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1. Introduction
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Since last couple of decades, environmental issues have been increasing and traveling faster than forest fire, country to region, region to world level territory, which is a serious cause of climate change and global warming. In addition, scarcity of natural resources and air and water pollution badly affect the fauna and flora, human life with different diseases they cause definitely, such like ischaemic heart disease, lung cancer, chronic obstruction pulmonary disease, stroke, Dracunculiasis, Cholera, Hepatitis, Typhoid fever, and Norovirus [2]. While, the green supply chain concept occurs to mitigate environmental degradations and control air, water and waste pollution through the adoption of green practices in business operations. Undeniably, the basic ideology behind green concept is to enhanced environmental sustainability, but firms adopt green concept as “kill two enemies with one bullet”. Because green supply chain can reduce the environmental pollution and production costs and it also can spur economic growth, create competitive advantage in terms of greater customer satisfaction, positive image and reputation and provide better opportunity to export their products in pro-environmental countries [1]. The definition of green idea is expanding with new innovations and techniques to protect environmental sustainability, which can be recognized by corporate social responsibility, green manufacturing, waste reduction, recycling and remanufacturing sustainable/environmental friendly supply chain, green supply chain, etc.
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The term sustainable or green supply chain refers to the idea of integrating sustainable environmental processes into the traditional supply chain. This can include processes such as supplier selection and purchasing material, product design, product manufacturing and assembling, distribution and end-of-life management. Instead of mitigating harmful impact of business and supply chain operations, green supply chain involves value addition and/or value creation through the operations of whole chain. Undeniably, reducing air, water and waste pollution is the main goal of green supply chain, while green operations also enhance firms’ performance in terms of less waste manufacturing, reuse and recycling of products, reduction in manufacturing costs, greater efficiency of assets, positive image building, and greater customer satisfaction. Figure 1 displays a green supply chain of child’s crib manufacturer as an example.
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Figure 1.
Green supply chain of child’s crib manufacturer.
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Green supply chain makes the applications of the key sustainable development strategy outstand. It emphasizes how green practices can be adopted in firms to mitigate the environmental degradations and increase the economic and operational performance of firms, while Figure 2 illustrates a simple model of green supply chain. Khan et al. [2] have explained the concepts of sustainable and green supply chain management:
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Figure 2.
Simple model of GSCM.
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Application of environmental management principles to the entire set of activities across the whole customer order cycle, including, design, procurement, manufacturing and assembly, packaging, logistics and distribution [3].
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Integrating environmental thinking into supply chain management, including ecological design of products, purchasing green materials and components, reengineering of manufacturing steps towards ecofriendly, reverse logistics management of the product after its useful life [4].
Reducing and controlling the harmful impacts of supply chain on the environment [6].
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Adoption of ecological design, sourcing green materials and chemicals, and provide green trainings to employees under ethical leadership [7].
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Green supply chain are integrating ecofriendly concept into supply chain management to improve environmental sustainability with different green practices including, green purchasing, green distribution and warehousing, green transportation with usage of biofuels, green manufacturing processes and the products’ end-of-life management [2, 7].
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In the World, as the environmental awareness is increasing, firms are facing heavy pressure from different stakeholders including government and customers to mitigate their harmful effect on the environment [8]. Indeed, corporate sector needs to consider integrating their business practices in service and manufacturing industry with sustainability and reducing end-to-end supply chain costs to achieve competitive advantage [1, 9]. Since last couple of decades, growing impacts of global warming, climate change, waste and air pollution issues have involved increasing world-wide attention of experts to think more ecofriendly and find optimum possible solution towards “Green” [10, 11]. Rath [12] identified GSCM (green supply chain management) plays a part in motivating organizational sustainability. With the environmental concerns rising continuously, GSCM deserves a persistent community concern in developed nations. Further, it has recently woken up the developing nations to the green movement [13].
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2. The role of critical success factors in GSCM
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There is no doubt that green supply chain is a relatively new idea, which is gaining popularity so as to improve environmental performance in the whole chain [5, 14]. We have identified the following six key critical success factors for putting green supply chain management into practice to attain better environmental sustainability
Ethical leadership/internal management
Customer management
Supplier management
Competitiveness
Societal
Regulatory
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2.1 Ethical leadership/internal management
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Internal environment management contains support and encouragement from senior managers. Internal management is a key critical success factor for enterprises to adopt green practices. Pressure employees bring about, encouragement and support from environmental-protection motivate senior management. Meanwhile, the perception of environmental risks involved could bring positive change in adoption of green practices [8, 15, 16].
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2.2 Customer management
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In green supply chains, customers play an important and effective part [13]. Indeed, developing nations’ firms are facing heavy pressure to adopt green practices in their business operations of supply chain to meet their customers’ demand so that they can be competitive in the market [17]. Cooperation with customers becomes very useful to attain fruitful advantages from green supply chain management [7, 18].
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2.3 Supplier management
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Green supply chain practices are unable to be adopted without active participation of customers and suppliers [19, 20]. Strong collaboration with suppliers enhances incentive systems, boosts the adoption and development of innovative ecofriendly ideas. Technologies, green partnership agreements and openness in implementation of innovative green practices may generate enhancement in operational and environmental performance so as to achieve economic goals of firms [21].
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2.4 Competitiveness
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A number of published researches showed that competence and relevant elements could play a part in green practices implementation in their supply chain [22, 23]. Competitiveness has been perceived as a significant factor to implement green practices rather than organizations’ wish to protect environmental sustainability. Implementing green practices in firms’ business operations may also be dated back to additional voluntary for competitive factors [8].
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2.5 Social
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A number of researchers found the significance of societal factors for attaining environmental friendly practices objectives [15, 22, 24]. With growing attention of regulatory bodies and awareness of customers on environment, firms have to exchange end-to-end information regarding their supply chain operations’ effect on local community and people lives [25]. In addition, NGOs (nongovernment organizations), electronic and social media are more effective in exerting pressure on firms to adopt green practices.
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2.6 Regulatory
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Increasing prominence of environmental concerns has forced regulatory authorities to strict their environmental laws and policies [8, 26]. Governmental bodies have been farming strict environmental laws to control climate change, global warming and pollution; and firms are required to reduce their supply chain’s negative effect on environmental sustainability [27]. Hence, it becomes more and more important for firms in supply chain to have conformity with regulations so as to conducting ecofriendly strategies.
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3. Green practices in supply chain management
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With numerous green practices adopted, companies in their business and supply chain operations improve their productivity with better environmental growth. While, some well-known green practices are as follows;
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3.1 Green material sourcing
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Green sourcing means sourcing or purchasing materials and components which have such enviable ecofriendly characteristics as reusability, recyclability and nonuse of hazardous/dangerous chemicals [28]. With more and more concerns on environmental protection, procurement professionals have been motivated to reconsider their existing sourcing, purchasing strategy and their impact on environmental sustainability [29, 30]. The role of ecofriendly purchasing is the involvement of recycling and remanufacturing. Min and Galle [31] further emphasized green sourcing supporting waste reduction enhances recycling and remanufacturing and other activities in supply chain. Carter and Rogers [32] did a research to explore the impact of green sourcing on firms’ environmental and financial performance. They concluded that owing to the successful adoption of green purchasing strategy, products’ cost is reduced and environmental performance and financial performance of firms is increased with positive reputation obtained in the market. Zailani et al. [33] highlighted that ecofriendly purchasing has positive relationship with firms’ operational and environmental performance. Yang et al. [34] green purchasing was categorized into five main facets: design operation management, supply chain management, environmental authentication, ecological, and external environmental management. They confirmed that green purchasing improved to the overall firms’ performance [35]. The adoption of green purchasing in supply chain and business operations is a reliable tool in mitigating waste, air and water pollution.
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3.2 Green marketing
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The actions directed to all incorporates and consumers comprise green marketing, a broad range of marketing activities (e.g., planning, production,, process, price, promotion and after-sale service) designed to illustrate the goal of organization to mitigate the harmful effects of their products [36]. Green marketing practice promotes the products with environmental friendly properties [8, 37]. It contains the activities that can satisfy human desires of minimum negative effects on the environmental beauty. In addition, green marketing enhances firms’ competitiveness and financial and environmental performance with positive corporate reputation and image [35, 38].
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3.3 Green management
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Green management practices (GMP) provide a firm with supplementary sources of information that can enhance their business and environmental objectives [39]. Adoption of green management practices help with improved firm image, increased efficiency, environmental compliance improvement, cost savings, achievement of societal commitment and reduction of carbon emissions etc. [40, 41].
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3.4 Green distribution and warehousing
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Green distribution and warehousing can reduce the waste and play an important role in energy reduction and value addition of green products in warehousing significantly improve overall performance of organization with better corporate image [7]. Green distribution helps enterprises to obtain superior financial and environmental performance [42, 43].
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3.5 Green manufacturing
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Green manufacturing practices are to implement socially and environmentally accountable practices to mitigate harmful effects of manufacturing and increased profitability of firms [8, 29]. Green practices in production improve efficiency of processes [33]. This practice involves the application of the green resources, which may lead towards competitive advantage through reduction in products’ cost and improvement in products’ quality. Lean and green manufacturing industry both are working for eliminating waste and improving the efficiency of manufacturing processes [43]. Baines et al. [42] highlighted the benefits of green manufacturing: green practices in production processes mitigate the bad effects of manufacturing processes on environmental sustainability, while green manufacturing improve operational, environmental and financial performance of firms.
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3.6 Ecological design
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Luthra et al. [8] highlighted that 80% impacts on environment from product and process related could be controlled with the adoption of ecological design in supply chain management. Ecological design incorporates many ideas such like using cleaner technology processes, green raw material and components [28, 44]. Green design of products reduces ecological impacts of products during their life [8, 45]. In addition, green design of products also supports reusing, recycling and remanufacturing of products, which not only helps firms to improve their environmental performance but also provide opportunity to reduce their costs [1].
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3.7 Green transportation and reverse logistics
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Green transportation and reverser logistics practices provide opportunity to organizations, to improve their image and reduce their costs [46]. Logistics overheads can be saved through promoting transportation system’s efficiency and enhancement of customer association also can be obtained to create more profitability [8]. The logistics activities integrated with rehabilitation comprise the practice of reverse logistics (reusing, recycling, and remanufacturing), which can produce the products that can be used again for customers [29]. Green logistics practice helps firms to reduce their environmental impacts with improved quality and cost reductions [47].
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3.8 Renewable energy and biofuels
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Undeniably, global logistical and supply chain operations mainly depend on energy as well as fossil fuel, which are the main cause of climate change, global warming and pollution with greater carbon and greenhouse gas emissions [46]. Renewable energy and biofuels are required in supply chain operations so as to obtain sustainable environmental and economic growth [48]. Anable et al. [49] highlight that logistics related activities consume greater energy to accomplish their task. Renewable energy and biofuels improve economic performance of firms and also reduce carbon emissions. In addition, fossil fuel is more expensive than biofuels and green energy sources [50]. The strict governmental policies together with customer awareness build pressure on corporate sector to use biofuels and environmental friendly energy in their supply chain operations. The bioenergy mitigates the carbon emissions and also improves profitability of enterprises with better image and reputation building [7, 46].
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The cost minimization is considered as the most important factor for firms to implement green practices in their supply chain operations. The implementation of green supply chain initiatives would help to cut down the costs of packaging, components and materials due to use of reused, recycled and remanufactured products. Khan et al. [2, 46] highlighted that green practices provide opportunity to capture new markets and export to pro-environmental countries, while polluted firms are unable to export their products in pro-environmental countries such as USA, Germany, UK and Poland. Undeniably, green supply chain management practices have been a tool for firms to decrease their products’ cost, enhance profitability and increase market share [51]. On the other hand, to improve social performance, firms also adopt green practices in their business activities. Social performance indicates improvement of people’s quality life standard without compromising on environmental beauty. In addition, social performance includes the enhancement of firm image and the improvement of environmental sustainability, as well as reduction in environmental risks [29].
