Geochemical data of selected gypsum samples of the Fat’ha Formation in Sheikh Ibrahim section.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5953",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Improvement Trends for Internal Combustion Engines",title:"Improvement Trends for Internal Combustion Engines",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Internal combustion engines have remained a challenge due to depending heavily on fossil fuels, which are already limited reserves, and a requirement for improvement in emission levels continuously. The number of advanced technologies such as hybrid systems and low-temperature combustion engines has been introduced, and a number of reports about the use of alternative fuels have been presented in recent years to overcome these challenges. The efforts have made the new concepts to be used in practical along with the new problems which are required advanced control systems. This book presents studies on internal combustion engines with alternative fuels and advanced combustion technologies to obtain efficiency and environment-friendly systems, measurement methodology of exhaust emissions and modelling of a hybrid engine system, and mechanical losses arising from ring-cylinder and ring-groove side contacts as well. The main theme here is to identify solutions for internal combustion engines in terms of fuel consumption, emissions, and performance.",isbn:"978-953-51-3892-1",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3891-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4004-7",doi:"10.5772/66235",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"improvement-trends-for-internal-combustion-engines",numberOfPages:188,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a818985b39d998daa888dd177deea1d5",bookSignature:"Bilge Albayrak Ceper and Melih Y?ld?z",publishedDate:"March 21st 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5953.jpg",numberOfDownloads:12419,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:12,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:25,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 9th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 30th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 21st 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 21st 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 21st 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"140808",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilge",middleName:null,surname:"Albayrak Ceper",slug:"bilge-albayrak-ceper",fullName:"Bilge Albayrak Ceper",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/140808/images/7095_n.png",biography:"Bilge was born in Kayseri in 1979. She completed her high school education in 1996 in Kayseri. She received her BSc degree from Energy Division of Mechanical Engineering Department in Erciyes University in 2001 and her MSc degree in 2003 and PhD degree in 2009 from the Institute of Natural Science from the same university. She started her job as a research assistant at the Mechanical Engineering Department in Erciyes University in 2001. She studied biogas alternative fuels at CNRS (The National Center for Scientific Research) in 2009. She is now an associate professor doctor in Mechanics in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Erciyes University. She has a lot of national and international articles in SCI index. She worked in many research projects about internal combustion engines, supported by TUBITAK (The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey) and Erciyes as a supervisor. Her research interests involve the following: internal combustion engine, alternative fuels, computational fluid dynamics, and energy.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"197550",title:"Dr.",name:"Melih",middleName:null,surname:"Yıldız",slug:"melih-yildiz",fullName:"Melih Yıldız",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197550/images/7096_n.png",biography:"Research Assistant Melih Yıldız was born in Sivas, Turkey, in 1979, and he graduated in Mechanical Engineering at Erciyes University in 2002. He worked in a private company that produced heating equipment, such as steam boiler and heat exchanger, as a manufacturing director for seven years. He was involved in many projects such as the establishment of heating plants in that period. He started working at Iğdır University, Turkey, as a research assistant in 2011. Since 2012, he has been a research assistant at Erciyes University. He received his MSc degree in Mechanical Engineering in 2013 from Erciyes University. He went on to complete his PhD thesis that was related to low-temperature combustion engines. He has experience in the establishment of engine experimental setups and took part in many research projects about internal combustion engines. His research area consists of internal combustion engines, alternative fuels, computational fluid dynamics, heat transfer, and thermodynamics.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"812",title:"Automobile Engineering",slug:"mechanical-engineering-automobile-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"53754",title:"Study of Stability Changes of Model Fuel Blends",doi:"10.5772/67056",slug:"study-of-stability-changes-of-model-fuel-blends",totalDownloads:1404,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fuel during long-term storage, even at low temperatures, undergoes oxidation to various products, which are further converted into high molecular compounds precipitating from the liquid. The stability of the stored fuel depends on its chemical composition and storage conditions. Chemical conversions associated with the degradation of fuel are not well recognized, so it is difficult to predict the storage duration of such fuel and control the rate of ageing. Because of the variety of hydrocarbon composition of commercial fuels resulting from the diversity of crude oil and oil processing methods, surrogate fuels are used for simulating behaviour of commercial fuels in the various tests. In this paper, the type and dose of model components of fuel were chosen. To determine the degradation degree of model blends, few tests of accelerated ageing were selected. These methods were used to determine induction period, content of deposits and resistance to oxidation. Effect of inhibiting and catalyzing compounds on fuel oxidation was verified. An infrared spectroscopy analysis of the oxidized model blends was also performed. The results of this study showed slight changes of selected properties of the surrogate fuels. The most significant changes occurred for the model blends containing substances initiating radical autoxidation reactions and bio-components.",signatures:"Małgorzata Odziemkowska, Joanna Czarnocka and Katarzyna\nWawryniuk",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53754",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53754",authors:[{id:"191523",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Joanna",surname:"Czarnocka",slug:"joanna-czarnocka",fullName:"Joanna Czarnocka"},{id:"196328",title:"MSc.",name:"Małgorzata",surname:"Odziemkowska",slug:"malgorzata-odziemkowska",fullName:"Małgorzata Odziemkowska"},{id:"196388",title:"MSc.",name:"Katarzyna",surname:"Wawryniuk",slug:"katarzyna-wawryniuk",fullName:"Katarzyna Wawryniuk"}],corrections:null},{id:"56018",title:"Effect of Waste Cooking Oil Biodiesel Blends on Performance and Emissions from a CRDI Diesel Engine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69740",slug:"effect-of-waste-cooking-oil-biodiesel-blends-on-performance-and-emissions-from-a-crdi-diesel-engine",totalDownloads:1582,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The employment of biofuels in blends with diesel oil proved to attain a reduced environmental impact without compromising the engine performance. Among biofuels, waste cooking oil offers the advantages of its reduced raw material cost in comparison with fresh vegetable oil cost; it also eliminates the environmental impacts caused by its disposal. Although a great number of researches has been devoted to biodiesel combustion in engines and pollutant emissions, few studies can be found on light duty diesel engine equipped with up-to-date technologies. This work aims at investigating the impact of waste cooking oil percentage in blends with diesel oil on the performance and emission characteristics of an up-to-date light and compact common rail diesel engine whose main application is in microcars and in urban vehicles. A comprehensive experimental activity was performed in the engine complete operative field. The comparison of the results with those obtained with standard ultralow-sulfur diesel highlighted that the engine performance was quite similar for B20 and diesel oil. B40 suffered for the lower caloric value in regard to diesel. A reduction in CO and HC was obtained with biodiesel blends, along with an increase in NOx. Particulate emissions were also reduced for biodiesel blends; the mean size of particles was smaller as regards diesel oil.",signatures:"Giancarlo Chiatti, Ornella Chiavola and Erasmo Recco",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56018",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56018",authors:[{id:"201229",title:"Prof.",name:"Ornella",surname:"Chiavola",slug:"ornella-chiavola",fullName:"Ornella Chiavola"},{id:"203003",title:"Prof.",name:"Giancarlo",surname:"Chiatti",slug:"giancarlo-chiatti",fullName:"Giancarlo Chiatti"},{id:"203004",title:"Dr.",name:"Erasmo",surname:"Recco",slug:"erasmo-recco",fullName:"Erasmo Recco"}],corrections:null},{id:"58485",title:"n-Butanol-Diesel (D2) Blend Fired in a Turbo-Charged Compression Ignition Engine: Performance and Combustion Characteristics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72879",slug:"n-butanol-diesel-d2-blend-fired-in-a-turbo-charged-compression-ignition-engine-performance-and-combu",totalDownloads:1156,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The use of biofuels that include n-butanol in diesel fuel (DF) is attracting attention in the search for the reduction of emissions into the environment due to the burning of fossil fuel. The performance and combustion characteristics were evaluated in this study using blends B5, B10, and B20 (B5: 5% n-butanol and 95% DF) in a turbo-charged direct injection compression ignition engine. In the n-butanol diesel studies, a comparison was made with other studies that also included biodiesel in order to determine how suitable n-butanol-diesel blends were to use in internal combustion engines. Combustion characteristics of B20 (n-butanol 20% and 80% DF) improved when the study was compared with a similar study that included 40% biodiesel added to B20. A higher value of the standard deviation for DF than the blends was observed from the standard deviation diagram, indicating a more stable combustion process for the blends than DF. Soot reduction relative to DF at 1500 rpm at 75% load for B05, B10, and B20 mixtures was 55.5, 77.8, and 85.1%, respectively. This reduction is a significant advantage of blending DF with smaller shared volumes of bioalcohol.",signatures:"Lennox Siwale, Lukacs Kristof, Torok Adam, Akos Bereczky, Makame\nMbarawa, Antal Penninger and Andrei Kolesnikov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58485",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58485",authors:[{id:"179004",title:"Dr.",name:"Lennox",surname:"Siwale",slug:"lennox-siwale",fullName:"Lennox Siwale"}],corrections:null},{id:"59497",title:"Reactivity Controlled Compression Ignition (RCCI) of Gasoline- CNG Mixtures",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72880",slug:"reactivity-controlled-compression-ignition-rcci-of-gasoline-cng-mixtures",totalDownloads:1703,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Reactivity