Location of the gas sampling ports on the experimental silo
\r\n\tThe successful management of these patients needs a multidisciplinary team composed of gastroenterologists, surgeons, interventional radiologists and specialists in critical care medicine, infectious disease and nutrition. The purpose of this book is to provide the reader with an overview of the multidisciplinary treatment of pancreatitis, both in its acute and chronic form.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-159-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-158-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-160-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"4e78047fa5099332e086bc621777e71f",bookSignature:"Dr. Marco Massani and Dr. Tommaso Stecca",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11719.jpg",keywords:"Acute and Chronic Pancreatitis, Diagnosis, Pain Management, Nutrition, MRI, CT, Fluid Resuscitation, ERCP, WON, Pancreatic Pseudocyst, Microbiota, Complications",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 2nd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 2nd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 1st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 20th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 18th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Chief of Department of Surgery at Treviso Regional Hospital, Italy who has served as Adjunct Professor at University of Padua, Italy since 2012. Member of the Italian Surgical Association (SIC), Member of the Italian Hospital Surgical Association (ACOI), Member of ENETS (European Neuroendocrine Tumor Society), and Member of the Executive Board of the Italian Chapter of International Hepato-Biliary-Pancreatic Association (IHPBA).",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Resident General Surgeon at HPB referral center in Treviso General Hospital, Italy with a background in research laboratory focused on liver disease and cholangiocarcinoma. Member of the multidisciplinary team of colorectal cancer and chronic inflammatory bowel disease.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"183231",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Massani",slug:"marco-massani",fullName:"Marco Massani",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/183231/images/system/183231.jpg",biography:"Dr Marco Massani is currently chief of Department of Surgery at Treviso Regional Hospital. He obtained his medical degree at University of Padova and after graduating in 19992 he started working at the regional reference center for hepato-pancreatico-biliary (HPB) surgery, directed by Professor Nicolò Bassi. Also Dr Massani obtained the specialization in general surgery at the University of Padua. Since 2012 he also serves as Adjunct Professor at University of Padua, Italy. \r\n\r\nThroughout his career. Dr Marco Massani has worked at Treviso Regional Hospital but at the same time he has visited many important international institutes. He was visiting surgeon and attended courses at many well known institutes like Memorial Sloan Kattering Cancer Center and Mount Sinai Medical Center in New York, the Thomas Starzl Transplant Institute in Pittsburg, Imperial Hammersmith Hospital School of Medicine College in London, Emory University in Atlanta, Hospital Beujion in Paris etc.\r\n\r\nDr. Massani was a member of the Bioethics Committee and is the author of numerous scientific publications. He is also Member of the Italian Surgical Association (SIC), Member of the Italian Hospital Surgical Association (ACOI), Member of ENETS (European Neuroendocrine Tumor Society) and Member of the Executive board of the Italian Chapter of International Hepato-Bilary-Pancreatic Association (IHPBA).",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Padua",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"297971",title:"Dr.",name:"Tommaso",middleName:null,surname:"Stecca",slug:"tommaso-stecca",fullName:"Tommaso Stecca",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002jyweAQAQ/Profile_Picture_1639482119258",biography:"Dr. Tommaso Stecca is a Resident General Surgeon at HPB referral center in Treviso General Hospital. He has a background in research laboratory focused on liver disease and cholangiocarcinoma. 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The decomposition is due to biological, chemical oxidative and slow pyrolytic processes depending on the availability of oxygen [1-3]. The major VOCs emitted from stored wood pellets were aldehydes, some of which are known to cause irritation to the respiratory system [4].
Previous measurements have shown that freshly made wood pellets continue to emit flammable gases CO, H2, and CH4 during storage and handling. A large portion of this emission is CO as opposed to emission of volatile organic compounds (VOC) like formic acid, methanol and aldehydes [5, 6]. More volatile organic compounds emit from stored sawdust and wood chips compared to stored wood pellets [7-9]. This is because of the fact that most of the VOCs easily evaporate during heating and drying processes [10, 11] and as wood pellets pass through high temperature during drying and pelletization, decomposition of extractives would result in less VOCs emission. During pelletization, sawdust is dried at temperatures from 100 to 400 °C so the moisture content goes below 10%. Roffael [12], Rupar and Sanati [13] also reported the emission of VOCs during biomass storage. Large amount of monoterpenes and other volatile organic compounds are emitted during drying [10, 11, 14, 15]. High levels of CO were first measured in compartments of a ship in 2002 when an ocean vessel was discharging wood pellets in Rotterdam, The Netherlands. The wood pellets were shipped from Vancouver, British Columbia and the duration of the voyage was 38 days. One person was killed and several people were severely injured as a result of exposure to high concentration of CO when entering a stairway adjacent to the cargo space [16]. Svedberg identified that the storage of wood pellets led to the emission of high levels of hexanal as a result of the general degradation processes of wood.
In terms of CO2, CO, and CH4 emissions, higher emission factors are associated with higher temperatures, whereas increased relative humidity in the enclosed container increased the rate of gas emission and a corresponding depletion of oxygen [17, 18]. Wihersaari [8] concluded that the CO2 emissions from fresh forest residues were almost three times higher than the dried materials, and suggested that mixing the heaps during the storage period would probably cause increased emissions rates. Emissions of CO, CO2 and CH4 are likely due to biodegradation and auto-oxidative reactions of organic constituents naturally present in wood [1].
The off-gassing tests were conducted at three nominal temperatures of 25 °C, 40 °C and 60 °C. Room temperature provided the 25 °C storage environment. Two identical ovens were used to provide 40 °C and 60 °C storage environments. Twenty four (24) glass containers, 2L each, were divided into three equal groups for testing at the three temperatures. For each set of 8 containers, 6 containers were used for gas sampling and 2 containers were used for temperature measurement. The temperature inside the containers was measured with thermocouples and data was logged onto a PC. The following procedure was followed for each test container. The empty weight of the container without the lid was recorded (M1). The container was filled to 75% volume with wood pellets (M2). Finally, the weight of the wood pellets was calculated (M3). The lid with sampling port was then applied, thereby sealing the container. Filled containers along two empty containers (for each storage temperature) were arranged in upright position. The two empty jars were included to have consistent condition as the filled jars for temperature reading. Temperature was also directly recorded from a thermocouple inside the oven.
All measurements of the gases (CO, CO2 and CH4) were made in an experimental silo designed and installed at the Clean Energy Research Centre (CERC), the Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, University of British Columbia [19, 20]. The experimental silo has a volume of 5.65m3 (1.2m diameter, 4.6m height) and is made of mild steel. The silo is designed to represent the storage of substantial quantities of wood pellets. A two level structure was designed and built to support the pilot scale silo. The set-up was further equipped with sensors for temperature, gas pressure and relative humidity measurements. Thermocouples and pressure transducers were installed at various levels along the height of the silo. Two EXP-32 cards were used to log the temperature and pressure data during the experiments. The experimental data of pressure and temperature were logged into a computer running on the LABTECH software using a data acquisition board (PCI-DAS08, Techmatron Instruments Inc, Canada) consisting of pressure transducers and thermocouples. However the pilot size of the set-up made it challenging to have it equipped with different monitoring systems and make it sealed. Fourteen 12mm diameter gas sampling ports with 3mm ball valves are provided at 2 sides of the pilot silo along the wall at different levels for gas sampling. The positions of the gas sampling ports in the large silo are indicated in Table 1. Six of the gas sampling ports are located on one side of the silo and another 7 on the other side.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
G0 | \n\t\t\t4.16 | \n\t\t\tG0 | \n\t\t\t4.16 | \n\t\t
G2 | \n\t\t\t3.55 | \n\t\t\tG3 | \n\t\t\t3.35 | \n\t\t
G4 | \n\t\t\t2.94 | \n\t\t\tG5 | \n\t\t\t2.74 | \n\t\t
G6 | \n\t\t\t2.33 | \n\t\t\tG7 | \n\t\t\t2.13 | \n\t\t
G8 | \n\t\t\t1.65 | \n\t\t\tG9 | \n\t\t\t1.52 | \n\t\t
G10 | \n\t\t\t1.21 | \n\t\t\tG11 | \n\t\t\t0.91 | \n\t\t
G12 | \n\t\t\t0.50 | \n\t\t\tG13 | \n\t\t\t0.30 | \n\t\t
Location of the gas sampling ports on the experimental silo
In small scale tests, initially and at intervals, approximately 25 mL of gas was drawn from each container by an air-tight GC syringe (25mL SGE Gas-Tight Syringe, Luer-Lock and TOGAS Luer Lock Adapter, Mandel Scientific Company) and analyzed by GC/FID (Flame Ionization Detector) and GC/TCD (Thermal Conductivity Detector) methods for the composition of the sampled gases (CO, CO2, CH4, N2, O2 and H2). In pilot scale tests, Gas samples were collected using an airtight syringe (SG-009770-100mL SGE Gas-Tight Syringe, Luer-Lock, Mandel Scientific, Canada). The syringe had a Luer lock device to help in collecting a known quantity of gas sample. The Shimadzu GC needle used with the 100mL SGE syringe was Togas Loop Fill Interface N711 Needle (Model number: 220-90615-00, Mandel Scientific Inc.).The GC has three columns in series: Porapak-N (80/100 mesh, 3 m), Porapak-Q (80/100 mesh, 3 m) and a MS-5A (60/80, 2.25 m). The FID detector was used for CO, CO2 and CH4 and the TCD was used for N2, O2 and H2, with Argon as the carrier gas. Argon was the reference gas for the TCD. Compressed air was the reference gas for the FID.
