\r\n\tThis book will consist of chapters that are an elegant mix of reviews and current developments on the subject that will be useful both to an expert on the subject as well as a newcomer to this area of research.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-076-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-075-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-092-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"8a2fd9bbbbae283bf115881d9d5cc47a",bookSignature:"Dr. Ashim Kumar Dutta",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11857.jpg",keywords:"Frenkel Excitons, Wannier-Mott Excitons, Low Dimensional Solids, Molecular Crystals and Aggregates, Exciton Diffusion and Hopping, Exciton–Exciton Annihilation, Dynamics, Scaling Laws, Photoluminescence, Exciton Lifetime, Energy Harvesting, Semiconductors",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 19th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 17th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 16th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 4th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 3rd 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"5 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Ashim Kumar Dutta received his Ph.D. in physical chemistry from the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science (IACS). He has worked on various international post-doctoral fellowships in Japan, Canada, and USA. Dr. Dutta has worked as head of research and product development in several companies, and presently works as vice-president for India Glycols Limited. He has authored/co-authored 36 articles in international journals and 21 patents.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"277477",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashim",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Dutta",slug:"ashim-dutta",fullName:"Ashim Dutta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277477/images/system/277477.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ashim Kumar Dutta presently works as the vice president (R&D) with India Glycols Limited, one of the largest manufacturers of Green Surfactants in South East Asia. Earlier, he had worked with Unilever as a senior researcher and product development manager in their Home and Personal Care Category, with United Phosphorus Limited and Indofil as their global head for agrochemical formulations. He has authored/co-authored 36 articles in international journals and 19 patents. He received his Ph.D in physical chemistry from Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science (IACS) – a premiere research institute in India in 1993. Dr. Dutta has worked on various international post-doctoral fellowships in Japan, Canada and USA. His research interests include supramolecular assemblies, ultrathin nanostructured films, nanoparticles, novel surfactants, surfactant-polymer interactions, bio-membranes and spectroscopy of Langmuir-Blodgett films, tribology and rheology of complex systems.",institutionString:"India Glycols Limited",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"20",title:"Physics",slug:"physics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"440204",firstName:"Ana",lastName:"Cink",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/440204/images/20006_n.jpg",email:"ana.c@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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The environment, both natural and artificial, is one of the factors that affect human health and well-being. The relationship between the environment and health, the so-called environmental health, should be understood as a complex of interactions between the genetic characteristics of a human being and the environment in which she lives. Exposure of men to environmental pollutants can trigger the onset of diseases, most often chronic [1]. Environmental contamination plays an important role in the transmission of several key health care-associated pathogens. Effective and thorough cleaning/disinfecting of the patient environment is essential. Although microbiologically contaminated surfaces can serve as reservoirs of potential pathogens, these surfaces generally are not directly associated with transmission of infections to either staff or patients. The transferral of microorganisms from environmental surfaces to patients is largely via hand contact with the surface. Although hand hygiene is important to minimize the impact of this transfer, cleaning and disinfecting environmental surfaces as appropriate is fundamental in reducing their potential contribution to the incidence of healthcare-associated infections. The principles of cleaning and disinfecting environmental surfaces take into account the intended use of the surface or item in patient care [2]. Protecting human, animal and plant healthiness at every stage of the food production process is one of the top priorities for the public health and economy. Food safety is becoming increasingly of interest to consumers and producers, and microbiological purity of food raw materials, technological equipment, production areas and final products is inseparably linked to it. Therefore, a great emphasis is placed on the whole quality assurance complex, including production hygiene [3]. Foodborne diseases encompass a wide spectrum of illnesses and are a growing public health problem worldwide. They are the result of ingestion of foodstuffs contaminated with microorganisms or chemicals. The contamination of food may occur at any stage in the process from food production to consumption (“farm to fork”) and can result from environmental contamination, including pollution of water, soil or air [4]. Environmental sanitation is the promotion of hygiene and the prevention of disease and other consequences of ill-health, relating to environmental factors. To allow for transmission of infectious agents they have to be present in the immediate human environment, exposure has to take place, and transmission has to occur by uptake of the agents through unsafe practices. To interrupt the transmission, environmental sanitation can act on reducing exposure to infectious agents by limiting contact to wastes or polluted media, and by changing hygiene and socio-cultural practices. Sanitation is the effective use of tools and actions that keep our environment healthy. Sanitation is a complex of measures directed to the inactivation, removal, or killing of the agents of infections in the external environment. Sanitation includes disinfection, insect control, rodent control, proper disposal of wastes (cadavers, excrements, wastewater) and hygiene of the environment [5].