controlled compression ignition (RCCI) is a dual fuel combustion method that relies on the significant difference in reactivity of the fuels involved. RCCI had a low performance at high engine speed due to its high tendency on knocking and high pressure rise rate. Therefore, this study investigates the effect of the fuel stratification on the RCCI combustion and its extended to the interaction of two low reactive fuels, gasoline and compressed natural gas (CNG), in the RCCI combustion system. The investigation was experimentally performed on a single cylinder engine and constant volume chamber. The stratification was created by varying injection timing in the engine by injecting CNG at 80° and 120° before top dead center (BTDC) and varying injection gap in the constant volume chamber with the gaps between two fuel injection timing were varied between 0 ms to 20 ms. The results in the engine experiment show that proportions of gasoline and CNG and degree of stratification of CNG were found to be effective means of combustion control within certain limits of engine load and HC and CO emissions could be significantly reduced. While in constant volume chamber it has a significant effect on the combustion phasing. Stratified mixture produces shorter combustion duration while homogeneous mixture produces longer duration",signatures:"Firmansyah, Abdul Rashid Abdul Aziz, Morgan Raymond Heikal,\nEzrann Zharif Zainal Abidin and Naveenchandran Panchatcharam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59497",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59497",authors:[{id:"212774",title:"Dr.",name:"Firmansyah",surname:"-",slug:"firmansyah-",fullName:"Firmansyah -"},{id:"217840",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Rashid",surname:"Abdul Aziz",slug:"abdul-rashid-abdul-aziz",fullName:"Abdul Rashid Abdul Aziz"},{id:"217847",title:"Prof.",name:"Morgan",surname:"Heikal",slug:"morgan-heikal",fullName:"Morgan Heikal"},{id:"217848",title:"MSc.",name:"Ezrann Zharif",surname:"Zainal Abidin",slug:"ezrann-zharif-zainal-abidin",fullName:"Ezrann Zharif Zainal Abidin"},{id:"218130",title:"Dr.",name:"Naveenchandran",surname:"Panchatcharam",slug:"naveenchandran-panchatcharam",fullName:"Naveenchandran Panchatcharam"}],corrections:null},{id:"56194",title:"Remote Combustion Sensing in Diesel Engine via Vibration Measurements",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69761",slug:"remote-combustion-sensing-in-diesel-engine-via-vibration-measurements",totalDownloads:1204,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"An efficient control of the combustion process is required in order to comply with regulations on pollutant emissions from internal combustion engines. Literature presents investigations devoted to explore the potentiality of externally mounted sensor (speed sensor, microphone, and accelerometer) for combustion diagnosis. A relationship exists between the combustion event measured via an in‐cylinder pressure transducer and engine block vibration measured via an accelerometer. Time and frequency domain processing of acquired signals highlighted the correlation between parameters able to characterize the combustion development and features derived from the engine block vibration data. A methodology was developed by the authors that demonstrated to be suitable for real‐time estimation of combustion progress based on engine vibration. A two‐cylinder common rail diesel engine of small displacement was tested; two configurations were investigated, naturally aspirated, and turbocharged. The in‐cylinder pressure and block vibration signals were acquired and processed in time and frequency domains. The vibrational components mainly related to the combustion process were extracted, and indicators of the combustion positioning were computed. The angular positions of start of combustion (SOC) and MFB50 computed via the heat release curve by means of the in‐cylinder pressure measurements were compared to those obtained by means of the accelerometer signal. High correlation coefficients were obtained for the data acquired during the testing of both naturally aspirated and turbocharged configurations in the complete engine operative field.",signatures:"Ornella Chiavola, Erasmo Recco and Giancarlo Chiatti",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56194",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56194",authors:[{id:"201229",title:"Prof.",name:"Ornella",surname:"Chiavola",slug:"ornella-chiavola",fullName:"Ornella Chiavola"},{id:"203003",title:"Prof.",name:"Giancarlo",surname:"Chiatti",slug:"giancarlo-chiatti",fullName:"Giancarlo Chiatti"},{id:"203004",title:"Dr.",name:"Erasmo",surname:"Recco",slug:"erasmo-recco",fullName:"Erasmo Recco"}],corrections:null},{id:"56741",title:"Measurement of Exhaust Emissions under Actual Operating Conditions with the Use of PEMS: Review of Selected Vehicles",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70442",slug:"measurement-of-exhaust-emissions-under-actual-operating-conditions-with-the-use-of-pems-review-of-se",totalDownloads:1965,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This paper is a synthetic approach to real driving (RDE) from selected vehicles: light-duty vehicle (LDV), heavy-duty vehicle (HDV). The tests were performed with the portable emission measurement system (PEMS) equipment under actual traffic conditions. The paper discusses problems of measurement methodology and emission of CO, HC, NOx, and PM. The performed investigation confirms that the main problem is the emission of NOx and PM, which usually is higher than the emission level. The obtained results show that the RDE method is very complex, but is the only way to provide invaluable information on the actual on-road exhaust emissions, not obtainable under laboratory conditions. In recent years, methods of exhaust emission testing under actual operating conditions have been developing rapidly. New technologies for extra low engine emissions pose a new question: does emission testing in a standard laboratory reflects real life emissions of a vehicle in use? In order to answer this question, it is necessary to measure the vehicle in-use emissions. Today, we know that the engine operating conditions (engine load and speed) in laboratory tests are not compliant with the conditions of actual operation. That is why the results of such tests are so desirable.",signatures:"Jerzy Merkisz, Piotr Lijewski, Paweł Fuć, Łukasz Rymaniak and\nAndrzej Ziółkowski",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56741",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56741",authors:[{id:"176958",title:"Prof.",name:"Piotr",surname:"Lijewski",slug:"piotr-lijewski",fullName:"Piotr Lijewski"}],corrections:null},{id:"56128",title:"Modern Pneumatic and Combustion Hybrid Engines",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69689",slug:"modern-pneumatic-and-combustion-hybrid-engines",totalDownloads:1545,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents the possibility of use of the pneumatic piston engine with two-stroke cycle or four stroke-cycle of the work as an alternative driving source or additional power for the battery regeneration in the electric vehicles. Additionally, such engine can work together with combustion engine as a drive unit in a road vehicle. During city driving, such engine is driven by compressed air. The energy for the engine work is taken from the energy of the air stored at high pressure (about 30 MPa) in bottles or tanks. The chapter presents the thermodynamic theory included in the mathematical model of the engine based on thermodynamic processes (mass and energy balance). On such considerations, the chapter shows the results obtained from specially written computer program for the determination of the most important factors. The results of the calculations are included in the graphs showing the influence of the control parameters (air pressure, injection timing and rotational speed) on the engine working parameters. Certain chapters concern to a hybrid combustion system with an air injection only for a compression ignition engine in order to achieve higher indicated mean pressure and lower fuel consumption.",signatures:"Wladyslaw Mitianiec",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56128",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56128",authors:[{id:"141929",title:"Prof.",name:"Wladyslaw",surname:"Mitianiec",slug:"wladyslaw-mitianiec",fullName:"Wladyslaw Mitianiec"}],corrections:null},{id:"56471",title:"Power Cylinder System for Internal Combustion Engines",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69762",slug:"power-cylinder-system-for-internal-combustion-engines",totalDownloads:1860,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Piston ring pack is one of the most critical components for engine performance, durability, and emission. It has become a decisive factor for engine life. From previous study, a three‐dimensional ring model has been developed using finite element method to study the interactions between the ring‐cylinder liner and the ring‐groove side interfaces. The ring‐cylinder and ring‐groove side contacts are modeled using finite element method based on penalty method optimization algorithm. Ring deformation, reaction forces at the ring sides and ring face, and the twist angles along the entire ring circumference are obtained from the model. However, the dynamic behavior of the ring is still less understood. In this study, the dynamic response of the ring over an engine cycle is studied for a second compression ring with a non‐symmetric cross section.",signatures:"Chao Cheng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56471",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56471",authors:[{id:"201960",title:"Dr.",name:"Chao",surname:"Cheng",slug:"chao-cheng",fullName:"Chao Cheng"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2447",title:"Progress in Gas Turbine Performance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"21ce1f2a2a32946eeb6425c684304ed2",slug:"progress-in-gas-turbine-performance",bookSignature:"Ernesto Benini",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2447.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"11393",title:"Dr.",name:"Ernesto",surname:"Benini",slug:"ernesto-benini",fullName:"Ernesto 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Saleh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10668.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-saleh",fullName:"Hosam Saleh"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11528",leadTitle:null,title:"Maintenance Management - Current Challenges, New Developments, and Future Directions",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tIn an industrial scenario, improper maintenance (or its lack) has several implications that can lead to unexpected breakdowns, losses at industrial production, or catastrophic consequences. In general, a fault affects only one component; however, it spreads to other components as the fault evolves. Moreover, considering cost reduction and production efficiency, developing an effective maintenance program has gained more attention, and several tools have been implemented to support and encourage best practices. In this sense, advanced data acquisition and processing methods have been developed to allow effective machine condition monitoring and early fault detection and identification, avoiding unexpected breakdowns and even catastrophic failures, especially for critical systems. Whenever possible, condition monitoring should be done non-invasively and without interrupting machine operation.