Gas sampling started one day after loading of the containers. Prior to gas concentration measurements, the GC was calibrated with three different standard gases, which contained known concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2), hydrogen (H2) and helium (He) (Table 2). To ensure steady and accurate readings by the GC, 25 mL of a standard gas with known concentration of gases was injected to the GC for calibration before and after gas analysis every day.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||
Components | \n\t\t\tConcentration (%) | \n\t\t\tComponents | \n\t\t\tConcentration (%) | \n\t\t\tComponents | \n\t\t\tConcentration (%) | \n\t\t
CO | \n\t\t\t2.5 | \n\t\t\tCO | \n\t\t\t0.05 | \n\t\t\tCO | \n\t\t\t0.50 | \n\t\t
CO2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t6.0 | \n\t\t\tCO2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.10 | \n\t\t\tCO2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.50 | \n\t\t
CH4\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1.5 | \n\t\t\tCH4\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.50 | \n\t\t\tCH4\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.10 | \n\t\t
N2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t3.0 | \n\t\t\tH2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.50 | \n\t\t\tH2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1.00 | \n\t\t
O2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t10.0 | \n\t\t\tAir | \n\t\t\tBalance | \n\t\t\tAir | \n\t\t\tbalance | \n\t\t
He | \n\t\t\t2.0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Ar | \n\t\t\tbalance | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Compositions (volumetric) of standard gases for GC calibration
The moisture content of the reference wood pellets was 4% as received. They were subsequently conditioned to 9, 15, 35 and 50% moisture content respectively by spraying distilled water on the wood pellets in a container during rotary motion. At 15% moisture or higher the integrity and wood pellet shape were compromised.
The off-gassing tests were conducted at three temperatures 25°C, 40°C and 60°C. For the tests at 25°C, the containers were placed on the lab shelf. To provide the higher storage temperatures two identical ovens were used. The Biomass and Bioenergy Research Group (BBRG) at UBC has developed the method of using multiple smaller containers and sampling a very limited amount of gas from each container at lower frequency rather than frequent sampling from a larger container in order to minimize the distortion in gas concentration due to extraction of gas. This method allows a much smaller sample size to be used for testing.
Eight glass containers with wood pellets were put on the lab shelf for 25°C for testing. The 8 containers were named A-4-X, A-4-Y, A-9-X, A-9-Y, A-15-X and A-15-Y [e.g. A-4-X indicates the first replicate of wood pellets sample at ambient temperature (25°C) and 4% moisture content]. The same format was used for labeling the samples at higher temperature. The letter A was replaced by 40 for the tests at 40°C and with 60 for the tests at 60°C. Each set of 8 containers (6 containers for gas sample measurement and 2 for temperature measurement) were placed in 40°C and 60°C ovens. The temperature inside the containers was measured with thermocouple sensor connected to a computer for temperature logging. All containers were checked before conducting the experiments to ensure proper sealing. The exact same labeling and procedure were used for tests at 15, 35 and 50% moisture content.
To create the baseline for gas concentrations, two empty containers were placed in room temperature (25°C), another two in the 40°C oven and another two in the 60°C oven. 100 mL of gas was drawn from each container and analyzed by the GC for gas composition. Figure 1 to Figure 10 show plots of gas concentrations vs. storage time for the three temperatures and 2 moisture concentrations [4 and 50%] for each gas. The concentration of each gas is presented on the same graph for one moisture content and 3 different storage temperatures. The concentrations are given in percent on volumetric scale in ppmv (parts per million volume). A concentration of 0.6% means 6000 ppmv.
Concentration of CO2 for wood pellet with 4% moisture content over 62 days at 25°C, 40°C and 60°C.
Concentration of CO2 for wood pellet with 50% moisture content over 62 days at 25°C, 40°C and 60°C
Concentration of CO for wood pellet with 4% moisture content over 62 days at 25°C, 40°C and 60°C
Concentration of CO for wood pellet with 50% moisture content over 62 days at 25°C, 40°C and 60°C
Concentration of CH4 for emissions from wood pellet with 4% moisture content over 62 days at 25°C, 40°C and 60°C
Concentration of CH4 for emissions from wood pellet with 50% moisture content over 62 days at 25°C, 40°C and 60°C
Oxygen depletion for wood pellet with 4% moisture content over 62 days at 25°C, 40°C and 60°C
Oxygen depletion for wood pellet with 50% moisture content over 62 days at 25°C, 40°C and 60°C
Concentration of hydrogen for emissions from wood pellet with 4% moisture content over 62 days at 25°C, 40°C and 60°C
Concentration of hydrogen for emissions from wood pellet with 50% moisture content over 62 days at 25°C, 40°C and 60°C
Plots in Figure 1 to 2 show the concentration of carbon dioxide over time at 25°C, 40°C and 60°C for wood pellets with 4 and 50% moisture content respectively. Figures of carbon dioxide concentration for wood pellets with 9, 15 and 35% moisture content are presented in Appendix A. As expected, the higher the temperature, the higher the concentration of the CO2 gas. However, for wood pellets with 4, 9 and 15% moisture content at 25°C, the CO2 concentration increased from ~0.9% to ~1.7% instead showing a relation between time and moisture content. At 25°C when the moisture content increased higher to 35 and 50%, the maximum concentration of CO2 did not go beyond what was seen for the wood pellets with 15% moisture content. At 40°C and 60°C, the increase was from 2.84% to 5.55% and 9.58% to 10.94% respectively (for wood pellets with 4% to 50%). The maximum concentration of CO2 was observed at 15% moisture content. Above 15% moisture content, the maximum concentration of CO2 increased only marginally at 40°C and stayed almost the same at 60°C.
Figure 3 to 4 show CO concentration at 4 and 50% moisture content at 25°C, 40°C and 60°C [Rest of the Figures for CO can be found in Appendix A]. The concentration of CO increased over time for wood pellets with 4 and 9% moisture content as the storage temperature increased. CO concentration did not increase at 25°C, 40°C and 60°C for wood pellets with 15% moisture content. The CO concentrations at room temperature and the six moisture contents the peak concentration of CO was the same for 4% and 9% moisture content and decreased to ~0.8% for wood pellets with 15% moisture content. The concentration decreased even further for wood pellets with 35 and 50% moisture content. At 40°C, for wood pellets with 4 and 9 and 15%, carbon monoxide concentration decreased from 1.5% to 1.4% and 1.1% respectively. For wood pellets with 35%, the peak concentration stayed at 1.0% and increased slightly when the moisture content of wood pellets increased to 50%. The same CO concentration change was observed at 60°C for wood pellets with 4 and 9 and 15%. When the moisture content increased to 35%, CO peak concentration increased to 1.52% but stayed the same for higher moisture content like 50%.
