Radioisotope imaging [7].
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8572",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Thermodynamics and Energy Engineering",title:"Thermodynamics and Energy Engineering",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book is a primary survey of basic thermodynamic concepts that will allow one to predict states of a fuel cell system, including potential, temperature, pressure, volume and moles. The specific topics explored include enthalpy, entropy, specific heat, Gibbs free energy, net output voltage irreversible losses in fuel cells and fuel cell efficiency. It contains twelve chapters organized into two sections on “Theoretical Models” and “Applications.” The specific topics explored include enthalpy, entropy, specific heat, Gibbs free energy, net output voltage irreversible losses in fuel cells and fuel cell efficiency.",isbn:"978-1-83880-569-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-568-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-570-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79004",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"thermodynamics-and-energy-engineering",numberOfPages:272,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,hash:"e2e9e95bd0be692c5364418f341102b6",bookSignature:"Petrică Vizureanu",publishedDate:"July 29th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8572.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4751,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitations:7,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:12,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 6th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 20th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 19th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 7th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 7th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"12354",title:"Prof.",name:"Petrică",middleName:null,surname:"Vizureanu",slug:"petrica-vizureanu",fullName:"Petrică Vizureanu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12354/images/system/12354.jpg",biography:"Petrică Vizureanu was born on October 17, 1967, in Bârlad, Romania. He obtained an MSc and PhD in Heating Equipment from The Gheorghe Asachi Technical University, Iasi, Romania in 1992 and 1999, respectively. Dr. Vizureanu is currently a Full Professor and Scientific Supervisor in Materials Engineering (since 2009) at the same University.\nHis research focuses on expert systems for heating system programming, computer-assisted design for heating equipment, heating equipment for materials processing, heat transfer, biomaterials, and geopolymers.\nHe has published more than 140 papers in international journals and conference proceedings as well as 35 books.",institutionString:"Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iași",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iași",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"117",title:"Energy Engineering",slug:"engineering-energy-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"70166",title:"Fuel Cell Thermodynamics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90141",slug:"fuel-cell-thermodynamics",totalDownloads:864,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Lindiwe Khotseng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70166",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70166",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69067",title:"Distributed and Lumped Parameter Models for Fuel Cells",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89048",slug:"distributed-and-lumped-parameter-models-for-fuel-cells",totalDownloads:310,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Massimo Guarnieri, Piergiorgio Alotto and Federico Moro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69067",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69067",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68461",title:"F-diagram Research Method for Double Circuit Solar System with Thermosyphon Circulation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88045",slug:"f-diagram-research-method-for-double-circuit-solar-system-with-thermosyphon-circulation",totalDownloads:260,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Yedilkhan Amirgaliyev, Murat Kunelbayev, Aliya Kalizhanova, Ainur Kozbakova, Salauat Daulbayev, Timur Merembayev and Didar Yedilkhan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68461",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68461",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"70524",title:"Einstein’s Equation in Nuclear and Solar Energy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90574",slug:"einstein-s-equation-in-nuclear-and-solar-energy",totalDownloads:270,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Ancuta M. Magurean, Octavian G. Pop, Adrian G. Pocola, Alexandru Serban and Mugur C. Balan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70524",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70524",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"70164",title:"How to Build Simple Models of PEM Fuel Cells for Fast Computation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89958",slug:"how-to-build-simple-models-of-pem-fuel-cells-for-fast-computation",totalDownloads:424,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Jonathan Deseure",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70164",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70164",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"70199",title:"Improving Heat-Engine Performance via High-Temperature Recharge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89913",slug:"improving-heat-engine-performance-via-high-temperature-recharge",totalDownloads:183,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Jack Denur",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70199",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70199",authors:[{id:"61206",title:"Dr.",name:"Jack",surname:"Denur",slug:"jack-denur",fullName:"Jack Denur"}],corrections:null},{id:"69393",title:"Improving Heat-Engine Performance by Employing Multiple Heat Reservoirs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89047",slug:"improving-heat-engine-performance-by-employing-multiple-heat-reservoirs",totalDownloads:205,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Jack Denur",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69393",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69393",authors:[{id:"61206",title:"Dr.",name:"Jack",surname:"Denur",slug:"jack-denur",fullName:"Jack Denur"}],corrections:null},{id:"72417",title:"Energy Storage in PCM Wall Used in Buildings’ Application: Opportunity and Perspective",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92557",slug:"energy-storage-in-pcm-wall-used-in-buildings-application-opportunity-and-perspective",totalDownloads:281,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Majdi Hazami, Farah Mehdaoui, Hichem Taghouti, Marco Noro, Renato Lazzarin and AmenAllah Guizani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72417",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72417",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"72245",title:"Water Desalination Using PCM to Store Solar Energy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92597",slug:"water-desalination-using-pcm-to-store-solar-energy",totalDownloads:260,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Paritosh Kulkarni",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72245",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72245",authors:[{id:"311338",title:"Mr.",name:"Paritosh C.",surname:"Kulkarni",slug:"paritosh-c.-kulkarni",fullName:"Paritosh C. Kulkarni"}],corrections:null},{id:"70887",title:"Lithium Recovery from Brines Including Seawater, Salt Lake Brine, Underground Water and Geothermal Water",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90371",slug:"lithium-recovery-from-brines-including-seawater-salt-lake-brine-underground-water-and-geothermal-wat",totalDownloads:1118,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Samadiy Murodjon, Xiaoping Yu, Mingli Li, Ji Duo and Tianlong Deng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70887",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70887",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69572",title:"Fuel Cells as a Source of Green Energy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89736",slug:"fuel-cells-as-a-source-of-green-energy",totalDownloads:238,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Rabea Q. Nafil and Munaf S. Majeed",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69572",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69572",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"72605",title:"Fuel Cells: Alternative Energy Sources for Stationary, Mobile and Automotive Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93032",slug:"fuel-cells-alternative-energy-sources-for-stationary-mobile-and-automotive-applications",totalDownloads:343,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Irina Petreanu, Mirela Dragan and Silviu Laurentiu Badea",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72605",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72605",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"173",title:"Expert Systems for Human, Materials and Automation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00cfbf1f4ec20211e33264642361190",slug:"expert-systems-for-human-materials-and-automation",bookSignature:"Petrică Vizureanu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/173.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12354",title:"Prof.",name:"Petrică",surname:"Vizureanu",slug:"petrica-vizureanu",fullName:"Petrică Vizureanu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3188",title:"Expert Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7c4c4b1fe3003c2c5eed7a71a132b735",slug:"expert-systems",bookSignature:"Petrica Vizureanu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3188.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12354",title:"Prof.",name:"Petrică",surname:"Vizureanu",slug:"petrica-vizureanu",fullName:"Petrică Vizureanu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3049",title:"Advances in Expert Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"258147356cfb7ab3304e508afb7c8e5d",slug:"advances-in-expert-systems",bookSignature:"Petrica Vizureanu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3049.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12354",title:"Prof.",name:"Petrică",surname:"Vizureanu",slug:"petrica-vizureanu",fullName:"Petrică Vizureanu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9574",title:"Biomaterials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"730b237f28a94ddad58ba55ee6ab8811",slug:"biomaterials",bookSignature:"Petrică Vizureanu and Claudia Manuela Da Cunha Ferreira Botelho",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9574.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12354",title:"Prof.",name:"Petrică",surname:"Vizureanu",slug:"petrica-vizureanu",fullName:"Petrică Vizureanu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8598",title:"Enhanced Expert Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3cd73aedbaf8bde7433fb0f3d56203cd",slug:"enhanced-expert-systems",bookSignature:"Petrică Vizureanu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8598.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12354",title:"Prof.",name:"Petrică",surname:"Vizureanu",slug:"petrica-vizureanu",fullName:"Petrică Vizureanu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8124",title:"Advances in Modelling and Control of Wind and Hydrogenerators",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8cf2591492537f75db940baa712582e5",slug:"advances-in-modelling-and-control-of-wind-and-hydrogenerators",bookSignature:"Amir Ebrahimi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8124.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"256252",title:"Dr.",name:"Amir",surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"amir-ebrahimi",fullName:"Amir Ebrahimi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7707",title:"A Guide to Small-Scale Energy Harvesting Techniques",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"47d7741e30a569a74a8aa981a7b7a902",slug:"a-guide-to-small-scale-energy-harvesting-techniques",bookSignature:"Reccab Manyala",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7707.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12002",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Reccab",surname:"Manyala",slug:"reccab-manyala",fullName:"Reccab Manyala"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"74026",slug:"corrigendum-to-calf-sex-influence-in-bovine-milk-production",title:"Corrigendum to: Calf-Sex Influence in Bovine Milk Production",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74026.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74026",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74026",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74026",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74026",chapter:{id:"73504",slug:"calf-sex-influence-in-bovine-milk-production",signatures:"Miguel Quaresma and R. Payan-Carreira",dateSubmitted:"April 21st 2020",dateReviewed:"September 10th 2020",datePrePublished:"October 8th 2020",datePublished:"January 20th 2021",book:{id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",publishedDate:"January 20th 2021",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"38652",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",email:"rtpayan@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",email:"miguelq@utad.pt",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"73504",slug:"calf-sex-influence-in-bovine-milk-production",signatures:"Miguel Quaresma and R. Payan-Carreira",dateSubmitted:"April 21st 2020",dateReviewed:"September 10th 2020",datePrePublished:"October 8th 2020",datePublished:"January 20th 2021",book:{id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",publishedDate:"January 20th 2021",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"38652",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",email:"rtpayan@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",email:"miguelq@utad.pt",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},book:{id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",publishedDate:"January 20th 2021",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"1532",leadTitle:null,title:"Semiconductor Laser Diode",subtitle:"Technology and Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book represents a unique collection of the latest developments in the rapidly developing world of semiconductor laser diode technology and applications. An international group of distinguished contributors have covered particular aspects and the book includes optimization of semiconductor laser diode parameters for fascinating applications. \nThis collection of chapters will be of considerable interest to engineers, scientists, technologists and physicists working in research and development in the field of semiconductor laser diode, as well as to young researchers who are at the beginning of their career.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0549-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4996-5",doi:"10.5772/1999",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"semiconductor-laser-diode-technology-and-applications",numberOfPages:390,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"67c029e3a582411c5f9ab3a7dc28884f",bookSignature:"Dnyaneshwar Shaligram Patil",publishedDate:"April 25th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1532.