",isbn:"978-1-80356-273-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-272-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-274-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"e1d9662c334dd78ab35bfb57c3bf106e",bookSignature:"Dr. Fabio Arturo Iannotti",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11675.jpg",keywords:"Skeletal Muscle Diseases, Rare Skeletal Muscle Diseases, Basic Research, Molecular Mechanisms of Disease, Translational Research, Diagnostic Technologies, Functional Tests, Disease Models, Innovative Therapies, Drug Repositioning, Drug Discovery, Emerging Technologies",numberOfDownloads:24,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 11th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 19th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 18th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 6th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 5th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Fabio Arturo Iannotti received his Bachelor's Degree in Biotechnology Science at the University of Naples “Federico II” in 2006 with the highest degree. In 2010, he graduated with a Ph.D. in Neuroscience at the University of Naples “Federico II”. He published many papers on his areas of research in international peer-reviewed journals and for his pioneering studies has received awards from both national and international scientific societies.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"281317",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabio",middleName:"Arturo",surname:"Iannotti",slug:"fabio-iannotti",fullName:"Fabio Iannotti",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRdOdQAK/Profile_Picture_1644820016099",biography:"Currently researcher at the CNR-ICB Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry of Pozzuoli, Napoli (Italy), Fabio Arturo Iannotti has as major focus of his research activity the role of the endocannabinoid system and TRP in epilepsy and muscle development. Dr. Fabio Arturo Iannotti received his Bachelor Degree in Biotecnology Science (Medical curricula) at University of Naples \\'Federico II\\' in 2006 (with 110/110 cum laude). In 2010, Dr. Iannotti graduated with a PhD in Neuroscience at University of Naples \\'Federico II\\'. The focus of his thesis was on the role of voltage-gated potassium channels Kv7 during the neuronal excitoxicity as well as skeletal muscle cell differentiation. During the three years of the PhD program, Dr. Iannotti has been introduced to the field of ion channels, particularly voltage-gated ion channels; he has been instrumental in setting up RT-PCR and quantitative RT-PCR techniques in our lab, focusing onto research themes which would allow to combine both molecular and functional approaches in the study of ion channels during muscle cell differentiation. He has become familiar with most molecular biology (cloning, mutagenesis, PCR and RT-PCR, Southern and Northern blotting, gene silencing via RNAi, …) as well as with protein biochemistry techniques (protein extraction, immunoprecipitation, Western blotting, in-vitro translation, …) and morphological methods (confocal and conventional immunofluorescence). He is also familiar with imaging tools for intracellular ion concentration analysis, and has more recently gained considerable experience with electrophysiological techniques (specifically, patch-clamp). During this time (2009-2010), he also researched at the University of California-Davis assessing changes to the phosphorylation state of potassium channels in in vivo models of epilepsy. In 2011, he started his postdoc at the Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry (ICB)/ National Council of Research (CNR) and during this period he also visited the University of Reading (2012-2013), researching the potential involvement of TRP channels in epilepsy and muscle development. Since 2014, he was promoted to the position of research fellow at ICB. To date, Dr. Iannotti has published many papers on these areas of research in international peer reviewed journals, and has received awards from both national and international scientific societies for his work. He is member of international scientific societies and referee for international peer reviewed journal with high impact factor.",institutionString:"Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry (ICB)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:[{id:"81290",title:"Musculoskeletal Abnormalities Caused by Cystic Fibrosis",slug:"musculoskeletal-abnormalities-caused-by-cystic-fibrosis",totalDownloads:24,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"278926",firstName:"Ivana",lastName:"Barac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/278926/images/8058_n.jpg",email:"ivana.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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1. Introduction
Motion of insects or birds is inherently unsteady. The creatures utilise the unsteadiness efficiently. For example, a coherent structure called the leading edge vortex (LEV) plays an essential role in the generation of unsteady force. Many authors have published studies on the topic and hilighted its importance, experimentally and numerically. The magnitude of the unsteady force cannot be explained by a steady-state approach. In many cases, the unsteadiness generates greater forces more efficiently than that in the steady state [1, 2]. Experiments have been conducted in three-dimensional space and numerical analyses have been carried out to understand the mechanism of force generation. These studies explained several aspects of unsteady phenomenon, but the role of vortices generated close to the object is still unclear. How does the behaviour of vortices affect the generation of force? In particular, how does momentum change depend on the force? We are not sure how to estimate the momentum of a vortex system, because the usual momentum has no definite value. Our aim is to establish a rule that governs the force generation by the momentum change. Characteristics such as the magnitude, the rotation direction, and the position are key to determining the momentum. Unless we determine their properties, the evaluation of force cannot be made quantitatively.
When an object of a constant circulation Γ moves with a constant speed dx0/dt, a fluid force acts perpendicular to the direction of motion. The magnitude is known to be ρdx0/dtΓ. It should be noted that the magnitude is the derivative of the virtual momentum ρx0Γ with respect to time, see [3], Art.157. Here, ρ is the density of fluid. This is a simplest application of a well-known law that governs the conservation of virtual momentum. In other words, this is a typical example of the second law of motion in the vortex motion. In general, the virtual momentum plays an essential role in the generation of force instead of the normal momentum. As illustrated above, in unsteady flows, the virtual momentum is important for the generation of force. We would like to illustrate the role of the virtual momentum by applying it to a heaving motion of a thin plate.
A lot of attention has been paid to the dependence of parameters characterising the unsteadiness known as the reduced frequency or the Strouhal number of the propulsive motion of insects, fish and humans (for example, [4, 5, 6]). Here, we also discuss the dependence of the reduced frequency on the thrust.
The heaving motion of a thin plate is the simplest and most suitable example of the analysis of unsteady phenomena. In addition, the heaving motion is solved in the limit as the heaving amplitude becomes smaller. For investigating the unsteady phenomenon, the vortex motion is a key concept. The analytical tool used here is not specific and can be extended to wider problems.
2. Direct effect of a heaving plate
First, we have a look at the relation between the force acting on a body fixed in a stream and the free vortices flowing behind it. It is known that a drag acts on a still body set in the stream. We can see two vortex rows here, called the Kármán vortex street (see Figure 1(a)).
Figure 1.
Vortex street and an object in the stream. (a) an object fixed in the stream; (b) a thin aerofoil heaving vertically. Two thick arrows denote the direction of momentum increase.
We can also notice another similar vortex street behind the flying birds and the swimming fish. However, the direction of rotation of the vortices is inverse. In the case of the Kármán street, a momentum defect is observed while the momentum seems to increase behind the birds and fish. In the latter case, a thrust acts on the object to move forward due to the increase in momentum. As an example, we show the vortex street appearing in heaving motion (see Figure 1(b)). In pitching motion, a similar street can be observed (see example, [7]). In general, those cases where backward momentum increases generate thrust acting against the flow. In the figure, the thick arrows denote the direction of the increased momentum.
To understand the mechanism of thrust generation we study the heaving motion of a thin plate in a uniform flow. We assume that the plate has a constant circulation Γ. Even in unsteady conditions, we assume that the fluid flows smoothly at the trailing edge according to Kutta’s condition. The circulation Γ is determined by this smoothness condition. The velocity around the leading edge would diverge and hence the pressure may not be finite because the edge is a mathematical singular point.
To evaluate the force acting on an object, we usually integrate the pressure on the surface of the object. However, because a simple plate has two singular points at the leading and trailing edges. In particular, the estimation of the pressure at the leading edge is almost impossible when Kutta’s condition is applied at the trailing edge. Instead of the integration of pressure, we apply Newton’s second law of motion, which states that the force is a result of the momentum change. However, it is known that the estimation of momentum is almost impossible, and hence virtual momentum has to be used instead.
2.1 Effect of bound vortex
The coordinates system is shown in Figure 2. A thin aerofoil is located at z=z0t in the complex z-plane or at z′=0. The coordinates z and z′ are related by the equation
Figure 2.
Coordinates system. The heaving plate is located at y=y0,−2a≤x′≤2a.
z′t=z−iy0t.E1
Consider a uniform flow whose velocity is U in the x-direction and a bound vortex of a constant circulation Γ around the plate and no free vortices. The circulation is positive when the fluid rotates in the anticlockwise direction, while the vorticity is positive for vortices rotating in the clockwise direction. The force X+iY acting on the object located at z0=x0+iy0 is given by:
X+iY=iρΓż0−U−2πρa2z¯¨0+2πρa2z¨0,E2
where the dot denotes the derivative with respect to time t [8]. Here, the length of the plate is 4a (=L) and located parallel to the uniform flow (see Figure 2). Confining ourselves to the oscillation only in the y-direction, or ż0=iẏ0t, the force can be:
X+iY=iρΓiẏ0−U+4πiρa2y¨0.E3
For cases without any motion, the above equation is written simply as Y=−ρUΓ, which corresponds to the lift known as the Kutta-Joukowski theorem.