\r\n\r\n\t
\r\n\tOver the years, the concept of maintenance became more comprehensive, reducing fault occurrence and increasing industrial system availability. Besides, reliability, safety, and criticality requirements were associated with the system or equipment under analysis. Maintenance strategies or schemes can be classified as corrective (run-to-break), preventive (time-based), and predictive (condition-based maintenance). Corrective maintenance is only performed after an occurrence of a fault. Therefore, it involves unexpected breakdowns, high costs, changes in the production chain, and it could lead to catastrophic events. Preventive maintenance and interventions occur based on a scheduled maintenance plan or the equipment's mean time between failures. Although it is more effective than corrective maintenance, unexpected failure may still occur by preventing most failures. Additionally, the process cost is still high, especially the costs associated with labor, inventory, and unnecessary replacement of equipment or components.
\r\n\tOn the other hand, predictive maintenance analyses the equipment condition so that a possible fault can still be identified at an early stage. Predictive maintenance aims to identify a machine anomaly so that it does not result in a fault. Such maintenance involves advanced monitoring, processing, and signal analysis techniques, which are generally performed non-invasively and, in many cases, in real-time. In the case of machines or processes, these techniques can be developed based on vibration, temperature, acoustic emission, or electrical current signal monitoring. It should be noted that monitoring such signals or parameters to verify the operating condition is called condition monitoring. Condition monitoring aims to observe the machine's current operational condition and predict its future condition, keeping it under a systematic analysis during its remaining life. In this sense, a fault condition can be detected and identified from systematic machine condition monitoring. A diagnosis procedure can be established, whereby properly investigating the fault symptoms and prognosis.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThis book will aim to merge all these ideas in a single volume, aggregate new maintenance experiences, apply new techniques and approaches, and report field experiences to establish new maintenance processes and management paradigms.
\r\n\t
More than 70% of the world’s giant oilfields in carbonate rocks bear a relationship to evaporites [1]. The association among evaporates, carbonates, and hydrocarbons is more than fortuitous as evaporates constitute less than 2% of the world’s platform sediments [2].
Evaporites form about 50% of the total thickness of the middle Miocene Fat’ha Formation in Iraq [3]. Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) is the most common type in surface (outcrop) sections, while in subsurface sections, anhydrite (CaSO4) and halite (NaCl) are the most common evaporites.
The Fat’ha Formation was deposited in a NW-SE-oriented basin which extended from NE Syria through N and NE Iraq into SW Iran (Figure 1). This basin is called the “Mesopotamian Basin” which is a foreland basin situated on the leading edge of the Arabian Plate attached to the African Plate [3].
(a) Location map showing the Mesopotamian Basin in Iraq and Fat’ha/Kirkuk and Sinjar sub-basins. Simplified middle Miocene lithofacies distribution map (after [
The basin-center model is also manifested by the concentric arrangement of evaporite beds interbedded with limestone and marly limestone with gypsum and anhydrite along the margins to soluble halite in the depocenter. During high-frequency sea-level lowstands, intra-basinal and regional structural barriers may have isolated the hypersaline basin from the open sea, such that evaporation exceeded the ingress of water in an arid climate [2, 3]. The Fat’ha Formation is one of the most extensive and economically important formations in the entire Middle East region [8].
The formation covers a large area (approximately 1500 km x 300 km) and extends northwestward into Syria (there termed Lower Fars Formation) and southeastward into Iran (there termed upper part Gachsaran Formation) [9] (Figure 1). The Fat’ha Formation is a seal to numerous oil reservoirs in Iraq and Iran and, in certain areas, is a reservoir in its own right (e.g., Kirkuk, northern Iraq, [4, 10]).
In the present study, lithofacies analyses of various gypsum and anhydrite successions from both surface and subsurface sections (Figure 1) are studied accompanied by petrographic investigation using traditional petrographic microscope supported by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) for better determination of their petrographic, textural, and diagenetic features. The study also includes mineralogical determination using X-ray diffraction (XRD), geochemical, X-ray fluorescence (XRF), and petrophysical (porosity and permeability) measurements for selected samples from both surface and subsurface sections.
The aim of the study is to elucidate the lithofacies and related petrographic, textural, and diagenetic and geochemical characteristics of the gypsum and anhydrites of the Fat’ha Formation and to determine their ability as seal or cap rocks.
The Neo-Tethys Ocean began to close in the late Cretaceous as evidenced by the obduction of ophiolites in Oman and elsewhere along the margin of the Arabian Plate [11, 12]. In the late Miocene and early Pliocene, the Neo-Tethys Ocean was closed by the collision of the Arabian and Eurasian plates (Central Iran and Turkey), and the Zagros and Taurus Mountain belts started to be uplifted [13, 14]. Between these two tectonic events, starting in the late Eocene and continuing through the middle Miocene, crustal loading and flexure of the eastern Arabian Plate formed the broad and shallow Mesopotamian Basin as a NW-oriented foreland basin [15, 16]. This 2000-km-long basin extended from Bandar Abbas, in Iran, across Iraq and Syria to the Mediterranean Sea, and it was located southwest of the Zagros and Taurus Mountains (Figure 1).
The Fat’ha Formation is largely an evaporatic sequence. It consists of numerous shallowing-upward cycles of alternating mudrocks, limestones, gypsum, anhydrite, and halite which are present in the basin center. The rich sulfur deposits are found in evaporite beds consisting mainly of gypsum and anhydrite, limestone, marl, and claystone [17]. The formation comprises a cyclic succession deposited in shallow marine, supra-tidal, and continental environments [5, 18]. The formation of the Zagros-Taurus mountain range led to the development of the Mesopotamian Basin as a result of crustal loading and flexure. Major orogeny also occurred in the late Miocene–Pliocene as a result of regional changes in the rates of plate motion, which produced a preferential northward movement of the Arabian Plate relative to the Iranian-Turkish plates, and the collision of the Turkish-Iranian plates with the Eurasian plate to the north.
Forty five samples from the middle Miocene evaporate succession were selected for the present work. Lithofacies analysis is conducted in the field based on systematic classification of gypsum/anhydrite by Holliday (1971) [19] and comparison with classifications of [20, 21].
Petrographic investigation using traditional petrographic microscopy are achieved at the Geology Department of Mosul University, Iraq. Furthermore, a deeply focusing of textural and diagenetic identification using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was conducted on selected samples using Camscan MV 2300 SEM at Steinmann Institute, Bonn University, Germany. Mineralogical XRD analysis using D8 ADVANCE [Bruker AXS] with Cu-∞radiation and geochemical analysis using Siemens SRS 303 XRF also are conducted at Steinmann Institute, Bonn University, Germany, whereas porosity and permeability measurements were conducted at the Geology Department of University of Mosul, Iraq, using dimension measurement and wax method using Soxlith instrument after bitumen extraction for porosity and the pipette method for permeability measurement, respectively.