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:58399,numberOfWosCitations:29,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitations:17,numberOfTotalCitations:51,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 2nd 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 30th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 4th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 3rd 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 2nd 2012",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"10 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"106345",title:"Prof.",name:"Dnyaneshwar",middleName:"Shaligram",surname:"Patil",slug:"dnyaneshwar-patil",fullName:"Dnyaneshwar Patil",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/106345/images/2754_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. D. S. Patil has been graduated from Poona University with a rank. He received the M.Sc. degree in Electronics Science with a first class in 1986 from the Poona university department of Electronics-Science. He secured M.C.M. degree with A+ grade from Poona University and the Ph.D. degree in Electronics from the North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon [Maharashtra], India. He qualified state eligibility test in Electronics in 1995. Since 1991, he has been working in the North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon and presently working as a Professor. He secured high school scholarship, national merit scholarship and received Rashtriya gaurav award sponsored by India International Friendship Society. He successfully completed a major Young scientist project from Department of Science and Technology, India. His name has been considered in the Steering committee as a member for the International Conference on Nanoscience and Technology 2008, Colarado, United States of America, International vacuum Congress, China 2010. He worked on the various committees of the universities. He has published about 157 papers in reputed journals and proceedings of the conferences. His research interests include the computer simulation of semiconductor, nano and optoelectronics devices, nano-electronics, Materials development and characterization for the nano-technological and optoelectronics applications, process automation using advanced microcontrollers and embedded systems, organic electronics and computer simulation of nanostructures including quantum dots and superlattice. He has developed with his research student a novel model of probability density spreading in GaN quantum wells. He has developed with research students, computer controlled dip coating system and microcontroller based spin coating system for the deposition of nano-materials. He has guided many students for their innovative research. He visited France and Germany to attend international conferences and present his papers. Moreover, he visited Technical University, Zurich, Switzerland to know the various activities and research carried out in Electronics Technology department. He worked as a reviewer for many reputed international journals. He has delivered many invited talks and popular lectures. He developed the Electronics Practical laboratory and curriculum as a first member of Electronics Department and framed syllabus of M.Phil. (Electronics) and M.Sc.(Electronics). Despite of this, he taught various courses to M.Tech. (VLSI Technology), M.C.A and B.Tech.(Chemical Technology). Recently, his name has been considered in Marscue Who’s who in the world.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"North Maharashtra University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1226",title:"Optoelectronics",slug:"optics-and-lasers-optoelectronics"}],chapters:[{id:"35899",title:"Effect of Cavity Length and Operating Parameters on the Optical Performance of Al0.08In0.08Ga0.84N/ Al0.1In0.01Ga0.89N MQW Laser Diodes",slug:"effect-of-cavity-length-and-operating-parameters-on-the-optical-performance-of-al0-08in0-08ga0-84n-a",totalDownloads:3587,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"104427",title:"Dr.",name:"Alaa J.",surname:"Ghazai",slug:"alaa-j.-ghazai",fullName:"Alaa J. Ghazai"}]},{id:"35900",title:"Electrical Transport in Ternary Alloys: AlGaN and InGaN and Their Role in Optoelectronic",slug:"electrical-transport-in-ternary-alloys-algan-and-ingan-and-their-role-in-optoelectronic",totalDownloads:4838,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"100925",title:"Dr.",name:"Nadia",surname:"Bachir",slug:"nadia-bachir",fullName:"Nadia Bachir"},{id:"109209",title:"Prof.",name:"Chabane Sari",surname:"Nasr Eddine",slug:"chabane-sari-nasr-eddine",fullName:"Chabane Sari Nasr Eddine"},{id:"109215",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamdoune",surname:"Abdelkader",slug:"hamdoune-abdelkader",fullName:"Hamdoune Abdelkader"}]},{id:"35901",title:"Carrier Transport Phenomena in Metal Contacts to AlInGaN-Based Laser Diodes",slug:"carrier-transport-phenomena-in-metal-contacts-to-alingan-based-laser-diodes",totalDownloads:2121,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"103499",title:"Prof.",name:"Joon Seop",surname:"Kwak",slug:"joon-seop-kwak",fullName:"Joon Seop Kwak"}]},{id:"35902",title:"Characterization Parameters of (InGaN/InGaN) and (InGaN/GaN) Quantum Well Laser Diode",slug:"characterization-parameters-of-ingan-ingan-and-ingan-gan-quantum-well-laser-diode",totalDownloads:3442,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"106453",title:"Dr.",name:"Sabah",surname:"Thahab",slug:"sabah-thahab",fullName:"Sabah Thahab"}]},{id:"35903",title:"Analysis of Coherence-Collapse Regime of Semiconductor Lasers Under External Optical Feedback by Perturbation Method",slug:"analysis-of-coherence-collapse-regime-of-semiconductor-lasers-under-external-optical-feedback-by-per",totalDownloads:2447,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"111141",title:"Dr.",name:"Qin",surname:"Zou",slug:"qin-zou",fullName:"Qin Zou"}]},{id:"35904",title:"DFB Laser Diode Dynamics with Optoelectronic Feedback",slug:"dfb-laser-diode-dynamics-with-optoelectronic-feedback",totalDownloads:3677,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"102474",title:"Dr.",name:"M. H.",surname:"Shahine",slug:"m.-h.-shahine",fullName:"M. H. Shahine"}]},{id:"35905",title:"Ultra-Wideband Multiwavelength Light Source Utilizing Rare Earth Doped Femtosecond Fiber Oscillator",slug:"ultra-wideband-multiwavelength-light-source-utilizing-rare-earth-doped-femtosecond-fiber-oscillator",totalDownloads:2204,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"14201",title:"Dr.",name:"Sulaiman Wadi",surname:"Harun",slug:"sulaiman-wadi-harun",fullName:"Sulaiman Wadi Harun"},{id:"102667",title:"MSc.",name:"Nurul Shahrizan",surname:"Shahabuddin",slug:"nurul-shahrizan-shahabuddin",fullName:"Nurul Shahrizan Shahabuddin"},{id:"110438",title:"Dr.",name:"Marinah",surname:"Othman",slug:"marinah-othman",fullName:"Marinah Othman"}]},{id:"35906",title:"Low Frequency Noise Characteristics of Multimode and Singlemode Laser Diodes",slug:"low-frequency-noise-characteristics-of-multimode-and-singlemode-laser-diodes",totalDownloads:2032,totalCrossrefCites:2,authors:[{id:"104384",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",surname:"Pralgauskaite",slug:"sandra-pralgauskaite",fullName:"Sandra Pralgauskaite"},{id:"104388",title:"Prof.",name:"Jonas",surname:"Matukas",slug:"jonas-matukas",fullName:"Jonas Matukas"},{id:"104390",title:"Prof.",name:"Vilius",surname:"Palenskis",slug:"vilius-palenskis",fullName:"Vilius Palenskis"}]},{id:"35907",title:"Investigation of High-Speed Transient Processes and Parameter Extraction of InGaAsP Laser Diodes",slug:"investigation-of-high-speed-transient-processes-and-parameter-extraction-of-ingaasp-laser-diodes",totalDownloads:1961,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"104388",title:"Prof.",name:"Jonas",surname:"Matukas",slug:"jonas-matukas",fullName:"Jonas Matukas"},{id:"104390",title:"Prof.",name:"Vilius",surname:"Palenskis",slug:"vilius-palenskis",fullName:"Vilius Palenskis"},{id:"105381",title:"Prof.",name:"Juozas",surname:"Vysniauskas",slug:"juozas-vysniauskas",fullName:"Juozas Vysniauskas"},{id:"105392",title:"MSc.",name:"Tomas",surname:"Vasiliauskas",slug:"tomas-vasiliauskas",fullName:"Tomas Vasiliauskas"},{id:"105396",title:"Dr.",name:"Emilis",surname:"Sermuksnis",slug:"emilis-sermuksnis",fullName:"Emilis Sermuksnis"}]},{id:"35908",title:"Spectral Narrowing and Brightness Increase in High Power Laser Diode Arrays",slug:"spectral-narrowing-and-brightness-increase-in-high-power-laser-diode-arrays",totalDownloads:3256,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"105997",title:"Dr.",name:"Niklaus",surname:"Wetter",slug:"niklaus-wetter",fullName:"Niklaus Wetter"}]},{id:"35909",title:"Tunable Dual-Wavelength Laser Scheme by Optical-Injection Fabry-Perot Laser Diode",slug:"tunable-dual-wavelength-laser-scheme-by-optical-injection-fabry-perot-laser-diode",totalDownloads:2217,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"106255",title:"Prof.",name:"Chien-Hung",surname:"Yeh",slug:"chien-hung-yeh",fullName:"Chien-Hung Yeh"}]},{id:"35910",title:"The Coherent Coupled Output of a Laser Diode Array Using a Volume Bragg Grating",slug:"the-coherent-coupled-output-of-a-laser-diode-array-using-a-volume-bragg-grating",totalDownloads:2334,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"111287",title:"Dr.",name:"Bo",surname:"Liu",slug:"bo-liu",fullName:"Bo Liu"}]},{id:"35933",title:"Laser Diode Pump Technology for Space Applications",slug:"laser-diode-pump-technology-for-space-applications",totalDownloads:3793,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[{id:"109008",title:"Dr.",name:"Anthony W.",surname:"Yu",slug:"anthony-w.-yu",fullName:"Anthony W. Yu"},{id:"110631",title:"Ms.",name:"Elisavet",surname:"Troupaki",slug:"elisavet-troupaki",fullName:"Elisavet Troupaki"},{id:"110632",title:"Dr.",name:"Mark A.",surname:"Stephen",slug:"mark-a.-stephen",fullName:"Mark A. Stephen"},{id:"110633",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleksey A.",surname:"Vasilyev",slug:"aleksey-a.-vasilyev",fullName:"Aleksey A. Vasilyev"}]},{id:"35934",title:"Monitoring of Welding Using Laser Diodes",slug:"monitoring-of-welding-using-laser-diodes",totalDownloads:2404,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[{id:"107571",title:"Dr.",name:"Badr",surname:"Abdullah",slug:"badr-abdullah",fullName:"Badr Abdullah"}]},{id:"35935",title:"The Development of Laser Diode Arrays for Printing Applications",slug:"the-development-of-laser-diode-arrays-for-printing-applications",totalDownloads:3033,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"106897",title:"Dr.",name:"Olek",surname:"Kowalski",slug:"olek-kowalski",fullName:"Olek Kowalski"}]},{id:"35936",title:"High-Power Pulsed 2-μm Tm3+-Doped Fiber Laser",slug:"high-power-pulsed-2-m-tm3-doped-fiber-laser",totalDownloads:2883,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"5449",title:"Prof.",name:"Jianqiu",surname:"Xu",slug:"jianqiu-xu",fullName:"Jianqiu Xu"},{id:"110808",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulong",surname:"Tang",slug:"yulong-tang",fullName:"Yulong Tang"}]},{id:"35937",title:"Advances in High-Power Laser Diode Packaging",slug:"advances-in-high-power-laser-diode-packaging",totalDownloads:7249,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[{id:"113389",title:"Dr.",name:"Ronnie",surname:"Teo",slug:"ronnie-teo",fullName:"Ronnie Teo"}]},{id:"35938",title:"Laser Diode Gas Spectroscopy",slug:"laser-diode-gas-spectroscopy",totalDownloads:2025,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"103920",title:"Dr.",name:"Pablo",surname:"Pineda-Vadillo",slug:"pablo-pineda-vadillo",fullName:"Pablo Pineda-Vadillo"}]},{id:"35939",title:"CW THz Wave Generation System with Diode Laser Pumping",slug:"cw-thz-wave-generation-system-with-diode-laser-pumping",totalDownloads:2907,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"106244",title:"Dr.",name:"Srinivasa",surname:"Ragam",slug:"srinivasa-ragam",fullName:"Srinivasa Ragam"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1505",title:"Scanning Electron Microscopy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3305b759b0efc22e8ed16e9048818817",slug:"scanning-electron-microscopy",bookSignature:"Viacheslav Kazmiruk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1505.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"100815",title:"Dr.",name:"Viacheslav",surname:"Kazmiruk",slug:"viacheslav-kazmiruk",fullName:"Viacheslav Kazmiruk"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2397",title:"Advanced Aspects of Spectroscopy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bcc83fcd6b4bbfdaa677b37d94bdbdb6",slug:"advanced-aspects-of-spectroscopy",bookSignature:"Muhammad Akhyar Farrukh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2397.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"63182",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Akhyar",surname:"Farrukh",slug:"muhammad-akhyar-farrukh",fullName:"Muhammad Akhyar Farrukh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10",title:"Coherence and Ultrashort Pulse Laser Emission",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e1bd25a76712d1cb8792820acf2ff001",slug:"coherence-and-ultrashort-pulse-laser-emission",bookSignature:"F. J. Duarte",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"13752",title:"Dr.",name:"F. J.",surname:"Duarte",slug:"f.-j.-duarte",fullName:"F. J. Duarte"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2018",title:"Recent Progress in Optical Fiber Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9f4716122beee57c42cff13c357a2cb",slug:"recent-progress-in-optical-fiber-research",bookSignature:"Moh. Yasin, Sulaiman W. Harun and Hamzah Arof",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2018.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"294347",title:"Dr.",name:"Moh",surname:"Yasin",slug:"moh-yasin",fullName:"Moh Yasin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3166",title:"Optoelectronics",subtitle:"Advanced Materials and Devices",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b7263978cf34e637a4b9592eb4975f3e",slug:"optoelectronics-advanced-materials-and-devices",bookSignature:"Sergei L. Pyshkin and John M. Ballato",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3166.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"43016",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergei",surname:"Pyshkin",slug:"sergei-pyshkin",fullName:"Sergei Pyshkin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2245",title:"Plasmonics",subtitle:"Principles and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e74f79681a8c87bb027f48ad33a3e068",slug:"plasmonics-principles-and-applications",bookSignature:"Ki Young Kim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2245.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12009",title:"Dr.",name:"Ki Young",surname:"Kim",slug:"ki-young-kim",fullName:"Ki Young Kim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3710",title:"Advances in Solid State Lasers",subtitle:"Development and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"advances-in-solid-state-lasers-development-and-applications",bookSignature:"Mikhail Grishin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3710.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4862",title:"Mr.",name:"Mikhail",surname:"Grishin",slug:"mikhail-grishin",fullName:"Mikhail Grishin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"256",title:"Optoelectronics",subtitle:"Materials and Techniques",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c0d6a2a51ac114edd58f2c667297503",slug:"optoelectronics-materials-and-techniques",bookSignature:"Padmanabhan Predeep",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/256.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36735",title:"Prof.",name:"P.",surname:"Predeep",slug:"p.-predeep",fullName:"P. Predeep"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3581",title:"Recent Optical and Photonic Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"recent-optical-and-photonic-technologies",bookSignature:"Ki Young Kim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3581.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12009",title:"Dr.",name:"Ki Young",surname:"Kim",slug:"ki-young-kim",fullName:"Ki Young Kim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"525",title:"Optoelectronics",subtitle:"Devices and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f444b982565b0c4be6117a35f7810047",slug:"optoelectronics-devices-and-applications",bookSignature:"Padmanabhan Predeep",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/525.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36735",title:"Prof.",name:"P.",surname:"Predeep",slug:"p.-predeep",fullName:"P. Predeep"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"43156",title:"Impacts of Wind Farms on Power System Stability",doi:"10.5772/55090",slug:"impacts-of-wind-farms-on-power-system-stability",body:'
Power systems are complex systems that evolve over years in response to economic growth and continuously increasing power demand. With growing populations and the industrialization of the developing world, more energy is required to satisfy the basic needs and to attain improved standards of human welfare. In order to make energy economically available with reduced carbon emission using renewable energy sources, the structure of the modern power system has become highly complex [1].