Similar to carbon dioxide concentration, methane concentration over time increased with storage temperature for all levels of moisture contents except for 35% where the concentration was quite the same at 40°C and 60°C. An increase in temperature from 25oC to 40°C caused the peak concentration of CO to increase from 0.07% to 0.21%. Further increase in temperature to 60°C, resulted in peak concentration of CO to 0.28%. Except for the gas concentration at 25°C, concentration of CO decreased over time as the moisture content increased to 40°C and 60°C respectively.
Plots in Figure 7 to 8 as well as Figure A.10 to A.12 show the concentration of oxygen for wood pellets with six different moisture content at 25°C followed by the concentration at higher temperatures (40°C and 60°C) as a function of time. Depletion of oxygen was least significant for samples at 25°C and moisture content higher than 15%. For wood pellets with 4%, 15%, 35% and 50% moisture content the oxygen content decreased as a function of time. However, for wood pellets with 9% moisture content the oxygen depletion was more rapid during the first few days, at 25°C to 40°C. After 20 days the, oxygen concentration was leveling out at 5-6% at 25oC and reached 0% very quickly at 40°C.
Figure 9 to 10 shows the concentration of hydrogen for wood pellets with 4 and 50% moisture content over time at 25°C followed by the concentration at higher temperatures (40°C and 60°C). The release of hydrogen was minimal for samples with 50% moisture at 25°C. It was concluded that for the same moisture content, the hydrogen concentration increased as the temperature increased. However for wood pellets at the same temperature, the hydrogen concentration decreased as the moisture content increased.
This research conducted to provide a scientific basis to determine whether or not the concentration of the composite mix of gases emitted from wood pellets could reach flammable concentrations and if so, under what conditions. Table 3 summarizes the results of the calculations using the ISO 10156:2010 Standard [21].
The
The
Wood pellets exported to Europe have typically between 4 and 6% moisture. The 15% and higher represented wood pellets which have been accidentally exposed to moist conditions for a prolonged period of time. Testing of wood pellets with abnormal moisture content is important to make sure there is good safety margin for long duration shipments such as a 30-34 days voyage from for example British Columbia to Europe. The emission of gases from wood pellets reached a peak (plateau) as summarized in Table 3 within the first 20-30 days. At the same time the oxygen content decreased rapidly to a very low level as the emission of CO2 increased resulting in a near inert condition in the space. The flammability of the mixed gases was calculated when exposed to air with full complement of oxygen as per the ISO Standard.The research was carried out over a period of 62 days, just to ensure the gas evolution continued to be stable. The same calculations are done for 62 days as well and presented in Table 4.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t||||||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
CO2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.617 | \n\t\t\t1.334 | \n\t\t\t1.110 | \n\t\t\t1.741 | \n\t\t\t3.572 | \n\t\t\t3.620 | \n\t\t\t7.980 | \n\t\t\t8.490 | \n\t\t\t10.290 | \n\t\t
CO | \n\t\t\t0.975 | \n\t\t\t1.119 | \n\t\t\t0.678 | \n\t\t\t1.551 | \n\t\t\t1.329 | \n\t\t\t1.120 | \n\t\t\t1.752 | \n\t\t\t1.551 | \n\t\t\t1.120 | \n\t\t
CH4\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.036 | \n\t\t\t0.041 | \n\t\t\t0.019 | \n\t\t\t0.183 | \n\t\t\t0.174 | \n\t\t\t0.096 | \n\t\t\t0.254 | \n\t\t\t0.225 | \n\t\t\t0.120 | \n\t\t
H2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.383 | \n\t\t\t0.421 | \n\t\t\t0.365 | \n\t\t\t1.460 | \n\t\t\t1.209 | \n\t\t\t0.946 | \n\t\t\t1.811 | \n\t\t\t1.473 | \n\t\t\t1.230 | \n\t\t
CO/CH4/H2 mixture (sum) | \n\t\t\t1.394 | \n\t\t\t1.581 | \n\t\t\t1.062 | \n\t\t\t3.194 | \n\t\t\t2.712 | \n\t\t\t2.162 | \n\t\t\t3.817 | \n\t\t\t3.248 | \n\t\t\t2.470 | \n\t\t
Sum | \n\t\t\t2.011 | \n\t\t\t2.915 | \n\t\t\t2.172 | \n\t\t\t4.935 | \n\t\t\t6.284 | \n\t\t\t5.782 | \n\t\t\t11.797 | \n\t\t\t11.738 | \n\t\t\t12.760 | \n\t\t
O2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.000 | \n\t\t\t0.000 | \n\t\t\t0.000 | \n\t\t\t0.000 | \n\t\t\t0.000 | \n\t\t\t0.000 | \n\t\t\t0.000 | \n\t\t\t0.000 | \n\t\t\t0.000 | \n\t\t
N2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t97.989 | \n\t\t\t97.085 | \n\t\t\t97.828 | \n\t\t\t95.065 | \n\t\t\t93.716 | \n\t\t\t94.218 | \n\t\t\t88.203 | \n\t\t\t88.262 | \n\t\t\t87.240 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||||||||
12.398 | \n\t13.907 | \n\t10.253 | \n\t35.659 | \n\t30.013 | \n\t23.510 | \n\t43.556 | \n\t36.311 | \n\t28.641 | \n|
98.915 | \n99.086 | \n99.493 | \n97.677 | \n99.074 | \n99.648 | \n100.173 | \n100.997 | \n102.675 | \n|
Flammable | \n\tNo | \n\tNo | \n\tNo | \n\tNo | \n\tNo | \n\tNo | \n\tNo | \n\tNo | \n\tNo | \n
Concentration of gases from wood pellets after 34 days of storage
\n\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t||||||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t
CO2\n\t\t | \n\t\t0.805 | \n\t\t1.643 | \n\t\t1.593 | \n\t\t2.840 | \n\t\t4.680 | \n\t\t4.820 | \n\t\t9.571 | \n\t\t10.925 | \n\t\t11.890 | \n\t
CO | \n\t\t1.010 | \n\t\t1.103 | \n\t\t0.758 | \n\t\t1.561 | \n\t\t1.412 | \n\t\t1.112 | \n\t\t1.775 | \n\t\t1.560 | \n\t\t1.128 | \n\t
CH4\n\t\t | \n\t\t0.072 | \n\t\t0.086 | \n\t\t0.062 | \n\t\t0.211 | \n\t\t0.177 | \n\t\t0.114 | \n\t\t0.287 | \n\t\t0.241 | \n\t\t0.132 | \n\t
H2\n\t\t | \n\t\t0.753 | \n\t\t0.680 | \n\t\t0.559 | \n\t\t1.472 | \n\t\t1.251 | \n\t\t1.071 | \n\t\t1.858 | \n\t\t1.482 | \n\t\t1.261 | \n\t
CO/CH4/H2 mixture (sum) | \n\t\t1.835 | \n\t\t1.869 | \n\t\t1.379 | \n\t\t3.244 | \n\t\t2.840 | \n\t\t2.297 | \n\t\t3.920 | \n\t\t3.283 | \n\t\t2.521 | \n\t
Sum | \n\t\t2.640 | \n\t\t3.512 | \n\t\t2.972 | \n\t\t6.084 | \n\t\t7.520 | \n\t\t7.117 | \n\t\t13.491 | \n\t\t14.208 | \n\t\t14.411 | \n\t
O2\n\t\t | \n\t\t0.000 | \n\t\t0.000 | \n\t\t0.000 | \n\t\t0.000 | \n\t\t0.000 | \n\t\t0.000 | \n\t\t0.000 | \n\t\t0.000 | \n\t\t0.000 | \n\t
N2\n\t\t | \n\t\t97.360 | \n\t\t96.488 | \n\t\t97.028 | \n\t\t93.916 | \n\t\t92.480 | \n\t\t92.883 | \n\t\t86.509 | \n\t\t85.792 | \n\t\t85.589 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t|||||||||
19.328 | \n18.740 | \n14.484 | \n36.215 | \n31.229 | \n25.802 | \n44.838 | \n36.702 | \n29.345 | \n|
98.568 | \n98.953 | \n99.418 | \n98.176 | \n99.500 | \n100.113 | \n100.866 | \n102.179 | \n103.424 | \n|
Flammable | \n\tNo | \n\tNo | \n\tNo | \n\tNo | \n\tNo | \n\tNo | \n\tNo | \n\tNo | \n\tNo | \n
Concentration of gases from wood pellets after 62 days of storage
Gas composition analysis was performed for the first 9 weeks after loading the pilot silo. Results (Figure 11 to Figure 13) showed a rapid increase in the concentration of CO2, CO and CH4 in the head-space of the silo. Off-gas concentrations in the first 7 days were 1.0-1.6% CO2, 0.8-1.0% CO and 0.73- 0.85% CH4. All gas concentrations increased with storage time. Figure 14 shows the increase in the CO/CO2 ratio with time, which reached a constant value after 50 days of storage. Some scattering of data is seen between days 10 to 15 with a peak CO/CO2 ratio of about 0.59 on day 10. Minimum oxygen concentration in the bed was also seen on day 10 (Figure 15). It could be explained by slightly (~2%) lower local relative humidity recorded by the cable and higher H2 and thus the shift of water-gas shift reaction towards reactants. Oxygen concentrations were also measured according to the same gas sampling schedule. As shown in Figure 15 the O2 level dropped dramatically from 21% to 7-8% after 3 days and reached close to 0% after 1 week and again after 3 weeks of storage. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the head-space increased to about 2.7% (27,000 ppm), and this is higher compared to the CO2 concentrations in the pellet bed which could be attributed to the exposure of pellet surface to head-space oxygen and thus higher local emission. Lab-scale experiments had been previously performed to determine the effect of oxygen availability on the emission rates of off-gasses. Highest emission of CO2 was seen in containers with higher percentage of head-space or where oxygen was pumped in regularly. When wood pellets were stored in helium, minimum emission of CO2 was detected. For carbon monoxide, its concentration increased from the very first days of storage and reached a maximum value of about 1.7% after 9 weeks of storage. This accumulated concentration was well above the threshold [22] limit value (TLV) for human health, and it can cause injuries and immediate death.