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By adopting GSCM practices, firms may enhance their operational performance through improving products quality and improving delivery service [15]. Green supply chain management initiatives also help organizations to improve their environmental performance such as reduction in carbon emissions, elimination of waste from end-to-end supply chain, effective and strong collaboration with suppliers would decrease their communication costs and easily promote reuse, recycling and remanufacturing [52]. Environment management system (EMS) integrated into firms’ manufacturing strategy will assist the firms to enhance its ecological performance [53].
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Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The role of critical success factors in GSCM",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Ethical leadership/internal management",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Customer management",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Supplier management",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Competitiveness",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5 Social",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.6 Regulatory",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"3. 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Environmental logistics performance indicators affecting per capita income and sectoral growth: Evidence from a panel of selected global ranked logistics countries. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2017;24(2):1518-1531. DOI: 10.1007/s11356-016-7916-2\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Handfield R, Walton S, Seegers L, Melnyk S. Green’ value chain practices in the furniture industry. Journal of Operations Management. 1997;15(4):293-315\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Srivastava S. Green supply-chain management: A state-of-the-art literature review. International Journal of Management Reviews. 2007;9(1):53-80\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Sarkis J, Zhu Q, Lai K. An organizational theoretic review of green supply chain management literature. International Journal of Production Economics. 2011;130(1):1-15\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Andic E, Yurt O, Baltacioglu T. Green supply chains: Efforts and potential applications for the Turkish market. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 2012;58:50-68\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Khan SAR, Dong QL, Yu Z. Research on the measuring performance of green supply chain management: In the perspective of China. International Journal of Engineering Research in Africa. 2016;27:167-178. DOI: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/JERA.27.167\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Luthra S, Garg D, Haleem A. The impacts of critical success factors for implementing green supply chain management towards sustainability: An empirical investigation of Indian automobile industry. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2016;121:142-158\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Gunasekaran A, Spalanzani A. Sustainability of manufacturing and services: Investigations for research and applications. International Journal of Production Economics. 2012;140(1):35-47\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Rostamzadeh R, Govindan K, Esmaeili A, Sabaghi M. Application of fuzzy VIKOR for evaluation of green supply chain management practices. 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The UK oil and gas supply chains: An empirical analysis of adoption of sustainable measures and performance outcomes. International Journal of Production Economics. 2013;146(2):501-514\n'},{id:"B16",body:'Holt D, Ghobadian A. An empirical study of green supply chain management practices amongst UK manufacturers. Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management. 2009;20(7):933-956\n'},{id:"B17",body:'Omkareshwar M. Green marketing initiatives by corporate world: A study. Advances in Management. 2013;6(3):20-26\n'},{id:"B18",body:'Zhu Q, Sarkis J, Lai KH. Green supply chain management: Pressures, practices and performance within the Chinese automobile industry. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2007;15(11):1041-1052\n'},{id:"B19",body:'Awasthi A, Kannan G. Green supplier development program selection using NGT and VIKOPR under fuzzy environment. Computers and Industrial Engineering. 2016;91:100-108\n'},{id:"B20",body:'Hu AH, Hsu CW. Critical factors for implementing green supply chain management practice: An empirical study of electrical and electronics industries in Taiwan. Management Research and Review. 2010;33(6):586-608\n'},{id:"B21",body:'Kaushik A, Kumar S, Luthra S, Haleem A. Technology transfer: Enablers and barriers—A review. International Journal of Technology, Policy and Management. 2014;14(2):133-159\n'},{id:"B22",body:'Wang Z, Sarkis J. Investigating the relationship of sustainable supply chain management with corporate financial performance. International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management. 2013;62(8):871-888\n'},{id:"B23",body:'Kim J, Rhee J. An empirical study on the impact of critical success factors on the balanced scorecard performance in Korean green supply chain management enterprises. International Journal of Production Research. 2012;50(9):2465-2483\n'},{id:"B24",body:'Gunasekaran A, Irani Z, Papadopoulos T. Modelling and analysis of sustainable operations management: Certain investigations for research and applications. The Journal of the Operational Research Society. 2013;65(2):806-823\n'},{id:"B25",body:'Shen L, Govindan K, Shankar M. Evaluation of barriers of corporate social responsibility using an analytical hierarchy process under a fuzzy environment—A textile case. Sustainability. 2015;7(3):3493-3514\n'},{id:"B26",body:'Jayaram J, Avittathur B. Green supply chains: A perspective from an amerging economy. International Journal of Production Economics. 2015;164:234-244 [Accessed: 16 March 2018]\n'},{id:"B27",body:'Mangla SK, Kumar P, Barua MK. Flexible decision approach for analyzing performance of sustainable supply chains under risks/uncertainty. Global Journal of Flexible Systems Management. 2014;15(2):113-130\n'},{id:"B28",body:'Eltayeb TK, Zailani S, Ramayah T. Green supply chain initiatives among certified companies in Malaysia and environmental sustainability: Investigating the outcomes. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 2011;55(5):495-506\n'},{id:"B29",body:'Govindan K, Khodaverdi R, Vafadarnikjoo A. Intuitionistic fuzzy based DEMATEL method for developing green practices and performances in a green supply chain. Expert Systems with Applications. 2015;42(20):7207-7220\n'},{id:"B30",body:'Handfield R, Walton SV, Sroufe R, Melnyk SA. Applying environmental criteria to supplier assessment: A study in the application of the analytical hierarchy process. European Journal of Operational Research. 2002;141(1):70-87\n'},{id:"B31",body:'Min H, Galle WP. Green purchasing practices of US firms. International Journal of Operations & Production Management. 2001;21(9):1222-1238\n'},{id:"B32",body:'Carter CR, Rogers DS. A framework of sustainable supply chain management: Moving toward new theory. International Journal of Physical Distribution and Logistics Management. 2008;38(5):360-387\n'},{id:"B33",body:'Zailani S, Govindan K, Iranmanesh M, Shaharudin MR, Chong YS. Green innovation adoption in automotive supply chain: The Malaysian case. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2015;108:1115-1122\n'},{id:"B34",body:'Yang CL, Lin SP, Chan YH, Sheu C. Mediated effect of environmental management on manufacturing competitiveness: An empirical study. International Journal of Production Economics. 2010;123(1):210-220\n'},{id:"B35",body:'Chen CC, Shih HS, Shyur HJ, Wu KS. A business strategy selection of green supply chain management via an analytic network process. Computers & Mathematics with Applications. 2012;64(8):2544-2557\n'},{id:"B36",body:'Groening C, Sarkis J, Zhu Q. Green marketing consumer-level theory review: A compendium of applied theories and further research directions. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2017:1-19\n'},{id:"B37",body:'Polonsky MJ. An introduction to green marketing. Electronic Green Journal. 1994;1(2):1-10\n'},{id:"B38",body:'Ko E, Hwang YK, Kim EY. Green marketing functions in building corporate image in the retail setting. Journal of Business Research. 2013;66(10):1709-1715\n'},{id:"B39",body:'Pane Haden SS, Oyler JD, Humphreys JH. Historical, practical, and theoretical perspectives on green management: An exploratory analysis. Management Decision. 2009;47(7):1041-1055\n'},{id:"B40",body:'Luthra S, Garg D, Haleem A. Empirical analysis of green supply chain management practices in Indian automobile industry. Journal of Institution of Engineers (India): Series C. 2014;95(2):119-126\n'},{id:"B41",body:'Kang Y, Ryu MH, Kim S. Exploring sustainability management for telecommunications services: A case study of two Korean companies. Journal of World Business. 2010;45(4):415-421\n'},{id:"B42",body:'Baines T, Brown S, Benedettini O, Ball P. Examining green production and its role within the competitive strategy of manufacturers. Journal of Industrial Engineering and Management. 2012;5(1):53-87\n'},{id:"B43",body:'Prajogo D, Chowdhury M, Yeung AC, Cheng TCE. The relationship between supplier management and firm’s operational performance: A multi-dimensional perspective. International Journal of Production Economics. 2012;136(1):123-130\n'},{id:"B44",body:'Gungor A, Gupta SM. Issues in environmentally conscious manufacturing and product recovery: A survey. Computers and Industrial Engineering. 1999;36(4):811-853\n'},{id:"B45",body:'Sarkis J. Evaluating environmentally conscious business practices. European Journal of Operational Research. 1998;107(1):159-174\n'},{id:"B46",body:'Khan SAR, Zhang Y, Anees M, Golpîra H, Lahmar A, Dong Q. Green supply chain management, economic growth and environment: A GMM based evidence. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2018;185:588-599\n'},{id:"B47",body:'Mousazadeh M, Torabi SA, Pishvaee MS. Green and reverse logistics management under fuzziness. In: Supply Chain Management under Fuzziness. Heidelberg, Berlin: Springer; 2014. pp. 607-637\n'},{id:"B48",body:'Wu C, Barnes D. Partner selection in green supply chains using PSO—A practical approach. Production Planning and Control. 2016;27(13):1041-1061. DOI: 10.1080/09537287.2016.1177233\n'},{id:"B49",body:'Anable J, Brand C, Tran M, Eyre N. Modelling transport energy demand: A socio-technical approach. Energy Policy. 2012;41:125-138\n'},{id:"B50",body:'Gold S, Seuring S. Supply chain and logistics issues of bio-energy production. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2011;19(1):32-42. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2010.08.009\n'},{id:"B51",body:'De Giovanni P, Vinzi VE. Covariance versus component-based estimations of performance in green supply chain management. International Journal of Production Economics. 2012;135(2):907-916\n'},{id:"B52",body:'Kleindorfer PR, Singhal K, Wassenhove LN. Sustainable operations management. Production and Operations Management. 2005;14(4):482-492\n'},{id:"B53",body:'Zhu Q, Sarkis J, Lai KH. Green supply chain management innovation diffusion and its relationship to organizational improvement: An ecological modernization perspective. Journal of Engineering and Technology Management. 2012;29(1):168-185\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Syed Abdul Rehman Khan",address:"sarehman_cscp@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
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1. Introduction to the GABA system
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), an amino acid, is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the vertebrate central nervous system (CNS). Although it was first identified in plants in the late nineteenth century, only in 1950 was it first identified in fresh extracts of animal brain including reptiles, avian, mammals and man [1]. It is now accepted that GABA is present almost exclusively within the brain and retina of vertebrates and only in extremely limited amounts in the peripheral nervous system and other organs of the body. It has been estimated that within the CNS, GABA is the neurotransmitter for as many as one-third of the neurons with the majority of these cells as interneurons that modulate the activity of neural networks. GABA neurons are widely expressed throughout the CNS including the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, striatum, substantia nigra, globus pallidus, cerebellum and olfactory bulbs. Within the structures, GABA receptors are found not only on the cell membranes of neurons but on supporting glial tissue and astrocytes [2].
As an amino acid, GABA serves other biological roles in addition to that of a neurotransmitter. It also functions as a precursor for the assembly of proteins and as metabolic intermediary. Despite these multiple functions, GABA is also responsible for regulation of neuronal excitability and is the primary inhibitory messenger in the CNS. GABA is highly concentrated in the CNS and present in millimoles per gram in the brain compared to nanomoles per gram of the more more commonly recognized neurotransmitters including dopamine, 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin) and norepinephrine [3].
GABA is known to have affinity for two distinct families of receptors similar to the excitatory amino acid Glutamate. The first and most prevalent of the two in the brain is the ionotropic GABAA receptor, a large glycoprotein of ~275 kDa and consists of a pentameric transmembrane receptor typically including two α subunits, two β subunits and one γ. Variations frequently occur and may even include δ subunit substituted for γ that encircle a central, chloride-permeable pore. The GABAA is found on both presynaptic and postsynaptic neuronal cell membranes. Upon the binding of two GABA molecules to the extracellular site, the pore opens and allows the flow of chloride ions into the cell with hyperpolarization of the cell membrane and inhibition of action potentials [4].
The GABAA receptor was cloned in 1987 and multiple subunits have subsequently been identified and grouped within seven functionally unique families. These multiple isoforms result in a highly complex system of receptors with functions dependent upon the expression of subunits.