Disinfection is defined as a process in which germs are destroyed by either chemical action or physical intervention, or a combination of both [6].
Disinfection has several stages. The first stage is the
The effectiveness of disinfectants for microorganisms depends on many factors. On the one hand, these are the properties of the microorganisms themselves, on the other hand, the chemical and physical properties of the external environment. Knowing these factors should lead to a more adequate use of disinfection. The number and types of microorganisms present on environmental surfaces are influenced by the following factors:
number of people in the environment
amount of activity
amount of moisture
presence of material capable of supporting microbial growth
rate at which organisms suspended in the air are removed
type of surface and orientation (e.g. horizontal or vertical) [10].
Factors that affect disinfection efficiency include:
the concentration of the disinfectant
the time during which the microorganism is in contact with the disinfectant
pH
temperature
the presence of organic contaminants, e.g., blood, serum or other body fluids
the microorganism itself or the respective agent, their type (prions, viruses, gram-negative, gram-positive bacteria, microscopic fungi, protozoa, spores) as well as their number and location [11].
The most important factor is the concentration of the disinfectant from which the effectiveness of the disinfection depends. The mechanism of action depends on the chemical composition of the disinfectant and the way it is used. In the case of unstable disinfectants (chlorinated lime, formalin, Persteril), the concentration of active substance must be utaken into account when preparing the working solution. Inadequate (too low) concentration of the disinfectant used does not achieve a cidal effect, but only bacteriostatic, virostatic, and similar ones. Too high concentrations damage the disinfected objects and also lead to increased disinfection costs [9]. The pH values of the environment in which the disinfectant reacts with the microorganism is also an important factor affecting the final result. For example, glutaraldehyde and quaternary ammonium salts as well as chlorhexidine have higher efficacy at alkaline pH. On the other hand, phenolic preparations as well as chlorine are more effective at acidic pH. The temperature, in particular its increase, also partialy affects the end result of the disinfectant reaction with the microorganism [11]. At a low temperature of disinfectant solutions, dissociation of some disinfectants slows down, thereby reducing their diffusion into the bacterial cell. Some disinfectants (lyes) work better if they are heated to 70–80°C (in addition to chemical, they have physical effects too). Chloramine solutions are most effective at the temperature of 50–60°C [9]. The environmental pollutants of organic origin in which chemical disinfection is to be applied significantly reduce the activity of the disinfectant [11]. The presence of organic substances in the environment reduces the effect of all disinfectants; therefore, as previously mentioned before the disinfection of the object, it is necessary to clean the environment [9]. Microorganisms differ in their resistance to disinfectants. Different types of microoganisms vary in there responses to antiseptics, disinfectants, and sterilants (Figure 1). This is hardly surprising, in view of there different cellular structures, compositions, and physiologies. Tradititionally, microbial susceptibilities to biocides have been classified based on these differences. Bacterial spores are generally considered the organisms most resistant to antiseptics, disinfectants, and strilants, although prions have shown market resistance to many physical and chemical processes. It is important to note that this classification is considered only a general guide to antimicrobial activity and can vary depending on the biocide, formulation, or process under consideration [11].
Decreasing order of resistance of microorganisms to disinfection and sterilization and the level of disinfection or sterilization. source: McDonnell, 2007.