Nowadays, there are many thousands of wind turbines operating with a total nameplate capacity of 238,351 MW. Between 2000 and 2006, world wind generation capacity quadrupled. The United States pioneered wind farms and led the world in installed capacity in the 1980s and 1990s. In 1997 Germany, as for installed capacity, surpassed the U.S. until once again overtaken by the U.S. in 2008. China has been rapidly expanding its wind installations since the late 2000s and passed the U.S. in 2010 to become the world leader [2].
At the end of 2011, worldwide nameplate capacity of wind-powered generators was 238 gigawatts (GW), growing by 41 GW over the preceding year. Data from the World Wind Energy Association, an industry organization, states that wind power now has the capacity to generate 430 TWh annually, which is about 2.5% of worldwide electricity usage. Between 2005 and 2010 the average annual growth in new installations was 27.6 percent. Wind power market penetration is expected to reach 3.35 percent by 2013 and 8 percent by 2018. Several countries have already achieved relatively high levels of penetration, such as 28% of stationary (grid) electricity production in Denmark (2011), 19% in Portugal (2011), 16% in Spain (2011), 14% in Ireland (2010) and 8% in Germany (2011). At the end of 2011, 83 countries around the world were using wind power on a commercial basis [3].
Europe accounted for 48% of the world total wind power generation capacity in 2009. In 2010, Spain became Europe\'s leading producer of wind energy, achieving 42,976 GWh. Germany held the top spot in Europe in terms of installed capacity, with a total of 27,215 MW on 31 December 2010 [4].
Global Wind Power Cumulative Installed Capacity [2]
The annual energy production of a wind farm is not equal to the sum of the generator nameplate ratings multiplied by the total hours in a year since the wind speed is variable. The capacity factor of a wind farm is the ratio of actual productivity in a year to the theoretical maximum. The range of the capacity factor is between 20 and 40%, with values at the upper end of the range in particularly favorable sites.
The capacity factor is affected by several parameters such as the variability of the wind at the site and the generator size. A small generator would be cheaper and achieve a higher capacity factor but would produce less electricity (and thus less profit) in high winds. On the other hand, large generators would cost more but generate little extra power and may stall out at low wind speed. Thus, the wind farm\'s optimum capacity factor aimed for would be around 20–35% [6].
Electricity generated from wind power can be highly variable at several different timescales: hourly, daily, or seasonally. However, wind is always in constant supply somewhere, making it a dependable source of energy because it will never expire or become extinct. Annual variation also exists, but is not so significant. Like other electricity sources, wind energy must be scheduled. Wind power forecasting methods are used, but predictability of wind plant output remains low for short-term operation. Because instantaneous electrical generation and consumption must remain in balance to maintain grid stability, this variability can present substantial challenges to incorporating large amounts of wind power into a grid system. Intermittency and the non-dispatchable nature of wind energy production can raise costs for regulation, incremental operating reserve, and (at high penetration levels) could require an increase in the already existing energy demand management, load shedding, storage solutions or system interconnection with HVDC cables. At low levels of wind penetration, fluctuations in load and allowance for failure of large generating units require reserve capacity that can also compensate for variability of wind generation. Thus, integrating significant amounts of wind generation presents a unique challenge to the power system, requiring additional flexibility while simultaneously imposing a decreased capacity factor on conventional generating units [6].
This work investigates the possible impacts of wind power variability, wind farm control strategy, wind energy penetration level, wind farm location, wind intermittent and variability, and wind power prediction accuracy on the power system stability, reliability and efficiency.
Unlike classical sources of energy, wind farms supply real power variations into the upstream grid, and at the same time, in some types of wind generation systems, the reactive power consumption is related to the real power production. These power variations cause voltage variations with consequences for the electrical power system and the customers. On the other hand, the increasing use of power electronics in wind generation systems introduces voltages and current harmonics into the power system. As wind energy is a non-controllable energy source, it can cause problems with voltage stability and transient stability. Due to the rapid increase in the number of wind farms connected to the grid, the increasing rate of power of single wind farm and the weakness of the upstream power grid, where the wind farm connects, the importance and necessity of the study of wind farms connected to power systems is clear.
The connection of wind farm to electrical power systems influences the system operation point, the load flow of real and reactive power, nodal voltages and power losses. At the same time, wind power generation has characteristics with a wide spectrum of influence [4]:
The impact of wind farm on the power system depends on the location of wind power plants relative to the load, and the correlation between wind power production and load consumption. Wind power, like any load or generation, affects the power flow in the network and may even change the power flow direction in parts of the network. The changes in the use of the power lines can bring about power losses or benefits. Increasing wind power production can affect bottleneck situations. Depending on its location, wind power may, at its best, reduce bottlenecks, but at another location result in more frequent bottlenecks. There are a variety of means to maximize the use of existing transmission lines such as the use of online information, FACTS, and wind power-plant output control. However, grid reinforcement may be necessary to maintain transmission adequacy and security. Grid extensions are commonly needed if new generation is installed in weak grids far from load centers to make full use of the wind power. The issue is generally the same for modern wind power plants or any other power plants. The cost of grid reinforcements, due to wind power, is therefore very dependent on where the wind power plants are located relative to the load and grid infrastructure, and one must expect numbers to vary from country to country. With current technology, wind power plants can be designed to meet industry expectations such as riding through voltage dips, supplying reactive power to the system, controlling terminal voltage, and participating in SCADA (supervision control and data acquisition) system operation with output and ramp rate control [7, 8, 9].
There are many different generator types for wind power applications in use today. The main distinction can be made between fixed speed and variable speed wind generator types.
In the early stage of wind power development, most wind farms were equipped with fixed speed wind turbines and induction generators. A fixed speed wind generator is usually equipped with a squirrel cage induction generator whose speed variations are limited. Power can only be controlled through pitch angle variations. Because the efficiency of wind turbines depends on the tip-speed ratio, the power of a fixed speed wind generator varies directly with the wind speed. Since induction machines have no reactive power control capabilities, fixed or variable power factor correction systems are usually required for compensating the reactive power demand of the generator. Fig. 2 shows the schematic diagram of the fixed speed induction machine.
Fixed speed induction generator
Variable speed concepts allow operating the wind turbine at the optimum tip-speed ratio and hence at the optimum power coefficient for a wide wind speed range. The two most widely used variable speed wind generator concepts are the DFIG and the converter driven synchronous generator.
Due to advantages such as high energy efficiency and controllability, the variable speed wind turbine using DFIG is getting more attention. DFIG is basically a standard, wound rotor induction generator with a voltage source converter connected to the slip-rings of the rotor. The stator winding is coupled directly to the grid and the rotor winding is connected to power converter as shown in Fig. 3.
Doubly fed induction generator
The converter system enables two way transfer of power. The grid side converter provides a dc supply to the rotor side converter that produces a variable frequency three phase supply to generator rotor via slip rings. The variable voltage into the rotor at slip frequency enables variable speed operation. Manipulation of the rotor voltage permits the control of the generator operating conditions. In case of low wind speeds, the drop in rotor speed may lead the generator into a sub synchronous operating mode. During this mode, DFIG rotor absorbs power from the grid.
On the other hand, during high wind speed, the DFIG wind turbine running at super synchronous speed will deliver power from the rotor through the converters to the network. Hence, the rotational speed of the DFIG determines whether the power is delivered to the grid through the stator only or through the stator and rotor. Power delivered by the rotor and stator is given by [my papers]:
Where, PG is the mechanical power delivered by the generator, PS is the power delivered by the stator, and PR is the power delivered to the rotor.
However, under all operating situations, the frequency of rotor supply is controlled so that, under steady conditions, the combined speed of the rotor plus the rotational speed of the rotor flux vector matches that of the synchronously rotating stator flux vector fixed by the network frequency. Hence, the power could be supplied to the grid through the stator in all the three modes of operation, namely, sub synchronous, synchronous and super- synchronous modes. This provides DFIG a unique feature beyond the conventional induction generator as the latter can deliver power to the grid during super synchronous speed only.
This category of wind turbines uses a synchronous generator that can either be an electrically excited synchronous generator or a permanent magnet machine. To enable variable-speed operation, the synchronous generator is connected to the network through a variable frequency converter, which completely decouples the generator from the network. The electrical frequency of the generator may vary as the wind speed changes, while the network frequency remains unchanged. The rating of the power converter in this wind turbine corresponds to the rated power of the generator plus losses. The schematic diagram of the converter driven synchronous generator is as shown in Fig. 4.
Converter-driven generator
The comparison between the fixed speed and variable speed wind turbines shows that variable speed operation of wind turbines presents certain advantages over constant speed operation. Variable speed wind turbines feature higher energy yields and lower power fluctuations than fixed speed wind turbines. The last feature is particularly important as flicker may become a limitation to wind generation on power systems. Also, variable speed wind turbines produce more reduced loads in the mechanical parts than fixed speed wind turbines. When comparing torque mode control and speed mode control strategies, literature review shows that speed mode control strategy follows wind speed, in order to achieve maximum power coefficient, more accurately, and the higher the speed control loop bandwidth is, the better the tracking is. Nevertheless, as a consequence, it produces more power fluctuations, since speed is rigidly imposed to the turbine. So, from power quality point of view, torque mode control strategy presents better behavior because speed is not directly imposed to the turbine and this control strategy lets the wind turbine to freely change rotational speed during the transient.