Several lithofacies have been recognized through the field study of the evaporitic successions of the Fat’ha Formation; these include the following:
Nodular and structureless gypsum/anhydrite lithofacies
This form is the common lithofacies in the studied successions. They are commonly bedded with thickness varying between 0.1 and 50 meters. Nodules are white sucrose or of other colors depending on the included impurities. These nodules are surrounded by different colors of clayey or carbonate stripes. Nodules are finger-shaped or cylindrical in the lower parts of the beds to condensed circle in shape in the upper parts (Figure 2A) or as compound nodular texture (Figure 2B).
Based on the nature of the nodules and their interstitial materials, compaction and growth nature of these nodules, deformation features, and nature of bedding, several sublithofacies could be recognized, and these include nodular, nodular mosaic, mosaic, wispy, and massive (structureless) gypsum/anhydrite sublithofacies (see Figures 2–4). Laminated and enterolithic structures (as a result of anhydrite to gypsum transformation) are common in the mosaic secondary sublithofacies. This lithofacies could be correlated with the Miocene sulfate facies of Seven River Formation of southeast Mexico [22], Codo Formation evaporate of northern Brazil [23], and middle Miocene gypsum unit (Ninyerola) near Valencia, Italy [24].
Laminated gypsum lithofacies
This lithofacies is less dominated than the previous one and characterized by thin lamination with lamina of less than 2 mm thick and interlaminated with other marly, limy, or secondary satin spar or selenite laminas (see Figures 2F and 3F). This interlamination may reflect cyclic dynamic changes of the sedimentary basin where the thickness of lamina reflects the stability period of the basin [25]. The gypsum laminas are formed of fine white sucrose (alabastrine type) of gypsum, whereas other laminas are of pale to greenish-gray in color. This color variation may reflect the seasonal changes in temperature and water chemistry of the basin [25].
Satin spar and selenite gypsum lithofacies
This lithofacies is dominated in the evaporate successions of the Fat’ha Formation and in their interlaminated marly, clayey, and limestone beds as veins, lenses, and fibrous nodules along bedding planes or within joints, cracks, and cavities and commonly is dominated in the upper parts of the formation. Two sublithofacies are recognized in the present study, satin spar and selenite (Figure 5).
(A) Elongated nodules in the lower part of the gypsum beds. (B) Compound spherical gypsum nodules as representative for the compound nodular lithofacies. (C) Gradual change of mosaic to wispy gypsum upward. (D) Gradual change of singular to compound nodular to mosaic then to wispy and massive structureless gypsum. (E) Gypsum bed composed of alternative mosaic nodules. (F) Satin spar laminas fill bedding planes in gypsum bed, Sheikh Ibrahim section.
(A) Enterolithic structure. (B) Erosional caving in the lower part of the gypsum bed within marl hosting nodular gypsum. (C) Desert rose feature in secondary gypsum forming large twinned laminas of fibrous gypsum. (D) Lime interstitial materials in between spherical gypsum nodules. (E) Sutured marly materials in between gypsum nodules in thinly laminated gypsum unit. (F) Laminated nodular gypsum beds with marl (A, C, D, F—Sheikh Ibrahim section; B—Batnaya; and E—Telkif section).
(A) Mosaic compound gypsum lithofacies, Telkif section; (B) wispy compound gypsum lithofacies, Telkif section; (C) mosaic gypsum lithofacies, Telkif section; (D) graded size in gypsum nodules bed, Sheikh Ibrahim section; (E) wispy gypsum lithofacies, note erosional starching, Sheikh Ibrahim section; (F) massive gypsum lithofacies surrounded by wispy and mosaic lithofacies, Telkif section.
(A) Gypsum nodule surrounded by fibrous gypsum, Sheikh Ibrahim section; (B) two cross sections of satin spar showing thicker upper lobes, Sheikh Ibrahim section; (C) satin spar veins showing parting in the medium part, Sheikh Ibrahim section; (D) brown mud inclusions in veins of fibrous gypsum, Batnaya section; (E) laminar selenite crystals below satin spar veins, Sheikh Ibrahim section; (F) thick vein of satin spar with curved fibers, Sheikh Ibrahim section.
Detailed petrographic analysis of the studied evaporitic succession by the means of polarized microscopy supported by scanning electron microscopic study has revealed that nodular gypsum is the dominant gypsum type, although laminated and thick-bedded gypsum are also present. Nodular gypsum passes gradually and vertically into thick to very thick-bedded gypsum. Secondary gypsum (selenite and satin spar) also occurs. Gypsum is white and sugary or creamy in color, but red pink and greenish white varieties also are present. The greenish white color is usually related to secondary coloration as result of enveloping cover of green marl in the succession of the Fat’ha Formation.
In the current study, several textures for gypsum and anhydrite are recognized.
Gypsum textures: Four principal textures are distinguished, some are subdivided into secondary types based on the form, size, and relationships between gypsum crystals, and these include:
Alabaster texture, which is characterized by fine-grained and oriented nature due to recrystallization and reorientation from their primary rocks as a result of direct hydration to gypsum [26, 27]. According to textural stages of Holliday (1971) [19], this texture has three stages as follows:
Stage 1: feathery texture which is common in the lower parts of the Fat’ha Formation as anhedral and sutured crystals of up to 50 micron in size and commonly includes mineral inclusions (Figure 6A1 and A2); it is represented by nodular gypsum lithofacies.
Stage 2: grained texture, up to 200 micron in size, more clear crystals than the feathery texture with rare inclusions and curved crystal contacts (Figure 6B1 and B2), represented by wispy gypsum lithofacies.
Stage 3: a developed texture from either stage 1 or stage 2, up to 400 micron in size, subhedral to euhedral crystals with no inclusions, and clear crystal contacts (Figure 6C1 and C2) represented by massive (structureless), compound mosaic and laminated lithofacies.
Porphyroblastic texture, which is recognized as large platy crystals with more than 1 cm length which may reflect slow growth of crystals and nuclei [19]. Most of these crystals are embedded in fine alabaster groundmass as a result of anhydrite dissolution and re-precipitation as secondary gypsum (Figure 7A1 and A2). Porphyroblastic texture accompanied also with alabastrine gypsum representing the first growth stage of anhydrite to gypsum (Figure 7B). In the field it is represented by mosaic nodular or laminated gypsum lithofacies.
Satin spar texture, which commonly are parallel longitudinal fibrous crystals, twinned and oriented with different colors, white, gray and yellow, up to 50 mm long. It is found in either fine (0.11 mm long) (Figure 8A1 and A2) or coarse (0.37 mm) crystals long (Figure 7C1 and C2) represented by fibrous and satin spar lithofacies.
Granular texture, which is medium to coarse grained. It exists in two forms as follows:
Integrated granular: interconnected crystals of 0.1–0.55 mm in size, represented by nodular gypsum lithofacies (Figure 8B1 and B2).
Unintegrated granular: 0.11–0.29 mm size grains of angular edges and also represented by the nodular gypsum lithofacies (Figure 8C1 and C2).
(A1) Gypsum nodule with brown inclusions, Telkif section; (A2) thin section of the same sample in A1, showing G1 stage of growth of alabastrine gypsum; (B1) gypsum nodules finely crystalline, Sheikh Ibrahim section; (B2) thin section for the same sample in B1 showing G2 growth of alabastrine gypsum; (C1) single gypsum grain (G) surrounded by host carbonate rich in hydrocarbon materials (H), Sheikh Ibrahim section; and (C2) thin section of the same sample in C1 showing G3 growth of alabastrine gypsum and hosting carbonates.
(A1) Fine mosaic gypsum nodule, Sheikh Ibrahim section; (A2) thin section of the same sample A1 showing porphyroblastic gypsum crystals; (B) thin section of mosaic gypsum showing porphyroblastic texture (Gp) accompanied with alabastrine texture that represent G1 stage of gypsum growth, Telkif section; (C1) satin spar with coarse acicular crystals, Sheikh Ibrahim section; (C2) thin section of the same sample C1 showing coarse fibrous gypsum fibers.
(A1) Fine secondary satin spar gypsum with fine acicular crystals, Batnaya section; (A2) thin section of the same sample in A1, showing twinning in fine fibrous gypsum; (B1) compound mosaic gypsum nodule, Telkif section; (B2) thin section for the same sample in B1 showing growth in granular gypsum (Gi) with calcite crystals (C) colored red by alizarin red stain; (C1) carbonate grain including very fine gypsum nodule (G), Telkif section; (C2) thin section of the same sample C1 showing granular gypsum with no growth (Gu) surrounded by calcite stained red crystal (C).
