",isbn:"978-1-80356-357-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-356-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-358-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"3aba1eb3600a8c9ff880c628f70b3298",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Delfín Ortega-Sánchez",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg",keywords:"Integrated Curriculum, Transdisciplinarity, Integrated Active Learning, Educational Programs, Contemporary Social Problems, Critical Thinking, Creative Thinking, Social Thinking, Agenda 2030, Sustainable Development Goals, Educational Paradigm, Social Reality",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 18th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 18th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 17th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 5th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 4th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Internationally recognized researcher in the field of historical and social science education. Author of more than 100 publications, awarded three Doctorate degrees and the National End of Degree Award, granted by the Ministry of Education to the best academic records of Bachelor's degrees in Spain. Dr. Ortega-Sánchez has been Vice-Rector for Social Responsibility, Culture, and Sports at the University of Burgos since 2021.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"302925",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Delfín",middleName:null,surname:"Ortega-Sánchez",slug:"delfin-ortega-sanchez",fullName:"Delfín Ortega-Sánchez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302925/images/system/302925.jpg",biography:"I hold a PhD in Didactics of Social Sciences from the Autonomous University of Barcelona, a PhD in Educational Sciences from the University of Burgos, and a PhD in History from the University of Extremadura. 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1. Introduction
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Biofilms remain a primary concern in industrial and clinical fields. The tendency of planktonic cells to form these structures in moist environments and the resulting increase in resistance to antimicrobials, in combination with an increasing frequency of innate antimicrobial resistance, demonstrates the continued need for novel biofilm control strategies and innovative methods to unravel the fundamental properties of biofilms. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) has proven to be a useful addition to the microscopy family providing imaging and force measurement capabilities that can interrogate the nanoscale properties of surfaces. Indeed, AFM has been used with great success to provide novel insight into the structure of biofilms and the interplay of interaction forces and mechanical properties that govern the behavior of biofilms and their response to chemical and physical attack as part of control strategies. AFM can be used to study whole biofilms or the influence of their component parts, from bacterial surface proteins to extracellular polysaccharides (EPSs) and individual cells. This chapter will first introduce the reader to the basic operation of the instrument relevant to the study of biofilms. The different capabilities of the instrument and their application to biofilm will be then reviewed with examples from the authors’ laboratory.
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2. AFM basic principles
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Figure 1.
A schematic representation of the AFM instrument.
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AFM was first developed as part of the family of scanning probe microscopies in 1986 [1]. It was very quickly applied to the imaging of biological materials, including DNA, bacteria, viruses, and mammalian cells [2]. The components of atomic force microscope is shown in Figure 1. A very small, sharp tip held at the free end of a cantilever systematically scans a surface of interest to generate a topographical image. The tip is held in intimate contact with the surface, and its apex has a radius of curvature in the range of nanometers, which sets the image resolution. As the tip is systematically scanned across the surface, it encounters surface forces that cause the cantilever to be deflected. The deflection of the cantilever is monitored by the displacement of a reflected laser beam and used to create a topographical image. In contact mode, the forces of the bent cantilever keep the tip in intimate contact with the surface.
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When imaging a soft sample such as a bacterial cell surface or biofilm, the tapping mode or intermittent contact mode is used. The intermittent contact of this imaging mode reduces the degree of friction or drag on a sample compared with imaging in contact mode. To achieve the intermittent contact, a vibrating cantilever technique is used, and the changes in the vibrational parameters are monitored as the cantilever scans the surface. In response to changes in topography, the piezo‐scanner moves up and down to maintain a constant vibration of the cantilever, and the feedback signal is used to produce the image data set. A further advantage of this imaging mode is that measurement of the phase angle between the free oscillation at the end of the cantilever and the imposed driving vibration provides a map of phase angle across a surface; this data, referred to as phase imaging, is captured simultaneously as the standard topographical data. This phase angle is often used to qualitatively distinguish between materials on the surfaces of heterogeneous samples as the phase angle change is a function of the mechanical properties of the surface and the area of contact between the AFM tip and the surface.
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The advantages of tapping mode have meant that this is the most frequently used method when imaging soft biological samples. The authors have found tapping mode in combination with phase imaging extremely useful in identifying structures on the cells and within biofilm. Figure 2 presents AFM tapping mode images of a range of microbial biofilms. When imaging biofilms, the mechanical robustness of a biofilm should be considered; it is simpler to image model biofilms with minimum components, which have been grown on adhesion‐promoting substrates, compared to biofilms that have been sampled from natural or industrial settings that consist of multiple components (Figure 2d). As AFM imaging is a technique that relies on surface contact, the imaging of a hydrated diffuse biofilm is very difficult without fixation methods.
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Figure 2.
AFM tapping mode images of microbial biofilms: (a) Candida tropicalis (50 µm2), (b) Staphylococcus aureus (10 µm2), (c) Pseudomonas aeruginosa (10 µm2), (d) mixed species biofilm at an industrially fouled reverse osmosis membrane (10 µm2).
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Figure 3.
A typical force measurement between an AFM cell probe (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and a surface in a process‐relevant environment (10-2 M NaCl).
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The AFM can measure the forces of interactions between surfaces, which have obvious implications in the study of biofilms. AFM has been added to the group of instruments that can be used to study microbial interactions involved in biofilm formation. Such instruments include flow chambers, micropipette aspiration, and centrifugation devices. However, AFM has the advantage of allowing the imaging and identification of points of interest on a surface prior to the measurement of the forces of interaction. AFM also allows the direct measurement of forces as opposed to techniques that estimate force from the application of shear to a cell population. In addition, surface forces are measured over very small contact areas, minimizing contamination problems. To generate a force–distance curve, the deflection of the cantilever is recorded as a function of tip‐to‐sample separation, as the piezo‐scanner of the AFM brings the sample and tip together. The deflection of the cantilever is converted to a value of force using Hooke\'s law. Force–distance curves are characteristic of the system under study. For biofilms, they have features that reflect the chemical and physical properties of the surfaces that are interacting, including the substrate, the cells, EPS, and the AFM probe. Figure 3 shows a typical force measurement between an AFM cell probe (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and a surface in a process‐relevant environment (10-2 M NaCl) [3]. The force is plotted as a function of separation distance and shows some key features for the characterization of the surfaces involved. At position D (referring to Figure 3), the cantilever and probe are moving independently of the surface, as the probe is brought into contact with the surface, until at position F it encounters physiochemical forces, which in this case are repulsive and likely to be dominated by electrostatic forces. The extension of the scanner continues to push the cell into contact (F–G) until a predefined loading force is reached, whereupon the movement is reversed and the probe is retracted away from the surface by the retraction of the piezo‐scanner. At position C, the bending of the cantilever is inflected and the forces in the bent cantilever begin to rupture the adhesion between the cell and the surface. If this was an inorganic hard particle, a sudden break in contact would be observed. However, with the yeast cell with macromolecular tethers (and any deformable surface), a sequential breaking of contact is observed as the forces in the bent cantilever peel the cell from the surface, until at position E the cell probe is moving independently of the surface. The adhesion measurement is determined from the difference in force between positions C and D. Integration between the approach and diffraction curves gives an estimate of the energy of adhesion. The mechanical properties of the system can be determined from the contact region (F–G and A–C) and the adhesion component of the curve (C–D).
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Operating the AFM as a nanoindenter allows the measurement of microbial cell and biofilm mechanical properties, which include elastic moduli and turgor pressure [2]. Figure 4 shows how the indentation depth is measured by comparison between force curves measured at a reference hard surface and at the softer sample surface. The indentation depth can then be plotted as a function of applied force and compared with a theoretical framework to quantify sample mechanical properties. The most commonly used theoretical framework is based on the Hertz model, which describes the elastic deformation of two perfectly homogeneous smooth bodies touching under load. The geometry of the system is assumed to consist of an indenter with a parabolic shape and a sample that is of much greater thickness than the indentation depth. The Hertz model that describes force on the cantilever F(δ) as a function of indentation depth is:\n
F(δ)parabolic=4ER3(1−ν2)δ32E1
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Figure 4.
The measurement of indentation depth (δ) by comparison of the slope of the contact region of force curves at hard and soft surfaces.
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where the tip is approximated with the radius R, the depth of indentation is denoted by δ, E is the Young\'s modulus of the sample surface, and ν is the Poisson ratio for the sample material (assumed to be a value of 0.5 for biological samples). Other theoretical frameworks have been used to interrogate AFM nanoindentation curves such as the JKR (Johnson, Kendall, Roberts) model. When choosing which model to use and interpreting the data, a number of considerations should be taken into account. The mechanical properties of microbial cells and biofilms will not be homogeneous across their surface and will be a convolution of whole cell compression as well as material close to the tip. In addition, nanoindentation is an invasive technique which applies a disruptive force to the surface. Repeated indentation at the same location on the cell or biofilm will disrupt the structure and its mechanical robustness rendering subsequent measurements invalid.
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3. Imaging
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Examination of microbial systems in native, aqueous environments is central to the validity of the data collected. However, AFM imaging in such environments is often difficult due to a number of factors. For instance, microbial cells are often attached to the surface via week Lifshitz‐Van der Waals forces, and as a result are easily disrupted by the scanning of an AFM cantilever, resulting in the destruction of the sample [4, 5]. Additionally, microbial cells are often motile with some recent papers suggesting that motility may even be the largest governing factor in the physiological imaging of microbes [6]. Consequently, immobilization of microbial cells prior to analysis has become imperative to the application of AFM in the imaging of microbial systems.
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3.1. Cell immobilization for single‐cell analysis
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Figure 5.
A yeast cell (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) trapped in a microfiltration membrane prior to AFM study.
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Immobilization of microbial cells has often proven to be the most problematic step in the imaging of microbial samples under aqueous conditions. The immobilization must be secure enough to withstand the lateral forces exerted by the tip during scanning, but benign enough to not force physiochemical, physiological, or nanomechanical changes in the sample. As a result, a number of different techniques have arisen; these protocols can be broadly divided into two categories: mechanical, whereby microbial cells are physically trapped within a porous media, and chemical, whereby chemical treatment of the substrate is used to facilitate binding.
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Initial studies into the use of mechanical protocols to immobilize microbes utilized agar or membranes with pore diameters similar to the cell diameter of the organism to be captured [4, 7–9] (Figure 5). Later work expanded upon this through the use of more complex or functionalized surfaces such as lithographically patterned silica [5, 10–12]. Though, while mechanical entrapment offers immobilization secure enough to alleviate the destructive scanning of the cantilever, the immobilization is sporadic and unpredictable, reducing the reproducibility of the results. Recent work by Formosa et al. [13] developed a protocol in which selective tuning of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) stamps were used to immobilize spherical microorganisms of various sizes. The protocol requires the creation of a glass and chromium blank that holds the microstructure, from which the pattern is transferred to a silicon wafer by deep reactive ion etching. The dimensions of the silicon master can be varied with the group reporting dimensions of 1.5–6 µm wide, a pitch of 0.5 µm, and a depth of 1–4 µm, accommodating a variety of target cell sizes. A PDMS stamp is then cast from the silicon wafer master and cells deposited through the use of convective and capillary forces. Further work by the group has shown this immobilization technique to be an effective way to immobilize spherical cells, in this case S. cerevisiae and Candida albicans, and, spore of Aspergillus fumigatus with no effect on viability [14–17]. Additionally, the technique allows for the rectification of one of AFMs greatest flaws, analysis of multiple cells to achieve statistical significance. Previously, this has not been feasible using other immobilization techniques due to the relatively low rate and sporadic nature of deposition; thus, the development of a platform capable of producing arrays of uniform cells for multiparametric analysis will increase the reliability of AFM analysis. However, this technique is limited due to its inability to immobilize nonspherical organisms.