Biofilms are composed of immobilized bacteria deposited in an organic polymeric mass of bacterial origin. Biofilm cells are irreversibly connected to each other and with the surface via extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), which account for up to 85% of the total biofilm mass. EPS include a number of proteins, glycoproteins, glycolipids, and in some cases a surprising amount of extracellular DNA [12]. Extracellular polymers are produced by bacteria that allow bacteria to adhere to the surface. The polymeric products constitute the base matrix. Biofilm further contains substances that belong to the “
Biofilm formation is a dynamic process that includes the following steps:
surface attachment
the formation of a monolayer
differentiation of microcolonies
differentiation of macrocolonies and ultimately a mature form of biofilm being created [13]. Various nutrients in the wet environment absorbed on the surfaces create an acclimation coating with different physico-chemical properties. The physico-chemical properties of the surface determine how the bacteria attach. The structure of the biofilm is not homogeneous; it contains a set of numerous channels and cavities that serve to circulate water, supply nutrients and oxygen. They are intricate, mutually communicating channels of various shapes that supply substances and gases to biofilm-living bacteria. Bacteria in the biofilm form clusters of cells, which are known as microcolonies. Biofilm architecture is diverse, constantly changing in space and time due to external and internal processes. It is known that EPS production and hence the related biofilm thickness depend on the availability of nutrients and whether the biofilm is composed of one or more bacterial species. In a natural environment, the community of several species is more common. Biofilm formation is a cause of problems in many areas, e.g. in medicine, in water supply systems, in the food production industry [12]. Biofilm for microorganisms in a given environment creates both a nutritional layer that allows for their reproduction and a protective layer that limits the devitalizing effects of the disinfectants used. Thus, prevention is effective cleaning and application of combined compositions, e.g., oxidizing agents, surfactants and regular surface monitoring. The intervals needed; the intensity of cleaning and decontamination depend on the degree of contamination that occurs on different surfaces [14].
The removal of impurities from surfaces must be of a high standard to ensure technological and hygienic requirements. In general, we distinguish three types of biofilm removal:
mechanical
chemical
biological [15].
Physical methods (otherwise called mechanical methods) are based on the action of a magnetic field that is highly intense. Ultrasonic devices (high-frequency electric field devices) or their connection with organic acids are used. Chemical methods consist of using detergents and disinfectants the acting of which is necessary to effectively remove biofilms. Significant is the use of ozone and a variety of chlorine-based preparations, iodine compounds, peroxyacetic acid, and quaternary ammonium compounds [13]. Biological methods degrade biofilms using enzymes produced by bacteria, but their use is limited because of their cost and affordability. In order to achieve the desired effect, it is appropriate to use a combination of methods with a synergistic effect.
Disinfectants are classified by their chemical nature and each class has its unique characteristics, hazards, toxicities and efficacy against various microorganisms. Environmental conditions, such as the presence of organic matter, pH or water hardness can also impact the action of the disinfectant [10].
Different disinfectants have different mechanisms of action, all disinfectants act by harming microorganisms in some manner. Mechanisms of harm include:
Protein denaturation
Membrane disruption
Nucleic acid damage
Inhibition of metabolism [16].
The ideal disinfectant must have a wide range of action, rapid, time-saving use, and water solubility. The disinfectant should also be stable, ecological, non-toxic, non-corrosive, economical and safe to use. However, such a disinfectant does not exist in real practice and it is therefore important to choose a suitable combination of disinfectants. Rotation of disinfectants is good practice. The mechanism of action of disinfectants on microorganisms can generally be divided into four categories:
denaturation of proteins
membrane damage
damage of nucleic acids
inhibition of metabolic activity.
Disinfectants are placed into three categories depending on microbicidal activity:
High-level disinfectants
Intermediate-level disinfectants
Low-level disinfectants [17].