Anhydrite textures: These textures are distinguished in the subsurface sections of the Fat’ha Formation. Based on the crystal shape and size of the anhydrite, six textures are distinguished, these are as follows:
Felty texture: crystals in the form of plates of 0.5 mm long with random distribution of crystals which form the advanced stage of recrystallization of finely crystalized textures. Hydrocarbon materials are concentrated between crystals (Figure 9A1 and A2).
Lath texture: long euhedral plates. They are arranged subparallel to radial forms. Commonly they are distributed in groundmass of felty texture anhydrite (Figure 9B1 and B2).
Gneissoid texture: oriented parallel plates presented in curved (v) shape “Chevron” folded shape, which may be formed due to gypsum to anhydrite under high-pressure conditions [28] (Figure 10A1 and A2).
Microcrystalline texture: fine crystalline below 0.06 mm in size and equidimensional, accompanied with sub-felty textures (Figure 10B1 and B2).
Bacillar texture: fine bladed to prismatic in shape with hydrocarbon materials within this texture (Figure 11A1–A3)
Porphyroblastic texture: medium-sized (0.2–0.3 mm) anhedral crystals that may reflect advanced stage in anhydrite growth (Figure 10C1 and C2), hydrocarbon also present, (Figure 11B1 and B2).
(A1) Nodular anhydrite (A) with interstitial carbonates rich in hydrocarbons (H), Kirkuk well; (A2) thin section of the same sample in A1, showing felty texture (F), note hydrocarbon existing only on the interstitial materials; (B1) part of pure anhydrite nodule, Kirkuk well; (B2) thin section for the same sample in B1 showing the platy anhydrite in the felty texture; (C1) carbonate including fine anhydrite nodules (A) showing hydrocarbon (H) disseminated in host ground mass not in the anhydrite nodules, Kirkuk well; (C2) thin section of the same sample in C1 showing Chevron folding in anhydrite nodule.
(A1) Fine anhydrite nodule (A) in carbonate specimen (C), Kirkuk well; (A2) thin section of the same sample in A1, showing flow structures in anhydrite; (B1) finely crystalline anhydrite nodule, Kirkuk well; (B2) thin section for the same sample in B1 showing microcrystalline texture; (C1) finely intercalations of anhydrite nodules (A) and carbonates (C), Kirkuk well; (C2) thin section of the same sample C1 showing porphyroblastic texture (Po).
(A1) Carbonate grain highly enriched in hydrocarbons (H) in which anhedral pure anhydrite nodules (A) are present, Kirkuk well; (A2–A3) thin section of the same sample in A1, showing basilar texture (Ab) and hydrocarbons (H); (B1) carbonate grain (C) with fine anhydrite, Kirkuk well; (B2) porphyroblastic texture of anhydrite embedded in hydrocarbon-rich materials.
Due to high solubility of evaporates and their rapid susceptibility to deformation and destruction, most evaporitic succession commonly are changed or deformed after deposition and burial; therefore, it is seldom to find evaporates of primary origin in the geologic record of age earlier than 25my [29].
Facies analysis and petrographic description of the studied evaporates revealed that several diagenetic processes have affected on the studied rocks; these include dehydration (e.g., presence of fine pseudo-gypsum plates with anhydrite), cementation (e.g., either presence of calcareous gypsum plates filling cavities or calcite cementing materials around gypsum nodules), compaction (e.g., continuous growth and suturing of gypsum nodules), hydration (or gypsification, e.g., various secondary textures such as alabastrine, porphyroblastic, and common satin spar veins), replacement (e.g., calcite replacing gypsum and vice versa), and recrystallization (commonly in the subsurface anhydritic samples, e.g., presence of chevron folding and flow structures). These characteristic features of diagenesis are shown in the previous section and the Figures 2–11.
Scanning electron microscopic investigation shows deep focusing various gypsum structures such as coarse crystalline associated with calcite bands (Figure 12A) and alternated bands of dark and white folias in the selentic (fibrous) gypsum (Figure 12B–D) with carbonate inclusions.
SEM images show (A) coarse crystalline gypsum with scattered fine calcite (C) in a band that may be responsible for the gray color of the gypsum. (B) Alternating white and dark folia in selenitic gypsum. (C) Foliated nature of selenitic gypsum. (D) Broken folias of selenite with carbonate inclusions (C), Sheikh Ibrahim section.
XRD analysis revealed that gypsum is the common mineralogical phase in all the studied samples (Figure 13) in addition to rare calcite and/dolomite.
XRD scan of nodular gypsum sample from the Fat’ha Formation in sheikh Ibrahim section illustrating the common presence of gypsum with rare dolomite.
Major and trace elements geochemical data for selected gypsum samples are illustrated in Table 1. In general, the low content of silica and alumina reflects the presence of fine clayey materials in the studied evaporates as brown and gray inclusions. Calcium and magnesium content reflects the accompanied carbonate grains as seen by the petrographic and mineralogic (XRD) investigations in the form of calcite and/or dolomite in addition to calcium in the structure of both gypsum and anhydrites as well as sulfate which is represented by high values of SO3 (Table 1). Trace element distribution of barium and strontium shows high values in mosaic, nodular, and nodular gypsum as compared to laminated and secondary selenite gypsum.
Gypsum type | SiO2 (%) | Al2O (%) | TiO2 (%) | MnO (%) | MgO (%) | CaO (%) | K2O (%) | Na2O (%) | Fe2O3 (%) | P2O5 (%) | SO3 (%) | Ba ppm | Sr ppm |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nodular | 1.4 | 0.4 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.2 | 18 | 0.01 | 0.1 | 0.02 | 0.03 | 48 | 2.8 | 246 |
Laminated | 3.0 | 0.9 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 1.9 | 19.5 | 0.08 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.03 | 46 | 1.4 | 110 |
Massive | 1.6 | 0.5 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.4 | 18.2 | 0.01 | 0.14 | 0.02 | 0.03 | 48 | 0.6 | 245 |
Gypsum-anhydrite mosaic | 1.8 | 1.4 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.3 | 18.4 | 0.01 | 0.08 | 0.03 | 0.03 | 47 | 4.6 | 615 |
Brown massive | 2.2 | 0.7 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.7 | 18.2 | 0.02 | 0.2 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 48 | 4.5 | 201 |
Wispy | 2.9 | 0.9 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 1.8 | 19 | 0.07 | 0.1 | 0.11 | 0.03 | 46 | 1.2 | 113 |
Selenite | 2.4 | 0.7 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.7 | 18.6 | 0.03 | 0.2 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 48 | 1.8 | 83 |
Geochemical data of selected gypsum samples of the Fat’ha Formation in Sheikh Ibrahim section.
Porosity and permeability for selected intercalated evaporates and limestone samples from the Fat’ha Formation show that nodular gypsum lithofacies has higher capacity to lock hydrocarbons than the limestone due to very low porosity and permeability (see Table 2).
Sample | Description | Porosity (%) |
---|---|---|
K1 | Pure anhydrite | 0.25 |
K2 | Anhydrite with impurities | 4.0 |
K3 | Limestone | 17 |
T1 | Surface gypsum sample | 0.9 |
Porosity data for selected samples.
Size of gypsum/anhydrite nodules is an index to the porosity of their groundmass or matrix [30]. In the current work, it seems that chicken wire and enterolithic structures are common in the granular porous matrix; these structures required porous materials with solution movements to form [30]. The Fat’ha Formation evaporites are commonly of large-sized nodules embedded in granular matrix. This matrix could be principally porous that allow some hydrocarbons to disseminate. Consequently, when nodules grow and are compacted as a result of dehydration and compaction, the matrix porosity decreased, and the hydrocarbons were locked.
Petrographic study revealed that bituminous materials are locked in between anhydrite nodules within basilar (Figure 11A1 and A2) and porphyoblastic (Figure 11B1 and B2) textures that may refer to the important role of these anhydritic nodules in locking hydrocarbons.
However, gypsum nodules that formed by hydration of anhydrite, bituminous materials were found in the contact between alabastrine gypsum nodules (Figure 6C1 and C2) that are represented by massive and wispy lithofacies, which may play a role in locking hydrocarbons.
