impact of raindrops, runoff, and wind.
Act as an obstacle in water flow, reduce flow velocity, and thereby reduce runoff and soil loss.
Increase soil organic matter by residue incorporation and deep root system.
Improve nutrients availability to the component crop and succeeding crops through biological nitrogen fixation.
Improve water quality and water holding capacity of the soil.
Improve soil properties, suppress weed growth, and increase crop productivity.
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6.1.5 Intercropping
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Cultivation of two or more crops simultaneously in the same field with definite or alternate row pattern is known as intercropping. It may be classified as row, strip, and relay intercropping as per the crops, soil type, topography, and climatic conditions. Intercropping involves both time-based and spatial dimensions. Erosion permitting and resisting crops should be intercropped with each other. The crops should have different rooting patterns. Intercropping provides better coverage on the soil surface, reduces the direct impact of raindrops, and protects soil from erosion [36, 43].
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Advantages
High total biomass production.
Efficient utilization of soil and water resources.
Reduction of marketing risks due to the production of a variety of products at different periods.
Drought conditions can be mitigated through intercropping.
Reduce the weed population and epidemic attack of insect pests or diseases.
It improves soil fertility.
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6.1.6 Strip cropping
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Growing alternate strips of erosion permitting and erosion resistant crops with a deep root system and high canopy density in the same field is known as strip cropping. This practice reduces the runoff velocity and checks erosion processes and nutrients loss from the field [36, 44]. The erosion resisting crops protects soil from beating action of raindrops, reduces runoff velocity, and thereby increased time of concentration which results in a higher volume of soil moisture and increased crop production [4]. Strip cropping is practiced for controlling the run-off and erosion and thereby maintaining soil fertility.
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Types of strip cropping
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Contour strip cropping: The growing of alternate strips of erosion permitting and erosion resisting crops across the slopes on the contour is known as contour strip cropping. It reduces the direct beating action of raindrops on the soil surface, length of the slope, runoff flow and increases rainwater absorption into the soil profile.
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ii. Field strip cropping: In this practice the field crops are grown in more or less parallel strips across fairly uniform slopes, but not on exact contours. It is useful on regular slopes and with soils of high infiltration rates, where contour strip cropping may not be practical.
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iii. Wind strip cropping: It consists of the planting of tall-growing row crops (such as maize, pearl millet, and sorghum) and close or short growing crops in alternately arranged straight and long, but relatively narrow, parallel strips laid out right across the direction of the prevailing wind, regardless of the contour.
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iv. Permanent or temporary buffer strip cropping: It is the growing of permanent strips of grasses or legume or a mixture of grass and legume in highly eroded areas or in areas that do not fit into regular rotation, i.e. steep or highly eroded, slopes in fields under contour strip cropping. These strips are not practiced in normal strip cropping and generally planted permanent or temporary basis.
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6.1.7 Mulching
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Mulch is any organic or non-organic material that is used to cover the soil surface to protect the soil from being eroded away, reduce evaporation, increase infiltration, regulate soil temperature, improve soil structure, and thereby conserve soil moisture [45, 46, 47]. Mulching prevents the formation of hard crust after each rain. The use of blade harrows between rows or inter-culture operations creates “dust mulch” on the soil surface by breaking the continuity of capillary tubes of soil moisture and reduces evaporation losses. Mulching also reduces the weed infestation along with the benefits of moisture conservation and soil fertility improvement. Hence, it can be used in high rainfall regions for decreasing soil and water loss, and in low rainfall regions for soil moisture conservation. Organic mulches improve organic matter and consecutively improving the water holding capacity, macro and micro fauna biodiversity, their activity, and fertility of the soil [48, 49].
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Inorganic mulches have a longer life span than organic mulches and can reduce soil erosion, water evaporation losses, suppress weeds but cannot improve soil health. This practice is costly and labor intensive therefore, suitable for cash crops such as fruits and vegetables. Polyethylene mulch is commonly used for the conservation of soil and water resources to increase crop productivity [21].
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6.1.8 Conservation tillage
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In this practice at least 30% of soil surface should remain covered with crop residue before and after planting the next crop to reduce soil erosion and runoff, as well as other benefits such as C sequestration. This term includes reduced tillage, minimum tillage, no-till, direct drill, mulch tillage, stubble-mulch farming, trash farming, strip tillage, etc. The concept of conservation tillage is widely accepted in large scale mechanized crop production systems to reduce the erosive impact of raindrops and to conserve the soil moisture with the maintenance of soil organic carbon. Conservation tillage improves the infiltration rate and reduces runoff and evaporation losses [4]. It also improves soil health, organic matter, soil structure, productivity, soil fertility, and nutrient cycling and reduces soil compaction [50].
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6.1.9 Organic farming
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Organic farming is an agricultural production system that devoid the use of synthetic fertilizers or pesticides and includes organic sources for plant nutrient supply viz. FYM, compost, vermicompost, green manure, residue mulching, crop rotation, etc. to maintain a healthy and diverse ecosystem for improving soil properties and ensuring a sustained crop production. It is an environmentally friendly agricultural crop production system.
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The maintenance of high organic matter content and continuous soil surface cover with cover crops, green manure, and residue mulch reduce the soil erosion in organic farming. It leads to the addition of a large quantity of organic manures which enhances water infiltration through improved bio-physico-chemical properties of soil, and eventually reduces soil erodibility [51]. Organic materials improve soil structure through the development of soil binding agents (e.g., polysaccharides) and stabilizing and strengthening aggregates which reduce the disintegration of soil particles and thus reduced soil erosion. Soil erosion rates from soils under organic farming can be 30–140% lower than those from conventional farming [9].
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6.1.10 Land configuration techniques
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Adoption of appropriate land configuration and planting techniques according to crops, cropping systems, soil type, topography, rainfall, etc. help in better crop establishment, intercultural operations, reduce runoff, soil and nutrient loss, conserve water, efficient utilization of resources and result in higher productivity and profitability. Ridge and furrow, raised bed and furrow, broad bed and furrow, and ridging the land between the rows are important land configuration techniques.
Ridge and furrow system: Raising rainy season crops on ridges and rabi season crops in furrows reduces the soil crusting and ensures good crop stand over sowing on flat beds. Moreover, inter-row rainwater can be drain out properly during the monsoon period and collected in farm ponds, for life-saving irrigations and profile recharging for the establishment of rabi crops. It leads to the increased moisture content in soil profile which reduces moisture stress on plants during the drought period. This method is most suitable for wide-spaced crops viz. cotton, maize, vegetables, etc.
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ii. Broad bed and furrow system: This system has been developed by the ICRISAT in India. It is primarily advocated for high rainfall areas (>750 mm) having black cotton soils (Vertisols). Beds of 90–120 cm width are formed, separated by sunken furrows of about 50–60 cm wide and 15 cm depth. The preferred slope along the furrow is between 0.4 and 0.8% on Vertisols. Two to four rows of the crop can be grown on the bed, and the width and crop geometry can be adjusted to suit the cultivation and planting equipment.
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Advantages
Increase in-situ soil moisture conservation
Safely dispose of excess runoff without causing erosion
Improved soil aeration for plant growth and development
Easier for weeding and mechanical harvesting
It can accommodate a wide range of crop geometry.
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6.1.11 Agroforestry measures
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Agroforestry is a sustainable land management system which includes the cultivation of trees or shrubs with agricultural crops and livestock production simultaneously on the same piece of land [52, 53]. It is an emerging technology for effective soil and water conservation and comprises a wide range of practices for controlling soil erosion, developing sustainable agricultural production systems, mitigating environmental pollution, and increasing farm economy. The leaf litter addition act as a protective layer against soil erosion improves soil health and moisture retention capacity of the soil and increases crop productivity [54, 55, 56]. It has been reported that different agroforestry practices can reduce up to 10% of soil erosion [57]. Agroforestry not only controls soil erosion but also produce tree-based several marketable products.
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Types of agroforestry systems
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Agri-Silviculture: It is the growing of agricultural crops as a primary component with the secondary component of multipurpose trees (MPTs) on the same managed land unit. The tree species bind soil particles in the root zone and increase water infiltration, and reduce runoff.
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Agri-Horticulture: Growing of agricultural crops and fruit trees on the same managed land unit is known as agri-horticulture. Fruit tree species like lemon (Citrus limon), mango (Mangifera indica), ber (Ziziphus mauritiana), and aonla (Phyllanthus emblica) can be successfully planted in agricultural fields and on degraded and low fertile lands with some restoration measures.