CO2 concentration in head-space of the silo as a function of storage time for wood pellets. (G0: head-space gas sampling port) [Concentrations are volume percentage]
CH4 concentration in head-space of the silo as a function of storage time for wood pellets. (G0 head-space gas sampling port) [Concentrations are volume percentage]
CO concentration in head-space of the silo as a function of storage time for wood pellets. (G0 head-space gas sampling port) [Concentrations are volume percentage]
CO/CO2 ratio in head-space of the silo as a function of storage time for wood pellets. (G0 head-space gas sampling port) [Concentrations are volume percentage]
O2 concentration in head-space of the silo as a function of storage time for wood pellets. (G0 head-space gas sampling port) [Concentrations are volume percentage]
The gas emissions are converted to emission factors using Eqn (1) in order to compare the results with other researchers’ work on the same basis:
where fi is emission factor of species “i”, Ci is the gas concentration, Mwt is the molecular weight (g),Vg is the gas volume (m3), R is universal gas constant (8.314 J/mol K), T is temperature (K),P is the pressure (Pa), MP is the mass of pellets (kg). Assuming that the amount of N2 remains constant during off-gassing process, CN0/CNt is introduced as a correction factor to balance the change in gas volume where CNt is the concentration of nitrogen measured at any time and CN0 is the concentration of nitrogen at the beginning of test. The gas emission results for 25% head-space are compared to those obtained by Kuang et al. [1] for the storage of wood pellets. As shown in Table 5, the peak emission factors of all three gases derived from this study (using a large pilot silo) are higher than their findings (using a small lab-scale reactor); though both sets of values are in the same order of magnitude.
CO | \n\t\t0.0191 | \n\t\t0.0124 | \n\t
CO2\n\t\t | \n\t\t0.0485 | \n\t\t0.0200 | \n\t
CH4\n\t\t | \n\t\t0.0009 | \n\t\t0.0002 | \n\t
Comparison of peak emission factor for CO, CO2 and CH4with previous research
Methane emission is due to the activities of anaerobic microorganisms. For instance, in a typical anaerobic digestion process for biogas production from readily biodegradable feedstock, the methane content can range from 50-70%. In this study, the CH4 concentration was observed to increase from 0.03% to 0.14% after 9 weeks, while an oxygen deficient environment was created in the silo just a few days after the start of the test. The relatively low CH4 contents are in line with the results of total bacteria counts, which were less than 5 cfu/g of pellets as compared to orders of magnitude higher microbial counts in a typical anaerobic digester.
The measured concentrations of the gases derived from all 13 gas sampling ports over time are plotted in 3D graphs and contours. The contour plots would provide a supplemental view of how the various gases are stratified in the bed. Figure 16 show the 3D and contour plots of the concentration of carbon dioxide in all locations. For the first several days, the gas concentration was quite the same for all locations. After 10 days, CO2 concentrations were different; yet, after about 40 days, the concentrations became uniform again everywhere in the silo. The contour plot clearly illustrates that the CO2 concentration was always higher in the head-space compared to the other areas within the pellet bulk. CO2 emission is more sensitive to temperature versus CO; this could explain why higher CO2 concentration was observed in the silo head-space. While the peak CO2 concentration of 2.7% was reached just after 2 weeks in the head-space of silo, such a high concentration was not seen in the pellet bulk section until after 45 days. Carbon dioxide concentration was above the threshold limit value for worker safety and this limit was reached sooner in the silo head-space. In terms of worker safety, both the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) have set the permissible exposure limit (PEL) and the threshold limit value (TLV), respectively for CO2 of 5,000 ppm (0.5%) by volume over an 8-hour average exposure.
map of CO2 concentration in the silo at all locations (G0 to G13) during 63 days of storage [Concentrations are volume percentage]
Figure 17 shows the overview of carbon monoxide emission, accumulation and dispersion over 63 days of storage. As distinguished from the concentration profile for carbon dioxide, a higher CO concentration was observed in the head-space of the silo at the beginning of the test, and the CO concentrations were similar in most other locations within the pellet bulk. This difference may be due to the gas dispersion phenomenon. Nevertheless, after 18 days of storage, stratification was observed with the highest concentration of CO at the G5, G6 and G7 locations (2.03-2.54 m from the bottom of the silo). Due to close value of density for air and carbon monoxide, not much gravitational stratification of CO was expected. Although carbon monoxide emissions are attributed to oxidation of unsaturated acids in wood pellets, the exact pathway through which CO is emitted hasn’t been identified yet. More distinct stratification of gas was seen in this study for carbon monoxide compared to other off-gases, which could be attributed to the high uptake of CO by pellets during storage.
map of CO concentration in the silo at all locations (G0 to G13) during 63 days of storage [Concentrations are volume percentage]
Figure 18 illustrate the distribution of emitted methane (CH4) during 63 days of sealed storage of wood pellets. After 4 days, the concentration of methane was the highest close to the bottom of the silo. Over time the emitted gas started to stratify; but after 48 days almost the same concentration was observed in all locations, with slightly higher CH4 concentration at the upper sections of the silo near the interface of wood pellets and head-space. The same stratification was noted until the end of the test. Methane emission has a similar behavior as carbon dioxide; both gases reached higher concentrations more quickly in the head-space than in the other areas within the pellet bed.
map of CH4 concentration in the silo at all locations (G0 to G13) during 63 days of storage [Concentrations are volume percentage]
Diffusion of gases in air and its effect on oxygen deficiency could also partly account for the created environment. Studies [23, 24] have been conducted to understand how easily the released gases (carbon dioxide, helium and sulfurhexafluoride) would mix with air and whether they would remain fully mixed. The gases were found to diffuse in air more readily than expected and modest gas velocities due to natural convection would fully mix the released gases with fresh air. In the wood pellet storage, gases were emitted over time from the first day till the gas concentrations reached a plateau. Some gas stratification was detected in the early weeks of storage especially for carbon monoxide which is due to chemical and physical adsorption between the material and the gases as well as differences in temperature and relative humidity at various levels in the silo. However after a few weeks, gases started to mix and remained mixed. In this regard, natural convection within the silo can bring about gas mixing.