Uncertainty and variability are characteristics that exist in wind power, aggregate electric demand and supply resources and have always posed challenges for power system operators. Future expansion of the loads cannot be predicted accurately, generator outputs and loads fluctuate strongly in different time frames, and it can also lose energy system equipment at any time and without prior warning. Different amounts and types of operating reserves are secured by power system operators to compensate for uncertainty and variability for load reliable service and to keep the system frequency stable. There are many different terms, definitions, and rules concerning what operating reserves entail. The real power capability that can be given or taken in the operating timeframe to assist in generation and load balance and frequency control is defined as the operating reserves. To provide voltage support systems also require reactive power reserve as well, and require certain targets for installed capacity that is often referred to as planning reserve.
The type of event the operating reserves respond to, the timescale of the response and the direction (upward or downward) of the response can differentiate the types of operating reserves. Unpredictable imbalances between load and generation caused by sudden outages of generating units, errors in load forecasting or unexpected deviations by generating units from their production schedules can be compensated by spinning reserve (SR). It becomes more difficult to predict accurately the total amount of power injected by all generators into the power system, as the proportion of power produced by wind farms increases. This added uncertainty must be taken into account when setting the requirement for SR. The uncertainty on the wind power generation increases the uncertainty on the net demand that must be met by traditional forms of generation if wind power generation is considered as a negative load. Spinning reserve is intended to protect the system against unforeseen events such as generation outages, sudden load changes or a combination of both by taking the increased uncertainty into account when determining the requirements for SR.
It is therefore expected that a large penetration of wind generation might require a significant increase in the requirement for SR. However this is not always the case. The cost of SR is indeed far from being negligible. A large number of conventional generating units will need to be synchronized when large amounts of SR must be scheduled for a higher wind-power penetration. Therefore, the system operating cost would increase to such an extent that it might be economically desirable to curb this increase in the SR requirement. Determining the optimal amount of SR that must be provided as a function of the system conditions is thus an important and timely issue. The optimal amount of SR is defined as the equality of the cost of generating extra MW of reserve to the benefit that this MW provides, where this benefit is determined as a function of the reduction in the expected cost of interruptions. The ideal case is that the energy and SR amounts and repartitions should be optimized simultaneously. The main difficulties in solving such a problem are: the stochastic nature of the net demand due to the demand and wind forecast errors, and the fact that there are no direct means of incorporating the discrete capacity outage probability distribution in the optimization procedure. The stochastic and highly combinatorial nature of the problem led some researchers to find alternative solutions to the problem [10].
The SR procurement depends on the system as mentioned in [10]. The power system operating cost can increase with the SR provision even though the wind generation reduces the overall net demand. It is also suggested that the extra amounts of MW for reserve can be determined using probabilistic methods combining the uncertain load and wind fluctuations and even including the contingency SR requirements.
Power system transient stability is related to the ability to maintain synchronism when subjected to a severe disturbance, such as a short circuit on the bus. System stability is largely associated with power system faults in a network such as tripping of transmission lines, loss of production capacity (generator unit failure) and short circuits. These failures disrupt the balance of power (active and reactive) and change the power flow. Though the capacity of the operating generators may be adequate, large voltage drops may occur suddenly. The unbalance and re-distribution of real and reactive power in the network may force the voltage to vary beyond the boundary of stability. A period of low voltage (brownout) may occur and possibly be followed by a complete loss of power (blackout).
Many of power system faults are cleared by the relay protection of the transmission system either by disconnection or by disconnection and fast reclosure. In all the situations the result is a short period with low or no voltage followed by a period when the voltage returns. A wind farm nearby will see this event. In early days of the development of wind energy, only a few wind turbines were connected to the grid. In this situation, when a fault somewhere in the lines caused the voltage at the wind turbine to drop, the wind turbine was simply disconnected from the grid and was reconnected when the fault was cleared and the voltage returned to normal.
Because the penetration of wind power in the early days was low, the sudden disconnection of a wind turbine or even a wind farm from the grid did not cause a significant impact on the stability of the power system. With the increasing penetration of wind energy, the contribution of power generated by a wind farm can be significant. If the entire wind farm is suddenly disconnected at full generation, the system will loss further production capability. Unless the remaining operating power plants have enough “spinning reserve”, to replace the loss within very short time, a large frequency and voltage drop will occur and possibly followed by complete loss of power. Therefore, the new generation of wind turbines is required to be able to “ride through” during disturbances and faults to avoid total disconnection from the grid. In order to keep system stability, it is necessary to ensure that the wind turbine restores normal operation in an appropriate way and within appropriate time. This could have different focuses in different types of wind turbine technologies, and may include supporting the system voltage with reactive power compensation devices, such as interface power electronics, SVC, STATCOM and keeping the generator at appropriate speed by regulating the power etc. [12], [13].
The Danish Wind Industry Association defines power quality as voltage and frequency stability, together with absence of various forms of electrical noise, such as flicker or harmonic distortion. In a power supply system, voltage and frequency must be maintained near nominal values since electrical appliances are manufactured to work under the given alternate current (AC) specification. Conventional power plants fulfill two main tasks in large-scale electrical power systems: power generation and voltage control. In other words, as well as generating power for electricity consumption, they maintain power quality.
For example, at a diesel plant a voltage drop can be countered by simultaneously raising inductance and the steam input to the synchronous generator. The resulting surge in reactive power restores voltage to the desired level. In fact all voltage control devices are effectively controllable reactive power sources. The flexible operation levels of thermal plants allows for a continuous control of reactive power. Feeding intermittent power into electricity grids can affect power quality. The impact depends primarily on the degree to which the intermittent source contributes to instantaneous load (i.e. on power penetration). At low penetrations, wind farms can be connected to the grid as active power generators, with control tasks concentrated at conventional plants. Many studies agree that penetrations of up to 10–20% can be absorbed in electricity networks without adversely affecting power quality and needing extra reserve capacity. Key problems identified at higher penetrations are: At wind speeds below cut-in or above furl-out, wind turbines are disconnected from the grid and left idle. When the wind speed returns to operating range, the turbines are reconnected. The sudden connection of a large turbine can result in brownout (voltage drop incurred when instantaneous load exceeds generated power) due to the current required to magnetize the generator, often followed by a power peak when active power from the generator is fed to the network. There may be times when wind power output exceeds consumer load, making voltage raise above the grid threshold. Cutting off turbines to avoid the excess is not ideal in view of the reconnection problems, but also because ultimately it implies unnecessary shedding of wind energy.
The short-term wind power variations cause voltage fluctuations in the grid, known as flicker because of their effect on light bulbs. Rapid voltage fluctuations can damage sensitive electrical equipment. In a very weak grid, even a single turbine may produce flicker.
Harmonics produced by consumers’ electronic equipment can be magnified by wind turbine operation. And more generally, the response of wind farms to an electrical fault may cause transient instabilities which cannot be countered by the control units in the grid. These problems have been reported mainly with reference to small-scale autonomous systems when significant wind power (>100 kW) is connected to a low voltage grid. Stronger grids, with a larger cross-section, have low impedance and so power variations result in smaller voltage variations. However, a sufficiently large wind farm is likely to disrupt power quality even if connected to a high-voltage transmission line [14].
It is required as a minimum that the reactive power from a large wind farm can be controlled to a specific interval, which is close to unity power factor. However, most wind turbines are also able to provide more advanced reactive power control, which can be useful as grid support. Depending on the technology and the electrical design, such wind turbines will normally have some additional capacity for reactive power, although the available reactive power normally depends on the active power as it does for any other generating units in the power system. This dependency is expressed in the PQ diagrams. The TSO should have access to the reactive power, and the PQ diagram of the wind farm should be delivered by the owner. The additional reactive power capacity can either be used to control constant reactive power or constant power factor, or it can be used in automatic voltage control. In the latter case, it is essential, that it is the voltage in the wind farm point of common coupling (PCC) which is controlled, and that this is done on the wind farm controller level. If the wind turbines are individually attempting to control the voltage in the individual connection points, there is a risk of instability and/or unnecessarily high flow of reactive power between the wind turbines. The possible voltage control in the PCC is of course limited by the limited reactive power available in the wind turbines or from other compensation equipment in the wind farm [15].
One of the challenges which has gained significant importance within the field of electrical power systems over the last years is reactive power control and voltage support from wind farms. Previously the voltage control in the transmission systems was mainly carried out by adjusting the reactive power production or absorption of central power plants, but as the amount of wind power is growing, the requirements for system services including voltage control delivered by wind turbines, and large wind farms in particular, are rising.
So far reactive power control by wind farms has mainly been carried out by utilizing the reactive power capabilities of the wind turbines, but this strategy may not be the most feasible solution when taking into account the new grid code requirements. The optimal reactive power control strategy is influenced by factors like the reactive power capabilities of the wind farm, the on load tap changers of transformers and possible implementation of compensating devices. From a wind farm operator point of view, reactive power control strategies should be based on economic optimization and hence there is a need for investigation of the implications of the new grid code requirements on the reactive power control strategy [16], [17].
The inertia of traditional synchronous generators plays a significant role in maintaining the stability of the power system during a transient scenario. The inertia dictates how large the frequency deviations would be due to a sudden change in the generation and load power balance, and influences the eigenvalues and vectors that determine the stability and mode shape of transient response. The larger the inertia, the smaller will be the rate of change in rotor speed of the generator during an imbalance in power. This type of response of the traditional synchronous generators is called inertial response. This is a synchronous machine’s “reaction,” inherently dictated by rotational Newton’s law, to sudden changes in the balance between applied mechanical shaft power and electrical power extracted at the generator terminals.
The rate of change of frequency depends on the shortfall or the surplus of generation and the power system inertia. For a given generation shortfall, the higher the system inertia, the lower the rate of change of frequency. Consequently, this inertial response is a critical factor that allows enough time for governor primary control to supply sufficient energy to stabilize system frequency. It is relevant to note that interruptible loads are used to arrest the fall in system frequency, in addition to governor primary control. Such interruptible loads and primary control are collectively called instantaneous frequency reserves.
Standard fixed speed induction generators contribute to the inertia of the power system because the stator is directly connected to the power system. Any change in power system frequency manifests as a change in the speed of stator-led rotating flux. Such speed changes are resisted by the rotating mass (generator rotor and the wind turbine rotor) leading to rotational energy transfer to the power system via the stator.
In modern variable-speed wind turbines, its rotational speed is normally decoupled from the grid frequency by the power electronic converter. Therefore variation in grid frequency don not alter the turbine output power. With high wind power penetration there is a risk that the power system inertial effect decreases, thus aggravating the grid frequency stability. The decrease of inertia effect on the grid may be even worse in power system with slow primary frequency response such as those large amount of hydropower, or in small power systems with inherent low inertia system such as islanded systems[18].
As the penetration of wind is expected to grow dramatically in the coming decade, researchers and vendors have sought improved designs to allow these technologies to better contribute to grid frequency regulation and stability. As noted above, most of the solutions proposed to date seek to mimic the inherent inertial response of traditional synchronous generators; i.e., they add a control loop that incrementally feeds or draws active power in response to a decline or rise in the time derivative of frequency. The control power required by this proposed additional loop comes predominantly either by varying the mechanical input power to a wind turbine, through change in its blade pitch or nominal rotational speed, or by drawing/feeding additional active power from/to the grid through the rotor side converter [19].
It is essential to assess wind energy potential of a site before any wind energy based system could be set up. Study of wind velocity regime over a period of time in a locality can really help to optimize the design of the wind energy conversion system by ensuring less energy generating costs. Wind velocity is generally recorded in a time-series format, which means wind velocity recorded over hourly basis in a day or over 24 h in a day.