High-level disinfectants (HLD) are active against vegetative bacteria, viruses (including the nonenveloped ones), fungi, and mycobacteria. They may also have some activity against bacterial spores with extended contact times. Aldehydes (glutaraldehyde and ortho-phthalaldehyde) and oxidisers (e.g., hydrogen peroxide and peracetic acid) are HLDs. The aldehydes are non-corrosive and safe for use on most devices. However, they can fix organic materials; therefore, it is particularly important to remove any embedded microbes prior to disinfection. Unless properly formulated and carefully used, oxidisers can be corrosive. However, they can be faster-acting, non-fixative, and safer for the environment than aldehydes. HLDs typically require 10–45 min of contact time for disinfection, depending on the temperature. After disinfection, items require thorough rinsing with sterile or filtered water to remove any chemical residues; they must then be dried with an alcohol rinse or by blowing clean and filtered air through the device’s channels prior to safe storage. A disinfectant (e.g., ethanol) is active against vegetative bacteria, mycobacteria, fungi, and most viruses. It may fail to kill spores, even after prolonged exposure. Low-level disinfectants (e.g., quaternary ammonium compounds) are active against vegetative bacteria (except mycobacteria), some fungi, and only enveloped viruses. In many cases, washing with unmedicated soap and water would be sufficient in place of such disinfectants [18]. There are three levels of disinfection: high, intermediate, and low. High-level disinfectants, such as glutaraldehyde, are used as chemical sterilants and should never be used on environmental surfaces. Intermediate-level disinfectants are registered with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and have a tuberculocidal claim, and low-level disinfectants are EPA-registered without a tuberculocidal claim (i.e., hepatitis B virus and HIV label claims). The process of high-level disinfection, an appropriate standard of treatment for heat-sensitive, semicritical medical instruments (e.g., flexible, fiberoptic endoscopes), inactivates all vegetative bacteria, mycobacteria, viruses, fungi, and some bacterial spores. High-level disinfection is accomplished with powerful, sporicidal chemicals (e.g., glutaraldehyde, peracetic acid, and hydrogen peroxide) that are not appropriate for use on housekeeping surfaces. These liquid chemical sterilants/high-level disinfectants are highly toxic. Use of these chemicals for applications other than those indicated in their label instructions (i.e., as immersion chemicals for treating heat-sensitive medical instruments) is not appropriate [17]. Intermediate-level disinfection does not necessarily kill bacterial spores, but it does inactivate
Chemical disinfectants are chemical agents applied to non-living objects in order to destroy bacteria, viruses, fungi, mold or mildews living on the objects. By definition, disinfectant formulas must be registered with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The “active ingredient” in each disinfectant formula is what kills pathogens, usually by disrupting or damaging their cells [20].
Alkalis (or bases) are defined as substances capable of forming hydroxide (OH−) ions when dissolved in water and are measured at pH > 7. Hydroxides are strong bases with a pH above 12 and are very reliable disinfectants. Alkalis have good microbicidal properties; inhibit the growth of microorganisms by restricting various metabolic processes. In general, pH values of ≥9 are restrictive for the growth of most vegetative microorganisms, including bacteria and fungi. Low concentrations are generally inhibitory, while higher concentrations are bactericidal and fungicidal. Typical virucidal concentrations are 1–2% NaOH [21]. The mechanism of action of the hydroxide is based on changing the pH of the environment. The reaction of alkali with the various types of lipids (including phospolipids) in these membranes can be compared to their reactions with fatty acids in lipids and oils to cause salt (soap) formation. Membrane disruption leads to cell wall destabilization and loss of membrane structure and function, including disruption of the proton motive force and leakage of cytoplasmatic materials. Alkali also causes breakage of peptide bonds and the breakdown of proteins, which is presumed to be the major mechanism of action against prions [22]. Alkalis are very corrosive agents and damage to various surfaces, depending on the concentration of alkali used and the formulation pH. Personal protection precautions should be observed while working with alkalis [21]. Some limited disinfection methods use high concentrations of strong alkalis, such as NaOH (commonly known as caustic soda or soda lye) and KOH (also known as lye), while lower concentrations of these and weaker alkalis, such as sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) and sodium matasilicate, are used in various cleaning applications [23].
Acids are defined as substances that dissociate in water to provide hydrogen ions (H+), which are measured on the pH scale as <7 [25]. The effect of acids and their derivatives is based on the action of hydrogen ions, anions or whole molecules, surface activity, oxidative or dehydrating capabilities. Acidic disinfectants function by destroying the bonds of nucleic acids and precipitating proteins [21]. Acids also change the pH of the environment of cell, cause oxidaze a dehydratation as well as the destruction of fermentative metabolism of bacteria [26]. The effectiveness of the acids is reduced by the presence of organic contamination. Disadvantages of organic acids are their ability to interact with organic substances, thereby reducing their disinfectant activity, etching and corrosiveness [27]. The use of inorganic acids is considerably limited due to their corrosive and irritant effects. Of inorganic acids, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and phosphoric acid are used in the disinfection practice [9].