The second term on the right-hand side indicates the drag defined as
m′d2y0tdt2,E4
where m′ is called the virtual mass. The direction of this force is parallel to the direction of motion. Accordingly, this force which acts in the y-direction cannot contribute to the propulsion. The virtual mass for this thin plate is expressed as πρL/22=m′ (see [9], Art. 9.222, [10, 11, 12] for the general discussion). This force acting only in the y-direction is independent of vortex formation and shedding. The force is not related to thrust, and hence we will not discuss this force any more. Finally, from Eq.(3) the force in the x-direction is
X=−ρẏ0Γ.E5
This formula corresponds to the Kutta-Joukowski theorem. When the object with the circulation Γ is located at z=z1, the virtual momentum is expressed as −iρz1Γ.
Eq. (5) can be derived easily by considering the virtual momentum. For an object with a constant circulation Γ1 located at the position z1, the momentum, or more precisely the virtual momentum, P, of the flow is expressed as −iρz1Γ1. When the vortex moves at the speed ż1, the force F acts on it as a result of momentum change, i.e.,
F=−dPdt=iρż1Γ1.E6
2.2 Effect of free vortex
Next, we proceed to discuss about the effect of free vortices on the force. The general rule for estimating the force, when the viscosity is negligible, is the Blasius formula, see [10]. Since the formula is valid only for steady flow conditions, it has to be extended to include the unsteady effect. The extended formula for the force XY, as seen in, for example, [13], is given as
X−iY=iρ2∮Bdfdz2dz+iρ∮Bdf¯dtdz¯,E7
where B denotes the path along the surface of an object in the anticlockwise direction. In the above equation, fz is the complex potential defined by fz=ϕxy+iψxy. Here ϕ and ψ are the velocity potential and the stream function, respectively. The bar denotes the complex conjugate. Thisin Figure 10 formula expresses two typical types of forces. One is the virtual momentum (VM) component, and the other the direct-interaction (DI) component. VM acts due to the change in momentum and DI is the direct interaction of the vortices with the body, which becomes important when the vortex is near the object. We denote the two forces Fv for VM and Fd for DI to distinguish between them. Before we discuss the general case, we consider a simple one where one free vortex κ1 exists at z=z1. The forces for VM and DI are expressed as
F¯v=iρ2∮Bdfdz2dz,E8
=2∮z1iκ1z−z1dfdzcdz,E9
where df/dzc means the convection velocity at z=z1 by the vortex κ1. On the other hand, the force for DI is estimated from
F¯d=iρ∮B∂f∂tdz¯.E10
First, we consider Eq.(10). This force is dependent on the object form. To integrate it we map a plate in the z-plane to a circle of radius a in the ζ-plane as
z=Gζ=ζ+a2ζ,E11
When a vortex is located at z=z1, the integration can be carried out to give
F¯d=2πiρκ1a21ζ12−a2dz1dt+1ζ¯12−a2dz¯1dt,E12
where
z1=Gζ1,E13
and the convection velocity,
dz1dt=dfdzz1=1−a2ζ12ζ̇1.E14
It is easy to see that the right-hand side of Eq.(12) is pure imaginary, because the right-hand side expresses the sum of a complex and its complex conjugate. This means that the force has only a y-component. Therefore, the component Fd is not related to the thrust. Hence, we will not discuss Fd anymore. Only the VM would contribute to the thrust force.
where ż1 is the covection velocity of vortex κ1. The above equation is to Eq.(6), because 2πκ1=−Γ1. To determine the convection velocity ż1, we apply the conformal mapping Eq.(13) and trace the vortex in the ζ-plane and then calculate the velocity in the z-plane. The moving speed of vortex κ1 in the z-plane is already given by Eq.(13). Hence, we have
F¯v=2πiρκ11−a2ζ¯12ζ¯̇1E16
Formulas (5) and (15) are the main targets for the calculation of thrust.
2.3 Determination of positions and velocities of a vortex
Now, we discuss how to generate a vortex under our boundary condition. What determines the vorticity and its position? Consider a flat plate set parallel to the flow (see Figure 2). Even in unsteady motion, the flow is subject to the condition that the fluid flows smoothly at the trailing edge. In other words, Kutta’s condition at the edge must be satisfied at all times. We consider the heaving motion whose velocity, perpendicular to the plate is expressed as
wht=WTeiνt.E17
In the above equation, ν is the radian frequency of the heaving motion, and WT is the amplitude. Denoting the period of the oscillation as T, T=2π/ν.
Because the plate has a velocity in the y-direction at t=0, Kutta’s condition is not satisfied. To satisfy the condition we set a new vortex at x=2a+Δx, and we determine the vorticity κ1 of the vortex so as to satisfy the condition. As for setting the initial position, [14] serves as a useful reference. The condition for the flow leaving the trailing edge smoothly determines κ1 uniquely. Later at t=Δt the vortex κ1 moves away and hence the flow does not satisfy Kutta’s condition again. To avoid the undesirable flow, we set a new vortex κ2 at the same position as the initial position of κ1, i.e., at x=2a+Δx. Kutta’s condition fixes the value κ2 uniquely. Similarly, the subsequent process determines sequentially κii=12….
We proceed to the next step to discuss the problem of movement of vortices. A vortex moves by the other free vortices including the bound vortex and the uniform velocity. The induced velocity w=u−iv at z by the vortex κc located at z=zc is written as:
u−iv=iκcz−zc.
Actual calculations were done in the ζ-plane with respect to all the vortices including those of the mirror image. The calculation step was carried out at every time for the step Δt. See [14] for the suitable relation between Δx and Δt.
2.4 Calculation results
In the calculations, we determine the physical variables by choosing a=1, ρ=1 and U=1. In Figure 3, we show their positions and the direction of rotation for the case when ν=0.5 and WT=0.5 at t=19.8. The symbol + denotes the vortices of the clockwise rotation and those of the triangle (in red) the anticlockwise one, respectively. It is seen that the vortices rotating in clockwise direction gather at some places in the negative y-plane, while those rotating in anticlockwise direction gather in the positive y-plane. Figure 4 shows the positions at t=39.8. We can find three clusters of vortices of clockwise rotation at about x=7.5, 20, and 33, and three clusters of anticlockwise rotation at x=13, 27, and 37. The clusters of positive or negative vortices occur by the interaction of each vortex. At those positions, the vorticities concentrate and have a structure in a large scale. Nonlinearity is seen even for such low WT (=0.5). Three clusters of vortices rotating in the clockwise direction are in the area for y<0, while three clusters rotating in the anticlockwise direction are in the area for y>0. This array of two vortex streets would generate the downward flow, which suggests that the momentum is generated in the positive x-direction. Momentum generation in the positive x-direction means the generation of thrust force, as will be explained later. The deviation of arrays from the ordered ones is the result of nonlinearity. Figure 4 also shows the deviation of sinusoidal distribution of vortices. Next, we consider the positions of vortices at initial stages near t=0. Those vortices generated initially, which are distributed near x=40, fluctuate violently and move to the positive y-direction.
Figure 3.
Positions and the direction of rotation of vortices at t=19.8 for the case of WT=0.5 and ν=0.5. Vortices of the positive sign generated in the initial stage gather near x= 12 and those of the negative sign near x=17.5. The symbol + stands for vortices rotating in the clockwise direction, while the triangle in red indicates vortices rotating in the anticlockwise direction.
Figure 4.
Positions and the direction of rotation of vortices at t=39.8 for WT=0.5 and ν=0.5. Some clusters of vortices rotating in the clockwise direction and those rotating in the anticlockwise direction appear.
In Figure 5, the distribution of vortices κi determined in the manner explained earlier is depicted. This plot shows the complex distribution of vortices based on the interactions among many vortices. This may explain the reason why the clusters are generated.
Figure 5.
Distribution of the vorticity at t=39.8 when WT=0.5 and ν=0.5.
3. Calculation of force
In the following section, we describe calculations carried out when U=ρ=a=1 unless specified otherwise.
3.1 Direct force by movement of a plate with a circulation
According to Eq.(5), the movement in the y-direction of the plate with a circulation Γ1 gives rise to the force Xb normal to it,
Xb=−ρΓ1ẏ0.E18
We investigate the thrust generation due to the movement of a thin flat plate in more detail. When the motion is subjected to Eq.(17), we consider the force in the y-direction at the initial stage t≈0. Vortices rotating in the positive direction appear under the lower place near the trailing edge. Similarly, in the ζ-plane, the mirror images of the vortices rotating in the anticlockwise appear in a circle with radius a. In these, circumstances the circulation Γ around the circle is positive. In this case the force acts in the negative x-direction, because the sign of Xb is negative from Eq.(18).