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A number of chemical fixation methods for the immobilization of microbial cells have been used, including, poly‐l‐lysine, trimethoxysilyl‐propyl‐diethylenetriamine, mica, and carboxyl group cross‐linking [18–22]. While these techniques offer a high level of immobilization, some cross‐linking agents have been shown to negatively impact the nanocharacteristics and viability of the immobilized cells [23]. Despite this, some techniques, such as the use of photocatalytically active silicon, also offer a high level of cell orientation and organized immobilization not offered by conventional mechanical techniques, which, depending on application may be favorable over the associated reduction in viability [24]. Other recent advances also indicate that the addition of divalent cations, such as Mg2+ and Ca2+, and glucose may provide optimal attachment without the associated reduction in viability. In one such study, Lonergan et al. [25] reported that Escherichia coli cells immobilized on poly‐l‐lysine in 0.01× PBS‐S, with a rehabilitation period in minimal media were sufficiently immobilized to perform AFM analysis while maintaining membrane integrity.
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3.2. Cell topography
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Analysis of the topography of single cells has proven to be a powerful addition in the real‐time visualization of cellular surface structures. However, the structural landscape of metabolically active cells exists in a constant state of flux; thus, the ability to image surface morphologies under physiological conditions is vital for characterization. Previous studies have utilized AFM to image a number of key microbial features. In 2010, negative mutants of cell wall polysaccharide (WPS-) of Lactococcus lactis were shown by AFM imaging to exhibit a 25 nm corded like structure perpendicular to the long axis of the cell; further mutagenesis studies confirmed that these structures were not due to hydrolysis, and AFM chemical spectroscopy (imaging with a functionalized tip) using LysM confirmed that the bands consisted of peptidoglycan [26]. In a more recent study, an in‐depth analysis of Streptococcus agalactiae (Group B Streptococci) peptidoglycan confirmed the presence of approximately 25 nm corded structure running perpendicular to the long axis of the cell [27]. However, during this study the bands were found to periodically interlink to form a net‐like structure. Imaging of other Group B Streptococci showed that this net‐like structure, while exhibiting some variation in pore dimensions, remained constant. The group then imaged a number of cell wall deficient mutants in an attempt to identify structural abnormalities associated with other surface macromolecules; however, no significant alterations in the peptidoglycan net to suggest macromolecular anchoring were observed. Significant alterations in the solute concentration were found to alter the net‐like structure with the group observing a near doubling (∼25 to ∼47 nm) of the peptidoglycan bands, suggesting that the net‐like structure may influence adaptation of the cell to changes in turgor pressure. Similarly, the growth phase of the organism was found to have a significant effect on peptidoglycan structure; topographical images of a high proportion of Group B Streptococci grown to stationary were shown to exhibit a tendency to express a rough peptidoglycan layer as opposed to the previously described net‐like structure. Upon further investigation, this roughness was shown to consist of highly ordered strands aligned in parallel with the divisional plane having a periodicity of approximately 4.5 nm; the group suggests that these may in fact be glycan strands; however, the structure and density of the strands prevented the researchers from coming to a clear conclusion.
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As outlined above, in vitro AFM has been used to map the topography on cellular structures at a number of cell life stages, as in the work of Abscali et al. [28] who examined changes in the macromolecular structure of the cell wall of Streptomyces coelicolor during its life cycle from vegetative hyphae to spores. Yet, such studies merely offer a snapshot of cellular processes. Thus, several studies have aimed to image the dynamics of cellular processes. Germination of Bacillus atrophaeus has been successfully imaged; post exposure to a germination solution, the rodlets comprising the spore coat were shown to disassemble and form 2–3 nm etched pits [29]. The pits were subsequently shown to mature into highly orientated fissures perpendicular to the rodlet orientation, beneath which a highly ordered hexagonal structure was observed. The study continued to image the germinating spore through to the emergence of the germling cell, and the spore fissures were observed to form apertures of approximately 70 nm that dilated with germination. In vitro analysis of the germling confirmed the presence of vegetative cell wall structures prior to emergence, which were similar to those of mature vegetative cells.
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3.3. Microbial cellular surface layers
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Microbial membranes consist of a number of surface layers, the outermost of which, the S‐layer, consists of a monomolecular layer composed of self‐assembling single proteins, or glycoprotein monomers exhibiting oblique, square, or hexagonal symmetry. Due to its self‐assembling nature and its role in many innate immunities associated with microbes, S‐layers have become the focus of many AFM studies. Initial studies into S‐layers successfully imaged PS2 monomers of Corynebacterium glutamicum and in the process highlighted the presence of a bilayer of hexagonally arranged monomers and a nanogrooved substrate; further work suggests that this substrate may be involved in the creation of the monolayer [30, 31].
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In a recent study, the nanomechanical and structural properties of Propionibacterium freudenreichii surface layer protein A (SlpA) was characterized [32]. SlpA was found to consist of a hexagonal p1 monomer with a high level of disorder; upon heating to 45°C, SlpA was found to maintain structural integrity post recrystallization. However, a marked reduction in the elasticity of the SlpA layer from 4.2 ± 0.9 MPa at 25°C to 1.8 ± 0.3 and 0.9 ± 0.1 MPa for 35 and 45°C, respectively, demonstrate that while topographically comparable, the nanomechnical properties of SlpA had altered. Additional work conducted by the group showed the SlpA exhibited the same, albeit less pronounced, behavior in response to alteration in pH. The topographical characteristics of SlpA were maintained to pH 3; however, a corresponding reduction in the elastic properties was observed: 5.7 ± 1.4 MPa and 5.5 ± 1.6 MPa at pH 6.7 and 5, respectively, followed by a reduction to 2.2 ± 0.3 MPa at pH 3. The group attributes this reduction in the elastic properties to be a result of a number of physiochemical interactions such as the reduction in pH below that of the theoretical pI of SlpA and protonation of the disordered regions.
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3.4. High‐speed AFM
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While spatial resolution using AFM has remained high, the lack of high temporal resolution has limited the application of topographical studies of microbial systems. Optimal scan speed varies; however, the minimum is restricted to the order of approximately 30 s for an AFM image. This level of temporal resolution is sufficient for the imaging of relatively low fluctuating structures and processes, such as S‐layers and cell division. The high‐resolution imaging of surface macromolecules has remained elusive due to the limited speed of standard AFM imaging. However, the recent development of high‐speed AFM (HS‐AFM) has enabled the resolution of such structures primarily due to HS‐AFMs to show exceptional temporal resolution (>100 ms) and significantly reduced scanning forces [33–35].
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In one such series of studies, the dynamics of conformational changes of bacteriorhodopsin (bR) was successfully imaged in response to electrochemical radiation stimulation [33, 36, 37]. During initial studies, the group observed conformational changes in the form of a 0.69 ± 0.15 nm displacement of the center mass of the trimer structure when exposed to green light. Furthermore, the group was able to ascertain that these changes in the center mass were actually the result of the displacement of trimer monomers into close proximity with monomers of neighboring trimers via displacement of the E–F loop. Through combination of selective mutagenesis and HS‐AFM, Yamashita et al. [33] were able to characterize the monomer association of bR trimers. During the study, five bR mutants were created: W10I, Y131I, W12I, F135I, and W12F, and HS‐AFM used to image the structure of each trimer within the membrane. The study showed that W12I and F135I mutants were unable to form membrane‐stable trimers, with only a small number of trimers assembling and quickly dissipating. Conversely, W10I, Y131I, and W12F were able to form a stable trimer structure, suggesting the presence of an aromatic residue at positions 12 and 135, which is essential to the formation of a stable trimer.
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Further HS‐AFM studies have been able to track the motion of membrane‐bound macromolecules through three‐dimensional space. In one such study, the rotational and translational membrane dynamics of outer‐membrane protein F (OmpF) were imaged to an optical resolution of approximately 750 Å [38].
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While initial studies using HS‐AFM revolved around its ability to resolve surface macromolecules, some focus has shifted to topographical analysis. In the first such study, the surface of Magnetospirillum magneticum was found in contradiction to initial models to consist of a very highly ordered series of nanometer‐sized pores consistent with that of porin molecules [34]. Further work set out to ascertain if this was in fact a characteristic of all Proteobacteria, wherein Oestreicher et al. [39] imaged the surfaces of the E. coli and Rhodobacter sphaeroides. This was shown to be the case, and nanometer‐sized pores of 8 and 6.6 nm were observed for E. coli and R. sphaeroides, respectively. Oestreicher et al. [39] concluded that due to the similarities in distribution and size when compared to M. magneticum (7 nm), and with the crystal structure size estimation of the outer membrane proteins of E. coli (OmpF and OmpC)––7.5 and 7.38 nm, respectively––that they must also be porins.
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4. Force spectroscopy
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AFM force measurement has been used extensively to study biological systems. In the past, AFM was limited to physics laboratories, and microbiologists focused on the benefits of AFM to imaging of single bacteria; bacterial studies were restricted to model surfaces, and the heterogeneity inherent to natural systems compromised quantification and discouraged the use of AFM force measurement. However, AFM technology has been disseminated to microbial laboratories that have the advantage of prior knowledge to guide AFM research strategies. In addition, the advent of improved data capture rates has permitted statistically viable AFM measurements to quantitatively characterize biological systems including biofilms. Modern AFM studies of biofilm orchestrate AFM imaging of microbial surfaces with force spectroscopy to unravel structure function relationships. The force‐curves measured at surfaces have a number of components which can be used to characterize the mechanical and interaction properties of biofilms that are now discussed.
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4.1. Microbial surface proteins
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Surface macromolecules play an essential role in a number of physiological processes essential to the success of microbes including adhesion and existence within a biofilm; the activity of these molecules has been shown to be dependent on a number of environmental conditions [40–45]. Consequently, research into the nanomechanical and physiological properties of surface macromolecules has expanded over the last decade with the fundamentals of AFM tip‐molecule binding forces in vitro having become well documented [46–48].
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Several models have been described to interpret the nanomechanical properties of long‐chain surface macromolecules. Typically, these models revolve around the use of the Worm‐Like Chain (WLC) and Freely Jointed Chain (FJC) models, as these allow for the description of force‐curve profiles and the definition of tether and binding partner interaction entropy, thus leading to contour length (L0) definition [49, 50]. Defining L0 offers a number of advantages, such as the filtering of noise and predictions in the unfolding pathways of uncharacterized protein complexes [51, 52]. If the structure is unknown, L0 allows collaboration of experimentally derived data to a theoretical value defined from the estimation of the sum of individual components fitted to a normal (Gaussian) distribution, therefore acting as a confirmation that the interaction is the one of interest, while offering a level of insight into the unbinding pathway. Studies conducted by Farrance et al. [53] expanded on traditional models, whereby a physical basis for the prediction of L0 was described. The model, through the use of theoretically idealized tethering surfaces and the probability of two such chains meeting, is able to predict the distributions expected from experimentally derived data with a high level of agreement to existing studies.