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Alley Cropping: Growing of agricultural crops in the alley formed between the hedge rows of leguminous nitrogen-fixing tree species. This system is one of the effective measures for soil and water conservation in hilly areas.
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Silvi-pasture System: Raising grasses or livestock with MPTs on the same managed land unit is known as silvi-pasture system. This system has the potential to reclaim eroded and degraded lands. Mechanical measures combined with grass species cultivation are more effective for controlling soil erosion processes [58]. The grass species such as Cenchrus ciliaris (buffel grass), Cenchrus setigerus (birdwood grass), Dichanthium annulatum (marvel grass), Panicum antidotale (blue panicgrass), Panicum maximum (Guinea grass), Brachiaria mutica (para grass) and Pennisetum purpureum (elephant grass) are important in ravine restoration [59].
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6.2 Mechanical measures
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Mechanical measures or engineering structures are designed to modify the land slope, to convey runoff water safely to the waterways, to reduce sedimentation and runoff velocity, and to improve water quality. These measures are either used alone or integrated with biological measures to improve the performance and sustainability of the control measures. In highly eroded and sloppy landscape biological measures should be supplemented by mechanical structures. A number of permanent and temporary mechanical measures are available such as terraces, contour bunding, check dams, gabions, diversion drains, geo-textiles, etc. [43]. The mechanical measures are preferred based on the severity of erosion, soil type, topography, and climate [4].
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6.2.1 Bunding
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Contour bunding: Contour bunding is used to conserve soil moisture and reduce erosion in the areas having 2–6% slope and mean annual precipitation of <600 mm with permeable soils [60]. The vertical interval between two bunds is known as the spacing of bunds. The spacing of bund is dependent on the erosive velocity of runoff, length of the slope, slope steepness, rainfall intensity, type of crops, and conservation practices.
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ii. Graded bunding: Graded bunds are made to draining out of excess runoff water safely in areas having 6–10% land slope and receiving rainfall of >750 mm with the soils having infiltration rate < 8 mm/h.
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iii. Peripheral bunds: Peripheral bunds are constructed around the gully head to check the entry of runoff into the gully. It protects the gully head from being eroded away through erosion processes. It creates a favorable condition for the execution of vegetative measures on gully heads, slopes, and beds.
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6.2.2 Contour trenching
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Trenches are constructed at the contour line to reduce the runoff velocity for soil moisture conservation in the areas having <30% slope. Bunds are formed on the downstream side of trenches for the conservation of rainwater. Trenches are of two types:
Continuous contour trenches: Continuous contour trenches are constructed based on the size of the field in the low rainfall areas with the 10–20 cm trench length and 20–25 cm equalizer width without any discontinuity in trench length (10–20 m).
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ii. Staggered contour trenches (STCs) Generally, these trenches are constructed in alternate rows directly beneath one another in a staggered manner in the high rainfall areas, where the risk of overflow is prominent. SCTs are 2–3 m long with 3–5 m spacing between the rows. Planting of tree species is done based on the land slope. It is highly effective in forestalling extension of gully head, soil loss, and arrest the overflow.
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6.2.3 Terracing
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Terraces are earthen embankments built across the dominant slope partitioning the field in uniform and parallel segments [9]. Generally, these structures are combined with channels to convey runoff into the main outlet at reduced velocities. It reduces the degree and length of slope and thus reduced runoff velocity, soil erosion and improves water infiltration [5]. It is recommended for the lands having a slope of up to 33%, but can be adopted for lands having up to 50–60% slope, based on socio-economic conditions of a particular region. Where plenty of good-quality stones are available, stone bench terracing is recommended. Sometimes, semi-circular type terraces are built at the downstream side of the plants, known as half-moon terraces. Based on the slope of benches, the bench terraces are classified into the following categories:
Bench terraces sloping outward: These types of terraces are used in low rainfall areas having permeable soils. A shoulder bund is provided for stability of the edge of the terrace and thus has more time for rainwater soaking into the soil.
Bench terraces sloping inward (hill-type terraces): These types of bench terraces are suitable for heavy rainfall areas where a higher portion of rainfall is to be drained as runoff. For this, a suitable drain should be provided at the inward end of each terrace to drain the runoff. These are also known as hill-type terraces.
Bench terraces with level top: These types of terraces are suitable for uniformly distributed medium rainfall areas having deep and highly permeable soils. These are also known as irrigated bench terraces because of their use in irrigated areas.
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6.2.4 Contour wattling
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Wattling is a technique of dividing the length of the slope into shorter sections and in these sections, the wattles are constructed at a vertical interval of 5–7 m up to 33% slope and 3 m up to 66% slope. It is not effective on slopes steeper than 66% and on very loose or powdery rocks [61].
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6.2.5 Crib structures
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Crib structures are used to stabilize the steep slopes of >40% by constructing log wood structures filled with stone/brushwood. Eucalyptus poles with 2–3 m length and 8–12 cm diameter can be used for the construction of crib structures. These poles are joined together with the help of 20–25 cm long nails. The height of the structure is kept 1.5–2 m above the ground depending upon the land slope [62].
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6.2.6 Geo-textiles
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Geo-textiles are made up of natural fibers of jute or coir, which are used for stabilization of degraded slopes in mine spoil and landslides areas along roadsides. It facilitates the initial establishment of vegetation on highly degraded sloping lands by holding the vegetation in place and conserving moisture. The open mesh size of geo-textiles varies from 3 to 25 mm. The biodegradability of geo-textiles was reported for 2–3 years. It can absorb 12–25% water under 65 and 95% humidity, respectively and when fully soaked in water it can absorb 40% moisture [63].
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6.2.7 Loose boulder/stone/masonry check dams
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Check dams are effective for preventing runoff rate and severe erosion in steep and broad gullies, and most suitable for high elevation areas of the catchment [62]. These structures are cheap, having a long life, and fewer maintenance requirements. The depth of gully bed is kept about o.3 m and flat stones of 20–30 cm size are used for the construction of dams. A spillway is provided in the middle of the dam to allow the safe discharge of runoff water [21, 60]. Similarly, gabion check dams are also used for drainage line treatment in sharp slanted gullied areas to check sedimentation, erosion, and to conserve soil moisture [62].
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6.2.8 Brushwood check dams
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Branches of tree and shrub species are staked in two rows parallel to each other filled with brushwood and laid across the gully or way of the flow. These are usually built to regulate the overflow in small and medium gullies which are supplemented with vegetative barriers for long term effectiveness. There is enough soil volume to establish the vegetation. The tree species are planted in 0.3 m × 0.2 m trenches across the way of gullies. It reduces the runoff velocity, soil loss, and improves soil moisture which helps in the successful establishment of vegetative barriers.
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6.2.9 Diversion drains
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The channels are constructed to protect the downstream area and for safe draining and diverting of runoff water. It is applicable in high rainfall areas to control runoff losses during the initial stage. The gradient of diversion drain should preferably be kept within 0.5%. Generally, a narrow and deep drain does not get silted up as rapidly as a broad and shallow drain of the same cross-sectional area. Soil dug from the drain should be dumped on the lower side of the drain. Outlet end should be opened at natural drainage lines.
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6.2.10 Conservation bench terrace
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In the conservation bench terrace (CBT) system, the land is divided into 2:1 ratio along the slope in which the upper 2/3 area (Donor area) contributes runoff to the lower 1/3 runoff collecting area (recipient area). The donor area is left in its natural slope condition. It is also known as the zingg terrace and developed by Zingg and Hauser in 1959. The runoff contributing area is used for cultivation of kharif while the lower 1/3 area with conserved soil moisture is used to cultivate rabi crops. This mechanical measure can be successfully applied in a semi-arid climate on mild sloppy lands (2–5%) for erosion control, water conservation, and improvement of crop productivity. This system can be used in silty loam to silty clay loam soils. CBT system resulted in the reduction of runoff from 36.3 to 7.4% and soil loss from 10.1 to 1.19 Mg ha−1 as compared to the conventional system of sloping border [64]. An average reduction of 78.9 and 88.0% in runoff and soil loss, respectively reported in the CBT system over the conventional system [65].