To date, Weibull density function method is widely accepted for evaluating local wind load probabilities and is considered as a standard approach [20]. This method has a great flexibility and simplicity. However, the main limitation of the Weibull density function is its inability to accurately calculate the probabilities of observing zero or very low wind velocities [21]. Also Weibull two-parameter density function does not address the differences of wind velocity variation during the course of a day. Nevertheless, this statistical method is found to fit a wide collection of recorded wind data [22]. The Weibull wind velocity probability density function can be represented as [23]:
Probability distribution for the wind speed
Where; f (
Wind power has impacts on power system operational security, reliability and efficiency. Therefore, it is necessary to know the consequences of dynamic interaction between large scale wind farms and electrical power systems before incorporation of the wind farms into the grid. The electric power supply undergoes a change from a well-known and developed technology of conventional power plants to a partly unknown technology of wind power. High penetration of wind power could be managed through proper wind power plant interconnection, integration of the generation, transmission planning, and system operations.
Fig. 6 and 7 show impacts of wind power on power systems, divided in different time scales and width of area relevant for the studies. At the time of developing the standard IEC 61400-21:“Measurement and assessment of power quality characteristics of grid connected wind turbines”, the wind turbines were mainly connected to the distribution grid, and the basic concern was their possible impact on the voltage quality and not on power system operation. This has changed with the development of large power rated wind farms that may form a significant part of the power system. In consequence, today’s wind turbines are able to control the power (active and reactive) delivered both in transient and steady state, they can cope with power ramp requirements and they have low voltage ride through(LVRT) capability. They may even contribute to the primary frequency control, but then on the cost of dissipating energy [24]. These impacts can be categorized as follows:
Short-term: impacts on the operational time scale (minutes to hours).
Long-term: impacts on planning the transmission network and installed generation capacity for adequacy of power.
Power system impacts of wind power, causing integration costs [8]
For estimating the impacts, the different timescales involved usually mean different models that used in impact studies. This is why the impacts should be divided into three focus areas [23]:
The first integration of renewable energy sources occurred on a small scale and at medium voltage. No extra measurements were taken for balancing the fluctuating power. However, as electricity grids are facing large scale integration of wind power, imbalances are occurring more frequently and are growing in magnitude. The first way to deal with the variable nature of wind power is to nominate the power day-ahead. Every balance responsible party (BRP) with wind turbines in his portfolio can nominate wind power output day-ahead by forecasting the predicted output. This system is extensively dealt with in the appendix concerning market mechanisms. Thus, the power generation is matched with the expected power demand. After this nomination, prediction errors lead to imbalances in the portfolio of each BRP. A particular BRP has the opportunity to balance its portfolio with different intra-day mechanisms (if available).
Again, the power generated is matched with the expected power demand. After gate closure, it can be expected that all remaining imbalances are dealt by the Transmission System Operator (TSO). Thus, prediction errors of one up to three hours ahead are to be balanced by the TSO. The TSO uses primary, secondary and tertiary reserves to balance the power imbalances as a result of prediction errors.
Wind power imbalances have two origins: prediction errors and inter-prediction deviations because the nominated power amount is for a fixed time period. Inter-prediction errors are related to the variable output of wind. Suppose the power is nominated on a basis of 15 min, wind power varies around the nominated value leading to inter- and intra-minute imbalances. Prediction errors result in positive or negative imbalances on a much longer timescale to even Inter-hour imbalances [24].
Total supply available during peak load situations (time scale: several years, and associated with static conditions of the system). The estimation of required generation capacity needs includes the system load demand and maintenance needs of production units (reliability data). The criteria that are used for the adequacy evaluation include the loss of load expectation (LOLE), the loss of load probability (LOLP) and the loss of energy expectation (LOEE), for instance. The issue is the proper assessment of wind power’s aggregate capacity credit in the relevant peak load situations – taking into account the effect of geographical dispersion and interconnection [25].
The impacts of wind power on transmission depend on the location of wind power plants relative to load, and the correlation between wind power production and electricity consumption. Wind power affects power flow in the network. It may change the power flow direction, and reduce or increase power losses and bottleneck situations. There are a variety of means to maximize the use of existing transmission lines like use of online information (temperature, loads), FACTS, and wind power-plant output control. However, grid reinforcement may be necessary to maintain transmission adequacy and security. When determining adequacy of the grid, both steady-state load flow and dynamic system-stability analysis are needed. Different wind turbine types have different control characteristics, and consequently, also have different possibilities to support the system in normal and system-fault situations. For system stability reasons, operation and control properties will be required from wind power plants at some stage, depending on wind power penetration and power system robustness [25].
Impacts of wind power on power systems, divided in different time scales and width of area relevant for the studies[19]
Studies show that for an individual wind turbine, the variation in output is small for time-scales of less than a few seconds; for an individual wind farm, the variation in output is small for time scales of tens of seconds, due to the averaging of output of individual turbines across the wind farm; and for a number of wind farms spread out across a large area, such as a national grid system, the variation in output of all wind turbines is small for timescales from minutes to tens of minutes. The power produced from a large number of wind turbines will vary relatively less than the power produced from a single wind turbine due to the cancellation effect from the poor spatial correlation of the wind acting on each wind turbine.
To enhance the security of supply, new transmission and distribution grid codes specify technical requirements such as fault-ride through capability and frequency control of the electrical conversion systems of wind farms. Fault ride-through capability refers to the generators capabilities to remain connected to electricity networks at voltage levels below nominal. Active power control is closely related to frequency control and the wind farm shall have frequency control capabilities to ramp up and down the wind farm power station’s active power output in accordance with the frequency/active power characteristic defined by the grid operator [26], [27].
When a power system is subjected to a sudden increase in reactive power demand following a system disturbance, the additional demand must be met by reactive power reserve carried by generators and compensators. If wind farms or other generation units are unable to withstand voltage drops for a limited time, they will disconnect from the system and then the reactive power supplied by these generators is lost that can entail load shedding or even a blackout, in the worst case [28]. To ensure the voltage recovery the wind-turbine generators must remain connected to the system to provide reactive power support after the fault clearance. For many wind turbine manufacturers these are very costly and challenging requirements. In some cases extensive modifications to the electrical system of the turbines are necessary [29].
Achieving reliable operation at greatly reduced voltage levels is proving problematic. A particular problem regarding power converter-based wind-turbine generators is that conventional controllers for power converters designed for reliable operation around nominal voltage levels will not work as designed during low network voltages that can occur during a fault. A consequence of this is greatly increased converter currents, which may lead to converter failure. New controller design strategies have been proposed for power converter-based wind turbine generators aiming to maintain converter currents within their design limits, even at greatly reduced voltage levels, in order to enhance the wind-turbine generators’ fault ride-through capability [30]. With the increasing penetration of power converter-based wind turbine generators the rotational speed of the wind turbines are decoupled from the grid leading to a reduction of inertia in the grid. The lower the inertia of a system, the more and faster the frequency will change with variations in generation or load. In order that a variable-speed wind turbine to contribute to the system inertia and the frequency control as a result it has been proposed in [31] an additional control loop in the power electronic converter which connects the turbine inertia directly to the grid so that the wind turbine will be able to increase its power supplied to the grid during a drop in the grid frequency.
Whilst the wind farms are considered like other generating facilities by some grid operators and as such they are requested to participate in the system frequency and voltage compensation, the wind power sector claims for less strict requirements which imposes unnecessary burden and cost on manufacturers. The wind power sector calls on an overall economically efficient solution where the primary and secondary control should be provided by conventional power plants with the wind farms providing such service only in cases where limits in existing reserves are foreseen, and reactive power compensation provided by FACTS devices directly installed in the transmission network [31].
The complexity of power systems has increased in recent years due to the operation of existing transmission lines closer to their limits due to the increased penetration of new types of generators that have more intermittent characteristics and lower inertial response, such as wind generators. This changing nature of a power system has considerable effect on its dynamic behaviors resulting in power swings, dynamic interactions between different power system devices and less synchronized coupling.
Understanding and quantifying the impacts of wind farms on utility systems is a critical first step in identifying and solving problems. The design and operation of the wind plant, the design and operation of the power system, and the market rules under which the system is operating influence the situation. A number of steps can be taken to improve the ability to integrate increasing amounts of wind capacity on power systems such as improvements in wind-turbine and wind- farm models, improvements in wind-farm operating characteristics, improvements in the flexibility of operation of the balance of the system, carefully evaluating wind-integration operating impacts, incorporating wind-plant output forecasting into utility control-room operations, making better use of physically available transmission capacity, upgrading and expanding transmission systems, developing well-functioning hour-ahead and day-ahead markets and expanding access to those markets, adopting market rules and tariff provisions that are more appropriate to weather-driven resources, and consolidating balancing areas into larger entities or accessing a larger resource base through the use of dynamic scheduling or some form of area control error (ACE) sharing.
As additional integration studies and analyses are conducted around the world, it is expected that more researches will be valuable as wind penetration increases. And with the large increase in installing wind farms, actual practical experience will also contribute strongly in our understanding of the effects that arise from the increasing installation of wind farms on the system as well as on ways that the impacts of wind’s variability and uncertainty can be treated in an inexpensive manner.
Scientist has discovered that earth contains many elements with varying configuration. These elements with varying configuration are called isotopes. Isotopes are atoms with same atomic number with varying atomic weight. Isotopes can be divided into two parts depending on the ability to emit radiation. One that does not emit radiations is called stable isotopes and other are called unstable isotopes. Unstable isotopes emit radiations to achieve a more stable configuration. These are called as radioisotopes. Instability of radioisotopes is due to presence of unstable combination of neutron and proton in their atoms and nucleus contains excess of energy. This characteristic of radioisotopes can be natural or instability can be created artificially by changing the atoms. Naturally radioisotope is uranium-238 and it accounts to 0.7% of total naturally occurring isotopes. Artificial radioisotopes are fluorine and molybdenum which are produced artificially by using cyclotrons and nuclear reactors respectively. Presently there are around 3800 radioisotopes out of which 200 radioisotopes are being used. Among the isotopes that are used most of them are of artificial origin. Artificial radioisotopes are primarily made by two methods as mentioned above i.e. through nuclear reactor and by cyclotron. By nuclear reactor neutrons are introduced into the nucleus of atom whereas in case of cyclotron proton are introduced. To become stable radioisotopes emits alpha or beta particle along with electromagnetic radiation of gamma rays. This phenomenon is called as radioactive decay. These radioisotopes have variety of uses, when they are used in the field of pharmaceuticals they are termed as radiopharmaceuticals.
These are radioactive medicines that can be given by oral, intravenous or interstitial route to treat or diagnose malignancy. Administration of these drugs is done in the presence of specialist called radio pharmacist. These radioactive medicines have the ability to destroy cancerous cell by emitting radiation when it reaches its target cell. Radiopharmaceuticals for treatment and diagnosis of cancers associated with thyroid, brain, bones or lymphoma already been discovered.
In addition to treatment radiopharmaceuticals are also used for the purpose of diagnosis. The drugs used for diagnosis are called as tracers. The radiation of diagnostic radiopharmaceuticals is smaller as compared to radiation emitted by radiopharmaceuticals used for treatment. Radiopharmaceuticals are either single isotopes or sometimes the isotopes are combined with a kit [1]. The kit is prepackaging of ingredients which are sterile and are meant for preparation of radiopharmaceuticals. They are combination of substances such as antioxidant, buffer, reductant and ligands that are when combined with the radioisotopes produces the resultant product. Kits are very beneficial as they are not in contact with the outer environment so there is no chance of any contamination [2].