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4.2. Functional proteins at microbial surfaces
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Microbial adhesion to biotic and abiotic surfaces is reliant on a number of macromolecular interaction including binding of small microbial peptides (SMPs), capsules, recognition proteins, fimbriae, and flagella. Single‐molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS) has been used to characterize a number of microbial surface‐bound receptors including antibiotic receptor ligand sites, fimbriae, flagella, and adhesins [54–56]. In an interesting example of the use of SMFS, the holdfast proteins of Caulobacter crescentus were characterized for adhesion to surfaces of varying polarities [57]. Holdfasts were allowed to adhere to each surface for an extended period of time greater than 16 h and imaged via AFM to determine the height and diameter; it was found that the holdfast height varied independently of the surface polarity; from 5 to 100 nm, however, the average height varied between 30.6 ± 2.4 nm and 21.5 ± 0.9 nm for mica and graphite, respectively. Holdfast foot diameter was also found to vary on both surfaces: 90.2 ± 2.7 nm for mica and 119.2 ± 4.1 nm for graphite; however, both showed large distributions in the data––30–280 nm and 45–450 nm, respectively. The group then proceeded to access the binding strength on holdfast‐coated cantilevers to mica, graphite, clean glass, and 3‐TMSM‐treated glass, and the maximum adhesion force was measured––0.05, 0.08, 0.13, and 0.66 nm, respectively. Adhesion was concluded to be primarily a result of residence time and surface polarity.
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4.3. Microbial mechanical properties
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One of the distinct features of AFM over other SPMs is its ability to quantifiably resolve physiochemical properties of materials at the nanoscale. To date, AFM has been used to resolve the nanomechanical behaviours of a bacteria in a number of ways, from single‐cell indentation studies to the characterization of molecular appendages such as pili and flagellum [58]. A number of techniques can be employed dependent on the type of nanomechanical measurement that is required, with most alterations involving functionalization of the cantilever. All nanomechanical studies revolve around the use of the force‐curve analysis as detailed earlier in this review.
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5. Adhesion studies
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Biofilm adhesion qualities have been measured through AFM in a number of ways. EPS has been confirmed as a major mechanism controlling biofilm adhesion [59–62]. As a result, a number of studies have been undertaken to assess the effect of growth conditions, chemical treatments, and novel antimicrobials on the production of EPS and the reduction in adhesion. Oh et al. [61] used AFM force spectroscopy to study the influence of nutrient concentrations on E. coli biofilm maturation. The adhesion of an AFM tip at the surface of the biofilm increased as biofilms matured, indicating a release and accumulation of extracellular polymeric substances over the cell surface after primary colonization. Nunez et al. [63] used AFM imaging and force measurement to study the action of Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus on E. coli biofilms. AFM characterized the change in E. coli cells, as they were attacked by the predatory bacterium with cells changing from rod‐shaped to a round shape, with a shrunken texture and the visible coil of B. bacteriovorus growing inside. Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus was shown to prevent biofilm formation and destroy established biofilms. This work was extended by Volle et al. [64] who used force spectroscopy to observe that the spring constant of predated E. coli cells was three times softer than that of normal cells and that there was change in cell wall morphology on predation, as there was much larger adhesion forces between an AFM tip and predated cells. This important work demonstrates that dynamic events in living unfixed cells can be characterized and investigated using AFM. Rodriguez et al. [65] used AFM force measurements to study the formation of Listeria monocytogenes biofilms at stainless steel surfaces. They found that the adhesiveness of biofilms was not influenced by contact time, loading force, or relative humidity, but surface chemistry is important; force measurements using SiO2 and polyethylene colloid probes showed that L. monocytogenes cells within a biofilm adhered more strongly to hydrophobic surfaces. The mechanical properties of the surface that biofilms form at are important determinants on the properties of the biofilm.
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Oh et al. [66] studied the formation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms at a range of surfaces including steel, rubber, and polypropylene. Biofilms were treated with hot water, and all surfaces with and without biofilms were characterized using AFM. Force spectroscopy revealed that adhesion was greatest at the untreated biofilm surfaces and that the reduction of adhesion after hot water treatment indicated the removal of extracellular matrix from the biofilm.
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6. Indentation studies
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AFM has been implemented to analyze several mechanical properties of microbial cells, such as elasticity and hardness [56, 67, 68]. Typically, this is done using the Hertz model, wherein the indentation of a material by a nonadherent probe can be used to calculate the elastic modulus of the substrate. Volle et al. [69] measured cell spring constants and AFM tip adhesion on cells within the biofilms of E. coli, Pseudomonas putida, Bacillus subtilis, and Micrococcus luteus. Gram‐positive bacteria were observed to have largest spring constants with all cells having values in the range 0.16 ± 0.01 to 0.41 ± 0.01 N/m. These workers also demonstrated that the mechanical properties of chemically fixed cells are significantly different. Fang et al. [60] also used AFM force spectroscopy to quantify tip‐cell adhesion and surface elasticity of sulfate‐reducing bacteria (SRB) biofilms. To achieve this, they used a force volume technique to map forces across the biofilm surface. Greater adhesion was measured at the cell–cell and cell–substratum interfaces; this was compared to a smaller and constant force at the bacterial cell surfaces and argued to be due to the accumulation of EPS at the interfaces. Another interesting study conducted by Longo et al. [70] demonstrated that AFM can be used to characterize the variations in nanomechanical properties across a single cell membrane. In the study, nanoindentation was performed across the surface of an immobilized E. coli cell, and it was found that there was a variation in the Young\'s modulus of the cell membrane. Upon further analysis, this heterogeneity was attributed to the presence of submembranous structures, hinting at the possibility that AFM may be capable of resolving the organization of such structures.
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As confidence in the technique grew, focus of nanoindentation studies shifted from single cells to biofilms. However, use of the classic Hertz model to interpret the viscoelastic properties of biofilms, until recently, remained problematic [71, 72]. In a recent example of one such study, the elastic moduli of P. aeruginosa was found to be heterogeneous in nature, varying between approximately 40 and 45 kPa [73]. SEM and AFM topographical studies of the same sample showed variations in packing density of the cells throughout the biofilm, offering possible insight into the cause of the variation in mechanical properties. However, these variations may also be the result of underlying physiological structures such as nutrient channels. Finite element analysis performed by the group showed that the variation may be a result of the combined effect of the EPS and cell orientation.
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There have been further studies into the nanomechanical properties of biofilms that have focused on the effect of growth conditions and novel antimicrobials on the nanostructure of biofilms. One such study showed that increasing concentrations of CaCl2 resulted in not only an increase in EPS production but also alterations in EPS structure of Pseudomonas fluoroscenes biofilms [74]. Consequently, a reduction in stiffness and increase in both viscosity and adhesive forces were observed. In another study, AFM was used to assess the changes in the nanomechanical properties of P. aeruginosa and Acinetobacter baumannii biofilms after treatment with OligoG. During the study, OligoG was found to significantly lower Young\'s moduli and increase the surface roughness (Ra) when compared to untreated biofilms [75]. However, this study highlights one of the main challenges facing the characterization of biofilms via AFM: continuity of sample preparation. In the aforementioned study, the biofilms were dried prior to analysis, while others made use of hydrated samples. While both techniques remain valid, interstudy comparisons will remain difficult until a level of interstudy continuity is achieved.
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7. Single‐cell force spectroscopy
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Single‐cell force spectroscopy (SCFS) has become an essential tool in unravelling the forces involved in intermicrobial, host–microbe, and substrate–microbe binding. This is of particular importance in the field of biofilm formation as the forces governing such interactions are pertinent in the initiation of a biofilm. The research was pioneered by Bowen et al. [76] who first constructed a cell probe to measure the adhesion of S. cerevisiae cells at surfaces (Figure 6). The author then moved this on to look at the adhesion of fungal and bacterial spores [77, 78]. Protocols for the construction of cell probes have varied in the method of cantilevers functionalization: electrostatic compounds; poly(ethyleneimine) (PEI), poly‐l‐lysine, or hydrophobic substances, and the use of glue, chemical fixation, and bio‐inspired wet adhesives have all been used, and in the type of probe that was created: single versus multicellular [3, 79–85]. While all methods succeeded in the creation of a cellular functionalized tip and the acquisition of adhesive force‐curve data, the results and validity of the techniques varied.
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Figure 6.
Scanning electron images of AFM probes used in single cell force spectroscopy (SCFS). (a) Saccharomyces cerevisiae and (b) Aspergillus niger.
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Recently, a method for the direct immobilization of single microbial cells was developed [86]. A colloidal probe was attached to the tip of a cantilever and coated in polydopamine, and a single microbial cell was then attached to the colloid particle. Fluorescence microscopy validated the viability and orientation of the microbial cell, and force‐curve analysis was performed across a number of surfaces and a number of probes to ensure reproducibility of results. The technique was shown to offer a high level of cell orientation; thus, a high level of control of the surface area, ensuring reproducibility of results and enabling statistical analysis of force curves. The group went on to create cellular probes functionalized with Lactococcus plantarum, C. albicans, and Staphylococcus epidermidis to prove the versatility of the technique [84].
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Studies using SCFS have characterized a number of microbial binding structures, such as bacterial pili, to show how these structures influence microbial adhesion. During one such study, the nanomechanical binding of P. aeruginosa type IV pili to a hydrophobic substrate was examined. During the study, type IV pili were shown to have the same constant force plateaus associated with a nanospring‐like mechanism; this may be explained by the fracturing of internal amino acid bonds and the unravelling of the three‐dimensional structure to resist the increase in mechanical force. This model is consistent with the previous interpretations of Gram‐negative pili structure [87–89]. In a similar study, strains of Lactococcus lactis were immobilized onto polyethyleneimine (PEI)‐coated cantilever, and adhesion to a pig gastric mucin‐coated substrate was characterized [90]. In the study, long‐range adhesion was found to be predominantly the result of pili‐mediated binding, while surface adhesion was primarily mediated by mucus‐binding adhesins.
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The implementation of SCFS has not been limited to the characterization of microbial binding to surfaces. While uncommon, the use of SCFS to characterize microbial aggregation and the formation of heterogeneous biofilms has grown as a field in recent years. One such interaction to be studied is the common co‐colonization of S. epidermidis and C. albicans; a recent study attempting to characterize such an interaction showed that despite the complex nature, SCFM is able to offer a window of insight into the adhesion forces at work [91]. During the study, the group was able to establish that S. epidermidis adhesion was strongly influenced by the life stage of C. albicans and primarily mediated by the binding of long‐range macromolecules.
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SCFS techniques have been used to study the mechanisms of biofilm control agents. Chaw et al. [92] measured the adhesion between S. epidermidis‐coated AFM tips and a substrate before and after addition of silver ions (50 ppb) to the liquid medium. For both S. epidermis strains studied, the adhesion decreased and was argued to demonstrate how the biofilm matrix is destabilized in the presence of silver ions.
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8. Conclusion
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AFM has provided researchers with the tools necessary to unravel the intimate, complex, and traditionally illusive processes governing the formation and resilience of biofilms. AFM has provided the platform necessary for the application of classical engineering techniques, such as indentation analysis in the exploration of microbial nanomechanics with unprecedented resolution. Nanoindentation studies have elucidated the heterogeneity of the microbial membrane landscape. Studies utilizing nanoindentation have provided evidence of the variation in Young\'s moduli of both single cells and biofilms, while also hinting at the possible application of the technique in the visualization of the assembly of submembranous structures. AFM studies have also demonstrated the importance of such measurements in the evaluation of novel antimicrobial and other therapeutics.
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Through the use of functionalized cantilevers, SMFS has revolutionized our understanding of microbial cell surface topography and nanomechanical properties. Tips functionalized with ligands or with alterations in hydrophobicity have been used to not only map the receptor landscape at the macroscale, but also to visualize the structure of individual membrane‐bound protein complexes. AFM quantification of the nanoscale forces of adhesion has offered unparalleled insight into the forces governing microbial adhesion, a crucial event in biofilm formation, and how these individual forces may be manipulated to promote dissolution. The formation of cellular probes has been a mainstay of microbial‐based AFM, and this continues with the recent development of protocols for the immobilization of a singular, highly orientated bacterial cells.