Field study revealed that thick limestones (units A and C) enriched with bitumen in the lower member of the Fat’ha Formation are common below the mosaic gypsum beds. This gypsum beds may represent seal or cap rocks of the Fat’ha Formation (Figure 14). Permeability data show that it is low in the studied gypsum rocks.
Core and field images showing (A) core from Kirkuk well illustrates the nature of contact between the porous bitumen-rich limestone in the lower part and compact pore-free anhydrite bed; note some early disseminated hydrocarbons in the host materials (arrows). (B) Bed of nodular gypsum hosting brown hydrocarbon-rich matrix, Sheikh Ibrahim section. (C) Bitumen-rich limestone overlaid by hydrocarbon-free gypsum bed, Sheikh Ibrahim section.
Evaporites are indicative for arid continental environments [29], and their formation in sedimentary basins depends mostly on the connection of this basin with oceanic or sea water. Where this connection is periodically interrupted within arid settings, this may led to high evaporation of the basin and cyclic deposition of evaporitic successions in the sedimentary basins [31].
Lithofacies analysis of the studied evaporates revealed the presence of nodular and massive gypsum/anhydrite, laminated gypsum and secondary selenite, and satin spar lithofacies with several sublithofacies; these are representative of relict basin evaporate deposition based on their tectonic setting which they deposited during closure periods of the Neo-Tethys basin on the northern Arabian Plate passive margins [32].
Due to wide distribution of the Fat’ha Formation, several ideas have been proposed for the depositional cycles of gypsum formation. Semi-restricted lagoonal environments such as lakes which were connected to the open sea through narrow channels coincide with the brine-filled basin model suggested by [33, 34], while sabkha or supratidal flat depositional setting and coastal or inland sabkhas with semiarid shallow lagoon were favored by [18, 32], respectively. These models could be comparable with the Messinian basin evaporites of the Mediterranean [35] and Middle Miocene (Badenian) basin-marginal evaporites of the Carpathian Foredeep basin of western Ukraine [36].
Petrographic investigation of the gypsum and anhydritic rocks of the Middle Miocene Fat’ha Formation has revealed that nodular gypsum is the dominant type and is composed of granular integrated gypsum texture with evidence of recrystallization, whereas alabastrine texture is the common type in the laminated gypsum. Secondary gypsum of selenite and satin spar shows alabastrine, fine to coarse fibrous, and porphyroblastic textures with the alabastrine type being predominant.
Nodular gypsum was deposited in a very shallow, arid, and semi-restricted lagoonal environment which has undergone influx and reflux processes, while laminated gypsum may represent pulses of freshwater into the lagoonal basin of Fat’ha Formation.
The chemical composition of selected nodular, laminated, and secondary (selenite) and mosaic gypsum shows low values of strontium (Sr) in the secondary and laminated types due to their secondary origin by the hydration from the original anhydrite through which Sr. in the original anhydrite was expelled. The impoverishment in Sr. commonly occurs in secondary-type gypsum as compared with primary ones [37]. High values in some of gypsum types (see Table 1) may be attributed to diagenetic processes and the sea salinity.
Hydrocarbons present mainly in the limestone beds underlie gypsum beds and in materials hosting gypsum nodules. Porous granular texture of these materials allowed hydrocarbon inclusion, later on, during compaction and growth of nodular to compound mosaic due to recrystallization resulted in prevent hydrocarbon dissemination, then these materials were locked in these materials and partly in accompanied gypsum nodules. These results were revealed by low porosity and permeability of the studied gypsum nodules as compared to those of the limestone beds.
Mycotoxins are secondary toxic metabolites with a wide variety of chemical structures synthesized by fungi (mold) [1]. Mycotoxins are thought to be a kind of “chemical defense system” to protect mold from insects, microorganisms, nematodes, grazing animals, and humans [2]. Molds reproduce by means of spores, and their small molecular weight spores are easily disseminated to environment by wind. They cannot be affected by the adverse environmental conditions and can be present in the latent state for long periods. Moreover, when the environmental conditions are appropriate, spores return to vegetative form and can form into new mold colonies. Agricultural products can be contaminated with mold in pre-harvest via insect and bird damage and harsh weather condition damage such as hail damage. In addition, selected harvesting method is one of the most important reasons in contamination of the mold to the products. Improper storage, transport, and marketing can also cause the mold growth and synthesis of mycotoxins [3].
Mycotoxin can occur in food and agricultural products via many contamination pathways, at any stage of production, processing, transport, and storage (Figure 1) [4]. Factors that affect mold growth and mycotoxin production are temperature, relative humidity, fungicides and/or fertilizers, interaction between the colonizing toxigenic fungal species, type of subtract and nutritional factors, geographical location, genetic requirements, and insect infestation [5, 6].
Factors affecting mycotoxin occurrence in the food and feed chain [
Approximately 400 fungal secondary metabolites are known to be toxic, and one quarter of agricultural products have been reported to be contaminated with mycotoxins in the world [5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. While a type of mold may form more than one mycotoxin, a mycotoxin can be synthesized by many molds. The most common types of mold which are known to produce mycotoxins are
According to the result of many studies in poultry and mammals, mycotoxins can be carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic, hepatotoxic, nephrotoxic, immunosuppressive, and embryotoxic [11]. The phenomenon of toxicity is called mycotoxicosis occurring after consumption of mycotoxin-contaminated product by human and animal [12].
Especially cereals, grains, nuts, oilseeds, fruits, dried fruits, vegetables, cocoa and coffee beans, wine, beer, herbs, and spices are major mycotoxin vectors since they are consumed by a large mass of people and animals [4]. Mycotoxins cause different degrees of toxicity according to exposure time, mycotoxin amount, physiological state, and sensitivity of the organism in humans and animals.
In addition to risk of public health, mycotoxins generate high level of economical loses for food industry due to reduced crop yields, lost trade revenues (local and international), and livestock illnesses [13, 14]. Elimination of mycotoxin is quite though due to resistant to physical, chemical, and biological methods; however, some of the measures described in the following sections may help to prevent mycotoxin. The methods used for mycotoxin determination are chromatography such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), thin-layer chromatography (TLC), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and also enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) technique and biosensor-based screening methods [15]. Detection is complicated due to limitations in analytical methodology [16]. Therefore, prevention of mold contamination and mycotoxin synthesis is essential for food safety in food industry.
According to the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), 77 countries have established guidance and regulations on mycotoxin in food and feed to control the level of mycotoxin. On the other hand, 13 countries including African countries still do not have specific regulation for food safety [4].
Ergotism is one of the oldest determined mycotoxicoses (disease) in human and results from consumption of the ergot body in rye or other grains infected by a parasitic fungus of the genus
Mycotoxins can occur in the food in several ways (Figure 1), but technically divided into two groups; first is mold growth as a pathogen plant in field, another one is grow on stored. After plant materials are contaminated with mold spores from soil and air, they easily contaminate other food source, production area, laboratory, and even kitchen of our homes. Certain species of mold are capable of mycotoxin synthesis; therefore, each food contaminated with mold always may not contain mycotoxins. Nevertheless, moldy products are considered to be risky products in terms of mycotoxin.
Mycotoxins appear in almost all kinds of animal feed and products such as wheat bran, noug cake, pea hulls, maize grain, milk and meat, and also human food such as cereal, fruit and vegetables, spice, etc. [5]. Consuming these foods creates serious health risks in human and all animal species. Mycotoxin intake by feed or food causes chronic intoxication rather than acute symptoms. Acute toxicity is observed in high-dose mycotoxin exposure, and symptoms show a rapid effect such as borborygmy, abdominal pain, diarrhea, etc. On the other hand, low-level mycotoxin exposure in long period causes serious impairments in the liver, kidney, and immune system organs and tissues. Therefore, mycotoxin plays a significant role in cancer in these organs [2]. Some important mycotoxin health effects are shown in Figure 2. Toxic effects on humans and animals of important mycotoxins are shown in Table 1 [19].