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7. Conclusion
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The land is finite and diminishing gradually due to the increasing rate of varied kinds of degradation and thus there is no alternative to expend cultivable land area. The only way is either increasing agricultural productivity per unit resource available or restoring the degraded lands. Healthy soil and availability of water are vital for productivity in all kinds of terrestrial ecosystems because plants require fertile soil with improved bio-physico-chemical properties and good quality of water for their growth and development. Use of soil and water conservation measures including biological (agroforestry and agricultural) and mechanical measures (terracing, bunding, trenching, check dams, etc.) is imperative to reduce runoff, soil erosion and to improve soil quality, water quality, moisture conservation, and overall crop productivity in a sustainable way. Biological measures are economically feasible and environmental friendly; also improve soil properties along with the conservation of soil and water resources. Further, the combined use of biological and mechanical measures will help in improving and sustaining agricultural productivity.
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8. Future perspectives for soil and water conservation
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The burgeoning world population, food insecurity and natural resource degradation are the major issues in the present era of climate change. It has been projected that the world population will be ~10 billion in 2050 [66]. Further, the rapid industrial growth and intensive farming practices are expected to increase the pressure on land and water resources in near future. Therefore, a paradigm shift in soil and water conservation, and its management is needed for agricultural sustainability. The some of the future concern for soil and water conservation and sustainable agriculture are the following:
Formulation of new policies and development of new technologies based on social, economical and cultural aspect of a particular regional.
Implementation and adoption of effective conservation measures for sustaining agricultural productivity.
Existing soil and water conservation practices should be improved and developed based on the level of natural resources degradation.
Greater emphasis should be given on participatory approach for effective soil and water conservation.
Post impact assessment and monitoring of soil and water conservation measures should be done to evaluate their efficacy in increasing productivity, monetary returns, and livelihood of the stakeholders.
Development of cost effective conservation practices to restore the degraded lands and to sustain agricultural productivity.
The efficient technologies for soil and water conservation should be demonstrated on farmers’ fields with their active participation.
Emphasis on research, education and extension of soil and water conservation effective technologies to the stakeholders.
Adoption of efficient management practices and judicious use of soil and water resources.
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Abbreviations
C
carbon
CAZRI
Central Arid Zone Research Institute
CSSRI
Central Soil Salinity Research Institute
ICAR
Indian Council of Agricultural Research
ICRISAT
International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-arid Tropics
IISWC
Indian Institute of Soil and Water Conservation
N
nitrogen
NBSS&LUP
National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning
NRSA
National Remote Sensing Agency
\n',keywords:"agricultural sustainability, conservation measures, erosion, natural resources, soil, water",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72642.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72642.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72642",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72642",totalDownloads:2101,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:3,impactScorePercentile:85,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"March 20th 2020",dateReviewed:"May 20th 2020",datePrePublished:"June 27th 2020",datePublished:"March 24th 2021",dateFinished:"June 27th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Limited natural resources are available on the planet under immense pressure due to the ever-increasing population and changing climate. Soil and water are fundamental natural resources for the agricultural production system. Anthropogenic and adverse natural activities are the major factors for the deterioration of natural resources. Among the various degradation processes, soil erosion is one of the serious threats for the deterioration of soil and water resources. In India, about 68.4% of the total land area has been degraded by the water erosion process. Intensive agricultural practices accelerate the soil erosion process. Similarly, increased exploitation of groundwater resulted in depletion of groundwater level. Hence, the holistic management of soil and water resources is indispensable for agricultural sustainability as well as for the protection of the natural ecosystem. Development and adoption of improved technologies, judicious use of natural resources, and effective management practices are the need of the hour for protection of soil and water from degradation. This chapter highlights the status of natural resource degradation, erosion processes and, soil and water conservation strategies for agricultural sustainability and soil health in the long run.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72642",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72642",book:{id:"8937",slug:"soil-moisture-importance"},signatures:"Anita Kumawat, Devideen Yadav, Kala Samadharmam and Ittyamkandath Rashmi",authors:[{id:"288761",title:"Mrs.",name:"Anita",middleName:null,surname:"Kumawat",fullName:"Anita Kumawat",slug:"anita-kumawat",email:"akumawat333@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Soil and Water Conservation",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"320349",title:"Dr.",name:"Devideen",middleName:null,surname:"Yadav",fullName:"Devideen Yadav",slug:"devideen-yadav",email:"ydeviari@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Soil and Water Conservation",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The extent of land degradation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Soil Erosion and erosion causing agents",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Water erosion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Splash erosion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2 Sheet erosion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3 Rill erosion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.4 Gully erosion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.5 Ravine formation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.6 Tunnel erosion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.7 Slip erosion or landslip erosion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.8 Stream bank erosion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.9 Coastal erosion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.10 Universal soil loss equation for water erosion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"5. Impact of soil erosion on agriculture",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"6. Soil and water conservation measures",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"6.1 Biological measures (agronomic/agricultural and agroforestry)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"6.1.1 Contour farming",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"6.1.2 Choice of crops",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"6.1.3 Crop rotation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"6.1.4 Cover crops",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"6.1.5 Intercropping",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"6.1.6 Strip cropping",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22_3",title:"6.1.7 Mulching",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23_3",title:"6.1.8 Conservation tillage",level:"3"},{id:"sec_24_3",title:"6.1.9 Organic farming",level:"3"},{id:"sec_25_3",title:"6.1.10 Land configuration techniques",level:"3"},{id:"sec_26_3",title:"6.1.11 Agroforestry measures",level:"3"},{id:"sec_28_2",title:"6.2 Mechanical measures",level:"2"},{id:"sec_28_3",title:"6.2.1 Bunding",level:"3"},{id:"sec_29_3",title:"6.2.2 Contour trenching",level:"3"},{id:"sec_30_3",title:"6.2.3 Terracing",level:"3"},{id:"sec_31_3",title:"6.2.4 Contour wattling",level:"3"},{id:"sec_32_3",title:"6.2.5 Crib structures",level:"3"},{id:"sec_33_3",title:"6.2.6 Geo-textiles",level:"3"},{id:"sec_34_3",title:"6.2.7 Loose boulder/stone/masonry check dams",level:"3"},{id:"sec_35_3",title:"6.2.8 Brushwood check dams",level:"3"},{id:"sec_36_3",title:"6.2.9 Diversion drains",level:"3"},{id:"sec_37_3",title:"6.2.10 Conservation bench terrace",level:"3"},{id:"sec_40",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_41",title:"8. Future perspectives for soil and water conservation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_44",title:"Abbreviations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nEswaran H, Lal R, Reich PF. Land degradation: An overview. In: Bridges EM, Hannam ID, Oldeman LR, et al., editors. Responses to Land Degradation. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Land Degradation and Desertification, Khon Kaen, Thailand. New Delhi: Oxford Press; 2001\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nManivannan S, Thilagam VK, Khola OP. Soil and water conservation in India: Strategies and research challenges. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. 2017;16(4):312-319\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nUNCCD. Integration of the sustainable development goals and targets into the implementation of the United Nations convention to combat desertification and the intergovernmental working group report on land degradation neutrality. Decision 3/ COP.12. 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Climate change impacts on irrigation water requirements: Effects of mitigation, 1990-2080. Technological Forcasting & Social Change. 