Figure 19 demonstrates the oxygen depletion in the silo head-space during storage of wood pellet, which is much faster than the oxygen within the bed of wood pellets. Oxygen concentration dropped very quickly in less than 10 days of storage and this can be partially explained by the emission of carbon monoxide. Depletion of oxygen is partly related to CO formation but a greater amount could be due to the radical-induced oxidative degradation of natural lipids, particularly the polyunsaturated linoleic acid [1]. A high energy of desorption required to overcome the bond indicates chemical adsorption of oxygen to the pellets. The auto-oxidation of fatty acids starts with formation of free radicals. In the presence of oxygen, hydroxyperoxide radicals are formed and in interaction with an unsaturated fatty acid produce two hydroxyperoxides and a new free radical. When pellets stored in air, hydroxyperoxides are formed from oxidation of fatty acids. Depending on whether oxygen bond or carbon bond break in them alcoxi radical, aldehydes, acids, hydrocarbons or ketones will be formed.
In order to examine the role of oxygen availability in the storage space on the rate of off-gassing, a set of experiments was conducted under controlled environment conditions. The same reactors described in small scale tests section were used in these experiments. Pellets were placed in 6 sealed reactors (2L by volume) that were purged with different gases. In two of the reactors pellets were stored in oxygen-free environments. When pellets were stored in an environment dominated by N2 after purging, CO emission was as high as when pellets were stored under regular conditions. However when the reactors were purged with He (helium), the peak CO emission decreased to 25% of the values when pellets were stored under regular conditions. A hypothesis is that, although oxygen availability can accelerate the emission of non–condensable gases, the O2 content of the pellet material could be high enough to induce high amount of CO emission compared to pellets stored in air. Emission of carbon monoxide for pellets stored in CO2 showed 50% less emission compared to pellets stored in air. Results obtained from stored pellets exposed to different head-space (HD) percentage showed that an increase in head-space is related to the peak emission factor for carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide with the following linear relationships (average values of two replicates each):
Oxygen concentration was also measured in all 13 locations including the head-space. Ever since the first gas sample was taken on day 2 of storage, the O2 concentration decreased to 15% in the reactor. As seen in Figure 19, O2 concentration was depleted rapidly to less than 5% within the first 7 days thus generating an oxygen-deficient atmosphere in a confined space. More oxygen was available within the bed of pellets compared to the head-space as a result of oxygen being trapped within the pellets until 40 days of storage when oxygen was consumed everywhere in the reactor. When oxygen levels fall below 19.5% by volume, air cannot support metabolism for an unlimited period of time. At 17% oxygen, the symptoms might simply be worse as reflected by hyper-ventilation. The oxygen-deficient atmosphere becomes more dangerous when oxygen content is further lowered to 15%; people can quickly progress to dizziness and rapid heartbeat. Finally, oxygen levels below 13% can lead to unconsciousness and eventually to death at around 6% oxygen [25].
map of O2 concentration in the silo at all locations (G0 to G13) during 63 days of storage [Concentrations are volume percentage]
Figure 20 shows CO2 concentrations in the head-space and the bottom of the silo respectively. The gas concentration was measured at the same elevation but at 3 different radial positions (0.0, 0.6 and 1.2 m from the center) in order to investigate any possible radial concentration gradient. The results showed no significant variations in the CO2 concentrations in different radial positions, due to the uniform radial temperature profile. The same measurements were made for all three gases (CO2, CO and CH4); again no significant differences in any of the gas concentrations were observed at different radial positions. However, Figure 20 clearly shows the difference in CO2 concentrations along the axial locations, with the head-space concentration higher than that at the silo bottom which could be due to lower rate of mixing in the silo compared to the rate of reaction. The same observations were obtained for radial concentrations of carbon monoxide and methane over time.
CO2 concentration in the silo head-space and the bottom of the silo at different radial positions
The chapter has discussed various measurements of gases and volatiles, resulting data on emission concentrations and emission factors of gases in storages of wood pellets. The potential for flammability of gases emitted from wood pellets samples with moisture contents ranging from 4 to 50% stored in environment of 25 °C to 60 °C was investigated. The gas emission for CO2, CO, CH4 followed exponential profiles and the gas concentration was proportional to storage temperature, as expected. For samples with less than 15% MC at room temperature, CO2 concentration increased up to ~1.7% which was the highest peak emission compared to even pellets with 35% and 50% MC. At higher temperatures, the maximum CO2 concentration increased from 2.8% (40 °C, 4% MC) to 5.6% (40 °C, 50% MC) and from 9.6% (60 °C, 4% MC) to 10.9% (60 °C, 50% MC). For pellets with 4 and 15% MC, the concentration of CO increased as the temperature increased from 25 °C to 60 °C. However at a constant temperature of 25 °C, the peak concentration of CO was the same for wood pellets with 4% and 9% moisture contents and lower for pellets with 15%, 35% and 50% MC. Oxygen depletion was observed among all experimental conditions but showed to decrease more rapid for pellets with 9% MC (25 °C and 40 °C ) compared to wood pellets with 4%, 15%, 35% and 50% MC. Least depletion of oxygen was observed for samples at 25 °C and 50% MC and accelerated as the temperature increased. In terms of the gas mixture (CO/CH4/H2), at higher temperatures (40 °C and 60 °C), the gas concentration decreased as the moisture content increased. Using ISO method for estimating the potential flammability of the gases emitted from the wood pellets, it can be concluded that gas concentrations does not reach flammable concentrations within the 5-week or even the 9-week testing period.
Emission and stratification of off-gasses from storage of wood pellets was also studied in pilot scale. The focus of the study was to investigate the spatial and temporal concentration of off-gases and purging effectiveness. Emission and stratification of off-gases was studied in pilot scale storage for over one year. Non-condensable gases that emitted from storage of material were carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane and hydrogen. To study the stratification of gases, analysis of gas composition was done over time for different axial and radial positions. The emitted gases showed to have higher emission factor compared to work done with white wood pellets in small scale. It could be explained by the fact that off-gassing is a surface phenomenon and thus much active surface is available for reaction when larger amount of wood pellets are stored. Concentration of gases at plateau after 9 weeks of storage was 2.7 % CO2, 0.14% CH4 and 1.7% CO in the rector head-space. After a few days of storage some stratification were observed for carbon monoxide and methane. The clear stratification of carbon monoxide could be due to high uptake of CO by wood pellets over time. The unstable environment in the storage of wood pellets in the first few weeks of storage was due to very rapid consumption of oxygen in the space, reaction of emitted CO and CO2 with pellets, development of high temperature spots within the bulk due to higher activity of pellets and thus higher local temperatures, and moisture migration within the bed. Oxygen plays an important role in accelerating the emission of carbon monoxide. Results from experiment where material was kept in oxygen-free environment (N2-rich) confirmed the same lethal concentration of CO possibly through onsuming the oxygen within the material.