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In conclusion, microbiology and the study of biofilms is no longer a microscience. The elucidation of microbial behavior at the nanoscale has now become an essential avenue of research in the understanding of the complex interplay of the microbial world, and AFM has proved itself to be an essential tool in this endeavor. The increase in sensitivity and analytical power, as well as ingenuity shown by researchers in the creation of more imaginative probes will ensure that unique insights into biofilms through AFM will continue.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"atomic force microscopy, imaging, force measurement, nanomechanical properties, adhesion",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/50739.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/50739.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50739",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50739",totalDownloads:2954,totalViews:910,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:3,impactScorePercentile:88,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 22nd 2015",dateReviewed:"March 24th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"July 13th 2016",dateFinished:"May 14th 2016",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Atomic force microscopy (AFM) has proven itself to be a powerful and diverse tool for the study of microbial systems on both single and multicellular scales including complex biofilms. This chapter will review how AFM and its derivatives have been used to unravel the nanoscale forces governing the structure and behavior of biofilms, thus providing unique insight into the control of microbial populations within clinical and industrial environments. Diversification of AFM‐based technologies has allowed for the creation of a truly multiparametric platform, enabling the interrogation of all aspects of microbial systems. Advances in traditional AFM operation have allowed, for the first time, insight into the topographical landscape of both microbial cells and spores, which, when combined with high‐speed AFM's ability to resolve the structure of surface macromolecules, have provided, with unparalleled detail, visualization of this complex environmental interface. The application of AFM force spectroscopies has enabled the analysis of many microbial nanomechanical properties including macromolecule folding pathways, receptor ligand binding events, microbial adhesion forces, biofilm mechanical properties, and antimicrobial/antibiofilm affectivities. Thus, AFM has offered an outstanding glimpse into the biofilm, how its inhabitants create and use this complex adaptive interface, and perhaps most importantly what can be done to control this.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/50739",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/50739",book:{id:"5197",slug:"microbial-biofilms-importance-and-applications"},signatures:"Sean A. James, Lydia C. Powell and Chris J. Wright",authors:[{id:"180027",title:"Dr.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Wright",fullName:"Chris Wright",slug:"chris-wright",email:"c.wright@swansea.ac.uk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Swansea University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"185689",title:"Dr.",name:"Lydia",middleName:null,surname:"Powell",fullName:"Lydia Powell",slug:"lydia-powell",email:"lydiacharlottepowell@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"185690",title:"Mr.",name:"Sean",middleName:null,surname:"James",fullName:"Sean James",slug:"sean-james",email:"833624@swansea.ac.uk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. AFM basic principles",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Imaging",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Cell immobilization for single‐cell analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2. Cell topography",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3. Microbial cellular surface layers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4. High‐speed AFM",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Force spectroscopy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.1. Microbial surface proteins",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.2. Functional proteins at microbial surfaces",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.3. Microbial mechanical properties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"5. Adhesion studies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"6. Indentation studies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"7. Single‐cell force spectroscopy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"8. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Binnig C, Quate CF, Gerber C. Atomic force microscope. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1986; 56: 930–933.\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Bowen WR, Lovitt RW, Wright CJ. 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Quantitative changes in the elasticity and adhesive properties of Escherichia coli ZK1056 prey cells during predation by Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus 109J. Langmuir 2008; 24: 8102–8110.\n'},{id:"B65",body:'Rodriguez A, Autio WR, Mc Landsborough LA. Effects of contact time, pressure, percent relative humidity (%RH), and material type on Listeria biofilm adhesive strength at a cellular level using atomic force microscopy (AFM). Food Biophys. 2008; 3: 305–311.\n'},{id:"B66",body:'Oh YJ, Lee NR, Jo W, Jung WK, Lim JS. Effects of substrates on biofilm formation observed by atomic force microscopy. Ultramicroscopy 2009; 109: 874–880.\n'},{id:"B67",body:'Chen Y, Norde W, Van der Mei HC, Busscher HJ. Bacterial cell surface deformation under external loading. MBio 2012; 3: 1–8.\n'},{id:"B68",body:'Francius G, Lebeer S, Alsteens D, Wildling L, Gruber HJ, Hols P, De Keersmaecker S, Vanderleyden J, Dufrêne YF. Detection, localization, and conformational analysis of single polysaccharide molecules on live bacteria. ACS Nano 2008; 2: 1921–1929.\n'},{id:"B69",body:'Volle CB, Ferguson MA, Aidala KE, Spain EM, Nunez ME. Spring constants and adhesive properties of native bacterial biofilm cells measured by atomic force microscopy. Colloids Surf. B 2008; 67: 32–40.\n'},{id:"B70",body:'Longo G, Rio LM, Roduit C, Trampuz A, Bizzini A, Dietler G, Kasas S. Force volume and stiffness tomography investigation on the dynamics of stiff material under bacterial membranes. J. Mol. Recognit. 2012; 25: 278–284.\n'},{id:"B71",body:'adotić K, Roduit C, Simonović J, Hornitschek P, Fankhauser C, Mutavdžić D, Steinbach G, Dietler G, Kasas S. Atomic force microscopy stiffness tomography on living Arabidopsis thaliana cells reveals the mechanical properties of surface and deep cell‐wall layers during growth. Biophys. J. 2012; 103: 386–394.\n'},{id:"B72",body:'Kasas S, Longo G, Dietler G. Mechanical properties of biological specimens explored by atomic force microscopy. J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 2013; 46: 133001.\n'},{id:"B73",body:'Baniasadi M, Xu Z, Gandee L, Du Y, Lu H, Zimmern P, Minary‐Jolandan M. Nanoindentation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacterial biofilm using atomic force microscopy. Mater. Res. Express. 2014; 1: 4.\n'},{id:"B74",body:'Safari A, Habimana O, Allen A, Casey E. The significance of calcium ions on Pseudomonas fluorescens biofilms – a structural and mechanical study. Biofouling 2014; 30: 859–869.\n'},{id:"B75",body:'Powell LC, Sowedan A, Khan S, Wright CJ, Hawkins K, Onsøyen E, Myrvold R, Hill KE, Thomas DW. The effect of alginate oligosaccharides on the mechanical properties of Gram‐negative biofilms. Biofouling 2013; 29: 413–421.\n'},{id:"B76",body:'Bowen WR, Hilal N, Lovitt RW, Wright CJ. Direct measurement of the force of adhesion of a single cell using an atomic force microscope. Colloids Surf. A 1998; 136: 231–234.\n'},{id:"B77",body:'Bowen WR, Lovitt RW, Wright CJ. Direct quantification of Aspergillus niger spore adhesion in liquid using an atomic force microscope. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2000; 228: 428–433.\n'},{id:"B78",body:'Bowen WR, Lovitt RW, Wright CJ. The measurement of Bacillus mycoides spore adhesion using atomic force microscopy, simple counting methods and a spinning disc technique. Biotech. Bioeng. 2002; 79: 170–179.\n'},{id:"B79",body:'Le DTL, Guérardel Y, Loubière P, Mercier‐Bonin M, Dague E. Measuring kinetic dissociation/association constants between Lactococcus lactis bacteria and mucins using living cell probes. Biophys. J. 2011; 101: 2843–2853.\n'},{id:"B80",body:'Ovchinnikova ES, Krom BP, van der Mei HC, Busscher HJ. Force microscopic and thermodynamic analysis of the adhesion between Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Candida albicans. Soft Matter 2012; 8: 24.\n'},{id:"B81",body:'Emerson IV RJ, Bergstrom TS, Liu Y, Soto ER, Brown CA, McGimpsey WG, Camesano TA. Microscale correlation between surface chemistry, texture, and the adhesive strength of Staphylococcus epidermidis. Langmuir 2006; 22: 11311–11321.\n'},{id:"B82",body:'Razatos A, Ong YL, Sharma MM, Georgiou G. Molecular determinants of bacterial adhesion monitored by atomic force microscopy. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1998; 95: 11059–11064.\n'},{id:"B83",body:'Kang S, Elimelech M. Bioinspired single bacterial cell force spectroscopy. Langmuir 2009; 25: 9656–9659.\n'},{id:"B84",body:'Beaussart A, El‐Kirat‐Chatel S, Herman P, Alsteens D, Mahillon J, Hols P, Dufrêne YF. Single‐cell force spectroscopy of probiotic bacteria. Biophys. J. 2013; 104: 1886–1892.\n'},{id:"B85",body:'Diao M, Taran E, Mahler S, Nguyen TAH, Nguyen AV. Quantifying adhesion of acidophilic bioleaching bacteria to silica and pyrite by atomic force microscopy with a bacterial probe. Colloids Surf. B 2014; 115: 229–236.\n'},{id:"B86",body:'Beaussart A, El‐Kirat‐Chatel S. Quantifying the forces guiding microbial cell adhesion using single‐cell force spectroscopy. Nat. Protoc. 2014; 9: 1049–1055.\n'},{id:"B87",body:'Miller E, Garcia T, Hultgren S, Oberhauser AF. The mechanical properties of E. coli type 1 pili measured by atomic force microscopy techniques. Biophys. J. 2006; 91: 3848–3856.\n'},{id:"B88",body:'Biais N, Higashi DL, Brujic J, So M, Sheetz MP. Force‐dependent polymorphism in type IV pili reveals hidden epitopes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 2010; 107: 11358–11363.\n'},{id:"B89",body:'Lugmaier RA, Schedin S, Kühner F, Benoit M. Dynamic restacking of Escherichia coli P‐pili. Eur. Biophys. J. 2008; 37: 111–120.\n'},{id:"B90",body:'Le DTL, Tran TL, Duviau MP, Meyrand M, Guérardel Y, Castelain M, Loubière P, Chapot‐Chartier MP, Dague E, Mercier‐Bonin M. Unraveling the role of surface mucus‐binding protein and pili in muco‐adhesion of Lactococcus lactis. PLoS One 2013; 8: 11.\n'},{id:"B91",body:'Beaussart A, Herman P, El‐Kirat‐Chatel S, Lipke PN, Kucharíková S, Van Dijck P, Dufrêne YF. Single‐cell force spectroscopy of the medically important Staphylococcus epidermidis‐Candida albicans interaction. Nanoscale 2013; 5: 10894–10900.\n'},{id:"B92",body:'Chaw KC, Manimaran M, Tay FEH. Role of silver ions in destabilization of intermolecular adhesion forces measured by atomic force microscopy in Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilms. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2005; 49: 4853–4859.\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Sean A. James",address:null,affiliation:'
Biomaterials, Biofouling and Biofilms Engineering Laboratory (B3EL) Systems and Process Engineering Centre, College of Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Lydia C. Powell",address:null,affiliation:'
Biomaterials, Biofouling and Biofilms Engineering Laboratory (B3EL) Systems and Process Engineering Centre, College of Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Chris J. Wright",address:"c.wright@swansea.ac.uk",affiliation:'
Biomaterials, Biofouling and Biofilms Engineering Laboratory (B3EL) Systems and Process Engineering Centre, College of Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
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1. Introduction
The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [1, 2]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [2, 3]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [2, 3, 4], sedimentation or flotation [5, 6] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [7]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [8, 9]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [10, 11, 12]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [11] has raised concerns associated with sludge generation and heavy metal residuals which are potentially toxic to the ecosystem [10, 11, 12]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’s standards for regulating the quality of effluent plants [8].