2007;74:1083-1107\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nBlanco H, Lal R. Principles of Soil Conservation and Management. Dordrecht: Springer; 2008. pp. 167-169\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nUri ND. Agriculture and the environment—the problem of soil erosion. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture. 2000;16:71-94\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nPimentel D, Harvey C, Resosudarmo P. Environmental and economic costs of soil erosion and conservation benefits. Science. 1995;267:1117-1123\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nLal R. Managing soils and ecosystems for mitigating anthropogenic carbon emissions and advancing global food security. Bioscience. 2010;60:59-82\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nGuo M, Zhang T, Li Z, Xu G. Investigation of runoff and sediment yields under different crop and tillage conditions by field artificial rainfall experiments. 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Current World Environment: An International Research Journal of Environmental Sciences. 2015;10(2):593-601\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nLiu J, Gao G, Wang S, Jiao L, Wu X, Fu B. The effects of vegetation on runoff and soil loss: Multidimensional structure analysis and scale characteristics. Journal of Geographical Sciences. 2018;28(1):59-78\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nSingh AK, Kumar AK, Katiyar VS, Singh KD, Singh US. Soil and water conservation measures in semi-arid regions of South-Eastern Rajasthan. Indian Journal of Soil Conservation. 1997;25(3):186-189\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nSamra JS, Sharma UC. Soil erosion and conservation. In: Sekhon GS, Chhonkar PK, Das DK, Goswami NN, Narayanasamy G, Poonia SR, Rattan RK, Sehgal JK, editors. Fundamental of Soil Science. New Delhi: Indian Society Soil Science; 2002. pp. 159-170\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nKiepe P. No runoff, no soil: Soil and water conservation in hedgerow barrier systems. 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Florida Entomologist. 2010;93(2):308-309\n'},{id:"B49",body:'\nPrats SA, Wagenbrenner JW, Martins MA, Malvar MC, Keizer JJ. Hydrologic implications of post‐fire mulching across different spatial scales. Land Degradation and Development. 2016;27(5):1440-1452\n'},{id:"B50",body:'\nSharma P, Meena RS, Kumar S, Gurjar DS, Yadav GS, Kumar S. Growth, yield and quality of cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) as influenced by integrated nutrient management under alley cropping system. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 2019;89(11):1876-1880\n'},{id:"B51",body:'\nMader P, Flieβbach A, Dubois D. Soil fertility and biodiversity in organic farming. Science. 2002;296:1694-1697\n'},{id:"B52",body:'\nJhariya MK, Surendra S, Bargali A, Raj S. Possibilities and perspectives of agroforestry in Chhattisgarh. In: Zlatic M, editor. Precious Forests-Precious Earth. Croatia: IntechOpen; 2015. pp. 237-257. DOI: 10.5772/60841\n'},{id:"B53",body:'\nSingh NR, Jhariya MK. Agroforestry and agrihorticulture for higher income and resource conservation. In: Narain S, Rawat SK, editors. Innovative Technology for Sustainable Agriculture Development. New Delhi: Biotech Books; 2016. pp. 125-145\n'},{id:"B54",body:'\nSharma R, Xu J, Sharma G. Traditional agroforestry in the eastern Himalayan region: Land management system supporting ecosystem services. Tropical Ecology. 2007;48(2):189-200\n'},{id:"B55",body:'\nMeena RS, Kumar S, Datta R, Lal R, Vijayakumar V, Britnicky M, et al. Impact of agrochemicals on soil microbiota and management: A review. Land. 2020;9:34. DOI: 10.1016/j. geoderma.2019.114164\n'},{id:"B56",body:'\nGupta B, Sarvade S, Mahmoud A. Effects of selective tree species on phytosociology and production of understorey vegetation in mid-Himalayan region of Himachal Pradesh. Range Management and Agroforestry. 2015;36(2):156-163\n'},{id:"B57",body:'\nUdawatta RP, Krstansky JJ, Henderson GS, Garrett HE. Agroforestry practices, runoff, and nutrient loss: A paired watershed comparison. Journal of Environmental Quality. 2002;31:1214-1225\n'},{id:"B58",body:'\nMeena RS, Kumar V, Yadav GS, Mitran T. Response and interaction of Bradyrhizobium japonicum and Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in the soybean rhizosphere: A review. Plant Growth Regulators. 2018;84:207-223\n'},{id:"B59",body:'\nGupta SK, Raina NS, Sehgal S. Potential of silvi-pastoral systems in improving the forage production in the hills of Jammu and Kashmir. Journal of Research SKUAST-J. 2007;6(2):160-168\n'},{id:"B60",body:'\nShinde R, Sarkar PK, Thombare N, Naik SK. Soil conservation: Today’s need for sustainable development. Agriculture & Food: e-Newsletter. 2019;1(5):175-183\n'},{id:"B61",body:'\nSingh A, Verma SK. Management of ravines through anicuts and afforestation. In: Ravine Lands: Greening for Livelihood and Environmental Security. Singapore: Springer; 2018. pp. 477-504\n'},{id:"B62",body:'\nMeena RS, Lal R, Yadav GS. Long term impacts of topsoil depth and amendments on soil physical and hydrological properties of an Alfisol in Central Ohio. USA. Geoderma. 2020;363:1141164\n'},{id:"B63",body:'\nVishnudas S, Anil KR, Savenije HH, Van Der Zaag P. Use of coir geotextiles for soil and water conservation: Case Studies from India. In: Technological Interventions in Management of Irrigated Agriculture. Canada: Apple Academic Press; 2018. pp. 161-209\n'},{id:"B64",body:'\nSingh A, Meena RS. Response of bioregulators and irrigation on plant height of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea L.). Journal of Oilseed Brassica. 2020;11(1):9-14\n'},{id:"B65",body:'\nMeena H, Meena RS, Rajput BS, Kumar S. Response of bio-regulators to morphology and yield of clusterbean [Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub.] under different sowing environments. Journal of Applied and Natural Science. 2016;8:715-718\n'},{id:"B66",body:'\nNations U. World Population Prospects: The 2017 Revision, Key Findings and Advance Tables. New York: United Nations; 2017\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Anita Kumawat",address:"akumawat333@gmail.com",affiliation:'
ICAR-Indian Institute of Soil and Water Conservation, Research Centre, India
ICAR-Indian Institute of Soil and Water Conservation, Research Centre, India
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1. Introduction
Global warming is leading to increased average temperatures and irrigation difficulties in some places due to water availability affecting vineyard and wine production [1]. Wine regions affected by global warming have typical problems such as grape varieties with low acidity at harvest time, and high sugar contents that produce wines with flat taste, weak and simple aroma profile, and high alcoholic strength and pH [2]. Moreover, in red wines, the polyphenol content and especially the anthocyanins synthesis is affected, producing wines with less and more unstable colors [3]. Higher pHs make the wines less stable from a physicochemical point of view, but also more susceptible to microbial spoilage. In addition, higher pHs require strong acidity corrections, but pH is not easy to modify with tartaric acid, and wines are usually maintained at inadequate pH values. These values reduce the effectiveness of SO2 by decreasing the molecular content that is more active as antimicrobial and antioxidant. The molecular SO2 level of 0.6 mg/L has been proposed for maximum wine protection [4].
2. Lachancea thermotolerans and Hanseniaspora spp.
Yeast selection is a powerful tool to search for new strains with improved features that can enhance the sensory profile of wine or facilitate the technological process. Historically, vinifications have been performed with Saccharomyces cerevisiae, however, current enology is strongly focused on non-Saccharomyces yeasts [5]. Species such as: Metschnikowia pulcherrima [6], Brettanomyces bruxellensis [7], Torulaspora delbrueckii [8], Aureobasidium pullulans [9], Hanseniaspora/Kloeckera spp. [10], Candida stellata [11], Saccharomycodes ludwigii [12], Starmerella bacillaris [13], Schizosaccharomyces pombe [14], Zygosaccharomyces rouxii [15], Wickerhamomyces anomalus [16], Lachancea thermotolerans [17]. Most of them were used for their positive impact on wine aroma, flavor, mouthfeel, or color, and some of them were studied for their spoilage activity that may negatively affect wine quality.
This chapter is focused on the species Lachancea thermotolerans (Lt) (Figure 1) and the genus Hanseniaspora (H) spp. (Figure 2) because of their interesting behavior to improve the sensory profile and enhance the freshness of wines from warm areas. The main feature of Lt is the effective acidification by the formation of lactic acid from sugars [17]. Several lactate dehydrogenase sequences have been observed in the genome of Lt. Its morphology is similar to that of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Sc) with ellipsoidal geometry and multipolar budding (Figure 1), although Lt shows a slightly smaller size. The use of Lt for wine acidification, pH control, and freshness improvement has been described in several works [18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24]. Acidification and pH control in warm areas is critical for wine quality and stability. A low pH not only produces fresher wines with a better sensory profile and improved consumer perception but also increases wine stability at the chemical and microbiological levels. So, wines with low pH are safer and more stable, and, as mentioned before, pH also favors higher molecular SO2 content with higher antimicrobial and antioxidant performance. Therefore, biological acidification is a way to protect the wine and allows the reduction of SO2 levels. The effect on molecular SO2 at low pH has an impact on reducing the levels of spoilage microorganisms and, as a consequence, lowering the production of off-flavors and toxic molecules such as biogenic amines and others, thus producing safer and cleaner wines [25].
Figure 1.
Optical microscopy of Lachancea thermotolerans (left) compared with Saccharomyces cerevisiae (right) both at different growth stages. Both species show an ellipsoidal shape with multipolar budding.
Figure 2.
Optical microscopy of Hanseniaspora vineae, apiculate yeast with polar budding. Cells are in different stages of growth.