The case where two free vortices are outside the circle is shown in Figure 6. For more than a vortex in the flow field there must be mirror images whose sign is opposite to the free vortices. In general, at time t, many vortices of the same number of free vortices exist inside the circle.
Figure 6.
A simple case where two free vortices κ1 and κ2 are released is illustrated in the ζ-plane. Two vortices of the opposite signs exist in the circle in the ζ-plane. The circulation Γ around the circle is the sum of two vorticities, 2π(κ1+κ2).
When n vortices are released, the intensity of the vortices is expressed as a sum ∑i=1nκi. At the same time, the sum of vortices within the circle of the radius a determines the circulation Γ of the bound vortex. The circulation of the bound vortex is expressed as
Γ=∑i=1n2πκi.E19
Using this circulation, we try to evaluate the force generated by the heaving motion. In Eq.(18) by changing Γ1 by Γ, we have the force,
Xbt=−ρΓdy0dt,E20
The variation of Xb calculated by using the above equation is shown in Figure 7 as a function of nondimensional time τ=t/2a/U. The variation of the heaving velocity whτ of the plate (Eq.(17) is also plotted there). Let us consider the initial stage when the plate moves upward. Vortices generated by the upward movement are rotating in the clockwise direction, as shown in Figures 4 or 5. At the initial stage, mirror images inside the circle of the radius a rotate in the anticlockwise direction. In other words, the plate has a positive circulation. Because the velocity wh is initially positive, the force Xb is negative from Eq.(20). The force acts against the main flow, i.e., the plate is pulled by the fluid in the negative x-direction. Usually, the upward motion connects with positive circulation, and hence the force becomes almost negative. On the contrary, negative circulation occurs when the motion is downwards. As a result, the sign of Xb has a negative value in the mean. The average value Xbav is −0.240. The index (av) stands for the mean over two periods of oscillation. It should be noted that when the absolute velocity of the plate ∣wh∣ is the maximum, the force becomes maximum. This means that during the generation of strong vortices, the pressure at the edge becomes large. Strictly speaking, slight time delay is also observed. This may be because of the effect of the convection due to other free vortices.
Figure 7.
The variation of force by the movement of the plate with circulation Γ. Denoting the force as Xb, the variation divided by 2aρU is plotted as a function of τ=t/2a/U.
The right-hand side of Eq.(20) expresses the differentiation of the virtual momentum ρΓy0 with respect to time, if the circulation could be independent of time. It might be the incorrect estimation of the force. The right-hand side of Eq.(19) expresses the summation of all vortices and each vorticity is independent of time. However, because the number of vortices changes with time, the circulation Γ should be considered to be time-dependent. The dependence of time on the circulation must be taken into account. From this point of view, there is a room for reconsidering the results.
As seen in Figure 7, the force Xb varies with a period π/ν=T/2 and has a negative value on an average. However, we did not take into account the variation of Γ. The circulation Γ around the plate changes with the same period π/ν. In Eq.(20) we took into account the differentiation of the vitual momentum partly, and it could not give the correct force induced by virtual momentum. The x-component of the real virtual momentum, ρΓty0t, has two time-dependent variables, Γ and y0. To estimate the correct force Xb, we should take into account the variation of the virtual momentum. The correct expression for the force:
Xb=−ddtρΓty0t.E21
In the present situation, Γ and y0 are both periodic function of time whose period is 2π/ν=T. The product of two periodic functions with the same period is also a periodic function. The differentiation with respect to t is also a periodic function whose average is zero. Finally, we conclude that the force Xb gives no net force, or Xbav=0. Here the subscript (av) stands for the average over two periods of time, 2T.
3.2 Effect of moving vortices
In this subsection, we discuss the force resulting from the movement of free vortices. First, we show the result of the force in the y-direction. This problem was first discussed and the solution was analytically given by Kármán-Sears in the linear limit [15]. Their solution corresponds to the sum of the forces Yv and Yd. The force Yv has already been given in Eq.(15) only when one free vortex exists. For the present aim, however, the formula should be extended to include all the vortices. In the following, according to [15] the variation of force divided by 2aρU is shown. When WT=0.5 and ν=0.5 the variations are given in Figure 8. The variation of Yv in the VM, and that of the sum of Yv and Yd in the DI. The change of the sum Yv+Yd agrees well with the analytical result of [15]. In particular, the agreement becomes better for a lower WT. It is seen that the two components Yv and Yd have an importance of the same degree on the generation of force. At an initial stage, τ≈0, the sum has a negative value, and the minimum value of the force occurs at the stage where the velocity in the y-direction becomes maximum, which corresponds to the initial instant τ=0. The force acts as a drag in this heaving motion. It is interesting to investigate the y-component of the force with respect to the virtual momentum. Because such a force in the y-direction is not related directly to the thrust force, hereafter we will not discuss it further.
Figure 8.
The variation of the force in the y-direction Yv due to the change of the virtual momentum. The variation of the sum of Yv and Yd of the DI is also plotted.
At the initial stage, it is seen from Figures 4 and 5 that vortices of positive vorticity appear. These vortices travel to the position near x=40 at τ≈20.
Next we consider the thrust component of the force generated by the change of virtual momentum. From Eq.(15) the force component is expressed for a vortex κ1 as
Xv=2πρκ1ẏ1.E22
Taking into account all the vortices existing in the flow field, we can get a complete set of the component for the present problem. The variation is shown in Figure 9. It seems to oscillate sinusoidally except for the initial stage and has a positive value in the mean. For this example, the mean value Xvav is calculated to be 0.148. This means that the force acts in the positive x-direction or the fluid pushes the plate to the direction of the flow. Similarly, the plate is adding the force to the flow as a reaction. In this sense, we may regard the positive Xvav as a thrust. Whether this force acts as a thrust or a drag depends on the combination of the sign of κ1 and that of the velocity ẏ0. Possible combinations are listed in Table 1.
Figure 9.
The force generated from the variation of the virtual momentum is Xv+iYv. The variation of the x-component, Xv/2aρU, is plotted as a function of the dimensionless time τ when WT=0.5 and ν=0.5.
κ1a (Direction of rotation)
ẏ1 (Heaving velocity)
Xvb (Direction of force)
Thrust or drag
I
+
+
+
thrust
II
+
−
−
drag
III
−
+
−
drag
IV
−
−
+
thrust
Table 1.
Signs of κ1, velocity and force. The combination of the sign of κ1 and ẏ1 determine whether Xv acts as a thrust or a drag.
Vorticity.
Force in the x-direction.
Behind the heaving plate there appear two vortex streets, as shown in Figures 3 and 4. The upper street consists of vortices rotating in the positive direction, and the lower one consists of vortices rotating in the negative one. By inspecting the distributions of vortices at two different times t=19.8 and t=39.8, it is found that the vortices rotating in the positive direction move upward and those rotating in the negative direction moves downward. This tendency is pronounced for the vortices existing near the trailing edge. It is noted that the force has its peak when the heaving velocity wh is at the maximum or the minimum. The period of the force oscillation is T/2. When the plate passes through y=0, the vortex with a strong intensity is generated. At this instant, the force reaches the maximum.
Table 1 suggests that the sign of the force Xv is positive. In fact, it is seen from Figure 9 that the average of the force Xv is calculated to be positive.
By comparing Figures 7 and 9 it is clear that the force component Xv is small compared to Xb. The heaving motion has an influence more effectively on the generation of force in the y-direction As far as the thrust force is concerned, however, the force Xb produced directly by the heaving motion has no effect. Therefore, the force we should take into account is the force Xv only as a thrust.
3.3 Effect of heaving amplitude on the force
It seems that the thrust force is generated due to the motion of the plate against the fluid. To understand the role of the heaving amplitude WT, we plotted Xvav as a function of WT in Figure 10. As mentioned earlier, the subscript (av) means the average over two periods. It is easy to see that the thrust is proportional to WT2 except when the WT value is lage. In this case, the proportional constant is estimated to be 0.592. In addition to Xvav, the variation of Xbav is also plotted for comparison.
Figure 10.
Thrust variation as a function of WT when U=1 and ν=0.5. Thrust increases proportional to WT2.
Next, we show the variation of the thrust Xvav/2aρU as a function of U in Figure 11. The curve seems to be inversely proportional to U except for large values of U. This means that the thrust Xv does not depend on the velocity U. When WT=0.5, the constant of proportionality is estimated as 0.148.
Figure 11.
Thrust variation as a function of U for WT=0.5. The thrust is inversely proportional to U. The proportional constant is estimated as 0.148.