In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Figure 1), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [14, 15]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [5, 6]. However, most of the industrial wastewaters from the oil refinery, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [10, 15, 16]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [14, 17, 18]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [11, 17]. Also, the problem related to disposal of huge sludge and metals in the effluents, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [4, 13, 19], requires a technique to recover the valuable or toxic metals from the sludge [20, 21]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [20, 21, 22].
Figure 1.
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
2. Chemical purification process
Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [23]. Figure 2 shows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [24]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [24, 25, 26]. The flocculation facilitates the agglomeration of the coagulated particles to form larger flocs, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [24]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants. Their low charge density makes not to reverse the surface charge and hence they are less prone to induce destabilization.
Figure 2.
Physicochemical treatment process [24].
Also, agglomeration of particles to form large and stable flocs involve mixing of the coagulants with the wastewaters usually monitored via Jar test. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [11, 17, 27]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [28, 29]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown in Table 1.
Coagulant characteristics
MOW characteristics
Physical characteristics
Coagulant type
Water quality
Flotation/settling time
Coagulant dosage
Suspended solids
Mixing intensity
Coagulant quality
Temperature
Coagulant dosage end point
Coagulant lifespan
pH
Chemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilution
Alkalinity
Ionic constituents
Table 1.
Factors that affect the chemical purification process [17].
2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes
2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation
Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [12, 14]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3) adsorption and charge neutralization; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [13, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24]. This involves the reaction between the colloids and the added coagulant to destabilize and neutralize the electric charges in the particles, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.
For instance (Figure 3), the addition of the coagulant is accountable for the creation of small scattered particles which come together into larger and more stable particle flocs. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [1, 2]. Furthermore, the coagulation step depends on conditions of time and agitation whereby the particles coalesced to form larger flocs could be eliminated by sedimentation.
Figure 3.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].
2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation
Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [30]. In a typical flotation process (Figure 4), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water, which then allows the flocs to float to the surface. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [31, 32].
Figure 4.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [33]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [34], such that the chemical reaction between the coagulants and the organic matter results in forming larger oil flocs, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [35, 36]. This allows the coagulated flocs to float on the surface as sludge, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
There are several operating factors that have an impact on the parallel and sequential reactions that occur when a coagulant is added to the wastewater. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation, there are a series of transportation mechanisms which occurs including Brownian diffusion and fluid motion. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.
2.2.1 Effects of polymer molecular weight and charge density
Polymer molecular weight (MW) and charge density (CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [37, 38], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation. Although anionic charge on the polymer can obstruct adsorption onto an undesirable surface, it promotes the polymer chain via mutual charge repulsion between polymer molecules [39]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (both those that are charged, irrespective of pH and those that can become charged under certain pH conditions) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown in (1)–(3) as a function of the amount of ionic charge (qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [38, 40]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions
The degree of coagulation completion for effective treatment can be related to coagulant dosage and mixing conditions. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown in Figure 5. The rapid or fast mixing occurs after the addition of the coagulants, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [24, 25, 29]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.
Figure 5.
Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.
Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation. Slow mixing provides a velocity gradient for particles with similar size that can be larger than 1 μm. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [33, 36, 38]. In practice (Figure 5), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [24, 27]. In flotation principle, a lower dosage of the polymer can be used because the agitation creates a well-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [33, 41].
2.2.4 Effects of pH
The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [36, 41]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [24, 38]. With an increase in pH, these species become charged resulting in a change in mechanism. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.
2.2.5 Coagulant type and dosage
There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [4, 41]. Coagulant dosage is an energetic factor in finding how the metal ions react with the organic matter in wastewater to enhance its clarity.
Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [15, 17]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [17, 18, 24]. Thus, the dosage needs to be stepped up in other to compensate for the loss of the polymer.
2.2.6 Ionic strength
The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [24, 38, 40]. In contrast, like-charges of a polymer chain tend to expand when there is a mutual repulsion. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also, an increase in ionic strength shields the charged site of the polymer which then affects its hydrodynamic volume expansion by decreasing the viscosity of the solution [39, 40]. This causes a double layer compression to be formed around the floc surface area where there might be oppositely charged ions.
3. Coagulants
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [42]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However, each type of coagulant has its own unique properties with positive ions which will entrap the negative charge of the organic matter in the water that causes turbidity.
3.1 Inorganic coagulants
Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings. These include based aluminum metals (aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate) and iron based metals (ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [13, 17, 18]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+ and Fe (H2O)63+ for aluminum and iron respectively [26, 37, 39, 43]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH− ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+ and Fe (OH)2 which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [26, 29].
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [17, 18]. These include high dosage dependence, a high requirement on pH, weakness to temperature disparity and high sludge generation. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented in Table 2. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [25, 33]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2 (SO4)3·18H2O
Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used; produces less sludge than lime; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
Effective in hard waters; small dosage usually needed
Often used with alum; high cost; ineffective in soft waters
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
pH-dependent; produces large quantities of sludge; overdose can result in poor effluent quality
Table 2.
Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [18, 33, 41].
3.2 Organic coagulants
Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [15, 17]. Table 3 shows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [15]. There are various types of organic coagulants, which have different covalent charges and bonds of their polymeric molecules. These include the charge or ionic polymers (polyelectrolytes) and no charge or non-ionic polymers [15, 25]. In respect to the charge polymers, those with a positive charge are termed as cationic polymers, whereas those with negative charges are called anionic polymers.
Name
Formula
Typical properties
Uses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH) Al2(OH)5Cl
PAC 23
* 23–24% Al2O3 or 40–41% w/w ACH
Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity. Has little impact on pH
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC
* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23
* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl) Al2(OH)3Cl3
PAC-10 LB
* 10–11% Al2O3 or 20–23% w/w PACl
Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity. Has greater impact on pH than ACH
Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [16, 24].
4. General characteristics of coagulants
There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [15, 17]. These include (1) they have a very high charge density to neutralize the negative charges present on the surface of the colloidal material, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW) which allows good diffusion of the cationic charges around the particles. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103 centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103 centipoises [14, 15, 24]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105 and 106 and more than 106 respectively [14, 15, 17].
4.1 Methods of polymerization
Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [15, 24].
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions: The monomers are emulsified in a solvent before being polymerized. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions, making it effortlessness to use.
Dispersions: In this case, the monomers are usually dispersed in brine before being polymerized. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process, making it a cost-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater. Figure 6 shows the dissociation of the ionic charge of the polymer when introduced into a receiving medium (emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants
Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [14, 15, 17]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch, Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [11, 14, 44].
Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [11, 18]. For instance, Figure 7 shows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [15, 17, 24].
Figure 7.
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers, which gets a negative charge when their ionic groups dissociate in a medium [15, 17]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight, charge groups and density as well their structure being linear or branched as shown in Figure 8. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid. Subsequent hydrolysis of the polyacrylamide under basic pH conditions produces a polymer with anionic charges. Table 4 shows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-monomers in terms of charge density (mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Cationic polymers are positively charged natural or synthetic based organic coagulants. Some of these polymers have charge ammonium groups making them strong electrolytes irrespective of their pH variation [15, 17]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously. The hydrolysis of the ester groups and consequent loss of cationic charge is CD and pH dependent. Table 5 outlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer. The higher charge density shows that the polymer has a greater loop which enhances interparticle bridging and effective destabilization of the medium. Figure 9 shows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.
Polymer
Molecular formula
CD (mol %)
CD (meq/g)
PDADMAC
C8H16NCl
100
6.2
ECH/DMA
C5H12 ONCl
100
7.3
CPAM
C8H16 O2NCl
100
5.2
CPAM
(C8H16 O2NCl)0.5(C3H5 ON)0.5
50
3.8
CPAM
(C8H16 O2NCl)0.25(C3H5 ON)0.75
25
2.5
CPAM
(C8H16 O2NCl)0.1(C3H5 ON)0.9
10
1.2
Chitosan
C6H11 O4N.HCl
100
5.2
Table 5.
Charge densities of cationic polyelectrolytes [17].
Figure 9.
Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [11]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [17, 38, 44]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes, metal ion removal and sludge conditioning.
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [17, 25].
Furthermore, plants and minerals are a cardinal source of natural polymers. Some examples includes: Nirmali seeds, Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [14, 15, 44]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable, produce lower sludge, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover, natural coagulants have a wide range of effective dosage and do not change the value of pH for the treated water. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [3, 44].
4.2.4 Application of organic polymers
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [41]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [1, 11]. This concept is also applicable to primary coagulation of industrial wastewaters where the separation may be based on flotation, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal. Table 6 shows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight, charge density, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However, to achieve optimum stabilization and agglomerating of flocs requires optimum dosage, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [39, 40].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus, the issue of sludge sedimentation which must be floated is relatively low to flotation systems utilizing organic polymers rather than inorganic coagulants. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank the Durban University of Technology and National Research Foundation South Africa for their support.