Lt shows a medium fermentative power with some strains reaching 9–10% vol. in ethanol [17]. In addition, Lt has shown other interesting features such as moderate volatile acidity [18, 22], even when used simultaneously with other species (Metschnikowia pulcherrima, Hanseniaspora vineae, Torulaspora delbrueckii) [23], and also reduction of volatile acidity levels in some conditions [26]. Furthermore, the positive role in the formation of thiol compounds in Sauvignon blanc has been described, releasing higher values of 3-Mercapto-1-hexanol (3MH) than the control yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Sc) and significant contents of 4-Mercapto-4-methyl-2-pentanone (4MMP) compared to other non-Saccharomyces although, in this case, lower than Sc [27]. These thiol compounds are responsible for box tree (4MMP) and tropical fruit aroma (3MH) in wines that increase their complexity [28, 29]. Lt is a low producer of medium-chain fatty acids and their esters, therefore avoid heavy smells and flatness, which helps improve freshness [24].
The low pH produced by the intense biological acidification of Lt also has a positive effect on the color of white wine showing a bright and clean appearance and delaying the browning processes. This effect on browning is also evidenced by the higher levels of molecular SO2 obtained at low pH which produces an intense antioxidant effect. Concerning red wine color, this reduction in pH favors an increase in color intensity by hyperchromic effect, but it also favors the stability of anthocyanins [30, 31].
In addition, we have observed that some Lt strains have an impact on wine structure, producing softer and full-bodied wines. However, this is not a typical feature of the Lt species, but only of some specific strains. It can be interesting to select these strains to achieve a good balance between acidity and mouthfeel.
Hanseniaspora species (vineae, opuntiae, uvarum, guilliermondii, osmophila, valbyensis, and others) are lemon-shaped apiculate yeasts with polar budding (Figure 2) that are typically found in grape juices at the onset of alcoholic fermentation [10], being included in the predominant indigenous yeast population of grapes. Most of them have a low fermentative power around or below 4% vol. However, some of them such as H. vineae can reach around 10% vol. [10].
Normally, Hanseniaspora spp. have been described as high producers of volatile acidity and have been removed from wine fermentation using SO2 because of their high sensitivity to this antimicrobial agent. However, acetic acid production is quite variable among strains and some of them can reach values similar to those of Sc [32]. Some species such as H. vineae or H. opuntiae also show low values (<0.4 g/L) that can be comparable or lower than Sc [33, 34].
Several enzymatic activities have been described in Hanseniaspora spp., being especially interesting concerning aroma the expression of the β-D-glucosidase activity to release the free terpenes from their conjugated glucosides [35]. The latter compounds are found in higher concentrations in terpene-rich varieties, but due to their low volatility, they are odorless compounds. The use of non-Saccharomyces species with β-D-glucosidase activity is a way to increase wine aroma by releasing free terpenols.
Hanseniaspora vineae (Hv, anamorph sp. Kloeckera africana) [36] is one of the most interesting and trending species in enology, due to its medium-high fermentative power (up to 10% vol), its low volatile acidity, but especially for its high impact on wine aroma and structure. Some extra nutritional requirements have been described especially in thiamine, pantothenic acid, and YAN (yeast assimilable nitrogen) supplementation to avoid stuck or sluggish fermentations [10, 37]. The molecular proximity of Hv to Sc in phylogenetic trees is higher than that of other Hanseniaspora spp. (H. opuntiae, H. guilliermondii, H., uvarum) (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Phylogenetic relationships among wine yeast species based on analysis of D1/D2 LSU rRNA gene sequences. The evolutionary history was inferred using the maximum likelihood method based on the Tamura-Nei model in MEGA7. GenBank access numbers follow strain numbers: Saccharomyces cerevisiae NRRL Y12632/AY048154; Lachancea thermotolerans CBS 2803/KY108273; Hanseniaspora uvarum NRRL Y-1614/U84229; Hanseniaspora opuntiae CBS 8733/AJ512453; Hanseniaspora vineae NRRL Y-17529/U84224; Hanseniaspora guilliermondii NRRL Y1625/U84230.
In addition to its interesting fermentative behavior with good implantation and suitable fermentation yield, Hv is useful to modulate the sensory profile of wines. The impact on the aroma is quite significant due to the formation of benzenoid compounds de novo by the chorismate-prephenate metabolic pathway (Figure 4). This pathway uses sugars as precursors and leads to the formation of floral benzenoid acetic esters such as benzyl acetate and 2-phenylethyl acetate [10, 36, 38, 39]. The production of 2-phenylethyl acetate among other fermentative compounds can separate, by PCA statistical analysis, the aromatic profile of Hv from Sc [34]. Benzyl alcohol concentrations in the fermentation of 11 Hv strains can reach x20-x200 the typical concentrations produced by Sc [38]. Benzyl acetate is the impact aroma of jasmine flowers and produces floral scents that help improve the sensory profile of wines produced from neutral grape varieties. Another impact compound in terms of floral aroma is 2-phenylethyl acetate, also produced by Hv. Its descriptor is rose petals and produces fresh floral perception in wines increasing complexity. This compound is also produced by other Hanseniaspora spp. such as H. guilliermondii [40], H. uvarum [41], H. opuntiae [42].
Figure 4.
De novo formation of floral esters by Hanseniaspora spp. from sugars via the chorismate-prephenate-mandelate pathway. 2-phenylethyl acetate with rose petal aroma descriptor and benzyl acetate with jasmine aroma descriptor.
The impact of Hv on wine aroma is also related to the release or de novo formation of terpenes. Terpenes are aromatic compounds with a fruity and floral profile that enhance the aroma complexity and freshness of wines. Some grape varieties (Muscat, Gewürztraminer, Albariño) have terpenes produced by the plant in the form of terpenes bonded to sugars as a way to better translocate the hydrophobic free terpenes through the plant tissues. Bonded terpenes are more polar but less volatile, so less aromatic. Hv can express extracellular β-D-glucosidase releasing free terpenes during fermentation and thus improving the varietal aroma of wines [10, 35, 43]. The β-xylosidase activity has also been described in Hv [43].
De novo formation of terpenes from sugars has also been observed in fermentations with Hv. In the fermentation of the neutral variety Macabeo, the formation of a significant concentration of α-terpineol (>100 μg/L) has been observed, but below its sensory threshold [36]. Sequential fermentations with Hv followed by Sc in Albillo grapes have shown much higher concentrations of terpenes (316 μg/L) than with Sc controls (114 μg/L) [44]. Linalool, β-citronellol, and geraniol showed higher concentrations than in the Sc control (>x3, >x4, and > x2 respectively), but also above their respective sensory thresholds [44]. The balsamic terpenes terpinene-4-ol and α-terpineol were also at significantly higher concentrations but below the sensory threshold. Furthermore, several polyoxygenated terpenes showed significantly higher concentrations, but they usually have higher sensory thresholds and, therefore, less impact on the aroma.
Another interesting impact of some Hanseniaspora species is the effect on wine structure. Usually, wines fermented by these yeasts show a full-bodied structure and better palatability in the mouth. Fermentation of Macabeo grape must with Hv has shown a sensory profile where tasters perceived improved structure and volume [10]. When the contents of cell wall polysaccharides released by Hv were measured by size exclusion chromatography no significant differences were found with Sc. However, the absorbance at 280 nm, which can be correlated with protein, shows higher values especially at the end of fermentation with Hv [34]. When aging on lees (AOL) is extended for several months, there are no differences between Hv and Sc control. The use of size exclusion chromatography showed slightly higher molecular sizes in the polysaccharides released by Hv that may influence the more intense mouthfeel [44].
3. Use of Lachancea thermotolerans and Hanseniaspora spp. at industrial scale
The use of a new non-Saccharomyces strain requires a lot of experimental research in the laboratory, but also several years of pilot, semi-industrial and industrial-scale trials. Table 1 details the fermentations, years, wineries, regions, varieties, volumes, controls, and pH effects of selected Lachancea thermotolerans strains L31 and A54, currently under industrial evaluation by Lallemand. The strains were tested on white and red grape varieties to see the implantation and performance of acidification on settled white must, but also on crushed red grapes with skins and seeds. Volumes ranged from 500 to 12,000 in white musts and from 1,000 kg to 15,000 kg in crushed red grapes.