Aflatoxin (AFL), ochratoxin A (OTA), patulin (PAT), fumonisin (FUM), trichothecenes (TCT), and zearalenone (ZEA) mycotoxin health effects [
Mycotoxins | Genus/species | Major food | Toxic effects and diseases |
---|---|---|---|
Aflatoxin | Cereals, feeds, oilseeds and pulp, coconut | Carcinogenic, hepatotoxicity, teratogenicity, decreasing immune systems, affecting the structure of DNA, hepatitis, bleeding, kidney lesions | |
Fumonisin | Cereals, corn | Encephalomalacia, pulmonary edema, carcinogenic, neurotoxicity, liver damage, heart failure, esophageal cancer in humans | |
Ochratoxin OTA | Cereals, herbs, oil seeds, figs, beef jerky, fruits, and wine | Kidney and liver damage, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, suppression of immune system, carcinogenic | |
Patulin | Silage, wheat, feeds, apples, grapes, peaches, pears, apricots, olives, cereals | Neural syndromes, brain hemorrhage, skin lesions, skin cancer, lung, mutagenicity, antibacterial effect | |
Trichothecenes (T2, DON, DAS, HT2) | Cereals, feeds, silage, legumes, fruits, and vegetables | Immune suppression, cytotoxic, skin necrosis, hemorrhage, anemia, granulocytopenia, oral epithelial lesions, GIS lesions, hematopoietic, alimentary toxic aleukia (ATA), hypotension, coagulopathy | |
Zearalenone | Cereals, corn, silage, timothy grass, fodder | Carcinogenic, hormonal imbalance estrogenic effect, reproductive problems, teratogenic |
Name of some important mycotoxin-producing fungi, susceptible foods, and mycotoxin effects on humans and animals [19].
Mycotoxins have caused many serious outbreaks worldwide. There was an outbreak that occurred in 1967, and 26 people were poisoned because of the consumption of moldy rice for up to 3 weeks in Taiwan [21]. An outbreak of aflatoxicosis affecting humans, reported in India, led to the death of 100 people in 1974 [22]. Another outbreak was reported in India in 1995, affecting 1424 people due to sorghum and maize contaminated with fumonisin [23]. During January–June 2004, an aflatoxicosis outbreak in eastern Kenya resulted in 317 cases and 125 deaths [24].
Mycotoxin contamination in foods and fodder has been becoming a global concern day by day. According to Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) reports, it is estimated that mycotoxin affects nearly 25% of the world’s crop each year and is causing huge agricultural product and industrial losses in billions of dollars [25]. For example, estimated annual loss in the United States is approximately $ 0.5–1.5 billion [19]. The main effects of mycotoxins on national economies can be thought in five ways:
Product yield losses due to toxigenic mold diseases
Decrease in commercial value because of contaminated food and feed
Human and animal health losses due to harmful impacts associated with mycotoxin-contaminated food and fodder consumption
Cost of analysis of mycotoxin
Strategies to control mycotoxin contamination
Economic impacts are felt by agricultural chain such as manufacturer of plant and animal, especially cereal industry, consumers, and briefly all farm-to-fork steps.
Aflatoxins are a group of toxic secondary metabolites of filamentous fungi,
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a natural mycotoxin produced mainly by fungal type of
Fumonisins are generated by various fungal species such as
The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) identified FB1 as possibly carcinogenic to humans (group 2B). Recent studies reported that FB1 causes an increased prevalence of esophageal and liver cancer in humans [59]. Furthermore, this mycotoxin has been found to have toxic effects against several organs (nervous and cardiovascular systems, liver, lung, kidney) in animals [60]. Fumonisins are largely found in corn and corn-based foods and also FB1 in rice, beer, sorghum, cowpea seeds, triticale, beans, asparagus, and soybeans [61].
Zearalenone (ZEA), known as an estrogenic mycotoxin, is a secondary metabolite produced by
Several in vivo studies found that ZEA disrupts hormonal balance due to its similarity to naturally occurring estrogens [64]. The mycotoxin has high affinity for estrogen receptors, causing reproduction and fertility disorders in mammals [65]. In addition, it is known that progressive exposure to endocrine-modulatory compound has been linked with carcinogenesis in human [64]. According to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) report in 2014, the bioavailability of toxin is up to 80% in human and animals such as rats, rabbits, and pigs [66]. Moreover, recent works report ZEA is metabolized in the liver and has shown hepatotoxic, immunotoxic, carcinogenic, and nephrotoxic effect in animal tests [67, 68, 69]. As this mycotoxin possesses such consumer health risks, the European Union (EU) has prescribed the limits of ZEA (20–350 μg/kg) for various processed and unprocessed cereals [66].
Trichothecenes are a large group of mycotoxins produced predominantly by
The mechanism of action of trichothecenes is based on the inhibition of protein synthesis in eukaryotes. This mycotoxin affects peptidyl transferase enzyme binding the 60S ribosomal subunit, thus causing the inhibition of protein translation and ribotoxic stress [75]. Also, Pestka reported these groups of mycotoxins cause immunosuppression or immune stimulation by affecting the leucocytes [76].
The family of trichothecenes has a significant impact on cereal and grain production due to health risk for human consumption, livestock feed, or malting purposes [77, 78]. According to report from the FDA, economic losses associated with mycotoxin ranges from USD 0.5 million to over USD 1.5 billion from aflatoxin (corn and peanuts), fumonisin (corn), and deoxynivalenol (wheat) in the United States. [72]. Hence, control of these mycotoxins is essential for human and animal health and economic reasons.
Deoxynivalenol (DON), known as vomitoxin, is the most commonly detected trichothecenes in grains such as wheat, barley, oats, rye, and corn and less often in rice, sorghum, and triticale [79]. Even though NIV presence of cereals appears generally to be lower than DON [80], it has been reported that the occurrence of NIV in of wheat and barley is as prevalent as that of deoxynivalenol (DON) in Japan [81]. According to animal toxicity studies, NIV shows higher toxicity than DON. The LD50 values for DON and NIV in tests in mice were 78 and 39 mg/kg, respectively, and DON and NIV, similarly to other trichothecenes, show inhibitor effect on cell metabolism such as protein, DNA, and RNA synthesis [82]. In addition, these mycotoxins affect cell division and mitochondrial functions [83, 84, 70]. Both mycotoxins exhibit major symptoms such as abdominal discomfort, diarrhea, vomiting, and inflammation of the throat, weight loss, and anorexia [85].
The World Health Organization (WHO) reported that trichothecenes shows fatal and chronic intoxications on human and livestock and also DON shows teratogenic, neurotoxigenic, and immunosuppressant effects [86].
According to the conducted BIOMIN World Mycotoxin Survey, DON appeared in 81% of livestock feed from 81 countries worldwide followed by fumonisins that were detected in 71% of samples. Therefore, DON is reported as the most common mycotoxin worldwide (https://www.biomin.net/en/biomin-mycotoxin-survey/).
Food safety is a key component in public health issue, and a mycotoxin is a huge food safety risk in developing countries. Prevention is the most important and effective way in reducing fungal growth and mycotoxin production to ensure food safety. The following steps that explain prevention and control of mycotoxin occurrence include good agricultural practices (GAP) in field, control practices of harvesting and storage, physical methods (cleaning, milling, etc.), implementation of biotechnological application, biological control through the use of controlled atmosphere during storage, detoxification/degradation, and fermentation techniques.
Pre-harvesting is considered first and one of the most important stages to prevent mold growth and mycotoxin synthesis. Several strategies are available for the produce of healthy products and reduce the mold formation at pre-harvesting, including selection of plants according to the soil structure and production capacity, use of plant which is resistant to fungi and insects, irrigation time, make fertilization, use of insecticides to prevent insect damage [87].
Harvesting at the appropriate time periods (low moisture and full maturity) is essential for reducing the risk of a mycotoxin contamination since overmaturity creates sensitivity to mold growth. Additionally, suitable harvesting equipment and procedures should be used, and crops should be dried after maturity to both reduce grain moisture to safe levels [88].
The latest technological advances provided new paths in mycotoxin control strategies that include the use of a controlled atmosphere with inhibitory or a protective effect and use of naturally occurring compounds under different conditions and essential oils with antioxidant properties to decrease fungal growth and mycotoxin production in grains during storage [89]. Moreover, these strategies also include using regularly cleaned transport vehicles to prevent cross contamination of products; monitoring of temperature, humidity, aeration and pest infestation periodic during storage [90]; using mold inhibitors (propionic acid) to contaminated food and feed; and application of disinfectant such as sodium hypochlorite to storage area [91].