\n',keywords:"coagulation, organic polymers, water and wastewater, purification",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65706.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/65706.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65706",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65706",totalDownloads:3595,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:12,dateSubmitted:"June 13th 2018",dateReviewed:"January 19th 2019",datePrePublished:"April 3rd 2019",datePublished:"March 11th 2020",dateFinished:"February 18th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Coagulation is an essential mechanism that occurs in most conventional water and wastewater treatment plants. This occurs in a physical purification unit involving transport processes and the addition of coagulants for chemical reactions, charge neutralization, and formation of smaller flocs to agglomerate into larger flocs. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However, poor treatment of wastewater might have a high negative impact on biodiversity and the environment in general. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH, coagulant type and dosage to ease the high sludge production and discharge of residual metals into the downstream waters is addressed. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65706",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65706",signatures:"Emmanuel Kweinor Tetteh and Sudesh Rathilal",book:{id:"8357",type:"book",title:"Organic Polymers",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Organic Polymers",slug:"organic-polymers",publishedDate:"March 11th 2020",bookSignature:"Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8357.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78984-618-8",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-573-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-194-6",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"202274",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Arpit",middleName:null,surname:"Sand",slug:"arpit-sand",fullName:"Arpit Sand"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"199957",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudesh",middleName:null,surname:"Rathilal",fullName:"Sudesh Rathilal",slug:"sudesh-rathilal",email:"rathilals@dut.ac.za",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"262983",title:"Dr.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Kweinor Tetteh",fullName:"Emmanuel Kweinor Tetteh",slug:"emmanuel-kweinor-tetteh",email:"ektetteh34@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Durban University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Chemical purification process",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.2.1 Effects of polymer molecular weight and charge density",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.2.2 Temperature",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.2.4 Effects of pH",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.2.5 Coagulant type and dosage",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.2.6 Ionic strength",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13",title:"3. Coagulants",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.1 Inorganic coagulants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.2 Organic coagulants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"4. General characteristics of coagulants",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"4.1 Methods of polymerization",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"Table 4.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"Table 5.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"Table 6.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Choy SY, Prasad KMN, Wu TY, Raghunandan ME, Ramanan RN. Utilization of plant-based natural coagulants as future alternatives towards sustainable water clarification. Journal of Environmental Sciences. 2014;26(11):2178-2189'},{id:"B2",body:'Jones DL, Freeman C, Sánchez-Rodríguez AR. Waste water treatment. In: Encyclopedia of Applied Plant Sciences. UK: Academic Press; 2016'},{id:"B3",body:'Yin CY. Emerging usage of plant-based coagulants for water and wastewater treatment. 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Parameters of water quality. Environmental Protection. 2002'},{id:"B10",body:'Yu L, Han M, He F. A review of treating oily wastewater. Arabian Journal of Chemistry. 2017;10:S1913-S1922'},{id:"B11",body:'Sillanpää M, Ncibi MC, Matilainen A, Vepsäläinen M. Removal of natural organic matter in drinking water treatment by coagulation: A comprehensive review. Chemosphere. 2018;190:54-71'},{id:"B12",body:'Teh CY, Budiman PM, Shak KPY, Wu TY. Recent advancement of coagulation-flocculation and its application in wastewater treatment. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research. 2016;55(16):4363-4389'},{id:"B13",body:'Gebbie P. Using Polyaluminium Coagulants in Water Treatment. 2001. Available from: https://mysullys.com/flow-chart-of-complete-sewage-treatment-plant/onondaga-county-department-water-environment-protection/#content [Accessed: 28 December 2018]'},{id:"B14",body:'Kango S, Kalia S, Celli A, Njuguna J, Habibi Y, Kumar R. Surface modification of inorganic nanoparticles for development of organic-inorganic nanocomposites—A review. Progress in Polymer Science. 2013;38(8):1232-1261'},{id:"B15",body:'V. Chandrasekhar, Inorganic and Organometallic Polymers. Berlin: Springer; 2005:108-112'},{id:"B16",body:'Santander M, Rodrigues RT, Rubio J. Modified jet flotation in oil (petroleum) emulsion/water separations. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects. 2011;375(1-3):237-244'},{id:"B17",body:'Bolto B, Gregory J. Organic polyelectrolytes in water treatment. Water Research. 2007;41(11):2301-2324'},{id:"B18",body:'Zachmann HG. Advances in polymer science. Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie. 1976;255(8):729-734'},{id:"B19",body:'Konieczny K, Bodzek M, Rajca M. A coagulation-MF system for water treatment using ceramic membranes. Desalination. 2006'},{id:"B20",body:'Lightfoot EN. Membrane separations technology: Principles and applications. Chemical Engineering Science. 1996'},{id:"B21",body:'Sarkar S, Sengupta AK, Prakash P. The Donnan membrane principle: Opportunities for sustainable engineered processes and materials. Environmental Science and Technology. 2010'},{id:"B22",body:'Cumbal L, Sengupta AK. Arsenic removal using polymer-supported hydrated iron(III) oxide nanoparticles: Role of Donnan membrane effect. Environmental Science and Technology. 2005;39(17):6508-6515'},{id:"B23",body:'Tetteh EK, Rathilal S. Effects of a polymeric organic coagulant for industrial mineral oil wastewater treatment using response surface methodology (Rsm). Water SA. 2018;44(2):155-161'},{id:"B24",body:'SNF Floerger. Coagulation-Flocculation. Vol. 1. ZAC de Milieux; 2003'},{id:"B25",body:'Duan J, Gregory J. Coagulation by hydrolysing metal salts. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science. 2003;100:475-502'},{id:"B26",body:'Tzoupanos ND, Zouboulis AI. Coagulation-flocculation processes in water/wastewater treatment : The application of new generation of chemical reagents. In: 6th IASME/WSEAS International Conference on Heat Transfer, Thermal Engineering and Environment. 2008'},{id:"B27",body:'Rajasulochana P, Preethy V. Comparison on efficiency of various techniques in treatment of waste and sewage water—A comprehensive review. Resource-Efficient Technologies. 2016;2(4):175-184'},{id:"B28",body:'Sahu OP, Chaudhari PK. Review on chemical treatment of industrial waste water review on chemical treatment. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management. 2013;17(2):241-257'},{id:"B29",body:'Gupta VK, Ali I, Saleh TA, Nayak A, Agarwal S. Chemical treatment technologies for waste-water recycling—An overview. RSC Advances. 2012;2(16):6380-6388'},{id:"B30",body:'Edzwald JK. Dissolved air flotation and me. Water Research. 2010;44(7):2077-2106'},{id:"B31",body:'Sim TS, Goh A, Becker EW. Comparison of centrifugation, dissolved air flotation and drum filtration techniques for harvesting sewage-grown algae. Biomass. 1988;16(1):51-62'},{id:"B32",body:'Edzwald JK. Principles and applications of dissolved air flotation. Water Science and Technology. 1995;31(3-4):1-23'},{id:"B33",body:'Kyzas GZ, Matis KA. Electroflotation process: A review. Journal of Molecular Liquids. 2016;220:657-664'},{id:"B34",body:'Tetteh EK, Rathilal S, Chollom MN. Treatment of industrial mineral oil wastewater—Optimisation of coagulation flotation process using response surface methodology (RSM). International Journal of Applied Engineering Research. 2017;12(23):13084-13091'},{id:"B35",body:'Behin J, Bahrami S. Modeling an industrial dissolved air flotation tank used for separating oil from wastewater. Chemical Engineering and Processing: Process Intensification. 2012;59:1-8'},{id:"B36",body:'Zouboulis AI, Avranas A. Treatment of oil-in-water emulsions by coagulation and dissolved-air flotation. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects. 2000;172(1-3):153-161'},{id:"B37",body:'Verma AK, Dash RR, Bhunia P. A review on chemical coagulation/flocculation technologies for removal of colour from textile wastewaters. Journal of Environmental Management. 2012;93(1):154-168'},{id:"B38",body:'Scholz M, Scholz M. Chapter 7—Coagulation and flocculation. In: Wetlands for Water Pollution Control. 2016'},{id:"B39",body:'Lee CS, Robinson J, Chong MF. A review on application of flocculants in wastewater treatment. Process Safety and Environment Protection. 2014'},{id:"B40",body:'Watanabe Y. Flocculation and me. Water Research. 2017;114:88-103'},{id:"B41",body:'Wei H, Gao B, Ren J, Li A, Yang H. Coagulation/flocculation in dewatering of sludge: A review. Water Research. 2018'},{id:"B42",body:'Tetteh EK, Rathilal S, Robinson K. Treatment of industrial mineral oil wastewater—Effects of coagulant type and dosage. Water Practice Technology. 2017;12(1):139-145'},{id:"B43",body:'Yang R, Li H, Huang M, Yang H, Li A. A review on chitosan-based flocculants and their applications in water treatment. Water Research. 2016;95:59-89'},{id:"B44",body:'Ndabigengesere A, Subba Narasiah K. Quality of water treated by coagulation using Moringa oleifera seeds. Water Research. 1998;32(3):781-791'},{id:"B45",body:'Rodrigues AC, Boroski M, Shimada NS, Garcia JC, Nozaki J, Hioka N. Treatment of paper pulp and paper mill wastewater by coagulation-flocculation followed by heterogeneous photocatalysis. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry. 2008;194(1):1-10'},{id:"B46",body:'Wang Z, Xue M, Huang K, Liu Z. Textile dyeing wastewater treatment. In: Advances in Treating Textile Effluent. UK: IntechOpen press; 2011'},{id:"B47",body:'Panizza M, Cerisola G. Electrochemical oxidation as a final treatment of synthetic tannery wastewater. Environmental Science and Technology. 2004;38(20):5470-5475'},{id:"B48",body:'El-Naas MH, Alhaija MA, Al-Zuhair S. Evaluation of a three-step process for the treatment of petroleum refinery wastewater. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering. 2014;2(1):56-62'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Emmanuel Kweinor Tetteh",address:"ektetteh34@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"8357",type:"book",title:"Organic Polymers",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Organic Polymers",slug:"organic-polymers",publishedDate:"March 11th 2020",bookSignature:"Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8357.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78984-618-8",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-573-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-194-6",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"202274",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Arpit",middleName:null,surname:"Sand",slug:"arpit-sand",fullName:"Arpit Sand"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"421435",title:"Prof.",name:"Wagner",middleName:null,surname:"Luiz Batista",email:"batistawl@gmail.com",fullName:"Wagner Luiz Batista",slug:"wagner-luiz-batista",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{id:"79300",title:"Extracellular Vesicles Released by Leishmania: Impact on Disease Development and Immune System Cells",slug:"extracellular-vesicles-released-by-em-leishmania-em-impact-on-disease-development-and-immune-system-",abstract:"Leishmania spp. release extracellular vesicles (EVs) containing parasite molecules, including several antigens and virulence factors. These EVs can interact with the host cells, such as immune cells, contributing to the parasite–host relationship. Studies have demonstrated that Leishmania-EVs can promote infection in experimental models and modulate the immune response. Although the immunomodulatory effect has been demonstrated, Leishmania-EVs can deliver parasite antigens and therefore have the potential for use as a new diagnostic tool and development of new therapeutic and vaccine approaches. 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Physical Sciences, Technology and Engineering Board
\\n\\n
Chemistry
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Ayben Kilislioglu - Department of Chemical Engineering Istanbul University, İstanbul, Turkey
\\n\\t
Goran Nikolic - Faculty of Technology, University of Nis, Leskovac, Serbia
\\n\\t
Mark T. Stauffer - Associate Professor of Chemistry, The University of Pittsburgh, USA
\\n\\t
Margarita Stoytcheva - Autonomous University of Baja California Engineering Institute Mexicali, Baja California, Mexico
Joao Luis Garcia Rosa - Associate Professor Bio-inspired Computing Laboratory (BioCom) Department of Computer Science University of Sao Paulo (USP) at Sao Carlos, Brazil
\\n\\t
Jan Valdman - Institute of Mathematics and Biomathematics, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic Institute of Information Theory and Automation of the ASCR, Prague, Czech Republic
\\n
\\n\\n
Earth and Planetary Science
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Jill S. M. Coleman - Department of Geography, Ball State University, Muncie, IN, USA
\\n\\t
İbrahim Küçük Erciyes - Üniversitesi Department of Astronomy and Space Sciences Melikgazi, Kayseri, Turkey
\\n\\t
Pasquale Imperatore - Electromagnetic Environmental Sensing (IREA), Italian National Council of Research (CNR), Naples, Italy
\\n\\t
Mohammad Mokhtari - Director of National Center for Earthquake Prediction International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology (IIEES), Tehran, Iran