Two binding sites for GABA sit on the GABAA receptor along with other sites that include a benzodiazepine receptor, a barbiturate receptor, and alcohol. In every instance, these binding sites function independently of each other. As a result, each receptor does not compete with activation of other receptors and the overall effect is synergestic rather than competitive [5].
The GABAB receptor is a second type of receptor and is a metabotropic site that belongs to the G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR) superfamily. Pretreatment of isolated tissue from rodent atria and vas deferens with the GABAA antagonist bicucullin in 1979 first eslablished that two populations of receptors existed when the expected response to GABA was not found [6]. Twenty years passed before the GABAB receptor was finally cloned. As a GPCR, this receptor is broadly distributed throughout the CNS and mediates slow and prolonged inhibitory messaging through Gai/o-type proteins. As a GPCR, GABAB contains seven transmembrane domains with an extracellular N-terminus tail and acts through a second messenger system by inhibition of adenylate cyclase and cAMP formation inactivating voltage-gated Ca2+ channels and K+ channels [5].
Three receptor subunits are associated with GABAB site. A long, extracellular N-terminal called the Venus fly-trap (VFT) domain includes an orthosteric binding site, a seven transmembrane domain and the C-terminus tail within the cell comprise the GABAB receptor. Ligands to the GABAB receptor have been identified and include the selective GABAB agonist Baclofen, various investigational antagonists that poorly penetrate the blood- brain barrier (BB) and several allosteric modulators under study [7].
Because of the ubiquity of GABA in the CNS It is not surprising that disordered GABA signaling has been implicated in several human neurological and psychiatric diseases. Anxiety, sleep, seizure, Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s and substance abuse are some of several disorders suspected to be linked to the GABA system. Already several medication classes that have affinity for the GABA receptor, including benzodiazepines, muscle relaxants, sedative-hypnotics and anticonvulsants, are now routinely used in clinical medicine.
The production, release and degradation of GABA is mediated through multiple processes. The main precursor of GABA is glutamic acid, an excitatory neurotransmitter itself. GABA is synthesized by the irreversible single-step α-decarboxylation of glutamic acid by the enzyme glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD), found initially in bacteria and plants and then later in the mammalian CNS and retina. There are two isoforms of the decarboxylase GAD (GAD65 and GAD67) that are involved in the synthesis of GABA with GAD65 closely associated with the presynaptic vesicles. This relationship strongly suggests that a coupled process is involved in the the conversion of cytosol glutamate to storage of intravesicular GABA. There are also vesicular transports systems termed VGAT for the sequestration of the neurotransmitter into the vesicle. VGAT is also the same vesicular transport for another inhibitory amino acid transmitter glycine in the spinal cord [8].
Similar to most decarboxylases, pyridoxine is required as a co-factor [1]. The localization of GAD in the brain generally correlates closely with the distribution of GABA. After synthesis, GABA is stored in vesicles in the presynaptic terminals in cells classified as “GABAergic” cells. When GABAergic cells receive a depolarizing stimulus, vesicular fusion and exocytosis occurs and GABA is released into the synaptic cleft. GABA signaling is primarily terminated by its reuptake into both neuronal and glial cells through membrane transporter systems. Through this uptake system the presynaptic cytosol and vesicles can reuse GABA. Astrocytes also express membrane transporters systems for GABA and play a significant role in GABA metabolism. When reuptake occurs in these non-neuronal cells or non-GABAergic cells, the availability of GABA as a neurotransmitter is reduced [8].
In addition to uptake through membrane transporters, GABA may also be broken down by the enzyme GABA Transaminase (GABA-T). GABA-T is, unlike GAD, widely expressed in both central and peripheral systems and possibly helps limit exogenous GABA from influencing CNS activities. In the CNS, this primary enzyzme is associated with GABA breakdown and is found both in GABA-ergic neurons and astrocytes. One product of GABA-T is glutamate which may be involved in the recycling of glutamate to form new GABA. GABA is also metabolized extracellularly by GABA-transaminase (GABA-T) into succinate semialdehyde, which then enters the krebs cycle for further metabolism [9].
2. Introduction to the endocannabinoid system (ECS)
The identification of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) as the psychoactive constituent of cannabis opened a door to unexpected discoveries in neuroscience. Cannabis is the generic name for C. sativa (C. sativa) or hemp and belongs to the botanical group Cannabaceae that also contains hop. Cannabis was found to contain numerous molecular structures similar to THC, including cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabinol (CBN) and others. These new structures were initially referred to as cannabinoids and led to the obvious question of how, and why these botanical compounds worked in animals.
It was initially believed that these plant-based cannabinoids like THC, now referred to as phytocannabinoids, probably influenced animal physiology through a nonspecific mechanism to alter cellular membranes. Soon after establishing the laboratory synthesis of THC, modifications of the structure were created and tested in the laboratory. The availability of these synthetic analogs of THC led to the unexpected finding that the psychoactive effect of THC was stereospecific and occurred through binding to an unknown endogenous receptor [10, 11]. Evidence of an endogenous receptor was discovered in 1988 that revealed affinity for the THC molecule in rodent brain [12]. This previously unknown receptor was named CB1 and found to be a G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR) with seven transmembrane helices. Within a few years, a second peripheral receptor was cloned and named CB2. Both receptors in humans were found to have 44% of the amino acid residues identical and in the transmembrane crossings 68% were the same. Although CB1 was the first receptor identified in the brain and was considered a central receptor, it is now known that it is widely distributed outside the CNS but at lower expression, including the respiratory, cardiovascular, skin, ophthalmic systems, and the adrenal glands. CB2, originally discovered in the spleen and thought to be a peripheral receptor, was later found to be present in limited amounts within the CNS and widely available in immune tissue and skin [13].
Although only recently discovered in the late 20th century, it is now recognized that the CB1 and CB2 receptors are the most plentiful G-protein coupled receptors (GPCR) in the body. CB1 is especially abundant in the brain and is more plentiful than all other receptors including GABA.
The presence of these two endogenous cannabinoid receptors led to the expectation that endogenous ligands must lay ahead. Several years earlier the opiate receptors had been discovered in the brain that had affinity for compounds obtained from the opium plant. This led to the isolation of a class of endogenous ligands termed the enkephalins that were bioactive neuropeptides.
Soon after the identification of the cannabinoid receptors, the endogenous ligand arachidonylethanolamine was isolated in 1993 and found to have agonist properties for CB1. This ligand was found in rodent brain and was composed of elements from arachidonic acid and ethanolamine. This unexpected ligand was soon christened Anandamide (AEA), a Sanskrit word for ‘bliss’ [14].
Arachidonic acid is a polyunsaturated fatty acid found in membrane phospholipids in several body organs including the brain [15, 16, 17]. In addition to being a precursor for AEA, arachidonic acid is also an important precursor for eicosanoids including prostaglandins. Shortly after the discovery of AEA, a second bioactive lipid that also included arachidonic acid, 2-arachidonylglycerol (2-AG), was found with binding affinity for both cannabinoid receptors. Unlike AEA, 2-AG had been known for over fifty years as an intermediary in metabolic pathways of triglycerides and other glyceride molecules and is far more available than AEA. 2-AG was found to be a full agonist of CB1 and CB2 and abundantly available throughout the body [18, 19]. In contrast, anandamide is a partial agonist of CB1 and CB2 and belongs to the family of N-acylethanolamines (NAE). NAEs consist of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids that include palmitic and oleic acids and these other NAEs are more abundant than AEA but do not bind to cannabinoid receptors [20]. Although only recently discovered in the late 20th century, it is now established that the CB1 and CB2 receptors are the most plentiful G-protein coupled receptors (GPCR) in the body. CB1 is especially abundant in the brain and is more plentiful than all other receptors including GABA. The observation that the ECS is so highly expressed within the brain and the finding that the system is highly conserved in the evolution of animals illustrate the importance of the system in the healthy function of man.
Together AEA and 2-AG are referred to as endocannabinoids. These two endogenous ligands are produced in multiple body systems and activate cannabinoid receptors. These endocannabinoid chemical structures are long-chain, polyunsaturated fatty acid chains and differ significantly from the ring structured phytocannabinoids present in cannabis, with different binding affinities to the cannabinoid receptors. The endogenous 2-AG, for example, is a full agonist to the CB1 and CB2 receptors while the plant-derived THC is only a partial agonist. In addition, another important phytocannabinoid, CBD, has even less affinity with only very limited binding to cannabinoid receptors. As endogenous lipids, although both bind to the cannabinoid receptors, the NAE molecule AEA and the monoacylglycerol (MAG 2-AG as) belong to two distinct families with different synthetic and degradative pathways. Both AEA and 2-AG appear unique among their separate families as they are the only molecules that bind to the cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2.although they share affinities with the several similar lipids for non-cannabinoid receptors. In addition, both endocannabinoids and other bioactive lipids have redundant pathways in the synthesis and breakdown of the lipid molecules. This diversity in metabolism and binding to multiple receptor families by the NAEs and MAG lead to a highly complex system that regulates many important functions [21].
Collectively, the cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2, the two endocannabinoid messengers AEA and 2-AG, and the associated and separate enzymatic systems are called the endocannabinoid system (ECS). The ECS is a major system in human and the CB1 and CB2 receptors are expressed within the CNS and several peripheral organs including heart, liver, fat, skin, eye and the intestines [22].
As details about the ECS emerged during the 1990s and into this century, it has become apparent that endocannabinoids interact with several neurotransmitter systems and play an important role in regulating physiological functions. Autoradiographic localization of cannabinoid receptors in the rat established the rich co-localization of cannabinoid receptors with GABA-containing neurons [23, 24]. It has been reported that GABA is produced and released by inhibitory interneurons comprising between 20–60% of neurons in some areas of the brain [25]. The CB1 and CB2 receptors have been found to be highly expressed in areas rich with GABA neurons including the cortex, basal ganglia, substantia nigra and cerebellum. Compared to classic neurotransmitters including GABA and Glutamate [24, 26], the ECS is far more abundant and widely distributed compared to these systems. Thus, activation of the CB1 receptor (the most abundant GPCR in the CNS) interacts with adjacent neurons including GABA and regulates neurotransmitter function to express their central effects.
The ECS is also one of the most pleiotropic systems in mammals and differs from other neurotransmitter systems in several ways. Importantly, most intercellular transmission proceeds anterograde with the release of neurotransmitters from presynaptic neurons that bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membranes. Neurotransmitters, stored in vesicles within the presynaptic cytosol, are released as chemical messengers upon activation of the presynaptic neuron. After release into the synapse, the chemical messengers are subsequently broken down in the synaptic cleft or taken up by transport systems into the neuron or adjacent supporting cells [27].
Endocannabinoids act in the opposite direction from a postsynaptic neuron to presynaptic neuron. This retrograde direction allows the ECS to neuromodulate the forward direction of chemical communication. Because of their highly lipophilic properties, endocannabinoids are not stored in vesicles but are synthesized from membrane lipids only when required. Once released, the endocannabinoid diffuses to its’ receptor target on the presynaptic neuron and helps regulate overall neurotransmission. In the brain, the presynaptic receptor is predominantly CB1 with limited CB2 found in microglia and other tissue. Eventually the endocannabinoid is released by the receptor and taken up by either the pre- or postsynaptic neuron for final degradation [17].
The endocannabinoids are synthesized in the post-synaptic membrane only after the cell is activated and then rapidly degraded after binding to the presynaptic cannabinoid receptor, the effect of stimulation is localized and limited in duration similar to GABA and other neurotransmitters. In addition, although these actions occur binding of AEA and 2-AG primarily to the CB1 receptor in the brain, other non-cannabinoid receptors have also been identified that directly bind and are activated by endocannabinoids [28].
3. The discovery of anandamide (AEA)
Anandamide (AEA) was isolated from pig brain in 1992 and found to be a derivative of the fatty acid arachidonic acid. As the first endocannabinoid to be discovered, the molecule was named anandamide after the Sanskrit word Ananda that means bliss [29]. As a member of the N-acylethanolamines, it was established that AEA shared multiple synthetic pathways with other glycophospholipids [17].