Variety
Region
Scale
Year
Strain
Effect on pH
Lactic acid (g/L)
Albariño (white)
Rias Baixas
500 L
2016
L31
3.12 → 2.85
2.7
Tempranillo (red)
Ribera del Duero
1,000 kg
2017
L31
4.20 → 3.63
6.6
Tempranillo (red)
Ribera del Duero
15,000 kg
2020
L31
3.8 → 3.66
2.3
Tempranillo (red)
Mancha
8,000 kg
2020
L31
3.84 → 3.34
9.4
Airén (white)
Mancha
12,500 L
2020
A54
3.75 → 3.47
2.0
Table 1.
Performance of Lachancea thermotolerans L31 & A54 strains on several semi-industrial trials.
In all conditions, acidification was quite effective, even in crushed grapes where the high presence of indigenous yeasts can affect the implantation by reducing the prevalence of the Lt strain. It is interesting to highlight that acidification is effective in varieties with low pHs such as Albariño (3.1) and varieties with high initial pH such as Airén or Tempranillo (3.75–4.20). In terms of potential alcohol, the varieties showed alcoholic strengths ranging from 11 to 12% vol. in the whites and 14–15% in the reds.
Volatile acidity was quite moderate and ranged from 0.38 to 0.46 g/L. The other fermentative volatiles were at normal values for the wines, only the ethyl lactate content was higher than the Sc controls (40–50 mg/L) due to intense lactic acid production, but below the sensory threshold for this ester (150 mg/L) [22].
It is important to note that when Lt strains are used on an industrial scale on real musts or crushed grapes it is important to keep the total SO2 concentration below 20 mg/L. Otherwise, Lt implantation and development can be seriously affected. The typical acidification pattern shows maximum lactic acid production at the beginning of fermentation (days 3–6, Figure 5) depending on inoculation rate, temperature, nutrients, and must composition [22, 23, 45].
Figure 5.
Typical pH evolution in industrial fermentations driven by Lachancea thermotolerans. The gradient color scale shows the safety of wines in terms of microbial and chemical stability as a function of pH.
It can be observed how the high pH typical of varieties such as Tempranillo in warm areas is deleterious to wine quality, not only producing chemical and microbial instability but also making sulfites inefficient due to low molecular SO2 levels. The natural biological acidification of Lt produces pH reductions from 4.0 to 3.5 or less resulting in molecular SO2 levels increasing from <0.4 (dangerous) to >0.8 (safe) [25]. It should also be noted that lactic acid is a stable acid that cannot be altered or metabolized by microorganisms during wine aging. In addition, at high doses (>4 g/L) it inhibits malolactic fermentation, which can be interesting to maintain extra acidity and protect the freshness in wines from warm areas [46].
From a sensory point of view, biological acidification produces a citric freshness, which can be very crispy at high concentrations but can never be perceived as dairy acidity. This is because the milky profile of malolactic fermentation and fermented milk comes from some secondary metabolites such as acetoin or diacetyl that are found in low concentrations in Lt fermentations.
The typical sensory profile of Lt normally shows increased freshness with improved acidity (Figure 6) which, depending on the level of acidification, can be somewhat unbalanced and crispy. This can be controlled by the timing of Sc inoculation in sequential fermentation or, subsequently, by blending Lt wines with Sc wines. Even when Lt does not have a strong impact on the aroma, the profile is fresh, fruity, and pleasant. The body in the wines is similar to that of Sc, but, as noted above, specific strains have effects on palatability.
Figure 6.
Comparative sensory spider net of fermentations with Lachancea thermotolerans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
Additionally, we have compared in Airen fermentations the effect of 72 h of biological acidification with Lt (2 strains: L31 and Laktia from Lallemand) with chemical acidification using 1.5 g/L tartaric acid. Natural biological acidification produced the same effect on pH without using chemical additives [47]. Furthermore, chemical stability is higher due to the high potassium salts precipitation produced during chemical acidification with tartaric acid.
Concerning the use of Hanseniaspora spp. on an industrial scale, the most important species are Hanseniaspora vineae and H. opuntiae, although H. uvarum has also been used to some extent. We have experience fermenting Albillo (Vitis vinifera L.) white variety with H. uvarum in stainless steel and oak barrels to produce white wines aged on lees or blends of Albillo and Tempranillo (Vitis vinifera L.) to produce rosé wines (Table 2). Moreover, we have fermented must from Airen (Vitis vinifera L.), a neutral flat grape variety, in large stainless-steel tanks using H. opuntiae. This species enabled the production of wines with more body, better palatability, and floral aroma.
Variety
Region
Scale
Year
Strain
Aroma
Mouthfeel/Color
Albillo (white)
Ribera del Duero
150 L Stainless steel barrels
2019
Hv T02/5A
terpenes (x3) 2phenylethyl acetate (x1.33)
Improved palatability
Albillo and Tempranillo (rosé)
Ribera del Duero
150 L Stainless steel barrels
2020
Hv T02/5A
2phenylethyl acetate (x1.65)
Improved palatability Better color (red-bluish)
Albillo and Tempranillo (rosé)
Ribera del Duero
150 L Oak barrels
2020
Hv T02/5A
terpenes (x2.5)
Improved palatability Better color (red-bluish)
Airén (white)
Mancha
12,500 L
2020
Ho A56
2phenylethyl acetate
Improved palatability
Table 2.
Performance of Hanseniaspora spp. on several semi-industrial trials. Hanseniaspora vineae (Hv), Hanseniaspora opuntiae (Ho).
The formation of terpenes and floral esters by Hanseniaspora spp. has an interesting impact on the sensory profile, especially with neutral grape varieties such as Airén or Albillo that express fruitier and more floral wines with greater aromatic freshness. In addition, a positive effect on color can be found in rosé wines with higher anthocyanin contents in fermentations with Hv and especially some acylated derivatives [48]. Figure 7 shows the typical sensory profile of Hanseniaspora spp. compared to Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
Figure 7.
Comparative sensory spider net of fermentations with Hanseniaspora vineae/opuntiae and Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
4. Biocompatibility
Lt and Hv/Ho can be used in mixed fermentations or independent fermentations, subsequently blending both wines in appropriate quantities. When used in mixed fermentations, biocompatibility must be taken into account due to the special sensitivity of Hanseniaspora to vitamins such as thiamine and pantothenate or nitrogen contents. Nutritional deficits can lead to the low formation of acetate esters and terpenes with the consequence of a low impact on the aroma. A similar situation is observed in Lachancea thermotolerans in which nutritional imbalances affect implantation and development of the yeast population and therefore low acidification compromising the effect on pH. Lower acidification has been observed in ternary fermentations with Lt and Hv sequentially followed by Sc under standard nutritional conditions [45]. The development of further research to carefully optimize the nutritional and physicochemical conditions (temperature, SO2, pH) for interspecies compatibility will be a key parameter for the successful application of this biotechnology.
5. Conclusion
The combined use of Hanseniaspora spp. (vineae or opuntiae) with Lachancea thermotolerans in mixed fermentations subsequently finished sequentially by Saccharomyces or the independent use of them and later blending their wines is interesting biotechnology to improve flat neutral varieties by increasing acidity, aroma, body, and color, and thus improving the sensory profile and freshness. Several considerations have been described to achieve successful fermentations in terms of nutritional aspects to develop and yeasts biocompatibility.