The isotope that is used for the purpose of labeling of kits used for diagnosis is technetium 99m abbreviated as 99mTc (Figure 1). It radiates only gamma radiation that is compatible with gamma camera. 99mTc also has the property of binding with the tracers. Advantage of technetium is that it has smaller biological half-life and better renal clearance for the unabsorbed radiopharmaceuticals that helps in getting a better quality of image from the absorbed ones. The dose of technetium depends on the kit, the organ on which it has to be used for imaging and on the test to be performed [3]. Determination of dose for children is very crucial as the cells are in dividing states so sensitivity towards radiation can be higher, organ size body ratio also varies to greater extent in comparison with adult. So in case of children a balanced level of administration is required [4].
Chemical structure of technetium 99m.
Different kit labeled with 99mTc used for imaging of different organs is mentioned below.
For detection of the areas that are metabolizing the bones kits with bisphosphonates are used. Scan of bone is done by injecting radiopharmaceuticals into the peripheral vein of patient and then after 3 h imaging is done so that within the three hours the bisphosphonates will get incorporated into the osteoblast cells.
For the imaging of kidney, there are three radiopharmaceuticals, namely
Radiolabelled mercaptoacetyltriglycine (Mag-3; mertiatide)
Radiolabelled diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA; pentetate)
Radiolabelled dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA; succimer
Mag-3; mertiatide is used for the purpose of determining the blood flow to the kidney and for graphically presenting the renal function. Mag-3 has a clearance of 94% after 3 h that helps in getting better quality of image and the exposure of patient to the radiation is also lower. DTPA; pentetate is used to determining rate of glomerular filtration during chemotherapy of kidney. Lastly DMSA; succimer is used a tool for studying morphology of renal cortex and ectopic kidney.
Kit used for the check the blood flow within the brain after conditions like epilepsy, migraine or Alzheimer’s disease or stroke of brain contains 99mTc-labeled exametazime. This is product of lipophilic origin without any charge on it and it penetrates better through blood brain barrier. It takes around one minute after injection for it to reach brain and up to 7% reaches the brain.
For cardiac imaging, two 99mTc-labeled are tetrofosmin and sestamibi which are employed to ascertain the degree to which myocardial infarction is severe and also help to point out the regions of cardiac ischemia. Images are collected at the state of rest and after stressed activity of cardiac cells. This injection are administered when patient must have consumed any kind of fatty meal. This helps in hepatobiliary clearance of administered radiopharmaceuticals thus aid in getting better image. But it should not be administered when patients has consumed some drugs such as nitrates or calcium channel blockers.
In case of lungs scan it is used for the purpose of diagnosis of any kind of embolism in pulmonary tract. Lung scan be of two types perfusion scan or ventilation scan. First, one 99mTc-labeled macroaggregated albumin is injected in the peripheral vein, which is then carried to the pulmonary artery system. It does not get absorbed rather it gets distributed evenly in the capillary bed and helps in diagnosis. Where blood flow is good there will be larger number of particles giving out radiation, whereas where there will less perfusion then less particles will be seen.
In case of ventilation scan, patient is made to inhale radioactive substance such as krypton or 99mTc-labeled DTPA aerosol. Image is obtained where air is seen circulating in lungs [5].
The most common adverse reaction associated with radiopharmaceuticals is sweating, nausea, dry mouth and rashes.
The aim of this chapter is to explain about advancements the injectable of biomaterials or radiopharmaceuticals origin used in molecular imaging, therapy and clinical diagnosis. On the basis of intrinsic radiation form, radioisotopes can be divided into following type namely gamma (γ) ray emitters, beta (positron β+ or electron β−) particles emitters and alpha (α) particles emitters or their combinations. In clinical practice and pre-clinical animal studies, mostly used radionuclides are gamma ray emitters like Technetium-99m (99mTc), Iodine-123 (123I) and Galium-67 (67Ga), Positron-emitting radionuclides namely Fluorine-18 (18F), Oxygen-15 (15O), Carbon-11 (11C) and Zirconium 89 (89Zr). Some β-emitters are Rhenium-186/Rhenium-188 (186Re/188Re), Strontium-89 (89Sr), and Yttrium-90 (90Y). Examples of therapeutic α-emitters are Actinium-225 (225Ac), Bismuth-213 (213Bi) and Astatine-211 (211At) [6]. The injected radiopharmaceuticals can be in simple ionic form or in carrier complex form. Carrier complex has better targeting ability for certain tissues and cells and pathways of disease. These are some radioisotopes used for imaging are as follows (Table 1):
Organ | Isotope used/activity |
---|---|
Brain | In-113m/7–10 mCi |
Kidney | Hg-197/150 mCi |
Lungs | Tc-99/1 mCi I-131/0.15–0.3 mCi In-113/1 mCi |
Spleen | Cr-51/0.3 mCi |
Bone | Sr-85/0.1 mCi Sr-87/1 mCi F-18/1 mCi |
Pancreas | Se-75/0.2 mCi |
Placenta | Cr-51/0.05 mCi Tc-99/0.5–1 mCi |
Radioisotope imaging [7].
In case of imaging, the major focus was development of 11C, 18F or 68Ga radiopharmaceuticals to be used in positron emission tomography (PET) and 99mTc-labeled agents for the used in single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) [8]. The merits associated with nuclear medicine are many such as it is noninvasive, it gives better in identifying exact region of tumor and beneficial for diagnosis of challenging diseases [9, 10]. In addition to this there is better quantitative analysis which is achieved with a numerous tools available. For example standard uptake values (SUVs) are taken in PET and in case of SPECT it is compared in vivo distribution of the injected materials [11]. There are some common nuclides mentioned in Table 2 which are used in radiation therapy are:
Nuclide | Radiation | Half-Life | Treatment |
---|---|---|---|
32P | Β | 14.3 d | Leukemia therapy |
60Co | β, γ | 5.3 yr | External cancer therapy |
123I | Γ | 13.3 yr | Thyroid therapy |
131Cs | Γ | 9.7 days | Prostate cancer therapy |
192Ir | β, γ | 74 d | Coronary disease |
Radiation therapy [12].
This content focuses on the developments in field of imaging technology in relevance to imaging of radionuclide therapy.
This type of decay of radionuclides determines about the modality for imaging. Planar scintigraphy or SPECT is used for imaging of 177Lu, 90Y, and 131I-which are used for radionuclide therapy. These emit γ-photons (or bremsstrahlung photons), which can be imaged by a γ-camera.
SPECT/CT systems which are used nowadays are used for both planar and tomographic imaging. Planar imaging is for acquiring whole-body images in when there is limitation of time. SPECT is meant for acquiring 3-dimensional data of structures which would otherwise overlap on each another on planar images.
Quantitative analysis of SPECT images is determined by converting the acquired counts in terms of distribution of absorbed dose (in Gy), which is beneficial for planning and dosimetry of therapy involving radionuclide. In clinical practice scatter correction is also implemented and is generally performed employing the triple-energy window method [13]. Quality of image can be enhanced by using resolution recovery. It is performed by characterizing the shape of the point-spread function accurately, that depends its distance from the camera and there is rotational variation due to the hexagonal pattern of the collimator septa. Reconstruction algorithm can be incorporated with point-spread function model subsequently [14].
Effects like scatter, blurring and attenuation which degrades image can be corrected to some extent, Although SPECT images can be degraded by partial-volume effects and quantification errors.
18F-FDG PET is used for many PET studies that are in the field of clinical practice and is employed for staging and follow-up post radionuclide therapy. However, PET has application in planning of treatment, dosimetry, and assessment of treatment after radionuclide therapies.
Similar to SPECT quantitative PET is also used for correction techniques. Correction of attenuation for PET can be done through determination of the sonogram associated with attenuation correction, which works on the basis of co-registered CT data. Scatter correction is often done with single-scatter simulation method in clinical practice [15]. Correction for random counts is often done using delayed-event subtraction [16].
The difference in time between annihilation photons gives information regarding location of the annihilation and also about the line of response. Now time-of-flight information in the reconstruction at the time of back projection step enhances image quality. The availability of time-of-flight estimation has opened the opportunities for low positron abundance imaging isotopes like 90Y.
As intrinsic resolution of PET detectors are not freely available, so shape of the point-spread function is used to improve the quality of images by incorporating it during reconstruction method. This is called as resolution recovery.
When there are high count rate radiation detection systems does not work properly due to dead-time effect caused by pulse pile-up. Because of these Dead-time losses are corrected regularly.
There are better quality of PET images with enhanced resolutions and sensitivity due to regular improvement in the instrument which provides precise determination of the SUV [17].
The advantages of PET/MRI over PET/CT are higher soft-tissue contrast that is essential for planning of treatment, dosimetry, and assessment post radionuclide therapies. Additionally, for accurate dosimetry it is beneficial as it provides the simultaneous coregisteration of MR images. Also, MRI can be employed for determining the tolerable dose with least organ damaging activity of radionuclide. Along with it anatomic and molecular images acquisition provides better motion correction.
Integrating of PET and MRI modalities is challenging as there will be interference between both the modalities. For instance, photomultiplier tubes that are present in PET detectors malfunction in magnetic fields exerted by MRI. In addition to this, PET module affects the radiofrequency signal associated with MRI [18]. Due to this, the first generation of PET/MRI systems modalities were separated. Integration of PET detectors and MR scanner has been done to obtain PET and MR images simultaneously. Detector systems is avalanche photodiodes types or SiPMs types which are not sensitive to magnetic field. The simultaneous measurement provides better 4-dimensional acquisitions because of spatial agreement of PET and MRI data.
Disadvantages associated with PET/MRI are high costs and the ferromagnetic metallic implants which are used is contradictory to MRI. In addition to this it’s challenging to correct attenuation of PET/MRI. For dosimetry it is essential to have accurate attenuation correction. As CT images are electron-density images and MR images are proton density image, CT image are better suited for attenuation correction. But MR images can be used for attenuation correction by using techniques such as segmentation-based or template- or atlas-based which derives electron density information from MR images [19]. Alternatively, estimation of the attenuation maps can be done by employing algorithms which uses the time-of-flight emission or transmission data [20].
Till today there are no real-time hybrid imaging modalities that can merge nuclear and anatomic for interventional purposes. Fluoroscopic imaging in combination with real-time nuclear imaging gives physicians with valuable information during procedures like as 90Y liver radio embolization by image distribution of the radionuclide in association with the anatomy and the interventional instruments that enhances therapeutic efficiency. Image of same field can be seen by arranging X-ray tube, an X-ray detector, and a γ-camera in a single line [21].
S. no | Radioisotopes | Uses |
---|---|---|
1. | Calcium-47 | Important aid to biomedical researchers studying cellular functions and bone formation in mammals |
2. | Caesuim-137 | Used to treat cancerous tumors and to measure correct dosages of radioactive pharmaceuticals |
3. | Chromium-51 | Used in research in red blood cells survival studies |
4. | Cobalt-57 | Used as a tracer to diagnose pernicious anemia |
5. | Cobalt-60 | Used to sterilize surgical instruments and used in cancer treatment, food irradiation and radiography |
6. | Copper-67 | When injected to monoclonal antibodies into a cancer patient, helps the antibodies bind to and destroy the tumor |
7. | Gallium-67 | Used in medical diagnosis |
8. | Iodine-123 | Widely used to diagnose thyroid disorders and other metabolic disorders including brain functions |
9. | Iodine-125 | Major diagnostic tool used in clinical test and to diagnose thyroid disorders. Also used in biomedical research |
10. | Iodine-129 | Used to check some radioactivity counters in in-vitro diagnostic testing laboratories |
11. | Iodine-131 | Used to treat thyroid disorders (Graves’ disease) |
12. | Iridium-192 | In brachytherapy/tumor irradiation |
13. | Phosphorous-32 and Phosphorous-33 | Used in molecular biology and genetics research |
14. | Technetium-99m | Most widely used radioactive pharmaceutical for diagnostic studies in nuclear medicine. Different chemical forms are used for brain, bone, liver, spleen and kidney imaging |
15. | Uranium-234 | Used in dental fixtures like crowns and dentures to provide a natural color and brightness |
16. | Xenon-133 | Used in nuclear medicine for lung ventilation and blood flow studies |
Applications of different radioactive isotopes in nuclear medicine are [22]:
Cobalt-60 is used in radiation therapy for prevention of cancer.