3.4 Effect of heaving frequency on the force
From the previous subsection, it can be seen that Xv is proportional to WT2 and does not depend on U. To confirm it, we have plotted the nondimensional variable Xvav/L/2/ρU2 as a function of WT/U2 in Figure 12 for three different WT‘s, i.e., 0.3, 0.5 and 0.7. The coefficient Xvav/2aρU2 is called the thrust coefficient denoted as CL. The coefficient has almost linear relation to the velocity ratio WT/U. The constant of proportionality must be nondimensional. In such unsteady locomotions, the most important dimensionless parameter is the reduced frequency k=2aρν/U or the Froude number. However, Figure 12 gives no defined dependence of the reduced frequency on the coefficient CT. The plotted data include various values of k between 0.2≤k≤2.5. We can draw our conclusion that the reduced frequency k does not affect the thrust coefficient in this heaving motion.
Figure 12.
Thrust coefficient CT as a function of WT/U2. For three different WT the data are almost decomposed into a unique line.
We summarise the thrust coefficient in the nondimensional form,
CT=XvavL12ρU2∝WTU2,E23
where L is the chord length being equal to 4a.
4. Concluding remarks
Thrust force can be generated by a simple heaving motion of a plate. The force is perpendicular to the direction of oscillation. A pair of rows of vortices plays an important role in the generation of the force. The two vortex streets give rise to an increase in momentum in the direction normal to the direction of oscillation. The word “momentum” here does not mean the usual momentum but the virtual one, because the usual momentum cannot be determined in such a vortex system. The direct integration of the pressure around the surface of a body is not a correct way to know the thrust generation. Application of the virtual momentum to the generation of force made the estimation of the force possible.
In general, the most important parameter characterising the unsteady flow is the reduced frequency k or Froude number. How the parameter plays a part in the generation of force has been a main concern of many people. Many researchers have tried to address this problem experimentally. However, the task was difficult to address, and only few researchers have answered analytically.
Our result is for the coefficient of thrust CT,
CT∝WTU2.E24
The proportional constant is nondimensional and does not depend on the parameter k expressing the unsteadiness of flow. The thrust force Xvav is independent of uniform velocity U, and therefore the coefficient CT is proportional to WT/U2.
Although our analysis is confined to the heaving motion of a thin plate, we summarise that the force due to the vortex movement can be expressed as a function of nondimensional quantity in a simple form. It is expected that our analysis could apply to more complex movement of an aerofoil.
Acknowledgments
The author thanks Professor Hidenobu Shoji of Tsukuba University for many useful discussions and important information regarding vortex element methods.
Conflict of interest
The author declares no conflict of interest.
Nomenclature
a
Radius of circle in mapped plane
CT
Thrust coefficient
k (=2aρν/U)
Reduced frequency
L
Chord length (=4a)
T=2π/ν
Period of oscillation
U
Uniform velocity
WT
Amplitude of heaving velocity
X+iY
Complex force
x+iy
Coordinates in complex plane
w=u−iv
Complex velocity
ν
Radian frequency of heaving
Γ
Circulation along the curve in the anticlockwise direction
κ
Vorticity (positive for clockwise, negative for anticlockwise)
ρ
Density of fluid
ζ
Plane mapped from real z-plane
VM
Virtual momentum component
DI
Direct interaction component
v
Virtual component
d
Direct interaction component
b
Bound vortex
av.
Average
LEV
Leading edge vortex
\n',keywords:"heaving motion, virtual momentum, unsteady effect, extended Blasius formula, vortex street",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/79119.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/79119.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79119",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79119",totalDownloads:112,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:50,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"September 13th 2021",datePrePublished:"October 25th 2021",datePublished:"December 15th 2021",dateFinished:"October 25th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"To understand the force acting on birds, insects, and fish, we take heaving motion as a simple example. This motion might deviate from the real one. However, since the mechanism of force generation is the vortex shedding due to the motion of an object, the heaving motion is important for understanding the force generated by unsteady motion. The vortices released from the object are closely related to the motion characteristics. To understand the force acting on an object, information about momentum change is necessary. However, in vortex systems, it is impossible to estimate the usual momentum. Instead of the momentum, the “virtual momentum,” or the impulse, is needed to generate the force. For calculating the virtual momentum, we traced all vortices over a whole period, which was carried out by using the vortex-element method. The force was then calculated based on the information on the vortices. We derived the thrust coefficient as a function of the ratio of the heaving to travelling velocity.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79119",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79119",book:{id:"10007",slug:"propulsion-new-perspectives-and-applications"},signatures:"Kazuo Matsuuchi",authors:[{id:"42387",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazuo",middleName:null,surname:"Matsuuchi",fullName:"Kazuo Matsuuchi",slug:"kazuo-matsuuchi",email:"hinoya1yu@yahoo.co.jp",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42387/images/system/42387.jpg",institution:{name:"University of Tsukuba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Direct effect of a heaving plate",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Effect of bound vortex",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Effect of free vortex",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Determination of positions and velocities of a vortex",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Calculation results",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Calculation of force",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.1 Direct force by movement of a plate with a circulation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.2 Effect of moving vortices",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.3 Effect of heaving amplitude on the force",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.4 Effect of heaving frequency on the force",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. Concluding remarks",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"Nomenclature",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Dickinson, M.. Solving the mystery of insects use a combination of aerodynamic effects to remain aloft. Scientific American June, 2001:35–41'},{id:"B2",body:'Trianthafyllou, M.S. & Trianthafyllou, G.S.. An efficient swimming machine. Scientific American March, 1995:64–70'},{id:"B3",body:'Lamb, H.. Hydrodynamics, sixth edn. 1932; Cambrige Univ'},{id:"B4",body:'Trianthafyllou, M.S., Trianthafyllou, G.S. & Gopalkrishnab, R.. Wake mechanics for thrust generation in oscillating foils. Phys. Fluids A 1991: 3:2835–2837'},{id:"B5",body:'Trianthafyllou, M.S., Techet, A.H. & Hover, F.S.. Review of experimental work in biomemetic foils. IEEE Journal of Ocean Engineering 2004: 29:585–594'},{id:"B6",body:'von Loebbecke, A., Mittal, R., Fish, F.E. & Mark, R.. A comparison of the kinematics of the dolphin kick in humans and cetaceans. Human Movement Science 2009: 28:99–112'},{id:"B7",body:'Alben, S.. Simulating the dynamics of flexible bodies and vortex streets. J. Comp. Phys. 2009: 228:2587–2603'},{id:"B8",body:'Imai, I.. Fluid Dynamics [in Japanese], 1st edn. 1973; Shokabo'},{id:"B9",body:'Milne-Thomson, L. M.. Theoretical Hydrodynmics, 5th edn. 1968; Dover Pub'},{id:"B10",body:'Batchelor, G. K.. An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics, 1st edn. 1967; Cambrige Univ'},{id:"B11",body:'Munk, M. M.. Fluid mechanics, part II. In Aerodynamic Theory, vol. I (ed. W. F. Durand), pp. 224–259. 1976; Peter Smith Pub'},{id:"B12",body:'Saffman, P. G.. Vortex Dynamics, 1st edn. 1995; Cambrige Univ'},{id:"B13",body:'Minotti, F. O.. Unsteady two-dimensional theory of a flapping wing. Physical Review E 2002: 66 (051907)'},{id:"B14",body:'Anderson, J. M., Streitlien, K., Barret, D. S. & Triantafyllou, M. S.. Oscillating foils of high propulsive efficiency. J. Fluid Mech. 1998: 360:41–72'},{id:"B15",body:'von Kármán, Th. & Sears, W. R. M.. Airfoil theory for non-uniform motion. J. Aero. Sciences 1938: 5–10:379–390'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Kazuo Matsuuchi",address:"matsuuch@kz.tsukuba.ac.jp",affiliation:'
University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba City, Japan
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1. Introduction
Solid waste can be derived from municipal solid waste (MSW), biomass residue, plastic waste, and their mixtures. For example, MSW management has become a big challenge all over the world. Based on a World Bank report [1], the world generates 0.74 kg of waste per capita per day, and the total MSW production is projected to grow to 3.40 billion tons by 2050. 37% of this MSW ends up in landfills and 33% is openly dumped worldwide [1]. Only 19% undergoes material recovery through recycling and composting, while the remaining 11% is treated through modern incineration. This creates serious environmental problems and a huge energy waste. One sustainable strategy for waste management is to reduce landfill disposal, thus minimizing the environmental impact. Meanwhile, utilizing solid waste resources to create value-added products has become one of the most attracting topics. The top 3 components of MSW are food and green waste (44%), paper and cardboard (17%), and rubber and leather (12%) [1]. Therefore, MSW contains a high content of organic material, which can be recovered through biochemical [2] and thermochemical processes [3]. Thermochemical processes are promising for dealing with a large quantity of MSW, especially from unsorted waste streams, as it can significantly reduce the waste in both mass (about 70–80%) and volume (about 80–90%) with a high conversion rate. Other detailed advantages can be found in Arena’s review on thermochemical processes [4].