Some studies have shown that using physical methods (dehulling, washing, sorting, and cleaning of visible moldy seed) reduces different mycotoxin species in foods regardless of grain genre [70]. Scudamore and Pascale et al. [92] and Patel [93] observed a reduction of T-2 (62%) and HT-2 (53%) and DON (50%) in wheat seeds after cleaning. Scudamore and Patel also reported a 32% reduction in fumonisin levels in corn in an industrial enterprise [94]. Moreover, milling is an important effect in the reduction of
One of the best applicable strategies for the prevention of mycotoxin formation is the cultivation of fungal infestation-resistant plants and improvement of the genetic composition to suppress mycotoxin production [96]. The benefits of biotechnological applications were observed with Aflasafe. Aflasafe is a biocontrol product that includes a blend of four fungal species covered over grains which reduce aflatoxigenic fungi that produce AFs in maize and groundnuts (https://aflasafe.com/).
Mycotoxins are resistant to heat and cannot be completely destroyed under normal cooking process. On the other hand, mycotoxin reduction has been determined after heating, and this may be the result of reactions changing the chemical structure [70]. Ryu et al. reported heat treatment (at temperature 120–160°C) causes a reduction between 66 and 83% of ZEN [97]. Scott and Lawrence also reported a reduction of 60–100% of fumonisins with a heat treatment at 190°C (60 min) and 220°C (25 min).
Biological control of mycotoxins via detoxification/degradation offers a promising alternative method [98]. Recently the effectiveness of fermentation for the reduction and elimination of mycotoxins has also been proven. Studies documented in the literature generally show that mycotoxins are reduced by conversion, detoxification, binding, degradation, and decontamination after food fermentation [99]. Modification of the chemical structure of the mycotoxin molecule, removal or detoxification/inactivation, and adhesion to bacterial cell walls provide a reduced toxicity during fermentation [99]. Implementation of these preventive methods cannot solve the problem alone; also it must be an integral part of an integrated food safety management system based on the hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP).
HACCP is a food management system where food safety is addressed through the analysis, control, and monitoring of physical, chemical, and biological hazards from raw material manufacturing, supply, and handling to production, distribution, and consumption of the finished product [100]. The National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods (NACMCF) published a guideline about HACCP containing seven basic principles, decision tree, and all plans in 1992 [101]. Implementation of HACCP is an effective strategy for prevention, control, and periodic monitoring of mycotoxin in all stages from field to the consumer. There are 12 successive steps recommended to implementation of HACCP system. Previous HACCP studies can be researched to set up tasks from 1 to 5 that specify each food process, and tasks required for mycotoxin control begin at 6 (Principle 1).
Establish the HACCP team.
Describe the product.
Identify the product’s intended use.
Draw up the commodity flow diagram.
Confirm the flow diagram on-site.
Identify and analyze hazard(s) (Principle 1).
Determine the critical control points (CCPs) (Principle 2).
Establish critical limits for each (CCP) (Principle 3).
Establish a monitoring procedure (Principle 4).
Establish corrective action (Principle 5).
Verify the HACCP plan (Principle 6).
Keep record (Principle 7).
Crops and tolerated levels of mycotoxins (μgkg−1) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Country | Mycotoxins | Rice | Maize | Spices | Fruit juices |
Brazil | AFB1/AFG1 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 |
China | AFB1 | 10 | 20 | — | — |
France | FB1 | 1000 | 1000 | — | — |
Hungary | Total AF OTA | 50 5 | 50 5 | - - | - - |
Japan | AFB1 Patulin | 10 | 10 | 10 | — |
The United States | Total AF Patulin | 20 - | 20 - | 20 - | - 50 |
Turkey | AFB1 Patulin | 2 - | 2 - | 5 - | - - |
Global regulation of mycotoxin contamination in agricultural products [103].
Microbiological and/or chemical tests can be used to confirm which product is meeting CCP.
Asking questions especially to CCP employees.
Internal or external audit by independent person to check whether HACCP system is being implemented.
Step/CCP | Hazard analysis | Monitoring | Corrective action | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hazard | Control | Critical limit | Monitoring | Frequency | ||
Pre-harvest/ growing | Low soil moisture leading to plant stress during kernel development | Irrigate | Lower limit of critical water activity (aw) (check with your agronomist/extension staff for an exact value) | Measure soil moisture and record | Weekly on Monday morning | Additional irrigation; record amounts |
Insufficient soil nutrients leading to plant stress during kernel development | Fertilize | N, P, and K applications as recommended for hybrid by local agronomists (insert the values) | Fertilizer applied (appropriate for soil type and hybrid); amounts and type recorded | As recommended for hybrid | Additional fertilizer; record amounts added | |
Insect attack leading to damaged kernels | Integrated pest management (IPM) plan | Insect population within acceptable limits as determined by control program | Visual inspection and sample, with results recorded | Weekly | Apply pesticide in accordance with IPM plan | |
Harvest | Damage to kernels from harvester | Harvest when kernels are dry | Moisture content ≤14% | Measure and record grain moisture | Prior to harvest | Delay harvest till kernels are dried enough |
Storage | Excessive moisture content of kernels | Do not store until kernels are dry | Moisture content ≤14% | Measure and record grain moisture | Immediately prior to storage | Dry mechanically |
Insect attack, allowing fungi to penetrate kernels | IPM plan | No evidence of insect or rodent infestation using inspection protocols specified in IPM plan | Visual inspection with results recorded | Weekly | Apply pest control methods in accordance with IPM plan | |
High ambient humidity and temperature | Aerate grain to control temperature and humidity | Temperature and humidity within limits recommended in industry literature | Measure and record humidity, ambient temperature, and airflow | Daily during storage | Adjust aeration time of day or airflow to achieve desired temperature and humidity |
HACCP plan of maize [102].
Mycotoxin is a well-known food safety risk, which is a threat to human and livestock health, and has high economic significance in food industry. Recently, the food industry has become aware of the new term modified mycotoxins introduced by Rychlik et al. (masked mycotoxin) [104]. Food safety risk has risen since masked mycotoxins which pose many difficulties including the unknown occurrence/co-occurrence of these compounds and their toxicological properties. In addition, Lorenz et al. reported that the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has taken into account efforts to address this emerging issue in food safety by developing strategies on how to evaluate potential added health risk due to the occurrence of modified mycotoxins [104].
Mycotoxigenic molds are difficult to prevent and control due to their widespread presence in nature. Prevention of mycotoxin synthesis in all stages of food processing is an essential point for public health and economic reasons. Many practices used for prevention of mycotoxin include good agricultural practices (GAP) in field, control practices of harvesting and storage, physical methods (cleaning, milling, etc.), implementation of biotechnological application, biological control through the use of controlled atmosphere during storage, detoxification/degradation, and fermentation techniques.
Meanwhile a number of techniques for mycotoxin control and management prove to be quite costly and/or unenforceable in some cases. On the other hand, using fermentation process for appropriate process has been recommended for mycotoxin reduction by Adebiyi et al. [99]. In the future, more emphasis should be given to nanotechnology and genetic engineering practices in the development of durable product types to ensure food safety.
In addition to these applications, food safety management systems such as HACCP, GAP, and good manufacturing practices (GMP) should be integrated at all stages of production, transport, and storage, in order to minimize contamination in food industry. Also fairly new food safety system including threat assessment critical control points (TACCP), vulnerability critical control points (VACCP), and hazard analysis and risk-based preventive controls (HARPC) should be investigated and implemented to ensure an effective control system.
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His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"8",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11404,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343"},editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",slug:"hitoshi-tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",slug:"marcus-vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",slug:"ramana-vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"9008",title:"Vitamin K",subtitle:"Recent Topics on the Biology and Chemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9008.jpg",slug:"vitamin-k-recent-topics-on-the-biology-and-chemistry",publishedDate:"March 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hiroyuki Kagechika and Hitoshi Shirakawa",hash:"8b43add5389ba85743e0a9491e4b9943",volumeInSeries:27,fullTitle:"Vitamin K - Recent Topics on the Biology and Chemistry",editors:[{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9759",title:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease",subtitle:"Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9759.jpg",slug:"vitamin-e-in-health-and-disease-interactions-diseases-and-health-aspects",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Júlia Scherer Santos",hash:"6c3ddcc13626110de289b57f2516ac8f",volumeInSeries:22,fullTitle:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease - Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109978/images/system/109978.jpg",institutionString:"Hacettepe University",institution:{name:"Hacettepe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7004",title:"Metabolomics",subtitle:"New Insights into Biology and Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7004.jpg",slug:"metabolomics-new-insights-into-biology-and-medicine",publishedDate:"July 1st 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Wael N. 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Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. 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It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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