Typical of other neurotransmitters, AEA functions as a chemical messenger between neurons. However, there are significant differences between endocannabinoids and neurotransmitters including GABA. Soon after its discovery, the uniqueness of AEA was established with the observation that the messenger was synthesized only on demand and diffuse across the synaptic cleft in a retrograde direction to the presynaptic neuron [17].
Following the inflow of calcium2+ into the postsynaptic cell, AEA is synthesized from the precursor membrane lipid N-arachidonyl-phosphatidylethanolamine (NAPE). NAPE is present in brain only in small amounts and cannot sustain prolonged synthesis of AEA. As with 2-AG, AEA contains arachidonic acid and combines this membrane constituent with phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), utilizing a calcium2+ dependent enzyme N-acyltransferase (NAT). The primary pathway for synthesis of anandamide is conversion of NAPE to anandamide through the action of a NAPE-specific phospholipase D (PLD), although several other pathways are known to exist. Similar to other synthesis in the NAE family, the NAPE pathway is not exclusive for AEA. Although the importance of other pathways have yet to be established, it is known that in genetically modified mice without NAPE-PLD, no reduction of the production of AEA is found [30].
Since multiple pathways may be associated with the synthesis of AEA, the abundance of choices has been suggested to enhance the number of stimuli that may initiate the production of AEA. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), for example, is an endotoxin in the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria that plays a critical role in the protection of the microbe. Exposure to macrophages activates LPS to defend the bacteria and numerous lipid mediators including AEA are released. The synthesis and release of AEA and the other bioactive lipids is not believed to occur through the intermediate NAPE but rather through the secondary pathways that lead to AEA [20].
The breakdown of AEA results in the release of arachidonic acid and ethanolamine. Within the post-synaptic cell, an intracellular serine amidase named fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) cleaves the long-chain fatty acid of AEA although other available hydrolytic enzyme systems in the cytosol appear to have little effect on AEA. Numerous studies have used disruption of this serine hydrolase through genetic or pharmacological manipulation to increase AEA activity. Manipulation of the FAAH system has already become the target of new drug development in an attempt to increase AEA in the treatment of human pathology [31, 32].
Other non-hydrolytic enzymes also break down AEA including lipoxygenases and cyclooxygenases. These non-FAAH systems are very active at non-cannabinoid receptors although their importance in deactivation of AEA at cannabinoid receptors has yet to be determined [20].
AEA is not the only ethanolamide that can bind to cannabinoid receptors. Other bioactive lipids in this class include numerous compounds including palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) and oleoylethanolamide (OEA) bind to the CB1 receptor. Each of these ligands has distinctive physiological effects associated with them. PEA is associated with several indications including use as an anti-inflammatory or analgesic, while OEA appears useful as an appetite suppressant to reduce body weight [33, 34].
Both PEA and OEA are polyunsaturated fatty acids with multiple double bonds within the long chain. Other polyunsaturated fatty acids have also been reported to have agonist activity for the cannabinoid receptors. Only AEA, among the saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, has been found to have affinity for the cannabinoid receptors.
4. 2-Arachidonylglycerol (2-AG): the second endocannabinoid
2-arachidonylglycerol (2-AG) is a monoacylglycerol that incorporates arachidonic acid at the 2 position of the glycerol backbone. This molecule serves the dual function of a lipid intermediary while also functioning as a chemical messenger within the ECS. Although this endocannabinoid was discovered later than AEA, 2-AG is several hundred fold more common in the CNS compared to AEA and is a full agonist to both the CB1 and CB2 receptors.
There are two major pathways for the synthesis of 2-AG. Similar to AEA, initiation of the process to manufacture 2-AG requires an inflow of calcium2+ into the neuron. The primary pathway for synthesis involves a precursor, phosphatidylinositol, converted by phospholipaseβ or phospholipaseγ, to the intermediary lipid 1,2-diacylglycerol (1,2-DAG). The 1,2-DAG is then hydrolyzed by a DAG lipase to form the endocannabinoid 2-AG.
There is a secondary pathway also available that involves the production of the intermediary 2-arachidonyl lysophospholipid. Once 2-arachidonyl lysophospholipid is available, this lysophospholipid in the presence of the enzyme lysophosphotase-C (LYSOPLC) is rapidly converted to 2-AG.
The breakdown of 2-AG also occurs through a primary pathway but several minor alternatives are also present. Hydrolysis of 2-AG by monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) is the most common pathway and involves the cleavage of the ester bond within the 2-AG structure to form arachidonic acid and glycerol. There are at least two forms of MAGL that have been found in rodent and rabbit models. In comparison to the small amounts of AEA and its associated degradative enzymes, 2-AG is widely distributed throughout the CNS along with its synthetic and degradative enzymes. Perhaps because of the breadth of distribution of 2-AG in the CNS, some overlap with AEA occurs. However, a more important distinction is that MAGL is found only in the presynaptic neuron and degradation of 2-AG occurs after release from the presynaptic cannabinoid receptor. AEA, in comparison, after its release from the presynaptic cannabinoid receptor must traverse the synaptic cleft and enter the postsynaptic neuron where it is broken down by the NAE degrading enzyme FAAH [17, 35, 36].
The development of genetically modified mice deficient in MAGL along with the synthesis of MAGL inhibitors have provided useful tools to study the properties of 2-AG. Use of these ligands that block the synthesis of MAGL have revealed elevations of this endocannabinoid, especially in the brain and to a lesser extent multiple organs in the body including the heart, liver, kidney, and brown adipose tissue. Although 2-AG is the major endocannabinoid that binds to the cannabinoid receptors in brain, it clearly also serves an important role in the the regulation of chemical signaling in other organ systems. When the breakdown of 2-AG appears is impaired due to these receptor anatagonists or genetic manipulations, arachidonic acid is significantly reduced in the brain. This suggests that the production of 2-AG serves an important role not just in the formation of an endocannabinoid but also in the in the production of proinflammatory molecules [37].
Other alternative routes for 2-AG degradation are also available. Cycloxygenase-2 (COX-2) and lipoxygenases are secondary enzyme systems that also reduce 2-AG. COX-2 serves an important role in the inflammatory process and converts arachidonic acid to prostaglandins. Lipoxygenases oxidizes polyunsaturated fatty acids and these are non-heme, iron-containing enzymes that are found in a broad range of eukaryotes. They are known to be involved in the metabolism of the eicosanoids including the prostaglandins [37].
5. Endocannabinoid-GABA regulation of chemical messaging
In the 1990s, the phenomenon of “depolarization-induced suppression of inhibition” (DSI) was first reported in the purkinje cells of the cerebellum [38] and later in hippocampal pyramidal cells [39]. DSI occurs through the activation of the CB1 receptor and is considered the classic example how endocannabinoids regulate neuronal behavior through retrograde signaling and suppression of GABA release. The CB1 receptor is densely expressed on the GABA presynaptic neurons that are abundantly found in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus and amygdala and are essential for higher cortical functions including learning and memory. Small interneurons release GABA and communicate with the larger purkinje cells and pyramidal neurons. This interaction moderated by the release of GABA results in hyperpolarization of the larger post-synaptic cell and subsequent inactivation. Activation of the CB1 receptor located on the presynaptic interneuron inhibits the release of GABA and thus suppresses the inhibition of the larger cells. It is now well established that this inhibition of GABA release from the interneuron is the result of retrograde communication from the activated postsynaptic cell to the presynaptic GABA-containing interneurons through the release of endocannabinoids that facilitate an increase of intracellular calcium2+ and the initiation of the DSI. Other cannabinoid agonists in addition to endocannabinoids are also known to block interneuron release of GABA through depolarization-induced suppression of inhibition. Presynaptic CB1 antagonists, such as rimonabant, have also been reported to block the effect of CB1 receptor activation further establishing the critical role of retrograde modulation of chemical signaling through the ECS [22]. Thus, inhibition of GABA release is governed through depolarization of the presynaptic neuron by endocannabinoid binding to the presynaptic CB1 receptor [40, 41].
A few years after the discovery of DSI, presynaptic stimulation of CB1 through retrograde transmission of endocannabinoids was found to also occur with excitatory neurons and the phenomenon was termed “depolarization induced suppression of excitation”(DSE). Unlike DSI and the inhibition of GABA release, DSE inhibits the release of excitatory neurotransmitters including glutamate through a similar retrograde release of endocannabinoids. Although initially discovered the inactivation of Purkinje cells, DSE has also been observed in other regions of the brain although the role of endocannabinoids in these areas is less well established [42].
Dependent upon the presynaptic neurotransmitter, stimulation of presynaptic CB1 receptor through retrograde release of endocannabinoids moderates the communication between cells. This changing effect of the endocannabinoids on GABA and glutamate release and the shaping of synapses occrs through a process called synaptic plasticity. Activation of a single synapse is usually insufficient to activate the post-synaptic cell and multiple synapses must fire simultaneously. The coordination and magnitude of the synaptic communication determines the change of voltage in the post-synaptic cell and the strength of the signal. Reductions in the number of presynaptic cells or incoordination of firing results in weakening of the signal.
The strengthening of synapses over time is termed long term potentiation and requires coordination of firing of the pre and post synaptic cells within a window of 20 msec. Cellular firing outside the temporal window weakens the synapse and reduces the voltage difference over time and is referred to as long term depression.
There is a balance in the regulation of excitation and inhibition that allows the brain to physically adapt for learning and memory [43]. Generally these changes are incremental and occur continuously at the synaptic level through a process termed synaptic plasticity [44].
Although glutamate has received a great deal of attention in the process of neuroplasticity, GABA also plays an important, or perhaps equal, role in the adaptation of the nervous system. Changes in neuronal activity and excitation by glutamate release may initiate off-setting activation of inhibitory inputs through GABA interneurons. In both activation and inhibition of the synaptic signal, retrograde release of endocannabinoids through DSI and DSE likely mediates synaptic depression [43].
6. GABA and the tale of two cannabinoids
The endocannabinoid system maintains homeostatsis in the CNS primarily through activation of the CB1 receptor. This receptor is also responsible for the well-known behavioral and physiological effects of the phytocannabinoids. The mechanism of how this modulation of the CNS occurs is by retrograde signaling through activation of the CB1 receptor. As noted earlier, the ECS and GABA neurons are collocated in many areas of the brain and this close proximity may explain how CB1 binding influences the GABA system. The cortex, hippocampus, hypothalamus and cerebellum are areas in the brain where this overlap of the ECS and GABA is especially prominent.
There are several preclinical studies that have examined the inhibition of GABA release in the presence of cannabinoid agonists. One early in vitro study employing an investigational synthetic cannabinoid agonist (WIN 55,212–2) on hippocampal interneurons found a diminuition of GABA release from the neurons after exposure. In another in vitro study the same investigational agent plus a second experimental cannabinoid agonist (CP-55940) were evaluated in rodent corpus striatum and found a dose-dependent reduction in GABA release.
Acute administration of the phytocannabinoid THC has also been studied. In an in vivo electrophysiological project after treatment, extracellular GABA in the prefrontal cortex was found to be significantly reduced compared to baseline. Different areas of the rodent brain were studied including the corpus striatum, and prefrontal cortex. One study reported different findings that THC and a synthetic cannabinoid failed to have effects on GABA synthesis and uptake in the globus pallidus in substantia nigrae of the rodent brain [45, 46].
Two other studies also evaluated the effect of THC on GABA release in rodent models. One evaluated THC alone and reported a dose-dependent reduction in GABA uptake in the rat globus pallidus [47, 48].