Acknowledgments
Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades project: RTI2018-096626-B-I00 and project: FRESHWINES, European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), through the National Smart Growth Operational Programme FEDER INTERCONECTA EXP-00111498/ITC-20181125.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"warm areas, wine, freshness, pH control, aroma, lactic acid, 2-phenylethyl acetate, non-Saccharomyces, Lachancea thermotolerans, Hanseniaspora spp.",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/78993.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/78993.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78993",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78993",totalDownloads:90,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"August 11th 2021",dateReviewed:"September 20th 2021",datePrePublished:"October 18th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"October 18th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Lachancea thermotolerans is a yeast species that works as a powerful bio tool capable of metabolizing grape sugars into lactic acid via lactate dehydrogenase enzymes. The enological impact is an increase in total acidity and a decrease in pH levels (sometimes >0.5 pH units) with a concomitant slight reduction in alcohol (0.2–0.4% vol.), which helps balance freshness in wines from warm areas. In addition, higher levels of molecular SO2 are favored, which helps to decrease SO2 total content and achieve better antioxidant and antimicrobial performance. The simultaneous use with some apiculate yeast species of the genus Hanseniaspora helps to improve the aromatic profile through the production of acetyl esters and, in some cases, terpenes, which makes the wine aroma more complex, enhancing floral and fruity scents and making more complex and fresh wines. Furthermore, many species of Hanseniaspora increase the structure of wines, thus improving their body and palatability. Ternary fermentations with Lachancea thermotolerans and Hanseniaspora spp. sequentially followed by Saccharomyces cerevisiae are a useful bio tool for producing fresher wines from neutral varieties in warm areas.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/78993",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/78993",signatures:"Antonio Morata, Carlos Escott, Iris Loira, Juan Manuel Del Fresno, Cristian Vaquero, María Antonia Bañuelos, Felipe Palomero, Carmen López and Carmen González",book:{id:"10901",type:"book",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Grapes and Wine",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Antonio Morata, Dr. Iris Loira and Prof. Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83969-642-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-641-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-643-5",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Lachancea thermotolerans and Hanseniaspora spp.",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Use of Lachancea thermotolerans and Hanseniaspora spp. at industrial scale",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Biocompatibility",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Mozell M R, Thach L. The impact of climate change on the global wine industry: Challenges & solutions. Wine Economics and Policy. 2014; 3:81-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wep.2014.08.001'},{id:"B2",body:'Morata A, Loira I, del Fresno J M, Escott C, Bañuelos M A, Tesfaye W, González C, Palomero F, Suárez Lepe J A. Strategies to Improve the Freshness in Wines from Warm Areas. In: Morata A, Loira I, editors. Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology. 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Acetate ester formation in wine by mixed cultures in laboratory fermentations. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 2003; 86:181-188. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1605(03)00255-1'},{id:"B41",body:'Tristezza M, Tufariello M, Capozzi V, Spano G, Mita G, Grieco F. The oenological potential of Hanseniaspora uvarum in simultaneous and sequential co-fermentation with Saccharomyces cerevisiae for industrial wine production. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2016; 7:670. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2016.00670'},{id:"B42",body:'Hu L, Liu R, Wang X, Zhang X. The sensory quality improvement of citrus wine through co-fermentations with selected non-Saccharomyces yeast strains and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Microorganisms. 2020; 8:323. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8030323'},{id:"B43",body:'López S, Mateo JJ, Maicas S. Characterisation of Hanseniaspora isolates with potential aroma enhancing properties in muscat wines. South African Journal of Enology and Viticulture. 2014; 35:292-303.'},{id:"B44",body:'Del Fresno JM, Escott C, Loira I, Carrau F, Cuerda R, Schneider R, Bañuelos MA, González C, Suárez-Lepe JA, Morata A. The Impact of Hanseniaspora vineae Fermentation and Ageing on Lees on the Terpenic Aromatic Profile of White Wines of the Albillo Variety. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2021; 22:2195. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22042195'},{id:"B45",body:'Vaquero C, Loira I, Heras JM, Carrau F, González C, Morata A. Biocompatibility in ternary fermentations with Lachancea thermotolerans, other non-Saccharomyces and Saccharomyces cerevisiae to control pH and improve the sensory profile of wines from warm areas. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2021; 12:832. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2021.656262'},{id:"B46",body:'Morata A, Bañuelos MA, López C, Song C, Vejarano R, Loira I, Palomero F, Suarez Lepe JA. Use of fumaric acid to control pH and inhibit malolactic fermentation in wines. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A. 2020; 37:228-238. https://doi.org/10.1080/19440049.2019.1684574'},{id:"B47",body:'Vaquero C, Izquierdo-Cañas PM, Mena-Morales A, Marchante-Cuevas L, Heras JM, Morata A. Use of Lachancea thermotolerans for biological vs. chemical acidification at semi-industrial scale in white wines from warm areas. Fermentation. 2021; Submitted'},{id:"B48",body:'Del Fresno, JM, Loira I, Escott C, Carrau F, González C, Cuerda R, Morata A. Application of Hanseniaspora vineae yeast in the production of rosé wines from a blend of Tempranillo and Albillo grapes. Fermentation. 2021; 7:141; https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation7030141'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Antonio Morata",address:"antonio.morata@upm.es",affiliation:'
EnotecUPM, Technical University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
EnotecUPM, Technical University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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He is an editorial board member of many international urological journals, and author of over 110 articles in international peer reviewed journals and 10 book chapters. He is also an adviser and reviewer for over two dozen international urological journals, and for dissertations at various universities nationally and the National University of Singapore. Dr. Ather was trained in Karachi and London, and has many fellowship attachments in Europe at Erasmus University, Rotterdam, Katholique Universiteit Leuven, and University College London. He has also served as the General secretary of Pakistan Association of Urological surgeons (PAUS). He is an international advisory board member of the EULIS (EAU) and national representative of Asia-Pacific society of uro-oncology (UAA). Currently, he is the Vice chairman of the U Merge (Urology in emerging countries). 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The difference in the clinical picture has been the focus of significant research in defining the molecular characteristics of urothelial cancer (UC) of the bladder. This book provides an overview of the most hotly debated areas in bladder cancer. Authors have focused on the emerging role of markers for NMI UC and various ways of improving the efficacy of current chemotherapy in the first section. The second section has focused on the surgical aspects of MI UC. Two major areas of debate - the role of pelvic lymph node dissection and genital sparing surgery - are discussed in this section.",editors:[{id:"88868",title:"Prof.",name:"M Hammad",surname:"Ather",slug:"m-hammad-ather",fullName:"M Hammad Ather"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}],chaptersAuthored:[{id:"33812",title:"Urological Surgical Procedures Under Local Anesthesia",slug:"common-urological-procedures-under-local-anethesia",abstract:null,signatures:"M. 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In general, diagnosis is made in primary care using clinical evaluation (a good history and physical examination), bladder diary and validated symptom scales. Condition-specific diagnosis is made in secondary care, and it often involves interventional tools such as urodynamic studies. The evidence available on the accuracy and acceptability of the assessment of UI is inconsistent and variable. A structured data collection tool was used for initial assessment of UI. Some key questions are required for initial assessment of UI in order to diagnose the type of UI. This chapter includes a gender-specific evaluation based on history and clinical examination. Pelvic organ prolapse (POP) in female patients is associated with UI and POP diagnosis, and staging is made by clinical examination only, while male patients are examined for prostate obstructive urinary symptoms. Basic evaluation includes bladder diary in cases of overactive bladder and stress test, for stress urinary incontinence. Other diagnostic tests include urine analysis, uroflowmetry and measurement of post-void residual volume in cases of neurogenic bladder and benign prostate hypertrophy. Patients referred to specialist require further assessment of UI using urodynamic testing, electrophysiological test and imaging.",signatures:"Raheela M. Rizvi and Mohammad Hammad Ather",authors:[{id:"88868",title:"Prof.",name:"M Hammad",surname:"Ather",fullName:"M Hammad Ather",slug:"m-hammad-ather",email:"hammad.ather@aku.edu"},{id:"185970",title:"Dr.",name:"Raheela",surname:"Rizvi",fullName:"Raheela Rizvi",slug:"raheela-rizvi",email:"raheela.mohsin@aku.edu"}],book:{id:"5352",title:"Synopsis in the Management of Urinary Incontinence",slug:"synopsis-in-the-management-of-urinary-incontinence",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}},{id:"55857",title:"Non-contrast CT in the Evaluation of Urinary Tract Stone Obstruction and Haematuria",slug:"non-contrast-ct-in-the-evaluation-of-urinary-tract-stone-obstruction-and-haematuria",abstract:"Non-contrast computed tomography (CT) abdomen has emerged as a first line investigation in suspected upper urinary tract obstruction. Underlying causes can usually be ascertained on computed tomography of kidneys, ureters and bladder (CT KUB). However, further investigations may be required to delineate/confirm underlying pathology like ureteropelvic junction obstruction (UPJ), differentiation between obstruction and residual dilatation. Actual protocol of CT KUB for evaluation of stone disease and haematuria vary on institutional guidelines. CT KUB is not only extremely sensitive and specific in the diagnosis of stone; it is now used in the pre-operative nomograms in predicting success of various endourological interventions like percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL) and shock wave lithotripsy (SWL). Determination of stone density, stone volume, stone composition, skin to stone distance, presence of ureteral wall oedema, perinephric oedema are highly predictive of stone free rate. CT recognition of various anomalies, presence of retro-renal colon, horse-shoe kidney, malrotation, etc. can help in better planning to avoid complications. One of the major limitations of CT is the radiation dose, besides cost and availability. Modification in technique and technological innovation has resulted in significant dose reduction from 4.5 to about 1 mSv.",signatures:"Mohammad Hammad Ather, Wasim Memon, Wajahat Aziz and\nMohammad Nasir Sulaiman",authors:[{id:"88868",title:"Prof.",name:"M Hammad",surname:"Ather",fullName:"M Hammad Ather",slug:"m-hammad-ather",email:"hammad.ather@aku.edu"},{id:"202795",title:"Dr.",name:"Wajahat",surname:"Aziz",fullName:"Wajahat Aziz",slug:"wajahat-aziz",email:"wajahat.aziz@aku.edu"},{id:"202796",title:"Dr.",name:"Wasim",surname:"Memon",fullName:"Wasim Memon",slug:"wasim-memon",email:"wasim.memon@aku.edu"},{id:"202799",title:"Dr.",name:"M Nasir",surname:"Sulaiman",fullName:"M Nasir Sulaiman",slug:"m-nasir-sulaiman",email:"nasir.sulaiman@aku.edu"}],book:{id:"6005",title:"Computed Tomography",slug:"computed-tomography-advanced-applications",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"84949",title:"Dr.",name:"Niteen",surname:"Dhepe",slug:"niteen-dhepe",fullName:"Niteen Dhepe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"85858",title:"Prof.",name:"Alberto",surname:"Acevedo",slug:"alberto-acevedo",fullName:"Alberto Acevedo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"86656",title:"Dr.",name:"Hasan",surname:"Garip",slug:"hasan-garip",fullName:"Hasan Garip",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"87174",title:"Dr.",name:"Tülin",surname:"Satılmış",slug:"tulin-satilmis",fullName:"Tülin Satılmış",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"87222",title:"Dr.",name:"Onur",surname:"Gönül",slug:"onur-gonul",fullName:"Onur Gönül",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"87224",title:"Prof.",name:"Kamil",surname:"Göker",slug:"kamil-goker",fullName:"Kamil Göker",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"93738",title:"Dr.",name:"Katsuto",surname:"Shinohara",slug:"katsuto-shinohara",fullName:"Katsuto Shinohara",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of California, San Francisco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"95854",title:"Dr.",name:"Milind",surname:"Naik",slug:"milind-naik",fullName:"Milind Naik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"L V Prasad Eye Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"130066",title:"Dr.",name:"Nasir",surname:"Sulaiman",slug:"nasir-sulaiman",fullName:"Nasir Sulaiman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"130067",title:"Ms.",name:"Ammara",surname:"Mushtaq",slug:"ammara-mushtaq",fullName:"Ammara Mushtaq",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"our-story",title:"Our story",intro:"