Peracetic acid is oxidizing agents, denatures proteins, disrupts cell wall permeability, and oxidizes sulfhydral and sulfur bonds in proteins, enzymes, and other metabolites [27]. Its advantage is that it works at low concentrations. At a concentration of 0.4%, it acts on the surfaces after a 30 min exposure. Persteril as a 0.1% solution is used to treat growing mold directly on the meat. For hand disinfection it is used as a 1–0.2% solution. It leaves no residue, rapidly decomposes into acetic acid and water. Peracetic acid is used to disinfect the environment, surfaces and medical devices. In the form of an aerosol or spray, Pedox-PAA50, which contains 10–40% peracetic acid, is the most commonly applied formulation. For aerosol disinfection, it is used in the concentration of 5–7 ml m−3. The disadvantages of using peracetic acid include corrosion to metals. Even this disadvantage can be avoided by the addition of sodium pyrophosphate in the ratio 1:2 to peracetic acid. It has to be stored at a temperature below 20°C. It is best stored in a refrigerator at 4°C [29].
Halogen-containing disinfectants include chlorine, iodine, bromine and fluorine preparations, which are the most reactive and the most toxic of the halogen compounds. Halogen-containing compounds which are toxic to the cell are created by the action of oxygen in the initial phase. The optimum pH for the disinfection effect is 5–8 and the presence of organic substances significantly reduces it. For practical disinfection, iodine, chlorine and its compounds are important [31].
The position and importance of iodine among the disinfectants lies in its intense and, above all, rapid action on all microorganisms at quite low toxicity. Iodine is a crystalline substance that sublimes at normal temperature and pressure. However, aqueous or alcoholic iodine solutions carry many undesirable effects and their wider use in disinfection was hindered by their significant negative properties such as low solubility in water, corrosion, staining of disinfected objects, toxicity, and the like [9]. Iodine-based disinfectants are called iodophores. Iodophores are relatively non-toxic. In iodophores, iodine is bound to polyvinylpyrrolidones (surface-active organic polymers), which have a significant effect on increasing the disinfection efficiency of these formulations.
Iodine compounds are broad spectrum and considered effective for a variety of bacteria, mycobacteria, fungi and viruses [23]. The negative properties of iodophores are considerably limited, have corrosive effects on iron, less affect copper and its compounds. They have a weak corrosive effect on zinc, aluminum and tin. They do not rust stainless steel. At long-term use, they leave stains and color PVC (polyvinyl chloride) and polyethylene. Iodophores are water-soluble, stable, non-allergenic, fast-acting, low-toxicity, and non-irritating to injured skin. When using iodophores, the basic requirement, namely a thorough mechanical cleansing, must be fulfilled. The temperature of the solutions should not exceed 35°C [32]. They are used in healthcare, veterinary care, food production industry, agriculture and municipal hygiene. Iodine preparations can be used both to disinfect surfaces and to disinfect skin as antiseptics.
Chlorine preparations are widely used. Chlorine is responsible for the major mechanism of action and thus the inactivation of enzymes and ribosome proteins, due to the formation of a strong oxidizing agent – HClO (hypochlorous acid), which is the result of the reaction of chlorine with water. The bacterial cell undergoes changes in the cytoplasmic membrane, the oxidation of thiol groups of enzymes and chlorination of nucleotides occurs, resulting in the blockade of DNA synthesis [33]. An important element is chlorine, occurring in the form of poisonous yellow-brown gas. Chlorination is the most widely used method for disinfecting water supplies. The disinfecting ability of chlorine in water depends on the degree of its dissociation. In an acidic environment, their disinfection effect increases. Chlorine preparations contain salts of hypochlorous acid (HClO). Their decomposition in aqueous environment produces hydrochloric acid (HCl) and oxygen in the phase of “birth,” which oxidizes organic substances. The chemical activity of the chlorine preparations is associated with the chlorine found together with the oxygen in the hypochlorite group -ClO. The amount of oxygen released by the decomposition of this group corresponds to the content of reactive chlorine in a preparation called as active chlorine. Thus, active chlorine is an indicator of disinfectant properties in chlorine preparations. The active chlorine content in the chlorine preparations is expressed as a percentage. Chlorine preparations belong to the group of oxidizing agents with very good disinfection effect [34, 35]. Chlorine compounds are inactivated by organic soil, so a cleaning step is often required for heavily soiled surfaces. They are also prone to degradation from exposure to heat, UV light, and transition metals, such as copper, nickel, cobalt, and iron [36]. Activated solutions are recommended for disinfection especially for mycobacteria and spore-forming bacteria. In the food producing industry, it is not recommended to disinfect the surfaces with which the raw materials or food come into direct contact with chlorine preparations. The effect of all chlorine derivatives is accelerated by the addition of ammonia and ammonium salts, which is the essence of so-called activation of chlorine preparations. However, this activation is short-lived so that the activated solutions must be used immediately, especially against the highly resistant microbes. Ammonium salts, in the ratio 1:1 and ammonia, in the ratio 1:8 to 16 [9] are added to the solutions of known concentration. The most commonly used chlorine preparations include chloramines, chlorinated lime, dikonit, sodium hypochlorite.