The abundance of CB1 receptors on presynaptic neurons and their relationship to the strength of inhibition was assessed in a study of cholecystokinin (CCK) expressing GABA interneurons in the hippocampus. Earlier studies had demonstrated that the number of ion-channel-forming AMPA receptors could predict the magnitude of the postsynaptic response [49, 50] and that more GABA receptors were associated with greater inhibition. However, CB1 receptors are GPCR and operate through different mechanisms including modulation of voltage-gated Ca2+ and K+ channels and second messenger systems. Using the CB1 receptor antagonist AM251, the effect of activation was measured in basket cells and dendritic-layer innervating (DLI) cells. Basket cells have a significant higher expression of CB1 receptors and DLI have significantly less receptor density. The CB1 receptor antagonist AM251 increased the action-potential inflow of Ca2 by 54% in basket cells but not in DLI. However, this increase was significantly reduced from the expected effect of the large number of receptors. A CB1 agonist decreased Ca2+ independent from the CB1 receptor expression. Collectively this suggests that only a subpopulation of CB1 receptors in close proximity to the Ca2+ channel participate in the endocannabinoid modulation of GABA release [51].
Another study evaluated the effect of exposure to cannabinoids in adolescent rats. Using electrophysiological and immunohistochemical techniques, early-, mid- and late adolescent rats were treated with a CB1 agonist (WIN). Early and middle adolescent rats were found to exhibit significant disinhibition of prefrontal cortex (PFC) behaviors at the later adult stage. This result was reversed when the adolescent rat was infused with the positive allosteric modulator GABAA agonist Indiplon. This response suggests that at certain stages of development exposure to cannabinoid agonists may be critical in the downregulation of GABA in the PFC and expressed in the adult stage of maturation [52].
A recent review summarized the literature on the interaction of endocannabinoids and neurotransmitters [22] although only a few have been reported for GABA. Administration orally or intravenously of the endogenous cannabinoid agonists including the endocannabinoids is technically difficult and their interpretation limited. On the other hand, phytocannabinoids can be smoked, ingested or applied as a topical with significant absorption and physiological effects mediated through cannabinoid receptors. In one report of adolescents, thirteen habitual users of cannabis were compared to sixteen non-canabis normal controls in a study using standard 1H MRS techniques performed on a MAGNETOM trio whole body MRI/MRS system to determine GABA metabolism in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) [53]. reported reduced levels of GABA in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) of adolescents that were habitual users of marijuana when compared to match controls. The ACC surrounds the anterior area of the corpus callosum and communicates with the prefrontal cortex and parietal lobe in addition to deeper limbic structures including the amygdala, nucleus accumbens and hippocampus. It is well established that GABA plays an important role in the maturation of these area in the adolescent brain and disruption of this process may result in neuropsychiatric and substance abuse issues later in life.
Results of the MRS scans revealed significantly lower levels of ACC GABA activity in adolescents that habitually used cannabis. Reduced ACC glutamate levels in adolescents that habitually used cannabis had been reported in an earlier study [54] with MRS imaging and in this follow-up report these findings paralleled the reduction in glutamate with a similar reduction of GABA.
Enhancement of GABA activity has been proposed as a therapeutic approach to the treatment of cannabis use. In one randomized clinical trial (RCT) fifty patients with cannabis dependency were treated with Gabapentin 1200 mg/day or placebo for twelve weeks. Compared to placebo, the study reported significant reduced use of cannabis measured by several assessments including urine drug screens. Gabapentin is a structural analog of GABA and was initially thought to act on the GABA system. Later studies demonstrated that Gabapentin does not alter GABA activity or receptors although it may increase GABA synthesis and non-synaptic GABA release [55].
In the first of two studies, the GABA reuptake inhibitor Tiagabine (Gabitril), was assessed in eight cannabis users and compared when combined with oral THC. THC was dosed at 30 mg p.o. and tiagabine at 6 and 12 mg p.o. Subjects were trained to use established drug-discriminationprocedures to identify placebo and drug conditions, blinded to the study condition and were informed they would receive placebo, THC and tiagabine, alone or in combination during the study. Tiagabine was found to enhance the discriminative-stimulus, self-report and performance results when given with THC and to produce similar outcomes when administered alone [56].
In a subsequent study the investigators replaced tiagabine with baclofen and repeated the trial. In contrast to tiagabine, baclofen is a selective GABAB agonist but has not effect on the GABAA. Results of both studies were similar suggesting that GABAB receptors are involved at least in part with the effect of elevated GABA on cannabinoid-related behaviors [57].
The authors commented that although GABAB enhanced the effects of THC, they could not rule out that accentuation of GABA at GABAA receptors could also contribute to the outcome.
In addition to evaluation of the ECS and GABA through pharmacological enhancement of GABA, an interesting clinical study reporting that pharmacological-induced deficiency of GABA increased the effects of THC in several psychiatric assessments. Using normal subjects, this double-blind, placebo-controlled study evaluated flumazenil, an antagonist and partial inverse agonist of the GABAa receptor, against intravenous THC or placebo. Blocking the GABAa receptor with flumazenil accentuated the psychological effects of THC including psychoses and anxiety and a decrease in the THC-induced P300 amplitude [58].
Through imaging studies of the ECS, manipulation of the synthesis and degradation of endocannabinoids, and pharmacological interventions much has been learned about the cannabinoids since the initial discovery of of the first cannabinoid receptor CB1 in 1988 [59]. The ECS plays a major role in the maturation and homeostatsis of the CNS and activation of the CB1 receptor is the primary initiating event. Modulation of other neurotransmitter systems including GABA can then occur through retrograde transmission [60].
Ligands other than the endocannabinoids also bind to CB1 and CB2 receptors and much can be learned through observation of the effects of these non-endocannabinoids. Although phytocannabinoids, evolved through time in the plant kingdom and differ significantly from endocannabinoids, the overlap in affinity for cannabinoid receptors offer additional means to study the modulation by the ECS and neurotransmitter systems.
Phytocannabinoids are produced in the plant C. sativa (cannabis) and are C21 terpenophenolic molecular ring structures grouped into eleven classes. Currently about 120 different phytocannabinoids have been identified in cannabis and comprise approximately 24% of the weight of the plant. The first class of phytocannabinoids is the most common (approximately 17%) and contains the psychoactive THC. Variations in the growth of the plant C. sativa including growing conditions and sunlight, geography, processing and storage, and plant variety can all significantly alter the proportion of each chemical class. For this reason, cannabis is constantly in change and this variation can influence the pharmacological properties of different cannabis extracts [61].
There are several large epidemiological studies of phytocannabinoid effects on the ECS. Although banned in many areas, Cannabis is the most used illicit drug globally with an estimated 3.8% (182.5 million) of the global population exposed to cannabis [62, 63]. Within the United States, the estimated exposure is even higher with 8.4% (22.2 million) of the population reported to have used cannabis in one year. With relaxation of laws and greater duration of use combined with the change in composition and potency of cannabis, real world studies can provide us important information in understanding the function of the ECS system and the effects of disruption of normal processes.
Among the most important epidemiological studies are reports of exposure to cannabis of pregnant women and the effects on their offspring. In a recent study it was estimated that 5.2% (115,000) of pregnant women are exposed during their preganancy. Some of these women likely use cannabis unaware of their pregnancy and inadvertently expose the first trimester fetus to THC when the nervous system is first initiated. Others may choose to use THC later in pregnancy believing it is a safe remedy for pregnancy-associated nausea and vomiting while neurotransmitter systems are evolving. Others may just believe that cannabis use is safe and be unaware of the potential hazard to the unborn [64].
As with many drugs, however, cannabinoids carry significant safety concerns for pregnant women and as a lipophilic molecule easily traverse the placenta into the fetal bloodstream. Animal studies have shown a clear association between cannabinoids and lower birth weight. In humans, several large, well-conducted studies have explored the short- and long-term effects on fetal, child and adolescents and possible teratogenicity of prenatal cannabis exposure on fetal development (Hurd et al. 2005).
The Ottawa Prenatal Prospective Study (OPPS) was a large, epidemiological study of 291 expectant, middle class Canadian women. Within this group of expectant mothers, 20% used cannabis sometime during their pregnancy. All subjects were evaluated during their pregnancy and for the first six years using standardiazed neuropsychological tools.
At birth, there were observations made of increased startle reflex in children exposed in utero to cannabis, but no significant change in weight or increased presence of congenital malformations. By age four, however, behavioral changes including decreased visual performance, attention, and memory were apparent. In older children, impaired executive function was reported [65, 66].
In 1991 a second longitudinal study named the Maternal Health Practices and Child Development Study (MHPCD) was reported on 519 expectant mothers and live born infants. Unlike the earlier study in Ottawa, expectant mothers were largely lower class economically with poorer prenatal care. Expectant mothers were evaluated at 4 and 7-month gestation offspring evaluated until young adulthood. Growth parameters including birth weight, head or chest circumference, and gestational age were analyzed at birth with no statistical differences noted between newborns with non-exposure in utero and in newborns with maternal use of cannabis. There was a small effect on decreased birth length in exposure the first two months and a positive effect on body weight with usage in the third trimester [67]. In a follow-up of the offspring in this study up to two decades later, prenatal maternal exposure to cannabis was found to result in a greater risk of cannabis use in their children at adolescence (38% before age 15). By age 22 in-utero cannabis-exposed children were more apt to not complete high school (54.4% vs. 37.2% in controls), be unemployed (67.6% vs. 52.1%) and more likely to have been arrested (56% vs. 27.3%) [68].
The Dunedin study was a third, and more controversial, project conducted in New Zealand on 1037 individuals followed from birth to 38 years. One measurement obtained over the course of the study was the evaluation of the association between cannabis use and neuropsychological outcomes. Neuropsychological assessments were obtained before the age when cannabis use occurred and changes studied. Cannabis use was obtained at age 13 and then at age 38 after a pattern of consistent use. It was found that there was an associated decline in IQ related to the frequency and length of exposure to cannabis. The greatest vulnerability appeared to occur with adolescent exposure. The authors found that persistent cannabis use was associated with neuropsychological decline broadly across domains of functioning, most significantly in the domains of executive functioning and processing speed. Study participants with more persistent cannabis dependence also showed greater IQ decline over the years, along with greater overall cognitive decline. Greater cognitive impairment was observed in those who began cannabis use in adolescence. The investigators also pointed out that cessation of cannabis use did not fully restore neuropsychological functioning in these adolescence-onset users [69, 70].
Another recent large, retrospective, cohort study of 661,617 pregnant women study conducted over six years in Ontario, Canada examined the association between self-reported cannabis use in pregnancy and any adverse maternal or perinatal outcomes. The investigators accounted for known confounding factors, such as tobacco use, in one of two cohorts by the use of a matched design analysis. The results showed that preterm birth rate, at less than 37 weeks’ gestation, for both the matched and unmatched cohorts were significantly higher in the women who reported cannabis use. The rate of preterm birth rate in the unmatched cohort was 12.0% in cannabis users, compared to 6.1% in nonusers. In the matched cohort, the rate of preterm birth was 10.2% in cannabis users versus 7.2% in nonusers. A continuous increase in relative risk of preterm birth from cannabis exposure was observed between 34 to 36 6/7 weeks’ and 28 to 31 6/7 weeks’ gestation, respectively. Because this type of increase was not observed for very preterm birth at less than 28 weeks’ gestation, it was conjectured that cannabis exposure may be more strongly associated with early and moderate preterm births versus very preterm births. Cannabis use in the subjects was also significantly associated with the following secondary outcomes: small for gestational age, placental abruption, transfer to neonatal intensive care, and 5-minute Apgar score of less than 4 [71].
Both the OPPS and MHPCD studies were consistent in demonstrating behavioral and cognitive impairment years after exposure to cannabis in-utero. The Dunedin study also reported decline in IQ related to cannabis exposure beginning in adolescence. Collectively, all three studies report important deficits that emerge over time in child and adolescent maturation. A limitation of these studies, however, is the continuing social acceptance of cannabis use and increasing potency of THC.
To provide more current information, an NIH-initiative, the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study is ongoing. This is a national, multisite, longitudinal cohort study that is prospectively following subjects from childhood through adolescence to explore the effects of substance use such as cannabinoids, among other experiences, on neurocognitive development. There are, of course, many challenges associated with long epidemiologic studies. Aside from participant loss and difficulty maintaining controls, the constant flux in the content of cannabinoid products over the years, namely the significant increases in the ratio of THC to CBD, presents significant inconsistency in comparing these long studies or predicting current risk.