Concentration of CO2 for wood pellet with 9% moisture content over 62 days at 25°C, 40°C and 60°C
Concentration of CO2 for wood pellet with 15% moisture content over 62 days at 25°C, 40°C and 60°C
Concentration of CO2 for wood pellet with 35% moisture content over 62 days at 25°C, 40°C and 60°C
Concentration of CO for wood pellet with 9% moisture concentration over 62 days at 25°C, 40°C and 60°C
Concentration of CO for wood pellet with 15% moisture concentration over 62 days at 25°C, 40°C and 60°C
Concentration of CO for wood pellet with 35% moisture content over 62 days at 25°C, 40°C and 60°C
Concentration of CH4 for emissions from wood pellet with 9% moisture content over 62 days at 25°C, 40°C and 60°C
Concentration of CH4 for emissions from wood pellet with 15% moisture content over 62 days at 25°C, 40°C and 60°C
Concentration of CH4 for emissions from wood pellet with 35% moisture content over 62 days at 25°C, 40°C and 60°C
Oxygen depletion for wood pellet with 9% moisture content over 62 days at 25°C, 40°C and 60°C
Oxygen depletion for wood pellet with 15% moisture content over 62 days at 25°C, 40°C and 60°C
Oxygen depletion for wood pellet with 35% moisture content over 62 days at 25°C, 40°C and 60°C
Concentration of hydrogen for emissions from wood pellet with 9% moisture content over 62 days at 25°C, 40°C and 60°C
Concentration of hydrogen for emissions from wood pellet with 15% moisture content over 62 days at 25°C, 40°C and 60°C
Concentration of hydrogen for emissions from wood pellet with 35% moisture content over 62 days at 25°C, 40°C and 60°C
This research was funded in parts by the Wood pellet Association of Canada, Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada and Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Thanks are also extended to Premium Pellet Ltd. and Fibreco Export Inc. and Pinnacle Renewable Energy Group, Inc. for donating wood pellets for this study.
The Codivilla-Putti Institutes has been a strong will of Prof. Vittorio Putti, especially for treating chronic infections; it started its activity in 1930 and had been located in a famous winter sport resort, as it was the case for almost all sanatoriums build in those years to treat septical diseases with “good air” and sun (UV rays), that were then the only therapeutic treatments available to the medical science.
We are now facing in modern therapeutic treatment of chronic osteomyelitis some growing obstacles in using antibiotics, as we find often resistance, principally concerning staphylococcus, which are the major responsible concerning bone infections. The clinician therefore has to dispose not only of surgical knowledge, but he has to be also acquainted with all most recent advances in the field of antibiotic therapies. Moreover, he has to be acquainted with the immunoresponses offered by the body in special circumstances. As a matter of fact the lack of success in such cases induced many scientists to re-evaluate the immunological system by considering its possible deficit.
An immunodeficiency may also show itself in the clinical picture as an increased tendency to chronicize, a reduced phlogistic reaction and an increased frequency of multifocal processes [1].
The use of the so-called “immunotherapy” started at the beginning of the 20th century and is still a field of investigation (Table 1) [1, 2, 3].
1884 | Leucotoxin | Van de Velde |
1901 | Anti-Staphylolysin | Neisser, Wechsberg |
1925 | Anti-Staphylococcus-Sera | Baker, Shands |
1936 | Anatoxin-Therapy | Ramon |
1938 | Exp. Allergic Osteomyelitis | Derizanov |
1939 | Autovaccination | Schoolfield |
1953 | Sensitisation and Osteomyelitis | Grundmann |
1968 | Opsonin Activity | Williams |
1971 | Prophylactic Immunisation | Weber |
1972 | Anti-Staphylolysin-titre | Queneau, Bertoye |
1973 | Anti-Nuclear Factors | Hierholzer |
1973 | Wound-Specific Antibodies | Ring, Seifert |
1976 | The Staphylococci | Cohen |
Historical list of work on immunotherapy in osteomyelitis.
Chronic osteomyelitis as all forms of bone inflammatory lesions, sustained by pyogenic germs, who selectively involved from the start bone marrow and intratrabecular spaces and therefore are not healing anyhow, as they brought about a suppuration process, but engender foci in the internal part of bones, who maintain themselves active or more or less weakened [4].
Chronicizing may be:
The consequence of initially acute osteomyelitis (hematogenous, post-traumatic, iatrogenous), that passes gradually into the chronic phase (reduced reaction by the patient owing to the symbiosis guest-host through a progressive reduction in acuteness;
Induced by rapid evolution from the acute form into the chronical form (it happens sometimes as an effect of the antibiotic’s administration);
A chronic form “ab initio” without any initial acuteness or a generalisation of the process.
Staphylococci are the most important micro-organisms in the Microccaceae family: they have been denominated by Ogston, as in microscopic slides their elements dispose themselves in clusters. They have a spherical form and are asporigenic and normally non-capsulated, gram-positive, aerobic and optionally anaerobic. It is easy to grow them on common culture media; optimal temperature is 37°C. They are among the most resistant germs to heating and disinfectants. With reference to the colony colours they are classed in aureus, albus, citreus and aurantiacus.
More recently they have been divided in aureus and epidermidis, as the former produces coagulasis and is able to ferment mannitol in anaerobic conditions. By phagic typisation 4 groups have been ascertained, whose major representatives in chronic bone pathologies are type 5 and type 8 [5].
Staphylococcus produces many extracellular substances that show almost all antigenic properties. The most interesting is coagulase that fosters a fibrin barrier around the staphylococcus that might oppose the action of phagocytes and opsonins [6].
It can also induce in the host a form of “allergy” that further reduces his defences [2, 3, 4]. It seems moreover that the bacterial resistance develops proportionally to its capacity to produce para-aminobenzoic acid, necessary to its metabolism, or producing its precursor folic acid. It is supposed that para-aminobenzensulfonamide displaces para-aminobenzoic acid from the bacterial body, i.e. owing to the antibiotic action the bacterial bodies may lose their strong cellular wall transforming themselves in sferoblasts with a weakened antigenic function or without any antigenic function, who are responsible for some infections with a chronic evolution.
Before discussing this point some general knowledge concerning immunology is required. We do not refer to immunology as a whole (as the matter covers very wide aspects), but only to infection resistance.
The host defence to bacterial infections happens through two classical mechanisms, i.e.:
natural
acquired
We shall mainly focus on the
Humoral factors may be divided principally in three species.
The
As far as the non-specific cellular immunity is concerned, it is mainly related to phagocytosis, i.e. the capacity showed by some cells to take up corpuscular matter of different nature and origin; the cells are part of the so-called reticulohistocytic system (R.H.S).
Metchnikoff considers that cells with the capability to phagocitate are essentially:
Genesis of the immunolgical cells.
With reference to
It has been observed that the staphylococci pathogenicity appears on one side as an increased resistance to the defensive powers of the patient and on the other side as a capacity to establish a kind of allergy that further reduces body defences. The production of toxins might have only a minor role in the pathogenicity (Zironi) [2]; as a matter of fact there is no parallelism between germ virulence and the seriousness of the illness. It has been observed that the two factors provoking allergy (hypersensitivity against the germ or its products and increased reaction capacity) do not always evolve in parallel but may show different evolution.
Sensitivity to the micro-organism and its antigens, without variation of the host reactivity may beobserved and such a mechanism induces a very dangerous condition, called by immunologists “specific hyperreceptivity”. Such a mechanism could account as an explication how this state may grow by inappropriate use of antibiotics.
Insufficient immunitary system predisposition to the entrance of the germ inadequate microbial sterilisation (inappropriate antibiotics – dosage – choice) bacterial persistence, even only latent stimulation repeated in the time hyper-receptivity (Figure 2).
The cascade for arrive to the hyper-receptivity.
We have many actions in the aspecific immunological activity but one of the most important action is the activity of the Macrofages to fight staphylococcus and the action is the opsonization (Figures 3 and 4) [10].
Summary opsonization-phagocytosis of the “macrophages”.
Phagocytosis of the staphylococci from “macrophagis”.
The immunological experience is treating osteomyelitis chronic forms at the Istituto Putti in Cortina starts in 1963 [11, 12, 13] by introducing immunotherapy, applied by the progressive administration in growing doses of a staphylococci pool, that had been collected from some patients with bone infections by the same germ and then inactivated in an aqueous solution suspension. At that time also autologous immunostimulation was carried out, i.e. a therapy prepared by isolating the responsible bacterial agent directly in the patient’s exudate.
Also experiences with a
Nowadays only the isolation of Staphylococcus strains 5 and 8 is carried out, as only these strains are responsible for 98% of the bone infections. This aspect has been showed by a joint research with Institut Pasteur in Paris. We are working now only with these kinds of staphylococci and were able to better the general characteristics.
As already mentioned, administration is performed at growing dosages according to patterns adopted since long avoiding that too approached stimulation may exhaust the capacity responses as a consequence of a too prolonged stress.