Iodine-131 has been used for locating brain tumors, monitor activity of cardiac, liver and thyroid cells.
Carbon-14 used for determining metabolic changes happening in patients of diabetes, gout and anemia.
Carbon-11 is used to monitor organs during PET scan by tagging it into glucose.
Thallium-201 has been in use for determining damage in heart tissue, detection of tumors.
Technetium-99m act as radiotracer in medical diagnostics for obtaining the image of organs and study of blood flow. It also crucial for locating brain tumors and damaged heart cells [23].
It should be sterile and free from Pyrogens. Sterility means absence of any living things even the spores or any related substances that can develop into something living. Culturing samples with special growth media is most common way to perform the assessment of sterility. Pyrogens are endotoxins that have the ability to cause pyrexia. They cannot be destroyed by autoclave and cannot be filtered. Testing for Pyrogens can be tested by using the rabbit test or the Limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL) test.
The isotonicity of injectable drug should be equal to 0.9% NaCl solution, and the pH should be 7.5.
In case of radioactive substance dose calibration should be done and it should be within ±10% of the prescribed dose. This calibration provides assurance that dose is as low as possible and it gives high quality image.
It is used for diagnosis and treatment of patients.
It is commonly used to cure to cancers and can treat many other sites of disease.
Treats tumor such as bone metastasis.
Provide faster onset of relief from pain.
Single dose is effective for some patients.
Tests of nuclear medicine can be done on children.
Nuclear medicine procedure less costly and painless.
Nuclear medicine procedures are safe with no side effects [24].
Some allergic reactions can be seen.
Risk of radiation is associated.
Myelosuppression may occur before chemotherapy.
Prolonged in convenience and discomfort can be experienced by patients due to administration of multiple fraction.
Nuclear medicine tests cannot use for pregnant women because of potential risk to unborn babies.
Theranostics is a combination of two words Therapeutics and diagnostics. This is an emerging field of medicine where drugs and/or techniques are used in combination for treatment as well as treatment. It’s a game changer as it provides diagnosis as well as therapy in single combination. It is economical as well as less time consuming. It uses PET scan to target tumor receptors which are present in tumor cell. If it is found in the cells radioactive drug is used to treat it. There are not much clinical trials found related to use of application of theranostics in prostate cancer by Australian Medicines Regulator—The Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) [25] (Figure 2).
Theranostics working on tumor cell.
The Nuclear Medicine Imaging approach is revolutionized by use theranostics [targeted therapeutic (Rx) + companion diagnostic (DX)] to establish tools for specific molecular targeting. It provides personalized treatment plan for the patient by targeting specific targets. Various department of nuclear science can utilize theranostic agents [26].
Theranostics takes advantage of biological pathways specific to any system of human body to acquire diagnostic images. These images enhances the probability that the targeted therapeutic dosing of radiation that will only target disease part sparing the healthy one.
In past 100 years a similar kind of model for neuroendocrine tumors has been developed that has used radionuclide gallium-68. This PET radiotracer has been chelated to DOTA-octreotate and used for diagnosis of tumor with higher sensitivity compared to Indium-111 octreotide imaging.
The disease of patients can be determined by using the gallium-68 DOTA-TATE for targeting the somatostatin receptor volume and having image using hybrid scanner like PET-CT (Positron Emission Tomography-Computer Tomography). Lutetium Octreotate Therapy is a radiopharmaceuticals which emits beta radiation is available in 5 medical centers in north America and European medical centers [27].
Some of the milestones in the field of theranostics becoming personalized medicine are as follows:
Lutetium PSMA therapy for metastatic or treatment-resistant prostate cancer
Yttrium-90 SIRT therapy for liver cancer
Iodine-131 therapy for thyrotoxicosis and thyroid cancer
Radium-223 therapy for metastatic prostate cancer in bones
Yttrium-90 radiosynovectomy therapy for inflammatory synovitis of joints
Theranostics targeted therapy is difficult in case of cancer treatment due to heterogeneity of cancer cells. Ibritumomab a monoclonal antibody detects B-cells and produces the beta/alpha-emitting radiometal for destroying the lymphoma. SPECT imaging confirms distribution of antibody in the body. The indium-111 combined with radionuclide yttrium-90 transports beta particles for killing the B-cells [28] (Figure 3).
Theranostics in cancer targeting and treatment.
Zevalin therapy is used for determining the indications for relapsed or refractory, low-grade or follicular, B-cell non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Zevalin is FDA approved for the treatment of relapsed or refractory low-grade follicular. In the year 2008 Zevalin was approved as the first-line drug for follicular lymphoma in the European Union.
The diagnostic component contains radiotracer, a contrast agent molecule, and a particulate system with either inherent physical property like optical, magnetic property or an acquired physical property such as, contrast enhanced ultrasound property or combinations of both. Combination systems exhibits dual functions like oximetry and detection in cellular and molecular imaging [29].
The therapeutic component includes drug molecule that is associated with diagnostic component or carrier system. Examples of the former are radiotracer-labeled non-peptide like gallium-68-labeled bisphosphonates for osteoblastic bone metastases and peptide-based molecules such as gallium-68-labeled somatostatin analogs for somatostatin receptor which targets neuroendocrine tumors. Examples of therapeutic components associated with a carrier system are where integrated entities are attaches to macromolecular carrier covalently. In addition to this, drug molecules co-encapsulation is done with diagnostic components such as chelated radiotracers and gadolinium (III), quantum dots, gold nanoparticle into particulate carrier systems namely polymeric nanospheres, liposomes, polymersomes, and mesoporous silica nanoparticles.
Cancer is a serious condition of heterogeneous group of diseases where there is uncontrolled and rapid cell growth. This is because of changes at genetic and/or epigenetic level in patient’s body. Current treatment for cancer is chemotherapy, radiotherapy, immunotherapy and surgery.
Chemotherapy is not that much useful as a very low level of concentration of drug reaches the tumor. Moreover there is chances development of resistance during treatment and associated side effects. For example, chemotherapeutic agents known as taxanes have emerged as one of the most powerful classes of compounds to combat cancer, exhibiting a wide range of activity. The tubulin/microtubule complex has been proven to be a clinically useful antitumor target. The examples of chemotherapeutics that act via perturbation of tubulin polymerization include paclitaxel (Taxol®), docetaxel (Taxotere®), vinblastine, and discodermolide. First, docetaxel is a semi-synthetic derivative of paclitaxel. Next, vinblastine, unlike the other three compounds that all stabilize microtubules, aggregates tubulin and leads to microtubule depolymerisation. Randomized clinical trials evaluating docetaxel and paclitaxel in a first-line treatment setting for metastatic breast, lung, ovarian, and digestive cancers, as well as in the adjuvant setting for breast cancer, have confirmed that taxanes are leading contributors to the armamentarium of cancer treatments. Paclitaxel is used as a first-line chemotherapy treatment for NSCLC, but patients’ acquired resistance becomes a critical problem.
Here nanomedicine is better as it allows molecular targeting to get higher concentrations of drug molecules at targeted site. Studies have been to make sure that required amount of drug reaches the site actively or passively which ensures better therapeutic index.
Few examples of nanomedicine in this context are polymeric micelles, polymer-drug conjugates and liposomes. Whereas traditional small molecular drugs n get eliminated from bloodstream quickly but nanomedicine possess longer half-lives.
Furthermore there is enhanced bioavailability and augmented tumor delivery. In addition to it integration of imaging and nanomedicine helps as diagnostic arm of theranostics. The advantages of using such strategy are immense, that will assist in management of oncogenic conditions with the help of theranostics [30].
Applications of theranostics in medicine include:
It is a noninvasive molecular imaging method to evaluate of disease heterogeneity.
Gives better idea about biodistribution and about accumulation of drug at target-site.
Better understanding of process of local drug release.
Facilitation of drug release (through application of stimuli-responsive theranostics).
Prediction of drug responses and associated adverse effects with personalized therapies [31].
Radiopharmaceuticals are as safe as other medicine and before use they are tested carefully.
The quantity of the pharmaceutical part of the radiopharmaceutical is very small, generally 1/10th of a millionth of an ounce. The risk of a reaction is 2–3 incidents per 100,000 injections, over 50% of which are rashes as compared to 2000–3000 per 100,000 injections of X-ray contrast media.
For childrens most radiopharmaceuticals, the amount of radiation used for a diagnostic test is very low and considered safe [32].
Radiopharmaceuticals usually are not recommended for use during pregnancy. This is to avoid exposing the fetus to radiation. His is specially important with radiopharmaceuticals that contain radioactive iodine, which can go to the baby’s thyroid gland and in high enough amounts may cause thyroid damage.
Although exposure to the radioactivity in very large doses can be harmful the radioactivity in radiopharmaceuticals is carefully selected by the nuclear medicine physician to be safe.
If anybody will be receiving albumin in the form of radioiodinated albumin, technetium Tc 99m albumin aggregated, technetium Tc 99m albumin colloid, or technetium Tc 99m albumin for test, Consult doctor if have ever had any unusual or allergic reaction to products containing human serum albumin [33].
Side effects: when radiopharmaceuticals are used in very small doses to study an organ of the body, side effects are rare and usually involve an allergic reaction. These effects may occur almost immediately or a few minutes after the radiopharmaceutical is given.
In recent past radiopharmaceuticals made steady progress towards nuclear imaging and therapy. The benefit of molecular imaging and therapy can obtain when required amount of diagnostic probes reaches the targeted site. Effort have been taken in enhancing specificity of targeted radiotracers in both pre-clinical research and clinical trials. In recent discussions the advancement in the said field has been discussed taking into account multi-modal molecular imaging probes for sentinel lymph node mapping and image-guided surgery, radiotracers for targeted imaging of cancer and neurodegenerative diseases, along with probes for monitoring therapy responses. For better diagnosis and therapy design of radiopharmaceuticals as well as route of administration plays a major role. At last dose of radioactive medicine should be set with caution to prevent over exposure of patient, the principle of ‘As Low as Reasonably Achievable’ (ALARA) used for protection of employee as well as general public. The knowledge about medical physics is essential because of interactions between ionizing radiation and biological tissues. According to author we can be optimistic for the future growth of radiopharmaceuticals. This trend can be seen in recent future with the help of thriving research and fast translations into clinic. The high cost, demanding hardware requirements and specialized personnel training are major factors that may confine the development of radiopharmaceuticals. However, the huge needs for nuclear medicine from the public and the benefits to patient care far outweigh the risks.
General requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed.
',metaTitle:"Horizon 2020 Compliance",metaDescription:"General requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed. ",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Publishing with IntechOpen means that your scientific publications already meet these basic requirements. It also means that through our utilization of open licensing, our publications are also able to be copied, shared, searched, linked, crawled, and mined for text and data, optimizing our authors' compliance as suggested by the European Commission.
\\n\\nMetadata for all publications is also automatically deposited in IntechOpen's OAI repository, making them available through the Open Access Infrastructure for Research in Europe's (OpenAIRE) search interface further establishing our compliance.
\\n\\nIn other words, publishing with IntechOpen guarantees compliance.
\\n\\nRead more about Open Access in Horizon 2020 here.
\\n\\nWhich scientific publication to choose?
\\n\\nWhen choosing a publication, Horizon 2020 grant recipients are encouraged to provide open access to various types of scientific publications including monographs, edited books and conference proceedings.
\\n\\nIntechOpen publishes all of the aforementioned formats in compliance with the requirements and criteria established by the European Commission for the Horizon 2020 Program.