Various thermochemical processes, such as incineration, pyrolysis, and gasification, have been developed to recover energy from the organic fraction in MSW [5]. Incineration is a full oxidation of the combustible materials in the waste and generates energy in the form of heat. Incineration has been traditionally used to treat waste. However, due to the production of flue gases (CO2, H2O, O2, N2) during the process and legislation enforcement regarding gas emission, new development of incineration is needed to reduce the environmental impact. Pyrolysis is the thermal degradation of waste, under a limit or total absence of an oxidizing agent. Pyrolysis can recover part of the organic fraction as liquid fuels (e.g., hydrocarbons, alcohols), while also generating a small amount of synthesis gas (syngas, a mixture of CO, H2, CO2, CH4, etc.) and biochar. The generated syngas can be used to power gas engines or turbines to generate electricity. Although there may be some differences in yield, proportion, and exact composition, gasification is a partial oxidation of organic compounds and mainly produces syngas. Syngas can be converted into value products through processes such as the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis [6, 7], or used as a fuel for electricity and heat generation. Therefore, gasification can produce energy, energy carriers (such as H2) and chemicals from the solid waste [8], all of which creates lots of research interest. Additionally, gasification has advantages including no limitations on the size and type of waste, different applications of the gaseous fuels, and a decrease in overall pollution.
Gasification of solid waste is a complex process, including different chemical and physical transformations at high temperature (e.g., >600 °C). Based on the oxidation medium, gasification can be classified into partial oxidation with air, oxygen-enriched air, pure oxygen, steam, and plasma gasification. Different gasification processes generate different gas compositions, heating values and byproduct yields. In general, there are four steps in gasification: vaporization, devolatilization/pyrolysis, secondary cracking of tars, and reactions/reduction/gasification [9]. Vaporization involves heating the waste at low temperature (ca. 160 °C) to remove water from the solid waste. Devolatilization/pyrolysis occurs at a higher temperature and generates char and volatiles, which include long chain hydrocarbon liquids and a small fraction of gases. Secondary cracking of tars (a mixture of condensable hydrocarbons) is used to further crack the tars and involves several homogeneous reactions in the gas phase and heterogeneous ones at the surface of the solid fuel or char particles. Reactions/reduction/gasification is used to react the char with a gas species using heterogeneous reactions. The reactions which occur during gasification are complex, making it difficult to optimize the processing parameters to obtain the best quality and yield of syngas. These parameters include equivalence ratio, reactor temperature, residence time of gases and waste, waste composition and physical properties, and composition and inlet temperature of the gasifying medium. Park et al. [10] performed a two-staged gasification of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and biomass blends, comprised of an oxidative pyrolysis reactor and a thermal plasma reactor. They found that, for higher biomass fractions, enhanced CO2 yields were produced and reversely, an increased HDPE fraction yielded a higher content of hydrocarbons.
Different reactors, including single-staged and multi-staged gasifiers, have been developed for gasification [5]. For a single-staged reactor, the pyrolysis and gasification zones are packed into one reactor (Figure 1a). A single-staged gasifier includes a fixed bed gasifier [11, 12], fluidized bed gasifier [13, 14], and entrained flow gasifier [15, 16]. A multi-staged reactor system is configured in two ways: a single reactor with separate, controlled pyrolysis and gasification zones, and separate pyrolysis and gasification reactors connected in series (Figure 1b). The multi-staged gasification technology allows for optimization of reaction conditions for the conversion of biomass at every separate stage. Both single- and multi-staged reactors have been utilized for solid waste gasification. Single- and multi-staged reactors are illustrated in Figure 1. Chan et al. [18] studied the single-staged gasification of MSW, finding that the tar content in syngas could reach 7.8 g/Nm3. Bhoi et al. [19] investigated the co-gasification of a MSW and switchgrass mixture in a single-staged reactor, producing 9.9–26 g/Nm3 of tar. Compared with a single-staged reactor, a multi-staged reactor system can reduce the tar yield, which is beneficial because generated tar can cause failure of gasification projects [20]. Gómez-Barea et al. [21] developed a three-staged, fluidized bed based gasification reactor and found that this three-staged system depicted a higher gasification efficiency (14%) and lower tar content, compared to a regular single-staged fluidized bed reactor. However, literature providing a comparison between single- and multi-staged reactors for solid waste gasification remains sparse. The analysis of reactor dimensions, operating factors, and performance of these reactors has not been studied systematically. It is the goal of this review to present current literature comparing these reactor types and analyzing their relevant processing parameters.
Figure 1.
Schematic of a single-staged reactor (a, fixed bed gasifier) and multi-staged reactor (b, 1: first stage [pyrolysis], 2: second stage [thermal decomposition of tar], 3: third stage [gasification], 4: fluidized bed) [17]. Reproduced with permission from [17].
This chapter focuses on the comparison of single- and multi-staged reactors used for solid waste gasification. Solid waste resources such as MSW, biomass residue, plastic waste, and their mixtures are discussed. The reactor dimensions, operating factors (e.g., temperature, gasification agent, and feed composition), performance (e.g., syngas yield), advantages, and disadvantages of single- and multi-staged reactors are discussed and summarized. Additionally, discussion includes economic and advanced catalysts (e.g., Ni-CaO-C and Ni/Al2O3) which have been developed for use in solid waste gasification. These Ni based catalysts are promising for solid waste gasification at high conversion efficiency. The multi-staged reactor can not only be applied for gasification, but also for pyrolysis and torrefaction.
2. Solid waste gasification
2.1 Single-staged reactor
2.1.1 Reactor dimensions
Different reactor scales, including bench, lab, and pilot scale, have been developed for solid waste gasification. The inside diameter and length of the reactor are typically in the range of 3–800 mm and 200–3500 mm, respectively, as shown in Table 1. Selection of the appropriate reactor dimensions is helpful for the solid waste gasification performance. For example, Xiong et al. [38] found that the reactor diameter had a negligible effect on gasification performance, but an increase in bed height (0.6–1.2 m) caused an increased heating value and carbon conversion efficiency. Basha et al. [39] found that a difference in the hydrocarbon content and methane concentration of the product gas depends on the reactor size and design. Larger reactors can increase the residence time of the product gas in the reactor, so that lighter hydrocarbons have more time to decompose or undergo oxidization into smaller molecules such as H2 and CO [39]. There are various types of reactors developed for solid waste gasification, including bubbling fluidized bed, downdraft fluidized bed, updraft fluidized bed, downdraft fixed bed, updraft fixed bed, batch, and entrained-flow reactors, some of which are shown in Figures 2–4. Different types of reactors are applicable for specific types of solid waste. For example, steam gasification of waste with a high moisture content occurs well in a bubbling fluidized bed reactor.
The solid waste gasification, single-staged reactor type, and dimension.
Polypropylene (PP).
Polyethylene (PE).
Polycarbonate (PC).
Figure 2.
Illustration of the downdraft gasification of MSW integrated with a hot syngas purification system. RDF pellets were gasified to produce syngas. Some of the syngas passed through a purification system (including a tar reformer, particulate filter, and dechlorination/desulfurization reactor) to remove impurities (tar, particulates, HCl, and sulfur species). (ER: equivalence air ratio, TC1: thermocouple 1, TC2: thermocouple 2, RDF: refuse derived fuel, TR: tar reformer, DES: desulfurization reactor, GS: gasifier, SPA: solid phase adsorption) [18]. Reproduced with permission from [18].
Figure 3.
Schematic diagram of an H2 production plant with gasification of MSW. MSW was pre-processed and then gasified to produce syngas, which passed through a WGS reactor to produce H2. Partial MSW combustion provided heat for district heating and power grid. (WGS: water gas shift, CHP: combined heat and power) [40]. Reproduced with permission from [40].
Figure 4.
An updraft gasification reactor (left) and a schematic diagram of the reactor interior (right). The reactor consisted of a stainless-steel cylinder with a height of 59 cm and a diameter of 8.3 cm. Biomass was transported through a feeding cochlea at the top. Four thermocouples (TH1–TH4) were used to monitor the temperature evolution during the gasification process. A perforated metal plate was used as a support for the gasification bed to allow the oxidant to flow through. A wind box was used to preheat the oxidant agent. The produced syngas was cleaned using a cyclone and a ceramic filter for particle removal. Reproduced with permission from [41].