The preparation is inoculated subcutaneously, and the therapy lasts about three months. After at least one month stop treatment may be repeated (Figure 5).
Increasing subcutaneous injections of doses, according to a widely scheme (since 1963) of an inactivated staphylococci pool of type 5 and 8.
With reference to the above said we tried, together with “Immuno” in Vienna, to find out whether among chronic osteomyelitis patients there was some immunological deficit. We did not consider this evaluation had to be made on acute forms, as they show different characteristics while the host reactivity is still within the norm.
We evaluated therefore about 150 cases, with different ages and causes (hematogenic, post-traumatical and iatrogenous) and referred to following parameters:
Antibody titre
Complement (fraction 3)
Phagocytic activity
Opsonisation capacity
Bactericidal reaction
Bacterial agglutinins
“T” lymphocyte count
This study ascertained indeed a reduction of the phagocytic activity as a whole, and especially the opsonisation activity.
| 62% |
| 34% |
| 4% |
It has been thought therefore that in immunotherapy more factors are involved; their principal property is to reduce the allergising effect and therefore to desensitise vs. the germ proteins and to increase the phagocytic activity.
This condition, neither whose entity nor its lasting may be defined, does not appear to be unlimited.
Obviously, this desensitisation can be obtained also by the right antibiotic choice that, as already said mainly in acute forms, may develop their bactericidal properties and sterilise the focus.
In the chronic forms it is possible to provoke this mechanism by carrying out a surgical toilette that restores the vascularization and stimulation conditions needed for a correct antibiotic action.
Checks upon immuno-stimulation treatment termination clearly showed corresponding results between laboratory deficit clinical conditions bettering laboratory bettering.
Parameters normalisation | 35% |
Minor increases | 34% |
No variations | 25% |
Good | 50% |
Reduced | 28% |
Bad | 22% |
Dr. G. Mastrorillo Work Bari’s School (Tables 2 and 3) [14].
LIF: inhibition of the leucocytic migration in percentage
^: Relevant statistic values
Patients | Phagocytosis* | LIF** | |
---|---|---|---|
PMN | Monocyte | ||
19 Non-responders | 60.6 ± 19.1^ | 52.6 ± 11.7^ | 30.5 ± 9.3^ |
3 responders | 87.0 ± 3.2 | 87.6 ± 5.3 | 54.3 ± 12.4 |
40 (controllo) | 86.9 ± 4.45 | 87.1 ± 4.2 | 48.3 ± 6.9 |
The phagocytosis: Is valued as percentage of cells that englobe the specific Bacterias. *Description of the study.
Patients | Phagocytosis* | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PMN | Monocyte | LIF** | ||||
Before | After | Before | After | Before | After | |
19 Non-responders | 65.7 ± 19.1 | 72.4 ± 12.4 | 30.6 ± 8.9 | 70.4 ± 8.9 | 25.8 ± 8.1 | 30.6 ± 8.9 |
3 Responders | 87.0 ± 3.1 | 85.3 ± 6.1 | 87.3 ± 5.3 | 85.2 ± 4.7 | 54.3 ± 12.4 | 60.3 ± 11.2 |
The valuation was repeated after the soministration of S.B.I.T and the results were significant, as you can see on the table, between the beginning and the end of treatment. *The results.
This work considers the immunological effects of S.B.I.T.
In 22 patients with chronic osteomyelitis with a follow up of 20 months the Authors valued:
The phagocytosis of polymorphonucleate and monocytes versus some bacteria that were identified in at least two samples on three.
The dosage of LIF (inhibition of the leukocytes migration in percentage).
The patients were divided in two categories and compared with 40 volunteers.
From this valuation, we understand that in chronic osteomyelitis there is unimportant immunological compromise.
We clinically evaluated the results obtained by using immunotherapy and we observed different facts recorded on about 7,500 cases treated since 1963 till 2016.
Spontaneous elimination of sequestra,
Demarcation or resorption,
Output colour change,
Trend to fistula healing,
Reduction of congestive facts,
Less frequent reacutisation,
Reduced articular rigidity,
Stimulation of bone reparation,
Reduction of soft tissues calcification.
Some of these effects (sequestrum resorption or demarcation, reduced articular rigidity, increased repairing capacity) may be explained only by hypothesising a stimulating action on the reticuloendothelial cells that are able to differentiate themselves in different tissues [9].
We studied also possible differences between children, known for their evolutive receptive potentiality, and adults leaving the kind pf suffered infection out of consideration.
The results on 100 adults and 100 children have been compared by referring to following parameters:
100 adults | ♂:90 | ♀:10 |
100 children | ♂:80 | ♀:20 |
Children | Adults | |
---|---|---|
Hematogen | 66 | 19 |
Post-traumatic | 30 | 40 |
Iatrogenic | 4 | 4 |
Time | Children | Adults |
---|---|---|
1–6 months | 36 | 15 |
6–12 months | 30 | 26 |
> 1 year | 31 | 37 |
Non attained | 3 | 22 |
Children | Adults | |
---|---|---|
Obtained | 90 | 73 |
Not obtained | 10 | 27 |
Whereas healed are the patients who do not show any restart at least after 1 year from stabilisation, stabilised are those, who do not show any clinical, radiographic or bio-humoral sign of inflammation. As however chronic infections may show restarts, even after more than 1 year from stabilisation, the word “healing” has been adopted by us only to quantitize the research results and we have to evidence that it is more a language term than a truth, as it is well known to our colleagues who deal with these pathologies [15].
Another study has been made by us in order to define the Immunotherapy potentiality concerning both hematogenic and post-traumatic forms.
The casuistic is based on 50 patients with hematogenous osteomyelitis, all less than 16 years old, age at which the growth cartilage knit, and 117 post-traumatic infective pseudoarthroses, where this term has been adopted for cases who showed a lack of non-solidification at 6 months after trauma.
We expressly made a distinction between hematogenic and post-traumatic forms, as the relations bacterial count vs. host response do differ. Let us first consider the hematogenic form with all patients infected by coagulase positive
Males were infected most often (78%); the prevailing age were between 10 and 16 years old.
Lower limbs were involved three times more than arms, while there was no difference between proximal diaphyseal and distal diaphyseal localisation. In 30% of cases the lesion involved the whole bone segment (panostytis), while the remaining 70% showed a localisation at the diaphysis half (42%) or at the diaphysis (28%).
In males diffused forms are more frequent, while in females the same applies to localised forms.
Patients have been checked with a following-up lasting from 1 till 10 years after healing (where healing has already been defined).
With the depicted criteria we obtained 86% of healing (88.5% when considering localisation), of which 74% already from the first treatment, and only 12% after possible recurrences. Of these relapses only the half involved a bone, while in the other cases they were the periodical opening of abscesses and fistulae, without any bone involvement. 50% of the patients healed by adopting only immunotherapy; in 38% immunotherapy complemented a surgical intervention, and remaining 11.5% did not heal.
As far as time elapsed from treatment beginning till healing is concerned, we observed 46% healing within 6 months, 30% between 6 months and 1 year, and 24% between 1 and 5 years with an average duration of 9.6 months.
With reference to radiographic belated evidences 20 patients showed the damaged bone segments fully leaked, whereas in later checks 33 patients showed a bone rearrangement (residual osteosclerosis without periostal reaction or osteolytic area).
In 7 cases there were still traces of active infection.
In 3 cases the later checks showed growth disturbs higher than 2.5 cm (in 2 cases there had been a contraction owing to growth cartilage lesions and in 1 case there was a lengthening). In 5 further cases, that initially showed limb lengthening, such dysmetrias disappeared afterwards.
In 5 cases the later checks showed a limitation in movements concerning the articulation near the focus; in 4 cases such limitation was already ascertained at the first control and imputable to the treatment with plaster. The joint limitation has never been imputable to joint involvement by the inflammation process (osteoarthritis).
In 3 cases there were deformities of the bone segments (coxa varia, femur procurvation).
We discuss now the data concerning the 147 cases of post-traumatic infective pseudoarthrosis.
The higher percentage of 75.5% concerns pseudoarthrosis subsequent to osteosynthesis.