7. Final comments
GABA is an amino acid concentrated within the CNS and is recognized as the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain [1]. With the exception of a second, excitatory amino acid neurotransmitter glutamate, GABA is present in millimoles/gm in brain tissue compared to nanomolar/gm concentrations of the other classic neurotransmitters [72].
The physiological effects of GABA do not occur in isolation. The functional relationship beween the two systems begins after the release of GABA from an activated presynaptic neuron and stimulation of the postsynaptic cell. Endocannabinoids are then manufactured on-demand and released to bind to cannabinoid receptors on the presynaptic membrane terminating the release of GABA.
The CB1 receptor is highly expressed in several regions of the brain including the forebrain, amygdala, hippocampus, substantia nigra and cerebellum. This receptor is frequently in GABA containing neurons and this overlap allows for close coordination and interaction between the two systems. As a result, the ECS provides an important feedback to the GABA system and participates in the maturation of the CNS and the function of the adult brain [72, 73].
The GABA system and the ECS, similar to all neurotransmitters, are limited to brief synaptic activity at discrete locations and are quickly terminated through either enzymatic breakdown or reuptake mechanisms. GABA is stored in presynaptic vesicles and released after excitation by an action potential into the synapse to stimulate the postsynaptic cell. The endocannabinoids, in contrast, are synthesized in the postsynaptic membrane on demand only after the cell is stimulated. Upon release, the endocannabinoid moves in a retrograde direction across the synapse and binds to the CB1 receptor on the presynaptic neuron. Once the endocannabinoid is bound to the CB1 receptor, the release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic neuron is terminated.
How endocannabinoids work in moderating GABA is introduced in the discussion of depolarization induced suppression of inhibition (DSI). This is a critical concept on how the chemical signal with GABA release is moderated by the activation of the CB1 receptor. Although less established, activation of this cannabinoid receptor may also activate another amino acid transmitter glutamate through a similar mechanism termed depolarization induced suppression of excitation (DSE).
Several preclinical studies of ECS and GABA in this chapter followed the initial papers on DSI and DSE and the concept of CB1 receptor activation influencing the release of GABA (and potentially glutamate). Although for technical reasons it has not been possible to study the effect of AEA and 2-AG directly, these studies chose to utilize several laboratory-created CB1 agonists under investigation or the phytocannabinoid THC. No matter the source of the agonist, the findings consistently found that stimulation of the CB1 receptor reduced the release of GABA.
From these studies it is apparent that activation of the CB1 receptor is not exclusive to endocannabinoids. As discussed earlier, the plant C. sativa produces phytocannabinoids including THC that also are agonists and partially bind to the CB1 receptor [74]. These molecules evolved in the plant kingdom for evolutionary imperatives that are incongruent with the evolution of the ECS in animals. Although they differ significantly from the endocannabinoids in chemical structure, synthesis, degradation, phytocannabinoids including THC and CBD are of great interest since they have CB1 receptor activity and similarly influence the release of GABA. This affinity is likely coincidential yet provides additional information on the interplay between the physiological functions regulated by GABA and activation of CB1.
Earlier in this chapter several large epidemiological studies were reviewed reporting the effects of cannabis on the development of the nervous system in utero to maturity. These studies are informative because they describe the effects of cannabinoids on the developing nervous system and adult where GABA plays an important role. From these reports it is likely that early maternal exposure to phytocannabinoids results in impairment in the offspring through disruption of the development of the nervous system with behavioral abnormalities appearing later in life [65, 68, 75, 76].
There are obvious limitations in large scale studies since In normal circumstances ECS and GABA collaborate in limited and localized coordination in development. Phytocannabinoids act systemically throughout the body and are not limited to discrete synapses. In addition, since phytocannabinoids are lipid soluble, sequestered in fat tissue, and broken down by hepatic enzymes, the location and duration of exposure to phytocannabinoids differs from the brief, focused synaptic interaction between GABA and the endocannabinoids. Nevertheless, these large studies of cannabis use provide important information on how phytocannabinoids may disrupt GABA function that may be reflected in the abnormalities reported in these larg scale studies. Cannabis is regarded by many as relatively ‘safe’ and is becoming ‘legal’ in many areas. However, other ‘safe’ and ‘legal’ drugs including nicotine and alcohol are associated with serious public health concerns. These studies give us insight into the possible risks associated with using phytocannabinoids and influencing the communication between GABA and the endocannabinoids.
The interaction of GABA and the ECS is important for normal physiological function. As our knowledge of this modulation of the CNS advances, additional knowledge and treatments will likely emerge that will provide unexpected benefits to patients. However, epidemiological studies of exposure to cannabis also provide important information they reveal the disadvantages and risks of disruption of the GABA-ECS systems. As increased access and duration of usage evolve, we will learn more of the benefits, and risks, of cannabiods.
\n',keywords:"endocannabinoids, GABA, phytocannabinoids, homeostasis",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/78043.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/78043.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78043",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78043",totalDownloads:169,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"February 11th 2021",dateReviewed:"July 5th 2021",datePrePublished:"August 17th 2021",datePublished:"May 11th 2022",dateFinished:"August 12th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) system is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter system in the central nervous system (CNS) of vertebrates and is involved in critical cellular communication and brain function. The endocannabioid system (ECS) was only recenty discovered and quickly recognized to be abundantly expressed in GABA-rich areas of the brain. The strong relationship between the GABA system and ECS is supported both by studies of the neuraoanatomy of mammalian nervous systems and the chemical messaging between neurons. The ECS is currently known to consist of two endocannabinoids, Anandamide (AEA) and 2-Arachidonyl Glycerol (2-AG), that function as chemical messengers between neurons, at least two cannabinoid receptors (CB1 and CB2), and complex synthetic and degradative metabolic systems. The ECS differs from the GABA system and other neurotransmitter systems in multiple ways including retrograde communication from the activated post-synaptic neuron to the presynaptic cell. Together, this molecular conversation between the ECS and GABA systems regulate the homeostasis and the chemical messaging essential for higher cortical functions such as learning and memory and may play a role in several human pathologies. Phytocannabinoids are synthesized in the plant Cannabis sativa (C. sativa). Within the family of phytocannabinoids at least 100 different cannabinoid molecules or derivatives have been identified and share the properties of binding to the endogenous cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2. The well-known psychoactive phytocannabinoid Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and the non-psychoactive cannabidiol (CBD) are just two of the many substances synthesized within C. sativa that act on the body. Although the phytocannabinoids THC and CBD bind to these endogenous receptors in the mammalian CNS, these plant derived molecules have little in common with the endocannabinoids in structure, distribution and metabolism. This overlap in receptor binding is likely coincidental since phytocannabinoids evolved within the plant kingdom and the ECS including the endocannabinoids developed within animals. The GABA and ECS networks communicate through carefully orchestrated activities at localized synaptic level. When phytocannabinoids become available, the receptor affinities for CB1 and CB2 may compete with the naturally occurring endocannabinoid ligands and influence the GABA-ECS communication. In some instances this addition of phytocannabinoids may provide some therapeutic benefit while in other circumstances the presence of these plant derived ligands for the CB1 and CB2 receptors binding site may lead to disruption of important functions within the CNS. The regulatory approval of several THC products for nausea and vomiting and anorexia and CBD for rare pediatric seizure disorders are examples of some of the benefits of phytocannabinoids. Concerns regarding cannabis exposure in utero and in the child and adolescence are shrill warnings of the hazards associated with disrupting the normal maturation of the developing CNS.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/78043",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/78043",signatures:"Steven P. James and Dena Bondugji",book:{id:"11752",type:"book",title:"Natural Drugs from Plants",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Natural Drugs from Plants",slug:"natural-drugs-from-plants",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11752.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-80356-021-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-020-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-022-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"343012",title:"Dr.",name:"Steven P.",middleName:null,surname:"James",fullName:"Steven P. James",slug:"steven-p.-james",email:"steven@stevenjamesmd.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/343012/images/system/343012.png",institution:null},{id:"343181",title:"Dr.",name:"Dena",middleName:null,surname:"Bondugji",fullName:"Dena Bondugji",slug:"dena-bondugji",email:"dbondugli@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction to the GABA system",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Introduction to the endocannabinoid system (ECS)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. The discovery of anandamide (AEA)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. 2-Arachidonylglycerol (2-AG): the second endocannabinoid",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Endocannabinoid-GABA regulation of chemical messaging",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. GABA and the tale of two cannabinoids",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. 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Characterization and localization of cannabinoid receptors in rat brain: a quantitative in vitro autoradiographic study. J Neurosci. 1991;11(2):563-583.'},{id:"B25",body:'Mohler H. GABA(A) receptor diversity and pharmacology. Cell Tissue Res. 2006;326(2):505-516.'},{id:"B26",body:'Herkenham M, Lynn AB, de Costa BR, Richfield EK. Neuronal localization of cannabinoid receptors in the basal ganglia of the rat. Brain Res. 1991;547(2):267-274.'},{id:"B27",body:'Pertwee RG. Endocannabinoids and their pharmacological actions. 2015.'},{id:"B28",body:'De Petrocellis L, Di Marzo V. An introduction to the endocannabinoid system: from the early to the latest concepts. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009;23(1):1-15.'},{id:"B29",body:'Piomelli D. More surprises lying ahead: The endocannabinoids keep us guessing. Neuropharmacology. 2014;76 Pt B:228-234.'},{id:"B30",body:'Kloda A, Lua L, Hall R, Adams DJ, Martinac B. Liposome reconstitution and modulation of recombinant N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor channels by membrane stretch. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007;104(5):1540-1545.'},{id:"B31",body:'Ligresti ADPLDM, V. From phytocannabinoids to cannabinoid receptors and endocannabinoids: pleiotropic physiological and pathological roles through complex pharmacology. Physiology Review. 2016;16:1593-1659.'},{id:"B32",body:'Di Marzo V, De Petrocellis L, Fezza F, Ligresti A, Bisogno T. Anandamide receptors. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids (PLEFA). 2002;66(2-3):377-391.'},{id:"B33",body:'Matias I, Wang JW, Moriello AS, Nieves A, Woodward DF, Di Marzo V. Changes in endocannabinoid and palmitoylethanolamide levels in eye tissues of patients with diabetic retinopathy and age-related macular degeneration. Prostaglandins Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids. 2006.'},{id:"B34",body:'McPartland JM, Matias I, Di Marzo V, Glass M. Evolutionary origins of the endocannabinoid system. Gene. 2006;370:64-74.'},{id:"B35",body:'Piomelli D, Giuffrida A, Calignano A, Rodrı́guez de Fonseca F. The endocannabinoid system as a target for therapeutic drugs. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences. 2000;21(6):218-224.'},{id:"B36",body:'Cravatt BF, Prospero-Garcia O, Siuzdak G, Gilula NB, Henriksen SJ, Boger DL, et al. Chemical characterization of a family of brain lipids that induce sleep. Science. 1995;268(5216):1506-1509.'},{id:"B37",body:'Nestler EJHS, Malenka RC. Molecular Neuropharmacology A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience: McGraw-Hill; 2001.'},{id:"B38",body:'Vincent P, Armstrong CM, Marty A. Inhibitory synaptic currents in rat cerebellar Purkinje cells: modulation by postsynaptic depolarization. J Physiol. 1992;456:453-471.'},{id:"B39",body:'Pitler TA, Alger BE. Postsynaptic spike firing reduces synaptic GABAA responses in hippocampal pyramidal cells. J Neurosci. 1992;12(10):4122-4132.'},{id:"B40",body:'Wilson RI, Nicoll RA. Endogenous cannabinoids mediate retrograde signalling at hippocampal synapses. Nature. 2001;410(6828):588-592.'},{id:"B41",body:'Wilson RI, Kunos G, Nicoll RA. Presynaptic specificity of endocannabinoid signaling in the hippocampus. Neuron. 2001;31(3):453-462.'},{id:"B42",body:'Diana MA, Marty A. Endocannabinoid-mediated short-term synaptic plasticity: depolarization-induced suppression of inhibition (DSI) and depolarization-induced suppression of excitation (DSE). Br J Pharmacol. 2004;142(1):9-19.'},{id:"B43",body:'Chiu CQ, Barberis A, Higley MJ. Preserving the balance: diverse forms of long-term GABAergic synaptic plasticity. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2019;20(5):272-281.'},{id:"B44",body:'Ramirez A, Arbuckle MR. Synaptic Plasticity: The Role of Learning and Unlearning in Addiction and Beyond. Biol Psychiatry. 2016;80(9):e73-ee5.'},{id:"B45",body:'Katona I, Sperlagh B, Sik A, Kafalvi A, Vizi ES, Mackie K, et al. Presynaptically located CB1 cannabinoid receptors regulate GABA release from axon terminals of specific hippocampal interneurons. J Neurosci. 