The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n\\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\\n\\n
2004
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\\n\\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n
\\n\\n
2005
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\\n
\\n\\n
2006
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\\n
\\n\\n
2008
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\\n
\\n\\n
2009
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\\n
\\n\\n
2010
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\\n
\\n\\n
2011
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\\n
\\n\\n
2012
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\\n
\\n\\n
2013
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\\n
\\n\\n
2014
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\\n
\\n\\n
2015
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\\n\\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\\n\\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\\n
\\n\\n
2016
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\\n
\\n\\n
2017
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n
2010
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n
2011
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n
2012
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n
2013
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n
2014
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n
2015
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n
2016
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
\n\n
2017
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{regionId:"4",sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",middleName:null,surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58592/images/1664_n.jpg",biography:"Arun K. Shanker is serving as a Principal Scientist (Plant Physiology) with the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) at the Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture in Hyderabad, India. He is working with the ICAR as a full time researcher since 1993 and has since earned his Advanced degree in Crop Physiology while in service. He has been awarded the prestigious Member of the Royal Society of Chemistry (MRSC), by the Royal Society of Chemistry, London in 2015. Presently he is working on systems biology approach to study the mechanism of abiotic stress tolerance in crops. His main focus now is to unravel the mechanism of drought and heat stress response in plants to tackle climate change related threats in agriculture.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Council of Agricultural Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",middleName:"P",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4782/images/system/4782.jpg",biography:"Bishnu P. Pal is Professor of Physics at Mahindra École\nCentrale Hyderabad India since July 1st 2014 after retirement\nas Professor of Physics from IIT Delhi; Ph.D.’1975 from IIT\nDelhi; Fellow of OSA and SPIE; Senior Member IEEE;\nHonorary Foreign Member Royal Norwegian Society for\nScience and Arts; Member OSA Board of Directors (2009-\n11); Distinguished Lecturer IEEE Photonics Society (2005-\n07).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Delhi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"69653",title:"Dr.",name:"Chusak",middleName:null,surname:"Limsakul",slug:"chusak-limsakul",fullName:"Chusak Limsakul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Prince of Songkla University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"23804",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamzah",middleName:null,surname:"Arof",slug:"hamzah-arof",fullName:"Hamzah Arof",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/23804/images/5492_n.jpg",biography:"Hamzah Arof received his BSc from Michigan State University, and PhD from the University of Wales. Both degrees were in electrical engineering. His current research interests include signal processing and photonics. Currently he is affiliated with the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Malaya, Malaysia.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"41989",title:"Prof.",name:"He",middleName:null,surname:"Tian",slug:"he-tian",fullName:"He Tian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"East China University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"33351",title:null,name:"Hendra",middleName:null,surname:"Hermawan",slug:"hendra-hermawan",fullName:"Hendra Hermawan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/33351/images/168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Institut Teknologi Bandung",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRglaQAC/Profile_Picture_1626411846553",biography:"Hiroshi Ishiguro is an award-winning roboticist and innovator. As the Director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, which is part of the Department of Systems Innovation in the Graduate School of Engineering Science at Osaka University, Japan, Ishiguro concentrates on making robots that are similar as possible to humans to understand the human species. A notable project of his laboratory is the Actroid, a humanoid robot with a lifelike appearance and observable behavior such as facial movements. (Sources: http://www.geminoid.jp/en/index.html, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiroshi_Ishiguro)",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Osaka University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"45747",title:"Dr.",name:"Hsin-I",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",slug:"hsin-i-chang",fullName:"Hsin-I Chang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Chiayi University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"61581",title:"Dr.",name:"Joy Rizki Pangestu",middleName:null,surname:"Djuansjah",slug:"joy-rizki-pangestu-djuansjah",fullName:"Joy Rizki Pangestu Djuansjah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61581/images/237_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"94249",title:"Prof.",name:"Junji",middleName:null,surname:"Kido",slug:"junji-kido",fullName:"Junji Kido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Yamagata University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"12009",title:"Dr.",name:"Ki Young",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"ki-young-kim",fullName:"Ki Young Kim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12009/images/system/12009.jpg",biography:"Http://m80.knu.ac.kr/~doors",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Cheng Kung University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"132595",title:"Prof.",name:"Long",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"long-wang",fullName:"Long Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Peking University",country:{name:"China"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:6630},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5913},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:2404},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:12563},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:1009},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:17574}],offset:12,limit:12,total:12563},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"-dateEndThirdStepPublish",src:"S-F-0"},books:[{type:"book",id:"9985",title:"Geostatistics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"423cb3896195a618c4acb493ce4fd23d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Jeffrey M. 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This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. 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It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence"},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. 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\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems. \r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
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\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",annualVolume:11966,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices",scope:"
\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",annualVolume:11967,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"
\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
",annualVolume:11968,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",editor:{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",middleName:null,surname:"Mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLREQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:23:50.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:{id:"60498",title:"Prof.",name:"Josefina",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido",fullName:"Josefina Garrido",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRj1VQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:06:51.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorThree:{id:"464288",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Ramil",fullName:"Francisco Ramil",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003RI7lHQAT/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:15:35.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorialBoard:[{id:"220987",title:"Dr.",name:"António",middleName:"Onofre",surname:"Soares",fullName:"António Soares",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNtzQAG/Profile_Picture_1644499672340",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Azores",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",keywords:"Water, Water resources, Freshwater, Hydrological processes, Utilization, Protection",scope:"
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
",annualVolume:11969,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",editor:{id:"349630",title:"Dr.",name:"Yizi",middleName:null,surname:"Shang",fullName:"Yizi Shang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/349630/images/system/349630.jpg",institutionString:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"216491",title:"Dr.",name:"Charalampos",middleName:null,surname:"Skoulikaris",fullName:"Charalampos Skoulikaris",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRMsbQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-04-21T09:31:55.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"300124",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Shahady",fullName:"Thomas Shahady",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002kuIgmQAE/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:32:10.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lynchburg College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/88868",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"88868"},fullPath:"/profiles/88868",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()