Other designs, such as adding a stirrer or using sorbents, have been developed to improve the solid waste gasification performance. In a study, Indrawan et al. [32] utilized a stirrer in a downdraft reactor system to create a uniform mixing feed and prevent bridging inside the reactor; a rotating ash scrapper to unload ash from the reactor and prevent ash accumulation inside the reactor; and an inclined ash screw conveyor to transport the ash into the ash drum. Pinto et al. [30] used water to cool the feeding system and avoid clogging inside, which can arise from the feedstock pyrolysis (prior to entry into the reactor). N2 was blown through the feeding system to help transfer the feedstock smoothly, avoid plugging, and prevent gas backflow. Lastly, the gas product passed through a cyclone to remove particulates [30]. Salaudeen et al. [42] used calcined eggshell as the bed material and CO2 sorbent for the steam gasification of sawdust, in a bubbling fluidized bed reactor, to improve the hydrogen content in the syngas. The sorbent-enhanced gasification enabled the reactor operation at comparatively lower temperatures, and required less equipment [42]. In summary, the reactor design and size (inside diameter of 3–800 mm and length of 200–3500 mm) need to be optimized to maximize the solid waste gasification performance.
2.1.2 Operating factors and performance
During the solid waste gasification process, many parameters such as temperature, feed composition, gasification agent, and reaction time are investigated. Table 2 shows the syngas yield (typically 1.2–2.2 Nm3/kg) obtained from gasification under varying conditions. Temperature is a significant parameter that can affect the gasification performance and is usually in the range of 600–900 °C. For example, Bai et al. [34] studied the gasification of PP at 23 MPa and 500–800 °C, finding that an increase in temperature improved the gasification efficiency. Bai et al. [43] also studied the supercritical water gasification of polyethylene terephthalate (PET), finding that the gasification efficiency increased with an increase in temperature from 500 to 800 °C. The PET gasification reaction increased slowly with the temperature (500–700 °C). Based on the kinetics, the PET gasification reaction was complex and intense in the initial stage of gasification. Most active components gasified quickly, while inert components reacted slowly in the later stage of gasification [43]. Peng et al. [44] studied the gasification at various gasification temperatures (750, 825, and 900 °C), finding that high temperature (900 °C) was favorable for tar cracking. Xiong et al. [38] studied gasification at 400–800 °C, finding that an increase in temperature affected the heating value and improved the gasifier efficiency. Xiang et al. [26] studied the steam gasification at temperatures of 600–1000 °C, finding that the increase in temperature increased the total volume fraction of H2 and CO from 56% to 66%. From all the above studies, an appropriate temperature (e.g., 800–900 °C) should be selected for solid waste gasification based on high gasification performance and low energy consumption.
The solid waste single-staged gasification factor and performance.
Polystyrene (PS).
Feed composition is also a significant parameter for gasification. For example, Pio et al. [36] studied gasification using a refuse-derived fuel (from MSW) and biomass (pine chips or pine pellets) mixture. 0, 10, 20, 50, and 100 wt% of refuse-derived fuel content in the mixture was studied. An increase in the refuse-derived fuel content increased both the CH4 concentration and lower heating value (LHV) of the product gas. Therefore, the addition of refuse-derived fuel to biomass may improve the economic viability and environmental benefits for gasification plants. There was no agglomeration, slag, or defluidization observed during the experiment [36]. Ng et al. [27] studied the gasification of a chicken manure and wood chip mixture. The co-gasification of this chicken manure and wood chip mixture (30 wt% chicken manure) produced a syngas of similar quality (in terms of LHV) compared to that of gasification of pure wood chip. The chicken manure was found to be a compatible feedstock for gasification in the presence of wood chips [27]. Su et al. [45] studied the gasification of food waste at a food waste concentration of 10–30 wt%. When the food waste concentration increased from 10 to 30 wt%, the H2 yield largely decreased from 1.1 to 0.6 mol/kg, while the CH4 yield increased. However, higher food waste concentrations may cause the reactor to plug and catalyst to deactivate [45].
More researchers have studied the effect of feed composition on gasification performance. For example, Bian et al. [24] studied the supercritical water co-gasification of a lignite coal and plastic (PP, PE, or PC) mixture at concentrations of 5–35 wt%. The co-gasification of lignite coal and plastic improved the gasification efficiency of each other, indicating a synergistic effect. This was also observed in other studies. Zaini et al. [23] studied the gasification of landfill waste and a landfill waste and biochar mixture. Co-gasification of landfill waste with biochar was beneficial to improve the H2 concentration in the syngas. At 800 °C, the addition of 35 wt% biochar enhanced the H2 concentration from 38 to 54 vol%, and reduced the tar yield from 0.05 to 0.01 g/g-fuel-daf (daf: dry-ash-free weight basis) [23]. It was also determined that an increase in feedstock concentration could cause problems with reactor operations, such as reactor plugging and damage, thus reducing the gasification efficiency. A suitable feedstock concentration should be selected to balance the gasification efficiency and industrial application [24].
During solid waste gasification, different gasification agents such as O2 and air can be used. For example, Pinto et al. [30] studied the gasification of rice husk, rice straw and PE at ~850 °C using different gasification agents, such as a mixture of steam, air, oxygen, and CO2. At this temperature, the heavier gaseous hydrocarbons and tar contents can be minimized, while steam can promote steam reforming reactions, thus resulting in a gas enriched in H2 and lower tar content. The use of steam and O2 was also a good gasification agent option, especially since it lacked N2 and prevented any diluting effects. The combination produces a larger gas HHV (around 42% higher) and greater energy conversion than those obtained when air was used instead of O2. However, the cost of O2 is still a disadvantage and limits its use [30]. Meng et al. [37] studied the effect of gasifying agents such as air, air–steam, oxygen-steam, and oxygen-enriched air, on sawdust gasification. Compared to sawdust gasification using air, oxygen-enriched air increased LHV due to a reduction in N2 dilution, while air–steam favored H2 production due to water gas shift reaction enhancement [37]. Zheng et al. [35] studied the steam gasification of MSW using recycled CO2 at 1000 °C with a CO2/steam ratio of 0.5–3.0, and found that increasing the CO2/steam ratio from 0.5 to 2.5 increased both H2 and CO molar yields.
In order to further improve the gasification performance, various catalysts have been developed and explored. For example, Wang et al. [49] studied the CO2-assisted gasification of PP at 900 °C, and discovered the catalytic (Ni/Al2O3 catalyst) gasification improved the gas evolution rate and syngas yield significantly compared to non-catalytic gasification. Irfan et al. [22] studied the catalytic gasification of MSW at 1 atm, finding that the use of waste marble powder as a catalyst was helpful to increase the H2 concentration and decrease the CO2 concentration in the gas product, compared to non-catalytic tests. Tian et al. [31] studied the gasification at 800–1000 °C, finding that the use of a catalyst (olivine) enhanced the syngas yield and reduced the cracked tar content. Peng et al. [44] studied gasification over a Ni/CeO2/Al2O3 catalyst at different Ni loadings (20, 30, and 40%), finding that a high catalyst loading (40%) was favorable for high-purity H2 production and tar cracking. The above research demonstrates that the use of an appropriate catalyst can improve product yield and selectivity.
Other parameters such as reaction time, waste pretreatment, and feed dimension have also been investigated for their influence on gasification performance. For example, Bai et al. [34] studied the gasification of PP at a reaction time of 2–60 min, finding that an increase in reaction time had a positive effect on the gasification efficiency. In another study, Bai et al. [43] studied the supercritical water gasification of PET, finding that gasification efficiency increased with the increase in reaction time from 2 to 60 min. Bai et al. [43] also found that the reaction pressure (21–29 MPa) had little impact on the gasification efficiency because the properties of the supercritical water did not change significantly at these different pressures. Su et al. [33] found that waste sorting is helpful to improve the H2-rich syngas production (or syngas yield) and gasification efficiency compared to unsorted waste. Xiang et al. [26] studied the steam gasification of MSW with two different MSW particle sizes (20 < diameter < 30 mm and 80 < diameter < 100 mm), finding that the increase of particle size decreased the total volume fraction of H2 and CO from 52% to 50%. Basha et al. [39] selected a feedstock size of 2–4 mm because a larger particle size prevented a compact fuel bed, while a smaller particle size blocked the reactor and plugged the gas outlet.
2.1.3 Advantages and disadvantages
In single-staged reactor systems, different types of reactors have been utilized based on their advantages and disadvantages. The common reactors used for solid waste gasification include fixed bed, fluidized bed, and entrained flow reactors [50]. A fixed bed reactor has simple construction and operation. However, a fixed bed reactor is typically used for small size reactions with limited loading/processing flexibility because of the poor adaptability for heterogeneous materials. A fluidized bed reactor can provide high mixing and solid–gas contact, promote heat and mass transfer, increase the reaction rate and conversion efficiency, and improve the process flexibility, compared to a fixed bed reactor. However, for both fixed bed and fluidized bed reactors, tar formation is a major problem, while entrained flow reactors have a high cost and poor biomass adaptability [50].