Other representatives include
Aldehydes are highly effective, broad spectrum disinfectants, cause against bacteria, fungi, viruses, mycobacteria and spores [23]. The mechanism of action of aldehydes is based on protein denaturation and disrupting of nucleic acids [38]. The most commonly used agents are formaldehyde and gluteraldehyde. Aldehydes are non-corrosive to metals, rubber, plastic and cement [39]. These chemicals are highly irritating, toxic to humans or animals, therefore their use is limited [40].
The most feasible explanation for the antimicrobial action of alcohol is denaturation of proteins. Protein denaturation also is consistent with observations that alcohol destroys the dehydrogenases of
Surfactants from the Latin “
Physical disinfection is based on the effect of physical quantities on the pathogenic microorganism. One of the variables is the exposure time, which precisely determines the time interval during which another physical quantity (temperature, wavelength, etc.) must act.
Ultraviolet germicidal radiation is an established means of disinfection and can be used to prevent the spread of certain infectious diseases. UV radiation is used to control airborne microorganisms and environmental surface decontamination [39]. The main sources of UV radiation are simple UV lights, including mercury vapor lamos, fluorescent lights, pulsed UV lamps, and “black – light” lamps [21]. Not all UV wavelenghts are effective against microorganisms (Figure 2). A main characteristic of UV light is that a specific range of its wavelengths, those between 200 and 300 nm, are categorized as germicidal, they are capable of inactivating bacteria, viruses and protozoa. This capability allows widespread adoption of UV light as a chemical-free, environmentally friendly and highly effective way to safeguard and disinfect water against harmful microorganisms [43]. The most effective wavelenght has been found to be 265 nm [21]. Unlike chemical approaches to water disinfection, UV provides effective and rapid inactivation of microorganisms through a physical process. Inactivation by UV light act through the direct absorption of UV energy by the microorganism, causing a molecular rearrangement of one or more of the biochemical components that are essential to the organism’s functioning. Microorganisms are inactivated by UV light as a result of damage to nucleic acids. The high energy associated with short wavelength UV energy, primarily at 254 nm, is absorbed by cellular RNA and DNA, this absorption forms new bonds between adjacent nucleotides, creating double bonds or dimers. Dimerization of adjacent molecules, particularly thymine, represents most common photochemical damage. Formation of thymine dimers in the DNA of viruses and bacteria prevents replication and inability to infect. UV light demonstrate efficacy against pathogenic organisms, including those responsible for typhoid, hepatitis, cholera, polio and other viral, bacterial and parasitic diseases [11]. Benefits of UV:
UV produces no residual
UV requires no transportation, storage or handling of toxic or corrosive chemicals – a safety benefit for plant operators and the surrounding community
UV treatment creates no carcinogenic disinfection by-products that could adversely affect quality of the water
UV is highly effective at inactivating a broad range of microorganisms – including chlorine-resistant pathogens like
UV can be used (alone or in conjunction with hydrogen peroxide) to break down toxic chemical contaminants while simultaneously disinfecting.
Types of UV radiation. Source: McDonnell, 2007.
UV offers a key advantage over chlorine-based disinfection, due to its ability to inactivate protozoa that threaten public health – most notably
Ozone is a very powerful disinfectant, unstable gas that can destroy bacteria and viruses. Is one of the strongest oxidation agents. It is an air pollutant of much concern in Europe, because it can affect human health and damage the environment. Because of its short half-life, ozone decay soon when produced. The half life of ozone in water is about 30 min, which means that every half hour the ozone concentration is reduced to half its initial concentration. In practice the half-life is shorter because a lot of factors (temperature, pH and concentration) can influence the half-life. Because ozone reacts with all kinds of components, the concentration ozone reduces quickly. The word ozone, from the Greek “
No remaining tastes or odors after treatment.