\\n
\\n\\n
Engineering
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Narottam Das - University of Southern Queensland, Australia
\\n\\t
Jose Ignacio Huertas - Energy and Climate Change Research Group; Instituto Tecnológico y Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Mexico
Likun Pan - Engineering Research Center for Nanophotonics and Advanced Instrument, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, East China Normal University, China
\\n\\t
Mukul Chandra Paul - Central Glass & Ceramic Research Institute Jadavpur, Kolkata, India
\\n\\t
Stephen E. Saddow - Electrical Engineering Department, University of South Florida, USA
\\n\\t
Ali Demir Sezer - Marmara University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, İstanbul, Turkey
\\n\\t
Krzysztof Zboinski - Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Transport, Warsaw, Poland
\\n
\\n\\n
Materials Science
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Vadim Glebovsky - Senior Researcher, Institute of Solid State Physics, Chernogolovka, Russia Expert of the Russian Fund for Basic Research, Moscow, Russia
\\n\\t
Jianjun Liu - State Key Laboratory of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine Microstructure of Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
\\n\\t
Pietro Mandracci - Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Italy
\\n\\t
Waldemar Alfredo Monteiro - Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares Materials Science and Technology Center (MSTC) São Paulo, SP, Brazil
Toshio Ogawa - Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Shizuoka Institute of Science and Technology, Toyosawa, Fukuroi, Shizuoka, Japan
\\n
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Mathematics
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Paul Bracken - Department of Mathematics University of Texas, Edinburg, TX, USA
\\n
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Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials
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\\n\\t
Muhammad Akhyar - Farrukh Nano-Chemistry Lab. Registrar, GC University Lahore, Pakistan
\\n\\t
Khan Maaz - Chinese Academy of Sciences, China & The Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology, Pakistan
\\n
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Physics
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\\n\\t
Izabela Naydenova - Lecturer, School of Physics Principal Investigator, IEO Centre College of Sciences and Health Dublin Institute of Technology Dublin, Ireland
\\n\\t
Mitsuru Nenoi - National Institute of Radiological Sciences, Japan
\\n\\t
Christos Volos - Physics Department, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
\\n
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Robotics
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Alejandra Barrera - Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México, México
\\n\\t
Dusan M. Stipanovic - Department of Industrial and Enterprise Systems Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
\\n\\t
Andrzej Zak - Polish Naval Academy Faculty of Navigation and Naval Weapons Institute of Naval Weapons and Computer Science, Gdynia, Poland
Petr Konvalina - Faculty of Agriculture, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Czech Republic
\\n
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Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology
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\\n\\t
Chunfa Huang - Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, USA
\\n\\t
Michael Kormann - University Children's Clinic Department of Pediatrics I, Pediatric Infectiology & Immunology, Translational Genomics and Gene Therapy in Pediatrics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
\\n\\t
Bin WU - Ph.D. HCLD Scientific Laboratory Director, Assisted Reproductive Technology Arizona Center for Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility Tucson, Arizona , USA
\\n
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Environmental Sciences
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\\n\\t
Juan A. Blanco - Senior Researcher & Marie Curie Research Fellow Dep. Ciencias del Medio Natural, Universidad Publica de Navarra Campus de Arrosadia, Pamplona, Navarra, Spain
\\n\\t
Mikkola Heimo - University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
\\n\\t
Bernardo Llamas Moya - Politechnical University of Madrid, Spain
\\n\\t
Toonika Rinken - Department of Environmental Chemistry, University of Tartu, Estonia
\\n
\\n\\n
Immunology and Microbiology
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran - Department of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, India
Isabel Gigli - Facultad de Agronomia-UNLPam, Argentina
\\n\\t
Milad Manafi - Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Malayer University, Malayer, Iran
\\n\\t
Rita Payan-Carreira - Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Departamento de Zootecnia, Portugal
\\n
\\n\\n
Medicine
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Mazen Almasri - King Abdulaziz University, Faculty of Dentistry Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Dentistry
\\n\\t
Craig Atwood - University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA Stem Cell Research, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
\\n\\t
Oreste Capelli - Clinical Governance, Local Health Authority, Modena, Italy Public Health
\\n\\t
Michael Firstenberg - Assistant Professor of Surgery and Integrative Medicine NorthEast Ohio Medical University, USA & Akron City Hospital - Summa Health System, USA Surgery
\\n\\t
Parul Ichhpujani - MD Government Medical College & Hospital, Department of Ophthalmology, India
Amidou Samie - University of Venda, SA Infectious Diseases
\\n\\t
Shailendra K. Saxena - CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, India Infectious Diseases
\\n\\t
Dan T. Simionescu - Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson SC, USA Stem Cell Research, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
\\n\\t
Ke Xu - Tianjin Lung Cancer Institute Tianjin Medical University General Hospital Tianjin, China Oncology
\\n
\\n\\n
Ophthalmology
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Hojjat Ahmadzadehfar - University Hospital Bonn Department of Nuclear Medicine Bonn, Germany Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\\n\\t
Miroslav Blumenberg - Department of Ronald O. Perelman Department of Dermatology; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, NY, USA Dermatology
\\n\\t
Wilfred Bonney - University of Dundee, Scotland, UK Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\\n\\t
Christakis Constantinides - Department of Cardiovascular Medicine University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\\n\\t
Atef Mohamed Mostafa Darwish - Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Egypt Gynecology
\\n\\t
Ana Polona Mivšek - University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Midwifery
\\n\\t
Gyula Mozsik - First Department of Medicine, Medical and Health Centre, University of Pécs, Hungary
\\n\\t
Shimon Rumelt - Western Galilee-Nahariya Medical Center, Nahariya, Israel Ophthalmology
\\n\\t
Marcelo Saad - S. Paulo Medical College of Acupuncture, SP, Brazil Complementary and Alternative Medicine
\\n\\t
Minoru Tomizawa - National Hospital Organization Shimoshizu Hospital, Japan Gastroenterology
\\n\\t
Pierre Vereecken - Centre Hospitalier Valida and Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, Belgium Dermatology
\\n
\\n\\n
Gastroenterology
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Hany Aly - Director, Division of Newborn Services The George Washington University Hospital Washington, USA Pediatrics
\\n\\t
Yannis Dionyssiotis - National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine
\\n\\t
Alina Gonzales- Quevedo Instituto de Neurología y Neurocirugía Havana, Cuba Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\\n\\t
Margarita Guenova - National Specialized Hospital for Active Treatment of Haematological Diseases, Bulgaria
\\n\\t
Eliska Potlukova - Clinic of Medicine, University Hospital Basel, Switzerland Edocrinology
\\n\\t
Raymond L. Rosales -The Royal and Pontifical University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines & Metropolitan Medical Center, Manila, Philippines & St. Luke's Medical Center International Institute in Neuroscience, Quezon City, Philippines Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\\n\\t
Alessandro Rozim - Zorzi University of Campinas, Departamento de Ortopedia e Traumatologia, Campinas, SP, Brazil Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine
\\n\\t
Dieter Schoepf - University of Bonn, Germany Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\\n
\\n\\n
Hematology
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Hesham Abd El-Dayem - National Liver Institute, Menoufeyia University, Egypt Hepatology
\\n\\t
Fayez Bahmad - Health Science Faculty of the University of Brasilia Instructor of Otology at Brasilia University Hospital Brasilia, Brazil Otorhinolaryngology
\\n\\t
Peter A. Clark - Saint Joseph's University Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA Bioethics
\\n\\t
Celso Pereira - Coimbra University, Coimbra, Portugal Immunology, Allergology and Rheumatology
\\n\\t
Luis Rodrigo - Asturias Central University Hospital (HUCA) School of Medicine, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain Hepatology & Gastroenterology
\\n\\t
Dennis Wat - Liverpool Heart and Chest Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, UK Pulmonology
\\n
\\n\\n
Social Sciences and Humanities Board
\\n\\n
Business, Management and Economics
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Vito Bobek - University of Applied Sciences, FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria
Joao Luis Garcia Rosa - Associate Professor Bio-inspired Computing Laboratory (BioCom) Department of Computer Science University of Sao Paulo (USP) at Sao Carlos, Brazil
\n\t
Jan Valdman - Institute of Mathematics and Biomathematics, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic Institute of Information Theory and Automation of the ASCR, Prague, Czech Republic
\n
\n\n
Earth and Planetary Science
\n\n
\n\t
Jill S. M. Coleman - Department of Geography, Ball State University, Muncie, IN, USA
\n\t
İbrahim Küçük Erciyes - Üniversitesi Department of Astronomy and Space Sciences Melikgazi, Kayseri, Turkey
\n\t
Pasquale Imperatore - Electromagnetic Environmental Sensing (IREA), Italian National Council of Research (CNR), Naples, Italy
\n\t
Mohammad Mokhtari - Director of National Center for Earthquake Prediction International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology (IIEES), Tehran, Iran
\n
\n\n
Engineering
\n\n
\n\t
Narottam Das - University of Southern Queensland, Australia
\n\t
Jose Ignacio Huertas - Energy and Climate Change Research Group; Instituto Tecnológico y Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Mexico
Likun Pan - Engineering Research Center for Nanophotonics and Advanced Instrument, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, East China Normal University, China
\n\t
Mukul Chandra Paul - Central Glass & Ceramic Research Institute Jadavpur, Kolkata, India
\n\t
Stephen E. Saddow - Electrical Engineering Department, University of South Florida, USA
\n\t
Ali Demir Sezer - Marmara University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, İstanbul, Turkey
\n\t
Krzysztof Zboinski - Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Transport, Warsaw, Poland
\n
\n\n
Materials Science
\n\n
\n\t
Vadim Glebovsky - Senior Researcher, Institute of Solid State Physics, Chernogolovka, Russia Expert of the Russian Fund for Basic Research, Moscow, Russia
\n\t
Jianjun Liu - State Key Laboratory of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine Microstructure of Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
\n\t
Pietro Mandracci - Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Italy
\n\t
Waldemar Alfredo Monteiro - Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares Materials Science and Technology Center (MSTC) São Paulo, SP, Brazil
Toshio Ogawa - Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Shizuoka Institute of Science and Technology, Toyosawa, Fukuroi, Shizuoka, Japan
\n
\n\n
Mathematics
\n\n
\n\t
Paul Bracken - Department of Mathematics University of Texas, Edinburg, TX, USA
\n
\n\n
Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials
\n\n
\n\t
Muhammad Akhyar - Farrukh Nano-Chemistry Lab. Registrar, GC University Lahore, Pakistan
\n\t
Khan Maaz - Chinese Academy of Sciences, China & The Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology, Pakistan
\n
\n\n
Physics
\n\n
\n\t
Izabela Naydenova - Lecturer, School of Physics Principal Investigator, IEO Centre College of Sciences and Health Dublin Institute of Technology Dublin, Ireland
\n\t
Mitsuru Nenoi - National Institute of Radiological Sciences, Japan
\n\t
Christos Volos - Physics Department, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
\n
\n\n
Robotics
\n\n
\n\t
Alejandra Barrera - Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México, México
\n\t
Dusan M. Stipanovic - Department of Industrial and Enterprise Systems Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
\n\t
Andrzej Zak - Polish Naval Academy Faculty of Navigation and Naval Weapons Institute of Naval Weapons and Computer Science, Gdynia, Poland
Petr Konvalina - Faculty of Agriculture, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Czech Republic
\n
\n\n
Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology
\n\n
\n\t
Chunfa Huang - Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, USA
\n\t
Michael Kormann - University Children's Clinic Department of Pediatrics I, Pediatric Infectiology & Immunology, Translational Genomics and Gene Therapy in Pediatrics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
\n\t
Bin WU - Ph.D. HCLD Scientific Laboratory Director, Assisted Reproductive Technology Arizona Center for Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility Tucson, Arizona , USA
\n
\n\n
Environmental Sciences
\n\n
\n\t
Juan A. Blanco - Senior Researcher & Marie Curie Research Fellow Dep. Ciencias del Medio Natural, Universidad Publica de Navarra Campus de Arrosadia, Pamplona, Navarra, Spain
\n\t
Mikkola Heimo - University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
\n\t
Bernardo Llamas Moya - Politechnical University of Madrid, Spain
\n\t