In this percentage there were 118 males (83.3%) and 29 female patients (19.7%). Mean age has been 32 years and 5 months; the youngest patient was 18 years old, whereas the oldest was 68 years old. The most frequently interested bone has been the shinbone with 99 cases and secondarily the femur with 35 cases.
25 cases were a two bone fractures and there were exactly 19 tibia and fibula and 6 radius and ulna fractures.
We had 7 cases concerning radius and ulna, 3 cases collar bone, 1 case humerus and 1 case hand. The time elapsed between trauma and infection beginning has been in the male 30 days with 7 days in the shortest case and 5 months in the most belated.
The tome between infection initial and our therapy start has been on an average 8 months, varying from minimal 6 months till maximal 4 years. Our treatment allowed almost always precocious weight bearing; as a matter of fact only the most serious cases had to wait 6 months before being in condition to use the sick limb.
At first hospitalisation already 89.1% of the patients showed a fistula.
In all cases therapy has been immunotherapy+antibioticotherapy. In 11 cases immunotherapy has been repeated and in 5 cases it has been administered 3 times.
We carried out 98 surgical toilets and sequestrectomies, of which 22 cases were more than once. In 4 cases we carried out Paltrinieri parafocal osteotomy (all tibial). In 45 cases the Ilizarof system has been adopted with resection of the focus and compactotomy. We had to amputate only in 1 case. Solidification rimes vary according to the involved bone. On the tibiae they vary from at least 3 till maximal 36 months, on average 9.9 months.
More frequently (76.8% of cases) healing was attained within 1 year from therapy start, 26 cases (equalling 26%) did not attain solidification, of which 18 cases are still under treatment.
Very similar times have been observed on femurs, from 3 till 35 months with 9.2 months average duration.
Also for the femur the 84% of cases heals after 12 months therapy, whereas the non consolidated cases are 10 equalling 28.6%, of which 6 cases are still under treatment.
The forearm does not show substantial differences concerning ulna and radius; the same results indeed have been obtained for both bone segments; in 2 cases on 7 we observed a lack of solidification with bone material loss/this happened in the pre-microsurgical period of our experience).
Fistulae closed fairly fast 6 months in 53.48 of cases. The main check control has been 15 months, varying from 4 months at least up to 7 years.
Belated consequences have been:
Articular rigidity. Patients who have been treated with immunotherapy and submitted to plaster casts, both cylinder or valve casts, and precocious walking showed significant articular functional limitations only in 26 cases, equalling 17.6%. 14 cases concerned the talocrural articulation, 8 cases the knee and 4 cases on 7 concerned the elbow.
Shortenings have been significant (more than 4 cm) only in 2% of cases, whereas there have been 30.5% with less than 4 cm. In the whole 102 cases showed shortenings, that were compatible with a good functionality of the sick limb with good walking.
Axial deviations appeared in 18.3% of cases: 15 cases in varus dislocation, 12 in valgus dislocation, 17 in recordation and 10 in procurvation. Calcification of soft parts have been only 3.4%, whereas they were very frequent before systematically introducing immunotherapy.
Relapses concern 26.5% of our patients, i.e. about 39 cases. In 15 cases (10.2%) it was a simple reopening of the fistula that healed soon, in 13 cases the restart of the infective focus was associated with a new relaxation of the fracture. Afterwards 9 cases healed and these have been the precocious relapses (within 1 year from healing), the belated ones have been 11 cases (7.5%) with 10 healings.
The efficacy of immunotherapy is certainly higher in children, as it is confirmed by a lower number of surgical interventions and by the stabilisation and healing results.
No negative influences have been brought about by age.
The same applied to sex, though males showed major lesions. Daoud and Martin consider the female sex a favourable prognostic factor.
Prognoses are more difficult in cases with lesions, that are localised on the femur (21% without healing, whereas these reduce themselves to 5–6% in other localisation).
Also the extension (pandiaphysis) and the deep localisation (diaphysis) of the infection adversely influence the illness evolution.
Finally the prognoses is very sensible to the lesion chronicity. As a matter of fact the healing frequency is adversely proportional to the lesion duration (94%, 77%, 36%, 5%). The failures have been observed only with symptoms that has been lasted more than 1 year. Immunotherapy has to be started as soon as possible.
Healing is significantly influenced by the fistula healing. As a matter of fact we found 86% healing when fistula closes within 6 months. Healing frequency is lower when fistula has staid open for longer times.
the contrary recovery is not influenced by time elapsed from trauma till infection beginning.
Presence of a fistula upon hospitalisation did not affect healing.
Very important has been time elapsed from infection beginning and immunological treatment. With times less than 6 months recoveries show satisfactory percentages that reduce themselves to 50.6% when elapsed times are more than 1 year.
Localisation influences results. Whereas hands recover soon, times are on an average when tibiae are involved to become long lasting on femurs.
Male patients are more frequent than women (118 cases vs. 29 cases).
By comparing the results obtained in chronic osteomyelitis (both hematogenous and post-traumatic) before introducing immunotherapy and reconsidered afterwards, after having acquired a long experience in its administration, we feel following conclusions have to be drawn.
Immunotherapy (eventually associated to surgical therapy) ensures high recovery percentages (among the lightest mentioned in the scientific literature) [16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22].
Such therapy notably reduces recurrences (12% instead of 40% mentioned in the literature), as it fosters natural defences.
Immunological therapy is somewhat more efficacious (and certainly less toxic) than antibioticotherapy. The two approaches have to be associated, as immunotherapy does not substitute antibioticotherapy (only 15% of patients affected by chronic osteomyelitis fully recover by administering only antibiotics).
Immunotherapy remarkably reduced surgical interventions.
We may conclude that Specific Bacterial Immunotherapy (S.B.I.T.) has to be considered an important defence, that does not exclude, but has to be associated to antibiotico therapy and even more to surgery. The obtained positive results shall be studied with complex research methods, as the concept “immunity messenger” opens therapeutical approaches, still difficult to evaluate.
A case of hemathogenous osteomyelitis of radio in the young patient, 3 year old treated with only S.B.I.T (doses reduction) and antibiotics of course.
X-ray control after 13 years. Completed reconstruction of the bone. The infection health after 6 months of treatement with immunotherapy and antibiotics.
Heavy hematogenic pandiaphysitis in a 10 years old child, who has been treated only with S.B.I.T. according to a reduced therapeutical scheme.
After 2 months of treatment the whole diaphysis partially recovers there are still sequestrum of wich one is postero cortical. Fistulae closed.
After 2 months reabitation of big sequestrum. (The arrow indicates bone sequestrum and its revitalization)
Rx control after 15 months after the beginning of the treatment
Rx control one year after the previous one, please note the complete reconstruction of the bones of the leg, absence of flogosi markers (clinical and laboratory)
45 years old man after an open fracture of the leg. Arrived to our hospital after 12 months; he had two fistulae and two focuses of non union and a wide sequestrum was presented.
Rx control after 3 months of treatment with S.B.I.T. and you can see the reabitation of the central sequestrum and the beginning of callification on the two focuses (of non union
Rx control after removal plate, screw e a debridment and 3 months in plaster.
Authors are listed below with their open access chapters linked via author name:
",metaTitle:"IntechOpen authors on the Global Highly Cited Researchers 2018 list",metaDescription:null,metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"New for 2018 (alphabetically by surname).
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\nJocelyn Chanussot (chapter to be published soon...)
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\\n\\nFei Wei 2016-18
\\n\\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
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\\n\\nXin-She Yang 2017, 2018
\\n\\nYulong Yin 2015, 2017, 2018
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\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nJocelyn Chanussot (chapter to be published soon...)
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\n\nKhalil Amine 2017, 2018
\n\nEwan Birney 2015-18
\n\nFrede Blaabjerg 2015-18
\n\nGang Chen 2016-18
\n\nJunhong Chen 2017, 2018
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\n\nCyrus Cooper 2017, 2018
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\n\nFei Wei 2016-18
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). 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In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. 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It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/418685",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"418685"},fullPath:"/profiles/418685",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()