1999;19(11):4544-4558.'},{id:"B46",body:'Katona I, Rancz EA, Acsady L, Ledent C, Mackie K, Hajos N, et al. Distribution of CB1 cannabinoid receptors in the amygdala and their role in the control of GABAergic transmission. J Neurosci. 2001;21(23):9506-9518.'},{id:"B47",body:'Maneuf YP, Nash JE, Crossman AR, Brotchie JM. Activation of the cannabinoid receptor by delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol reduces gamma-aminobutyric acid uptake in the globus pallidus. Eur J Pharmacol. 1996;308(2):161-164.'},{id:"B48",body:'Maneuf YP, Crossman AR, Brotchie JM. Modulation of GABAergic transmission in the globus pallidus by the synthetic cannabinoid WIN 55,212-2. Synapse. 1996;22(4):382-385.'},{id:"B49",body:'Nusser Z, Hajos N, Somogyi P, Mody I. Increased number of synaptic GABA(A) receptors underlies potentiation at hippocampal inhibitory synapses. Nature. 1998;395(6698):172-177.'},{id:"B50",body:'Nusser Z, Cull-Candy S, Farrant M. Differences in synaptic GABA(A) receptor number underlie variation in GABA mini amplitude. Neuron. 1997;19(3):697-709.'},{id:"B51",body:'Lenkey N, Kirizs T, Holderith N, Mate Z, Szabo G, Vizi ES, et al. Tonic endocannabinoid-mediated modulation of GABA release is independent of the CB1 content of axon terminals. Nat Commun. 2015;6:6557.'},{id:"B52",body:'Cass DK, Flores-Barrera E, Thomases DR, Vital WF, Caballero A, Tseng KY. CB1 cannabinoid receptor stimulation during adolescence impairs the maturation of GABA function in the adult rat prefrontal cortex. Mol Psychiatry. 2014;19(5):536-543.'},{id:"B53",body:'Prescot AP, Renshaw PF, Yurgelun-Todd DA. gamma-Amino butyric acid and glutamate abnormalities in adolescent chronic marijuana smokers. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013;129(3):232-239.'},{id:"B54",body:'Prescot AP, Locatelli AE, Renshaw PF, Yurgelun-Todd DA. Neurochemical alterations in adolescent chronic marijuana smokers: a proton MRS study. Neuroimage. 2011;57(1):69-75.'},{id:"B55",body:'Heblich F, Tran Van Minh A, Hendrich J, Watschinger K, Dolphin AC. Time course and specificity of the pharmacological disruption of the trafficking of voltage-gated calcium channels by gabapentin. Channels (Austin). 2008;2(1):4-9.'},{id:"B56",body:'Lile JA, Kelly TH, Hays LR. Separate and combined effects of the GABA reuptake inhibitor tiagabine and Delta9-THC in humans discriminating Delta9-THC. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2012;122(1-2):61-69.'},{id:"B57",body:'Lile JA, Kelly TH, Hays LR. Separate and combined effects of the GABA(B) agonist baclofen and Delta9-THC in humans discriminating Delta9-THC. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2012;126(1-2):216-223.'},{id:"B58",body:'Radhakrishnan R, Skosnik PD, Cortes-Briones J, Sewell RA, Carbuto M, Schnakenberg A, et al. GABA Deficits Enhance the Psychotomimetic Effects of Delta9-THC. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2015;40(8):2047-2056.'},{id:"B59",body:'Mackie K, Devane WA, Hille B. Anandamide, an endogenous cannabinoid, inhibits calcium currents as a partial agonist in N18 neuroblastoma cells. Molecular Pharmacology. 1993;44(3):498-503.'},{id:"B60",body:'Pertwee RG. The pharmacology of cannabinoid receptors and their ligands: An overview. International Journal of Obesity. 2006;30:S13-SS8.'},{id:"B61",body:'Pertwee RG, Ross RA. Cannabinoid receptors and their ligands. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids (PLEFA). 2002;66(2-3):101-121.'},{id:"B62",body:'Warner TD, Roussos-Ross D, Behnke M. It\'s not your mother\'s marijuana: effects on maternal-fetal health and the developing child. Clin Perinatol. 2014;41(4):877-894.'},{id:"B63",body:'Warner TD, Swisher RR. The effect of direct and indirect exposure to violence on youth survival expectations. J Adolesc Health. 2014;55(6):817-822.'},{id:"B64",body:'Volkow ND, Compton WM, Wargo EM. The Risks of Marijuana Use During Pregnancy. JAMA. 2017;317(2):129-130.'},{id:"B65",body:'Fried PA, Watkinson B. 12- and 24-month neurobehavioural follow-up of children prenatally exposed to marihuana, cigarettes and alcohol. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 1988;10(4):305-313.'},{id:"B66",body:'Fried PA. Marihuana use by pregnant women: neurobehavioral effects in neonates. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1980;6(6):415-424.'},{id:"B67",body:'Day NL, Richardson GA. Prenatal marijuana use: epidemiology, methodologic issues, and infant outcome. Clin Perinatol. 1991;18(1):77-91.'},{id:"B68",body:'Goldschmidt L, Richardson GA, Larkby C, Day NL. Early marijuana initiation: The link between prenatal marijuana exposure, early childhood behavior, and negative adult roles. Neurotoxicology and Teratology. 2016;58:40-45.'},{id:"B69",body:'Meier MH, Caspi A, Ambler A, Harrington H, Houts R, Keefe RSE, et al. Persistent cannabis users show neuropsychological decline from childhood to midlife. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2012;109(40):E2657-E2E64.'},{id:"B70",body:'Meier MH, Caspi A, Danese A, Fisher HL, Houts R, Arseneault L, et al. Associations between adolescent cannabis use and neuropsychological decline: a longitudinal co-twin control study. Addiction. 2018;113(2):257-265.'},{id:"B71",body:'J. Corsi, Laura Walsh, Deborah Weiss, Helen Hsu, Darine El-Chaar, Steven Hawken, et al. Association Between Self-reported Prenatal Cannabis Use and Maternal, Perinatal, and Neonatal Outcomes. 2019;322:145.'},{id:"B72",body:'Cifelli P, Ruffolo G, De Felice E, Alfano V, van Vliet EA, Aronica E, et al. Phytocannabinoids in Neurological Diseases: Could They Restore a Physiological GABAergic Transmission? Int J Mol Sci 2020;21(3).'},{id:"B73",body:'Yates ML, Barker EL. Inactivation and biotransformation of the endogenous cannabinoids anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol. Molecular Pharmacology. 2009;76(1):11-17.'},{id:"B74",body:'Pertwee RG. The diverse CB1 and CB2 receptor pharmacology of three plant cannabinoids: delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol and delta9-tetrahydrocannabivarin. Br J Pharmacol. 2008;153(2):199-215.'},{id:"B75",body:'Jutras-Aswad D, DiNieri JA, Harkany T, Hurd YL. Neurobiological consequences of maternal cannabis on human fetal development and its neuropsychiatric outcome. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience. 2009;259(7):395-412.'},{id:"B76",body:'Day NL, Leech SL, Goldschmidt L. The effects of prenatal marijuana exposure on delinquent behaviors are mediated by measures of neurocognitive functioning. Neurotoxicology and teratology. 2011;33(1):129-136.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Steven P. James",address:"steven@stevenjamesmd.com",affiliation:'
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"11752",type:"book",title:"Natural Drugs from Plants",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Natural Drugs from Plants",slug:"natural-drugs-from-plants",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11752.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-80356-021-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-020-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-022-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"424831",title:"Dr.",name:"Saouane",middleName:null,surname:"Izzeddine",email:"izzeddine.saouane@univ-tebessa.dz",fullName:"Saouane Izzeddine",slug:"saouane-izzeddine",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{id:"78154",title:"Mathematical Relationship Based on Experimental Data, for Corrosion Inhibition Mechanism of Phenolic Compounds Obtained from Echium italicum L.",slug:"mathematical-relationship-based-on-experimental-data-for-corrosion-inhibition-mechanism-of-phenolic-",abstract:"We highlight in this chapter the corrosion protection using phenolic extract. The building of mathematical models using experimental results obtained from the investigation of phenolic molecules or fractions extracted from Echium italicum L., used as corrosion inhibitors is one of the new trends in the study of steel protection. The evaluation of the corrosion inhibition of carbon steel (API 5 L-X60) in a solution 1 M of hydrochloric acid was performed using gravimetric method, potentiodynamic polarization and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The predicted mathematical relationships between the corrosion rate and the inhibitory efficiency in the presence of the butanolic extract of Echium italicum L. (BEEI), when increasing temperature proved a good agreement between experimental and mathematical studies.",signatures:"Boudiba Sameh, Hanini Karima, Boudiba Louiza, Saouane Izzeddine and Benahmed Merzoug",authors:[{id:"334584",title:"Dr.",name:"Boudiba",surname:"Sameh",fullName:"Boudiba Sameh",slug:"boudiba-sameh",email:"boudibasameh@gmail.com"},{id:"334585",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanini",surname:"Karima",fullName:"Hanini Karima",slug:"hanini-karima",email:"haninikarima@yahoo.com"},{id:"355339",title:"Prof.",name:"Benahmed",surname:"Merzoug",fullName:"Benahmed Merzoug",slug:"benahmed-merzoug",email:"riad43200@yahoo.fr"},{id:"355340",title:"Prof.",name:"Boudiba",surname:"Louiza",fullName:"Boudiba Louiza",slug:"boudiba-louiza",email:"boudibalouiza@gmail.com"},{id:"424831",title:"Dr.",name:"Saouane",surname:"Izzeddine",fullName:"Saouane Izzeddine",slug:"saouane-izzeddine",email:"izzeddine.saouane@univ-tebessa.dz"}],book:{id:"10799",title:"Phenolic Compounds",slug:"phenolic-compounds-chemistry-synthesis-diversity-non-conventional-industrial-pharmaceutical-and-therapeutic-applications",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"49804",title:"Dr.",name:"Yu-Chiang",surname:"Hung",slug:"yu-chiang-hung",fullName:"Yu-Chiang Hung",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Professor Dr. Yu-Chiang Hung was born on the 5th of January 1965 in Taiwan. He was currently serving as an attending doctor and academic professor in the Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital. He has been a director of the Department of Chinese medicine for 6 years. He graduated with a Bachelor's degree from the China Medical University in 1990, an M.D., degree from the National Yang-Ming University in 1992, and a Ph.D. degree from the Chang Gung University in 2010. Professor Dr. Hung was awarded “Research thesis of scholarship” in Integrate Traditional Chinese and West medicine 2009 in Taiwan and “Outstanding Scientist Award” on Engineering, Science and Medicine 2021 in India. His experiences in clinical practice in traditional Chinese medicine including acupuncture spans about 25 years. He holds a patent for needle improvement with a supercritical fluid-treated needle. Professor Dr. Hung has published 65 papers in SCI reputed journals and 12 book chapters.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"218529",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael",surname:"Ngadi",slug:"michael-ngadi",fullName:"Michael Ngadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"355795",title:"Dr.",name:"Yu-Chen",surname:"Cheng",slug:"yu-chen-cheng",fullName:"Yu-Chen Cheng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chang Gung University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"355911",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Christian",surname:"Drapeau",slug:"christian-drapeau",fullName:"Christian Drapeau",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"355912",title:"Dr.",name:"Veronique",surname:"Traynard",slug:"veronique-traynard",fullName:"Veronique Traynard",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"356019",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamad",surname:"Al Mamari",slug:"hamad-al-mamari",fullName:"Hamad Al Mamari",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"356137",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Josephine",surname:"Ampofo",slug:"josephine-ampofo",fullName:"Josephine Ampofo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"356520",title:"Prof.",name:"Elham H.",surname:"Fini",slug:"elham-h.-fini",fullName:"Elham H. Fini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"420874",title:"Dr.",name:"Muk Wing",surname:"Yuen",slug:"muk-wing-yuen",fullName:"Muk Wing Yuen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"our-story",title:"Our story",intro:"
The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n\\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\\n\\n
2004
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Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
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Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
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2005
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IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
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2006
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IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
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2008
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Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
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2009
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Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
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2010
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Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
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IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
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2011
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Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
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IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
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IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
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IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
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2012
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Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
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IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
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2013
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IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
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2014
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IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
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IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
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2015
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Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
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Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
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40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
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Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
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2016