Toonika Rinken - Department of Environmental Chemistry, University of Tartu, Estonia
\n
\n\n
Immunology and Microbiology
\n\n
\n\t
Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran - Department of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, India
Isabel Gigli - Facultad de Agronomia-UNLPam, Argentina
\n\t
Milad Manafi - Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Malayer University, Malayer, Iran
\n\t
Rita Payan-Carreira - Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Departamento de Zootecnia, Portugal
\n
\n\n
Medicine
\n\n
\n\t
Mazen Almasri - King Abdulaziz University, Faculty of Dentistry Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Dentistry
\n\t
Craig Atwood - University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA Stem Cell Research, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
\n\t
Oreste Capelli - Clinical Governance, Local Health Authority, Modena, Italy Public Health
\n\t
Michael Firstenberg - Assistant Professor of Surgery and Integrative Medicine NorthEast Ohio Medical University, USA & Akron City Hospital - Summa Health System, USA Surgery
\n\t
Parul Ichhpujani - MD Government Medical College & Hospital, Department of Ophthalmology, India
Amidou Samie - University of Venda, SA Infectious Diseases
\n\t
Shailendra K. Saxena - CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, India Infectious Diseases
\n\t
Dan T. Simionescu - Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson SC, USA Stem Cell Research, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
\n\t
Ke Xu - Tianjin Lung Cancer Institute Tianjin Medical University General Hospital Tianjin, China Oncology
\n
\n\n
Ophthalmology
\n\n
\n\t
Hojjat Ahmadzadehfar - University Hospital Bonn Department of Nuclear Medicine Bonn, Germany Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\n\t
Miroslav Blumenberg - Department of Ronald O. Perelman Department of Dermatology; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, NY, USA Dermatology
\n\t
Wilfred Bonney - University of Dundee, Scotland, UK Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\n\t
Christakis Constantinides - Department of Cardiovascular Medicine University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\n\t
Atef Mohamed Mostafa Darwish - Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Egypt Gynecology
\n\t
Ana Polona Mivšek - University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Midwifery
\n\t
Gyula Mozsik - First Department of Medicine, Medical and Health Centre, University of Pécs, Hungary
\n\t
Shimon Rumelt - Western Galilee-Nahariya Medical Center, Nahariya, Israel Ophthalmology
\n\t
Marcelo Saad - S. Paulo Medical College of Acupuncture, SP, Brazil Complementary and Alternative Medicine
\n\t
Minoru Tomizawa - National Hospital Organization Shimoshizu Hospital, Japan Gastroenterology
\n\t
Pierre Vereecken - Centre Hospitalier Valida and Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, Belgium Dermatology
\n
\n\n
Gastroenterology
\n\n
\n\t
Hany Aly - Director, Division of Newborn Services The George Washington University Hospital Washington, USA Pediatrics
\n\t
Yannis Dionyssiotis - National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine
\n\t
Alina Gonzales- Quevedo Instituto de Neurología y Neurocirugía Havana, Cuba Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\n\t
Margarita Guenova - National Specialized Hospital for Active Treatment of Haematological Diseases, Bulgaria
\n\t
Eliska Potlukova - Clinic of Medicine, University Hospital Basel, Switzerland Edocrinology
\n\t
Raymond L. Rosales -The Royal and Pontifical University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines & Metropolitan Medical Center, Manila, Philippines & St. Luke's Medical Center International Institute in Neuroscience, Quezon City, Philippines Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\n\t
Alessandro Rozim - Zorzi University of Campinas, Departamento de Ortopedia e Traumatologia, Campinas, SP, Brazil Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine
\n\t
Dieter Schoepf - University of Bonn, Germany Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\n
\n\n
Hematology
\n\n
\n\t
Hesham Abd El-Dayem - National Liver Institute, Menoufeyia University, Egypt Hepatology
\n\t
Fayez Bahmad - Health Science Faculty of the University of Brasilia Instructor of Otology at Brasilia University Hospital Brasilia, Brazil Otorhinolaryngology
\n\t
Peter A. Clark - Saint Joseph's University Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA Bioethics
\n\t
Celso Pereira - Coimbra University, Coimbra, Portugal Immunology, Allergology and Rheumatology
\n\t
Luis Rodrigo - Asturias Central University Hospital (HUCA) School of Medicine, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain Hepatology & Gastroenterology
\n\t
Dennis Wat - Liverpool Heart and Chest Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, UK Pulmonology
\n
\n\n
Social Sciences and Humanities Board
\n\n
Business, Management and Economics
\n\n
\n\t
Vito Bobek - University of Applied Sciences, FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria
Denis Erasga - De La Salle University, Phillippines
\n\t
Rosario Laratta - Associate Professor of Social Policy and Development Graduate School of Governance Studies, Meiji University, Japan
\n
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Ependymal disruption, periventricular edema, and compression of the periventricular capillaries can be developed. Ischemia of the white matter can be developed due to hypoperfusion. But it is reversible if treated early and adequately. Transcranial Doppler sonography enables to determine hemodynamic parameters of cerebral circulation in various physiological and pathophysiological conditions. As transcranial Doppler sonography has been regarded to be noninvasive and appropriate for bedside treatment, it can also be applied in children at any age. The goal of this chapter is to assess changes of cerebral circulation in children with hydrocephalus and application of data from scientific studies of intracranial dynamics in children with hydrocephalus in clinical practice. The work is also focused on evaluation of impact of intracranial factors on Doppler parameters of cerebral circulation, especially in neonates with hydrocephalus. The ambition of this chapter is to improve indication and timing of drainage procedure in children with hydrocephalus by application of the results and clinical experience in daily clinical practice.",book:{id:"7042",slug:"highlights-on-hemodynamics",title:"Highlights on Hemodynamics",fullTitle:"Highlights on Hemodynamics"},signatures:"Branislav Kolarovszki",authors:[{id:"92436",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Branislav",middleName:null,surname:"Kolarovszki",slug:"branislav-kolarovszki",fullName:"Branislav Kolarovszki"}]},{id:"63370",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79633",title:"Functioning of the Cardiovascular System of Women in Different Phases of the Ovarian-Menstrual Cycle",slug:"functioning-of-the-cardiovascular-system-of-women-in-different-phases-of-the-ovarian-menstrual-cycle",totalDownloads:881,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Seventy seven women with 17–19 years of age examined central hemodynamics and its wave structure at rest, with orthopedic and psychoemotional load in different phases of the ovarian cycle (OC). It was established that in the luteal phase of the OC in the lying position, the blood pressure was higher than in other phases. In orthoprost in the luteal phase, in comparison with other phases, the growth of cardiac rhythm wave strength in the range of 0.04–0.15 Hz is observed, their concentration and connection with oscillations of the shock volume of blood, and the leveling of differences in blood pressure levels. The involvement of spontaneous baro-reflex sensitivity of the studied states and reactions is discussed.",book:{id:"7042",slug:"highlights-on-hemodynamics",title:"Highlights on Hemodynamics",fullTitle:"Highlights on Hemodynamics"},signatures:"Olena Lutsenko",authors:[{id:"225667",title:"Mrs.",name:"Olena",middleName:null,surname:"Lutsenko",slug:"olena-lutsenko",fullName:"Olena Lutsenko"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"63370",title:"Functioning of the Cardiovascular System of Women in Different Phases of the Ovarian-Menstrual Cycle",slug:"functioning-of-the-cardiovascular-system-of-women-in-different-phases-of-the-ovarian-menstrual-cycle",totalDownloads:883,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Seventy seven women with 17–19 years of age examined central hemodynamics and its wave structure at rest, with orthopedic and psychoemotional load in different phases of the ovarian cycle (OC). It was established that in the luteal phase of the OC in the lying position, the blood pressure was higher than in other phases. In orthoprost in the luteal phase, in comparison with other phases, the growth of cardiac rhythm wave strength in the range of 0.04–0.15 Hz is observed, their concentration and connection with oscillations of the shock volume of blood, and the leveling of differences in blood pressure levels. The involvement of spontaneous baro-reflex sensitivity of the studied states and reactions is discussed.",book:{id:"7042",slug:"highlights-on-hemodynamics",title:"Highlights on Hemodynamics",fullTitle:"Highlights on Hemodynamics"},signatures:"Olena Lutsenko",authors:[{id:"225667",title:"Mrs.",name:"Olena",middleName:null,surname:"Lutsenko",slug:"olena-lutsenko",fullName:"Olena Lutsenko"}]},{id:"62523",title:"Influence of Branching Patterns and Active Contractions of the Villous Tree on Fetal and Maternal Blood Circulations in the Human Placenta",slug:"influence-of-branching-patterns-and-active-contractions-of-the-villous-tree-on-fetal-and-maternal-bl",totalDownloads:847,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In the human placenta, fetal blood circulates in the blood vessels of the villous tree while maternal one circulates in the intervillous space, the surroundings of the villous tree. Previously, the computational model of the villous tree, whose stem villi actively contract because of the contractile cells, has been developed. The result of the computation indicated that the displacement caused by the contraction would be helpful for the fetal and maternal circulations and can be combined with the other measurements for blood circulations in the placenta. Hypoxia in the placenta is classified into the following categories: preplacental hypoxia, uteroplacental hypoxia, and postplacental hypoxia. The number and the form of the terminal villi are altered by hypoxia. Assuming that increase in the terminal villi causes a higher shear elastic modulus of the placenta, this villous tree model is useful to estimate the influence of hypoxia on the blood circulations. In this chapter, how these three types of hypoxia influence the blood circulation in the placenta by the aforementioned computational model are discussed. While preplacental hypoxia and uteroplacental hypoxia would cause similar displacement in large regions, postplacental hypoxia would do vice versa. All the types might make the fetal and maternal blood circulations difficult.",book:{id:"7042",slug:"highlights-on-hemodynamics",title:"Highlights on Hemodynamics",fullTitle:"Highlights on Hemodynamics"},signatures:"Yoko Kato",authors:[{id:"249827",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoko",middleName:null,surname:"Kato",slug:"yoko-kato",fullName:"Yoko Kato"}]},{id:"36116",title:"The Evaluation of Renal Hemodynamics with Doppler Ultrasonography",slug:"the-evaluation-of-renal-hemodynamics-with-renal-doppler-ultrasonography",totalDownloads:11488,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"1653",slug:"hemodynamics-new-diagnostic-and-therapeutic-approaches",title:"Hemodynamics",fullTitle:"Hemodynamics - New Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches"},signatures:"Mahir Kaya",authors:[{id:"107675",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahir",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"mahir-kaya",fullName:"Mahir Kaya"}]},{id:"62838",title:"Introductory Chapter: Hemodynamic Management. The Problem of Monitoring Choice",slug:"introductory-chapter-hemodynamic-management-the-problem-of-monitoring-choice",totalDownloads:1011,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"7042",slug:"highlights-on-hemodynamics",title:"Highlights on Hemodynamics",fullTitle:"Highlights on Hemodynamics"},signatures:"Theodoros Aslanidis",authors:[{id:"200252",title:"Dr.",name:"Theodoros",middleName:null,surname:"Aslanidis",slug:"theodoros-aslanidis",fullName:"Theodoros Aslanidis"}]},{id:"36119",title:"How Ozone Treatment Affects Erythrocytes",slug:"how-ozone-treatment-affects-erythrocytes",totalDownloads:4434,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:null,book:{id:"1653",slug:"hemodynamics-new-diagnostic-and-therapeutic-approaches",title:"Hemodynamics",fullTitle:"Hemodynamics - New Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches"},signatures:"Sami Aydogan and A. Seda Artis",authors:[{id:"99453",title:"Dr.",name:"Aise Seda",middleName:null,surname:"Artis",slug:"aise-seda-artis",fullName:"Aise Seda Artis"},{id:"110016",title:"Prof.",name:"Sami",middleName:null,surname:"Aydogan",slug:"sami-aydogan",fullName:"Sami Aydogan"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1028",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plant, logistics, manufacturing and safety. She serves as an Associate Editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. She is a member of AHP Academy and a member of several editorial boards. 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Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. 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She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.',institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. 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In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 7th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:96,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. Osma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDv7QAG/Profile_Picture_1626602531691",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",middleName:null,surname:"Valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/421435",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"421435"},fullPath:"/profiles/421435",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()