\\n\\nAuthors requiring additional information are welcome to send their inquiries to funders@intechopen.com
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Publishing with IntechOpen means that your scientific publications already meet these basic requirements. It also means that through our utilization of open licensing, our publications are also able to be copied, shared, searched, linked, crawled, and mined for text and data, optimizing our authors' compliance as suggested by the European Commission.
\n\nMetadata for all publications is also automatically deposited in IntechOpen's OAI repository, making them available through the Open Access Infrastructure for Research in Europe's (OpenAIRE) search interface further establishing our compliance.
\n\nIn other words, publishing with IntechOpen guarantees compliance.
\n\nRead more about Open Access in Horizon 2020 here.
\n\nWhich scientific publication to choose?
\n\nWhen choosing a publication, Horizon 2020 grant recipients are encouraged to provide open access to various types of scientific publications including monographs, edited books and conference proceedings.
\n\nIntechOpen publishes all of the aforementioned formats in compliance with the requirements and criteria established by the European Commission for the Horizon 2020 Program.
\n\nAuthors requiring additional information are welcome to send their inquiries to funders@intechopen.com
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5766},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5228},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1717},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10370},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15791}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118192},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"ebgfFaeGuveeFgfcChcyvfu"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:19},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5240},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12b06cc73e89af1e104399321cc16a75",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1225",title:"Optical Physics",slug:"optics-and-lasers-optical-physics",parent:{title:"Optics and Lasers",slug:"optics-and-lasers"},numberOfBooks:5,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:92,numberOfWosCitations:47,numberOfCrossrefCitations:36,numberOfDimensionsCitations:55,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"optics-and-lasers-optical-physics",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10075",title:"Nonlinear Optics",subtitle:"From Solitons to Similaritons",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b034b2a060292c8511359aec0db1002c",slug:"nonlinear-optics-from-solitons-to-similaritons",bookSignature:"İlkay Bakırtaş and Nalan Antar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10075.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186388",title:"Prof.",name:"İlkay",middleName:null,surname:"Bakırtaş",slug:"ilkay-bakirtas",fullName:"İlkay Bakırtaş"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8350",title:"Fiber Optic Sensing",subtitle:"Principle, Measurement and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d35774b28952d3c4c4643b58dec25549",slug:"fiber-optic-sensing-principle-measurement-and-applications",bookSignature:"Shien-Kuei Liaw",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8350.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206109",title:"Dr.",name:"Shien-Kuei",middleName:null,surname:"Liaw",slug:"shien-kuei-liaw",fullName:"Shien-Kuei Liaw"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7582",title:"Nonlinear Optics",subtitle:"Novel Results in Theory and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a3ad4a3553a3ec59f7992d4f6495ac07",slug:"nonlinear-optics-novel-results-in-theory-and-applications",bookSignature:"Boris I. Lembrikov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7582.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"2359",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",middleName:"I.",surname:"Lembrikov",slug:"boris-lembrikov",fullName:"Boris Lembrikov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6599",title:"Small Angle Scattering and Diffraction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b1efb6a54c3fbdadd875f7bac0f6718",slug:"small-angle-scattering-and-diffraction",bookSignature:"Margareth K. K. D. Franco and Fabiano Yokaichiya",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6599.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186337",title:"Dr.",name:"Margareth Kazuyo Kobayashi",middleName:null,surname:"Dias Franco",slug:"margareth-kazuyo-kobayashi-dias-franco",fullName:"Margareth Kazuyo Kobayashi Dias Franco"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5348",title:"Luminescence",subtitle:"An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d982c49fed4423a0ea7367af4f917b82",slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",bookSignature:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5348.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",middleName:null,surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:5,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"52294",doi:"10.5772/65118",title:"Photon-Upconverting Materials: Advances and Prospects for Various Emerging Applications",slug:"photon-upconverting-materials-advances-and-prospects-for-various-emerging-applications",totalDownloads:2472,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Manoj Kumar Mahata, Hans Christian Hofsäss and Ulrich Vetter",authors:[{id:"185891",title:"Dr.",name:"Manoj Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Mahata",slug:"manoj-kumar-mahata",fullName:"Manoj Kumar Mahata"},{id:"194423",title:"Prof.",name:"Hans",middleName:null,surname:"Hofsäss",slug:"hans-hofsass",fullName:"Hans Hofsäss"},{id:"194424",title:"Dr.",name:"Ulrich",middleName:null,surname:"Vetter",slug:"ulrich-vetter",fullName:"Ulrich Vetter"}]},{id:"52465",doi:"10.5772/65385",title:"Bioluminescent Fishes and their Eyes",slug:"bioluminescent-fishes-and-their-eyes",totalDownloads:1372,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"José Paitio, Yuichi Oba and Victor Benno Meyer-Rochow",authors:[{id:"185998",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Oba",slug:"yuichi-oba",fullName:"Yuichi Oba"},{id:"186175",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Rui",middleName:null,surname:"Lima Paitio",slug:"jose-rui-lima-paitio",fullName:"Jose Rui Lima Paitio"},{id:"202747",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor B.",middleName:null,surname:"Meyer-Rochow",slug:"victor-b.-meyer-rochow",fullName:"Victor B. Meyer-Rochow"}]},{id:"52672",doi:"10.5772/65185",title:"Luminescence in Rare Earth Ion‐Doped Oxide Compounds",slug:"luminescence-in-rare-earth-ion-doped-oxide-compounds",totalDownloads:2918,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Carlos Ruvalcaba Cornejo",authors:[{id:"186306",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Ruvalcaba",slug:"carlos-ruvalcaba",fullName:"Carlos Ruvalcaba"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"52173",title:"The Dynamics of Luminescence",slug:"the-dynamics-of-luminescence",totalDownloads:1531,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Luyanda L. Noto, Hendrik C. Swart, Bakang M. Mothudi, Pontsho S.\nMbule and Mokhotjwa S. Dhlamini",authors:[{id:"102985",title:"Dr.",name:"Mokhotswa",middleName:null,surname:"Dhlamini",slug:"mokhotswa-dhlamini",fullName:"Mokhotswa Dhlamini"}]},{id:"52294",title:"Photon-Upconverting Materials: Advances and Prospects for Various Emerging Applications",slug:"photon-upconverting-materials-advances-and-prospects-for-various-emerging-applications",totalDownloads:2476,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:10,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Manoj Kumar Mahata, Hans Christian Hofsäss and Ulrich Vetter",authors:[{id:"185891",title:"Dr.",name:"Manoj Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Mahata",slug:"manoj-kumar-mahata",fullName:"Manoj Kumar Mahata"},{id:"194423",title:"Prof.",name:"Hans",middleName:null,surname:"Hofsäss",slug:"hans-hofsass",fullName:"Hans Hofsäss"},{id:"194424",title:"Dr.",name:"Ulrich",middleName:null,surname:"Vetter",slug:"ulrich-vetter",fullName:"Ulrich Vetter"}]},{id:"52672",title:"Luminescence in Rare Earth Ion‐Doped Oxide Compounds",slug:"luminescence-in-rare-earth-ion-doped-oxide-compounds",totalDownloads:2922,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Carlos Ruvalcaba Cornejo",authors:[{id:"186306",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Ruvalcaba",slug:"carlos-ruvalcaba",fullName:"Carlos Ruvalcaba"}]},{id:"65854",title:"The State-of-the-Art of Brillouin Distributed Fiber Sensing",slug:"the-state-of-the-art-of-brillouin-distributed-fiber-sensing",totalDownloads:793,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"fiber-optic-sensing-principle-measurement-and-applications",title:"Fiber Optic Sensing",fullTitle:"Fiber Optic Sensing - Principle, Measurement and Applications"},signatures:"Cheng Feng, Jaffar Emad Kadum and Thomas Schneider",authors:[{id:"280943",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Cheng",middleName:null,surname:"Feng",slug:"cheng-feng",fullName:"Cheng Feng"},{id:"290271",title:"Mr.",name:"Jaffar",middleName:null,surname:"Kadum",slug:"jaffar-kadum",fullName:"Jaffar Kadum"},{id:"290272",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Schneider",slug:"thomas-schneider",fullName:"Thomas Schneider"}]},{id:"64727",title:"Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",slug:"nonlinear-schr-dinger-equation",totalDownloads:822,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"nonlinear-optics-novel-results-in-theory-and-applications",title:"Nonlinear Optics",fullTitle:"Nonlinear Optics - Novel Results in Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Jing Huang",authors:[{id:"198550",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jing",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"jing-huang",fullName:"Jing Huang"}]},{id:"52568",title:"Trap Level Measurements in Wide Band Gap Materials by Thermoluminescence",slug:"trap-level-measurements-in-wide-band-gap-materials-by-thermoluminescence",totalDownloads:1546,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Pooneh Saadatkia, Chris Varney and Farida Selim",authors:[{id:"185781",title:"Prof.",name:"Farida",middleName:null,surname:"Selim",slug:"farida-selim",fullName:"Farida Selim"},{id:"186734",title:"Ms.",name:"Pooneh",middleName:null,surname:"Saadatkia",slug:"pooneh-saadatkia",fullName:"Pooneh Saadatkia"},{id:"186735",title:"Dr.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Varney",slug:"chris-varney",fullName:"Chris Varney"}]},{id:"66415",title:"Magnetic Solitons in Optical Lattice",slug:"magnetic-solitons-in-optical-lattice",totalDownloads:227,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"nonlinear-optics-from-solitons-to-similaritons",title:"Nonlinear Optics",fullTitle:"Nonlinear Optics - From Solitons to Similaritons"},signatures:"Xing-Dong Zhao",authors:[{id:"283277",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhao",middleName:null,surname:"Xingdong",slug:"zhao-xingdong",fullName:"Zhao Xingdong"}]},{id:"52708",title:"Bioluminescence of the Black Sea Ctenophores-Aliens as an Index of their Physiological State",slug:"bioluminescence-of-the-black-sea-ctenophores-aliens-as-an-index-of-their-physiological-state",totalDownloads:1126,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Tokarev Yuriy Nikolaevich and Mashukova Olga Vladimirovna",authors:[{id:"186292",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuriy",middleName:null,surname:"Tokarev",slug:"yuriy-tokarev",fullName:"Yuriy Tokarev"},{id:"186293",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Mashukova",slug:"olga-mashukova",fullName:"Olga Mashukova"}]},{id:"52133",title:"Excitation‐Intensity (EI) Effect on Photoluminescence of ZnO Materials with Various Morphologies",slug:"excitation-intensity-ei-effect-on-photoluminescence-of-zno-materials-with-various-morphologies",totalDownloads:1427,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Prasada Rao Talakonda",authors:[{id:"185838",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasada Rao",middleName:null,surname:"Talakonda",slug:"prasada-rao-talakonda",fullName:"Prasada Rao Talakonda"}]},{id:"52293",title:"Luminescent Glass for Lasers and Solar Concentrators",slug:"luminescent-glass-for-lasers-and-solar-concentrators",totalDownloads:1537,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Meruva Seshadri, Virgilio de Carvalho dos Anjos and Maria Jose\nValenzuela Bell",authors:[{id:"185581",title:"Dr.",name:"Seshadri",middleName:null,surname:"Meruva",slug:"seshadri-meruva",fullName:"Seshadri Meruva"},{id:"193648",title:"Prof.",name:"Anjos",middleName:null,surname:"V",slug:"anjos-v",fullName:"Anjos V"},{id:"193649",title:"Prof.",name:"Bell",middleName:null,surname:"M.J.V",slug:"bell-m.j.v",fullName:"Bell M.J.V"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"optics-and-lasers-optical-physics",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/86656/hasan-garip",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"86656",slug:"hasan-garip"},fullPath:"/profiles/86656/hasan-garip",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()