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IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
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2017
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Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
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Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
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2010
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Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
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IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
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2011
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Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
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IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
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IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
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IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
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2012
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Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
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IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
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2013
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IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
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2014
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IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
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IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
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2015
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Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
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Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
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40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
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Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
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2016
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IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
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2017
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Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
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Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
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Other human and animal studies indicate that fluoride is a developmental neurotoxicant and that it operates in utero. Economic impacts of IQ loss have been quantified. The objective was to use data from the meta-analysis and other studies to estimate a daily dose of fluoride that would protect all children from lowered IQ, and to estimate economic impacts. We used two methods: traditional lowest-observed-adverse-effect (LOAEL)/no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL); and benchmark dose (BMD). We used 3 mg/L in drinking water as an “adverse effect concentration,” with reported fluoride intakes from food, in the LOAEL/NOAEL method. We used the available dose–response data for the BMD analysis. Arsenic, iodine, and lead levels were controlled for in studies we used. BMD analysis shows the possible safe dose to protect against a five-point IQ loss is between 0.0014 and 0.050 mg/day. The LOAEL/NOAEL safe dose range estimate is 0.0042–0.16 mg/day. The economic impact for IQ loss among US children is loss of tens of billions of dollars.",book:{id:"5894",slug:"neurotoxins",title:"Neurotoxins",fullTitle:"Neurotoxins"},signatures:"John William Hirzy, Paul Connett, Quanyong Xiang, Bruce Spittle\nand David Kennedy",authors:[{id:"215103",title:"Dr.",name:"J. William",middleName:null,surname:"Hirzy",slug:"j.-william-hirzy",fullName:"J. William Hirzy"},{id:"215105",title:"Dr.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Connett",slug:"paul-connett",fullName:"Paul Connett"},{id:"215110",title:"Prof.",name:"Quanyong",middleName:null,surname:"Xiang",slug:"quanyong-xiang",fullName:"Quanyong Xiang"},{id:"215111",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Kennedy",slug:"david-kennedy",fullName:"David Kennedy"},{id:"221561",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruce",middleName:null,surname:"Spittle",slug:"bruce-spittle",fullName:"Bruce Spittle"}]},{id:"47012",doi:"10.5772/58702",title:"Spinal or Epidural Haematoma",slug:"spinal-or-epidural-haematoma",totalDownloads:3492,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"3819",slug:"topics-in-spinal-anaesthesia",title:"Topics in Spinal Anaesthesia",fullTitle:"Topics in Spinal Anaesthesia"},signatures:"R. Hakan Erbay, Nimet Senoglu and Habip Atalay",authors:[{id:"169248",title:"Dr.",name:"Rıza Hakan",middleName:null,surname:"Erbay",slug:"riza-hakan-erbay",fullName:"Rıza Hakan Erbay"},{id:"170302",title:"Dr.",name:"Nimet",middleName:null,surname:"Senoglu",slug:"nimet-senoglu",fullName:"Nimet Senoglu"},{id:"170303",title:"Dr.",name:"Habip",middleName:null,surname:"Atalay",slug:"habip-atalay",fullName:"Habip Atalay"}]},{id:"47166",doi:"10.5772/58817",title:"Complications in Spinal Anaesthesia",slug:"complications-in-spinal-anaesthesia",totalDownloads:9321,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"3819",slug:"topics-in-spinal-anaesthesia",title:"Topics in Spinal Anaesthesia",fullTitle:"Topics in Spinal Anaesthesia"},signatures:"Alparslan Apan and Özgün Cuvaş Apan",authors:[{id:"33951",title:"Prof.",name:"Alparslan",middleName:null,surname:"Apan",slug:"alparslan-apan",fullName:"Alparslan Apan"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"47166",title:"Complications in Spinal Anaesthesia",slug:"complications-in-spinal-anaesthesia",totalDownloads:9321,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"3819",slug:"topics-in-spinal-anaesthesia",title:"Topics in Spinal Anaesthesia",fullTitle:"Topics in Spinal Anaesthesia"},signatures:"Alparslan Apan and Özgün Cuvaş Apan",authors:[{id:"33951",title:"Prof.",name:"Alparslan",middleName:null,surname:"Apan",slug:"alparslan-apan",fullName:"Alparslan Apan"}]},{id:"63723",title:"Oxidative Polymerization of Dopamine: A High-Definition Multifunctional Coatings for Electrospun Nanofibers - An Overview",slug:"oxidative-polymerization-of-dopamine-a-high-definition-multifunctional-coatings-for-electrospun-nano",totalDownloads:1953,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"The invention that catecholamines undergo oxidative polymerization under alkaline conditions and form adhesive nanocoatings on wide variety of substrates has ushered their potential utility in engineering and biomedical applications. The oxidative polymerization of catecholamines can be triggered by light, chemical and physical methods, thus representing one of the widely explored surface coating methods. The overall objectives of this chapter are to compile the various methods of accomplishing surface coatings and compare the structural diversity of catecholamines. The progress achieved so far on polydopamine (pDA) coatings on electrospun polymers will be discussed. Finally, we will summarize the research efforts on catecholamine coatings for biomedical applications as well as their potential as a high definition coating method.",book:{id:"7256",slug:"dopamine-health-and-disease",title:"Dopamine",fullTitle:"Dopamine - Health and Disease"},signatures:"Rajamani Lakshminarayanan, Srinivasan Madhavi and Christina Poh\nChoo Sim",authors:[{id:"256023",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Lakshminarayanan",middleName:null,surname:"Rajamani",slug:"lakshminarayanan-rajamani",fullName:"Lakshminarayanan Rajamani"},{id:"270706",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhavi",middleName:null,surname:"Srinivasan",slug:"madhavi-srinivasan",fullName:"Madhavi Srinivasan"},{id:"270707",title:"Dr.",name:"Christina Poh Choo",middleName:null,surname:"Sim",slug:"christina-poh-choo-sim",fullName:"Christina Poh Choo Sim"}]},{id:"59036",title:"Nursing Care for Persons with Drug Addiction",slug:"nursing-care-for-persons-with-drug-addiction",totalDownloads:2150,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Persons with drug addiction (PDDs) may exhibit symptoms affecting the central nervous system. Multidisciplinary treatment teams may offer the most updated treatment and care. Pharmacotherapy is one standard treatment, effective in managing psychotic symptoms with supportive psychosocial interventions. As part of the health-care team, nurses deal with PDD on a 24-hour basis. Quality nursing care is essential for improving quality of life, health status, and continued abuse-free status of PDD.",book:{id:"6404",slug:"drug-addiction",title:"Drug Addiction",fullTitle:"Drug Addiction"},signatures:"Ek-uma Imkome",authors:[{id:"219235",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ek-Uma",middleName:null,surname:"Imkome",slug:"ek-uma-imkome",fullName:"Ek-Uma Imkome"}]},{id:"59317",title:"Effect of Alcohol on Brain Development",slug:"effect-of-alcohol-on-brain-development",totalDownloads:1208,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In the world, 3.3 million deaths occur every year due to harmful use of alcohol; this represents 5.9% of all deaths. Ethanol metabolites’ production and their post-translation modification are one of the proposed mechanisms that lead to neuronal toxicity. The projected neurochemical changes in chronic alcohol drinkers may be due to an imbalance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters. Interaction of alcohol with GABA and glutamate receptors (NMDA and AMPA) resulted in diverse adaptive changes in gene expression through neuronal pathways leading to alcohol toxicity. Alcohol consumption in an individual leads to biochemical changes that are correlated with complex inflammatory signaling pathways such as phosphorylation of proteins, synthesis of nitric oxide (NO), NF-kappaB and MAP kinase pathways in certain regions of the brain. Ethanol exposure activates neurons and microglial cells that lead to release of neuroimmune factors like high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and certain cytokines involved in immune responses leading to neuroimmune signaling in the brain. Epigenetic modification of DNA and histones may lead to neuronal gene expression, thus regulating ethanol toxicity. Researchers attempt to modulate therapies that can help to foil alcohol toxicity and support the development of original neuronal cells that have been injured or degenerated by alcohol exposure.",book:{id:"6404",slug:"drug-addiction",title:"Drug Addiction",fullTitle:"Drug Addiction"},signatures:"Farhin Patel and Palash Mandal",authors:[{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal"},{id:"219333",title:"Ms.",name:"Farhin",middleName:null,surname:"Patel",slug:"farhin-patel",fullName:"Farhin Patel"}]},{id:"61035",title:"Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Human Glutamatergic Neurons as a Platform for Mechanistic Assessment of Inducible Excitotoxicity in Drug Discovery",slug:"induced-pluripotent-stem-cell-derived-human-glutamatergic-neurons-as-a-platform-for-mechanistic-asse",totalDownloads:1251,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Since the guiding principles of Replace, Reduce, and Refine were published, wider context-of-use for alternatives to animal testing have emerged. Induced pluripotent stem cell-derived human glutamatergic-enriched cortical neurons can be leveraged as 2- and 3-dimensional platforms to enable candidate drug screening. Uniquely so, 2-dimensional models are useful considering that they exhibit spontaneous firing, while, 3-dimensional models show spontaneous synchronized calcium transient oscillations. Here, the limitations of selected induced acute seizure models as well as the early utilization of fully differentiated glutamatergic neuron models for interrogation of inducible excitotoxicity following exposure to neuromodulators will be described. The context of use for candidate biomarkers of inducible seizure is also discussed.",book:{id:"5894",slug:"neurotoxins",title:"Neurotoxins",fullTitle:"Neurotoxins"},signatures:"Yafei Chen",authors:[{id:"201274",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Yafei",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"yafei-chen",fullName:"Yafei Chen"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"196",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 17th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. 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He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plant, logistics, manufacturing and safety. She serves as an Associate Editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. She is a member of AHP Academy and a member of several editorial boards. She has over 160 Scientific Publications in International Journals and Conferences and she is the author of 5 books on Innovation and Decision Making in Industrial Applications and Engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:'Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the "new normal". Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.',institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. He holds a Master’s Degree in Urban Development Planning from the University College of London (UCL), and a Ph.D. in Urban Planning & Engineering from TU Berlin. He has conducted applied research on urban planning and infrastructure issues in over 20 countries in Africa and Asia. In 2005 he joined Eawag-Sandec as Leader of the Strategic Environmental Sanitation Planning Group. Since 2015 he heads the research department Sanitation, Water and Solid Waste for Development (Sandec) at the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Research and Technology (Eawag).",institutionString:"Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Switzerland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"290571",title:"Dr.",name:"Rui Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Castanho",slug:"rui-alexandre-castanho",fullName:"Rui Alexandre Castanho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/290571/images/system/290571.jpg",biography:"Rui Alexandre Castanho has a master\\'s degree in Planning, Audit, and Control in Urban Green Spaces and an international Ph.D. in Sustainable Planning in Borderlands. Currently, he is a professor at WSB University, Poland, and a visiting professor at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa. Dr. Castanho is a post-doc researcher on the GREAT Project, University of Azores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal. 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Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 7th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:96,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/424831",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"424831"},fullPath:"/profiles/424831",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()