Indrawan et al. [32] studied the gasification of a MSW and switchgrass mixture, finding that the downdraft reactor (patented design) system design was selected due to low tar content (< 0.5 g/Nm3), compared to a circulating fluidized bed (up to 12 g/Nm3), fluidized bed (up to 40 g/Nm3), and updraft fixed-bed reactor (up to 150 g/Nm3). Bian et al. [24] used a sealed quartz reactor system in their study and determined that a fluidized bed reactor might be better for enhancing the mass transfer of the reactant and reducing reactor plugging problems. The fluidized bed gasifier has excellent solid–gas contact efficiency, uniform and controllable temperature distribution, and broad feedstock feasibility [51]. Based on this data, the downdraft fluidized bed is a promising reactor choice for solid waste gasification.
2.2 Multi-staged reactor
2.2.1 Reactor dimensions
The inside diameter and length of a multi-staged reactor is typically in the range of 3–750 mm and 150–3500 mm, respectively, shown in Table 3. These dimensions are similar to those of the single-staged reactor. Likewise, selection of appropriate reactor dimensions will be helpful for the solid waste gasification performance in a multi-staged reactor. There are multiple stages in a multi-staged reactor system such as pyrolysis, reforming, tar cracking, and water-gas shift. Figure 5 shows a diagram of a two-staged gasification process. Different stages are developed for specified reactions. Parameters in each stage can be operated individually for optimization. In addition, using high temperatures in the tar cracking stage can be helpful to largely reduce tar [50].
First stage: inside diameter = 80 mm, length = 200 mm, second stage: inside diameter = 136 mm, length = 400 mm, and third stage: inside diameter = 26 mm, length = 2500 mm
First stage: pyrolysis/gasification, second stage: reformer for tar cracked, and third stage: combustor with air
The solid waste gasification, multi-staged reactor type, and dimension.
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE).
Figure 5.
Diagram of a two-staged gasification process, which mainly consists of a feeding system, two reaction zones (fluidized bed reactor and tar-cracking reactor), a char separation system (cyclone and hot filter), and a quenching system (water-cooled condensers) [61]. Reproduced with permission from [61].
Kuba and Hofbauer [62] studied the gasification in a dual fluid bed gasifier, where heat is supplied by the bed material circulating between the gasifier and the combustion reactor. The reactor design and the fluidization nozzle position had a significant effect on the tar formation and reduction. For example, an increase in the bed height of the gasifier can increase the residence time, leading to an overall decrease in tar. Additional fluidization nozzles in the inclined wall, located in the bubbling bed where the feedstock enters the gasifier via a conveyer screw, can improve the mixing of feedstock and bed material. A moving bed section above the inclined wall (no fluidization) can be used to reduce the tar formation. Additional fluidization nozzles can also be installed to reduce the influence of the inclined wall [62]. Chai et al. [63] studied the two-staged gasification of a mixture of LDPE and pine sawdust over catalysts, finding that N2 can be introduced into the gasifier to prevent oxidation of the catalyst in the bottom stage.
2.2.2 Operating factors and performance
Table 4 shows the syngas yield (typically 0.7–3.0 Nm3/kg) obtained from different gasification processes, depending on feedstock species, reactor types, and operating conditions. Temperature is one operating parameter that has a significant influence on the solid waste gasification performance in a multi-staged reactor. For example, Bai et al. [52] studied the two-staged gasification kinetics of PC in supercritical water at different temperatures (500–800 °C). An increase in temperature improved the free radical and cracking reactions of PC. The gasification reaction of PC was intense and underwent a cracking reaction, forming gas phase products and many small molecular fragments in the first stage. The gasification reaction was slow, but kept increasing in the second phase [52]. Xiao et al. [54] found the pyrolysis/gasification of pine sawdust was largely improved by increasing the reactor temperature from 700 to 850 °C. Prasertcharoensuk et al. [56] found that pyrolysis temperature significantly influenced char properties, specifically, the surface area and pore size increased with an increase in temperature from 600 to 900 °C. Liu et al. [59] studied the gasification at temperatures of 600–800 °C, finding that a higher temperature was helpful to enhance gasification performance. Khonde and Chaurasia [20] studied the two-staged gasification at different second-stage temperatures (700–900 °C). The tar yield decreased with increasing temperature, while tar cracking at higher temperatures led to hydrogen rich syngas production (or gas yield) [20].
Waste
Reactor type
Conditions
Performance
Other
Ref.
Biomass briquette
Two-staged (fluidized bed and swirl-melting furnace)
The solid waste multi-staged gasification factor and performance.
Feed concentration and catalyst are important factors that have been investigated for solid waste gasification. For example, Bai et al. [52] studied the gasification kinetics of PC in supercritical water at different PC concentrations (5–25 wt%), finding that a decrease in PC concentration improved the gasification level of the unit feedstock. Chai et al. [63] studied the two-staged gasification of a mixture of LDPE and pine sawdust, finding that the use of a Ni-CaO-C catalyst was helpful to improve the gas yield, compared with non-catalyst. Additionally, it was determined that the heat recovered from the catalyst regeneration can be used for heating feedstocks in the reactor [63]. Al-Rahbi and Williams [57] studied a two-staged pyrolysis-reforming gasification, finding that the H2 production increased largely with the use of a tyre pyrolysis char as the catalyst, compared to non-catalytic test.
Other parameters such as reaction time and pressure have also been investigated for gasification. For example, Bai et al. [52] studied the gasification kinetic of PC in supercritical water at different reaction time (5–60 min), finding that the increase in reaction time improved the gasification efficiency. Bai et al. [52] also studied the gasification at different pressures (21–29 MPa), finding that the pressure had no significant impact on gasification. This is likely because the properties of the supercritical water do not change significantly at these different pressures.
2.2.3 Advantages and disadvantages
Compared to single-staged reactor systems, the use of multi-staged reactor systems for solid waste gasification has some advantages and disadvantages. A two-staged reactor system is convenient to investigate the specific effect of temperature at different stages [63]. The multi-staged reactor tends to be more promising and reliable in technique development [50]. For example, Al-Rahbi and Williams [57] studied two-staged pyrolysis-reforming gasification. The first stage was pyrolysis at 500 °C, and the second stage was reforming at 700–900 °C. The two-staged pyrolysis-reforming reactor was found to increase the total gas yield, compared to a single-staged reactor. One aim of this combination approach of pyrolysis and reforming is to improve the gas yield and obtain an optimum syngas ratio via shifting the reaction from exothermic to endothermic [57].
In a single reactor, it is difficult to control the different gasification reactions, such as pyrolysis, char gasification, tar cracking, and water-gas shift reaction, individually [64]. Multiple reactions can occur in one reactor, making it difficult to correlate feedstock properties and downstream utilization of the gas product. Multi-staged reactors can be helpful to improve gasification performance [64]. In a three-staged reactor system, the reactions can be optimized, individually, under appropriate conditions. This can also achieve efficient tar removal [54]. However, the multi-staged reactor is significantly more complex and has a higher capital cost, compared to a single-staged reactor [67]. Furthermore, a long and steady gasification operation needs to be developed for commercial scale H2 production [61].
2.2.4 Applications of a multi-staged reactor
Multi-staged reactors have some advantages, as discussed previously. They have been applied not only in gasification, but also in other technologies such as pyrolysis and torrefaction. For example, we previously studied the pyrolysis of alkali lignin to biofuel using a two-staged reactor (pyrolysis and catalytic reactor) [68]. The alkali lignin and catalyst were individually loaded into the pyrolysis and catalytic reactor, respectively. The alkali lignin was successfully converted into biofuel at a biofuel yield of 28 wt% [68]. Guzelciftci et al. [69] studied the pyrolysis of wood using a two-staged reactor system (auger and fluidized bed reactors). The auger reactor temperature varied between room temperature and 290 °C, while the fluidized bed reactor temperature varied between 500 and 700 °C. The obtained bio-oil yield varied largely between 24 and 52 wt% [69].
Granados et al. [70] used a two-staged rotary reactor system for torrefaction of poplar wood residues. The two-staged rotary reactor system consists of two in-series rotary drums for continuous drying (115 °C) and torrefaction (300 °C) processes. The HHV of the torrefied poplar wood residues reached 26 MJ/kg, which was a much higher value than that of the raw poplar wood residues (18 MJ/kg) [70]. Nhuchhen et al. [71] studied the torrefaction of yellow poplar in a two-staged reactor system at an angular speed of 4 rpm. Three different torrefaction temperatures (260, 290, and 320 °C) were investigated. An increase in the torrefaction temperature resulted in a decrease in solid mass yield from 93 wt% to 81 wt%. The HHV of the torrefied poplar increased from 20 to 23 MJ/kg with an increase in the torrefaction temperature from 260 to 320 °C [71]. However, further torrefaction studies on the comparison of single- and multi-staged reactors will be needed.
3. Conclusion
Solid waste, including MSW, biomass residue, plastic waste, and their mixtures, has accumulated fast in recent years, leading to solid waste gasification gaining great attention. However, no systematic study has been performed to compare single-staged and multi-staged reactors. This book chapter systematically reviewed state-of-the-art research for both single- and multi-staged reactors. Discussion included analysis of the reactor dimensions, operating factors and performance, advantages, and disadvantages of these reactors. The yield of syngas generated from solid waste gasification is mainly in the range of 0.7–3.0 Nm3/kg. Multi-staged reactors are a convenient approach to investigate the specific effect of parameters at different stages, and the reactions can be optimized individually under appropriate conditions. Additionally, a multi-staged reactor can be helpful to improve gasification performance, but is more complex and has higher capital cost, compared to a single-staged reactor.
Solid waste gasification is affected by several factors including temperature, reaction time, feed composition, and catalyst activity. An appropriate temperature (e.g., 800–900 °C) can be selected for solid waste gasification based on the elevated gasification performance and low energy consumption. A suitable feedstock concentration and reaction time should be selected to balance gasification efficiency and industrial application. Higher feedstock concentration can cause the reactor to plug and subsequent catalyst deactivation, while a longer reaction time may cause greater energy consumption. The use of a steam and O2 mixture as the gasification agent is helpful for gasification efficiency because it produces steam reforming reactions and has a lack of N2 dilution. Waste sorting is helpful to improve the gasification efficiency compared to unsorted waste. Moreover, an appropriate waste feed size should be selected because larger feed size can cause a loose bed and smaller feed size can lead to reactor blockage. The co-gasification of waste mixtures over Ni based catalysts is a promising technology due to the improved gasification efficiency derived from the synergistic effect of the feed mixture.
Additionally, multi-staged reactors have many unique advantages, which make them useful in other applications such as pyrolysis and torrefaction. However, reducing the processing cost of converting solid waste to syngas remains a major technical challenge. Pretreating solid waste, such as MSW, to remove the impurities, high energy consumption at elevated temperatures, and the use of catalysts remain the most expensive aspects of this process. In the future, a better understanding of the gasification reactions, reactor design, and catalyst development needs to be investigated to improve syngas yield and avoid tar formation.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the support from the US Department of Energy (DOE), Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Advanced Manufacturing Office, under CPS Agreement 36863. This book chapter was authored in part by UT-Battelle LLC under contract DE-AC05-00OR22725 with DOE. The US government retains and the publisher, by accepting the article for publication, acknowledges that the US government retains a nonexclusive, paid-up, irrevocable, worldwide license to publish or reproduce the published form of this book chapter, or allow others to do so, for US government purposes. DOE will provide public access to these results of federally sponsored research in accordance with the DOE Public Access Plan (http://energy.gov/downloads/doe-public-access-plan).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appendices and nomenclature
MSW
Municipal solid waste
HDPE
High density polyethylene
PP
Polypropylene
PC
Polycarbonate
PE
Polyethylene
HHV
Higher heating value
LHV
Lower heating value
S/C
Steam to carbon ratio
ER
Equivalence air ratio
TC1
Thermocouple 1
TC2
Thermocouple 2
RDF
Refuse derived fuel
TR
Tar reformer
DES
Desulfurization reactor
GS
Gasifier
SPA
Solid phase adsorption
WGS
Water gas shift
CHP
Combined heat and power
\n',keywords:"solid waste, gasification, single-staged reactor, multi-staged reactor, syngas, catalyst",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75276.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75276.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75276",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75276",totalDownloads:311,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"September 29th 2020",dateReviewed:"January 22nd 2021",datePrePublished:"March 12th 2021",datePublished:"September 29th 2021",dateFinished:"February 16th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Interest in converting waste into renewable energy has increased recently due to concerns about sustainability and climate change. This solid waste is mainly derived from municipal solid waste (MSW), biomass residue, plastic waste, and their mixtures. Gasification is one commonly applied technology that can convert solid waste into usable gases, including H2, CO, CH4, and CO2. Single- and multi-staged reactors have been utilized for solid waste gasification. Comparison in reactor dimensions, operating factors (e.g., gasification agent, temperature, and feed composition), performance (e.g., syngas yield and selectivity), advantages, and disadvantages are discussed and summarized. Additionally, discussion will include economic and advanced catalysts which have been developed for use in solid waste gasification. The multi-staged reactor can not only be applied for gasification, but also for pyrolysis and torrefaction.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75276",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75276",signatures:"Xianhui Zhao, Kai Li, Meghan E. Lamm, Serdar Celik, Lin Wei and Soydan Ozcan",book:{id:"10036",type:"book",title:"Gasification",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Gasification",slug:"gasification",publishedDate:"September 29th 2021",bookSignature:"Valter Silva and Celso Eduardo Tuna",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10036.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-796-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-795-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-797-6",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"187136",title:"Dr.",name:"Valter",middleName:null,surname:"Silva",slug:"valter-silva",fullName:"Valter Silva"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"331381",title:null,name:"Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Wei",fullName:"Lin Wei",slug:"lin-wei",email:"lin.wei@sdstate.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"South Dakota State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"333244",title:"Dr.",name:"Xianhui",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",fullName:"Xianhui Zhao",slug:"xianhui-zhao",email:"zhaox@ornl.gov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Oak Ridge National Laboratory",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"344664",title:"Dr.",name:"Kai",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Kai Li",slug:"kai-li",email:"lik1@ornl.gov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Oak Ridge National Laboratory",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"344665",title:"Dr.",name:"Meghan",middleName:null,surname:"Lamm",fullName:"Meghan Lamm",slug:"meghan-lamm",email:"lammme@ornl.gov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Oak Ridge National Laboratory",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"344666",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Celik",fullName:"Serdar Celik",slug:"serdar-celik",email:"scelik@siue.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Southern Illinois University Edwardsville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"344668",title:"Dr.",name:"Soydan",middleName:null,surname:"Ozcan",fullName:"Soydan Ozcan",slug:"soydan-ozcan",email:"ozcans@ornl.gov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Oak Ridge National Laboratory",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Solid waste gasification",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Single-staged reactor",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"Table 2.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.3 Advantages and disadvantages",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.2 Multi-staged reactor",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"Table 3.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"Table 4.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.2.3 Advantages and disadvantages",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.2.4 Applications of a multi-staged reactor",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12",title:"3. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Appendices and nomenclature",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'S. Kaza, L. Yao, P. Bhada-Tata, F. Van Woerden, What a waste 2.0: a global snapshot of solid waste management to 2050, The World Bank2018.'},{id:"B2",body:'L.F. Pearse, J.P. 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Manufacturing Science Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, United States
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IntechOpen’s Academic Editors and Authors have received funding for their work through many well-known funders, including: the European Commission, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Wellcome Trust, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), CGIAR Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers, National Institute of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), German Research Foundation (DFG), Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Austrian Science Fund (FWF), Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), Australian Research Council (ARC).
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
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In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
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Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
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Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\n\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\n\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\n
\n\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
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Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
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From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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\r\n\tThe integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, as well as the expression, structure, and function of molecular and cellular components, is essential for modern physiology. The following concerns will be addressed in this Cell Physiology subject, which will consider all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, liver; gut, kidney, eye) and their interactions: (1) Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease (2) Free Radicals (3) Tumor Metastasis (4) Antioxidants (5) Essential Fatty Acids (6) Melatonin and (7) Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology.
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He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"186048",title:"Prof.",name:"Ines",middleName:null,surname:"Drenjančević",slug:"ines-drenjancevic",fullName:"Ines Drenjančević",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186048/images/5818_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Osijek",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"79615",title:"Dr.",name:"Robson",middleName:null,surname:"Faria",slug:"robson-faria",fullName:"Robson Faria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/79615/images/system/79615.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"84459",title:"Prof.",name:"Valerie",middleName:null,surname:"Chappe",slug:"valerie-chappe",fullName:"Valerie Chappe",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/84459/images/system/84459.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalhousie University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"82367",title:"Spatial Variation and Factors Associated with Unsuppressed HIV Viral Load among Women in an HIV Hyperendemic Area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105547",signatures:"Adenike O. 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\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
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\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
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The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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