Disinfection byproduct formation is minimal.
Ozone can remove disinfection byproduct precursors.
Ozone is not always the most suitable disinfectant. Ozone is less suitable for maintenance of a residual concentration, causing it to decompose in water relatively quickly [49]. Chlorine is more suitable for residue formation [10].
Ultrasound refers to inaudible sound waves with frequencies in the range of 16 kHz–500 MHz, greater than the upper limit of human hearing. It can be transmitted through any elastic medium including water, gas-saturated water, and slurry. Ultrasound has been used for diverse purposesin many different areas. In water treatment technology, the application of ultrasound (ultrasonication) can be useful in various processes like organic decontamination, disinfection, electrocoagulation, and membrane filtration. Because of cavitation phenomenon, the formation of free radicals and high localized temperatures and pressures, ultrasonic irradiation (ultrasonication) appears to be an effective method for the destruction of hazardous organic compoundsin water [50]. These compounds include phenol [51] chlorophenols, nitrophenols, aniline [52], trichloroethylene [53], ethylbenzene [54], chlorobenzene [55], chloronaphthalene, polychlorinated biphenyls, pesticides, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, azobenzene, textile dyes [56], carbofuran, nitroaromatics, detergents and surfactants [57]. High power ultrasound, operatedat low frequencies is an effective means for disintegration of bacterial cells. However, disinfection by ultrasonication alone requires very high energy. Thus, generally it cannot be considered as an alternative to conventional disinfection for economical aspects. Then, ultrasonication should be used together with other techniques. For instance, the combination of a short ultrasonication and a subsequent ultraviolet treatment is even cost-efficient and meaningful [58]. Ultrasonication combined with chlorination improved significantly the biocidal action. These results suggest that ultrasound could be used in conjunction with chemical treatments to achieve a reduction in the quantity of bactericide required for water treatment [59]. Ultrasound irradiation can provide enhancement in membrane filtration of waste waters [60]. It increases the flux primarily by breaking the cake layer at the membrane surface. Liquid jets produced by cavitation served as a basis for ultrasonic membrane cleaning. Lower ultrasound frequencies have higher cleaning efficiencies than higher frequencies [61]. Intermittent ultrasound ir-radiation resulted in the same flux obtained as continuous irradiation but intermittent ultrasound consumed less energy and prolonged the lifetime of the membranes used, thus can be considered as a cost effective method of membrane cleaning [48]. Ultrasound can produce various effects on biological materials, for example, stimulating enzyme activity, cell growth, biosynthesis, etc., which enhances the bioactivity of the activated sludge. Thus, the improvement in efficiency of enhanced biological removal of phosphorus [62] and nitrogen [63]. Low frequency (25 kHz) was more effective than higher ones (80 and 150 kHz), or in other term, higher energy ultrasound was more efficient than lower energy ultrasound for the sludge treatment, indicating that mechanical effects, instead of free radicals, were responsible for the bioactivity enhancement [63]. Comparing with other pre-treatment methods, ultrasonication exhibits a great potential of not being hazardous to environment and for being economically competitive [64]. Ultrasound is used in the remediation of contaminated soil and sediment [47]. Ultrasonic leaching has been investigated for the decontamination of different types of soils from landfills, mining spills, and river sediments aswell as various types of contaminants like organic compounds. The application of ultrasound in air pollution control is based on acoustic agglomeration phenomenon that makes small particles precipitated for easy removal. Acoustic agglomeration is a process in which high intensity sound waves produce relative motion and collisions among fine particles suspended in gaseous media. Acoustic agglomeration can be conducted in two approaches, with low frequency and high frequency (ultrasound) sonication. While low frequency acoustic field is more cost and energy efficient, high frequency acoustic (ultrasonic) agglomeration might achieve better particle retention efficiency, especially for very small particles in submicron range [49].
Almost every environment on the planet contains microorganisms. Sanitation represents an applied science because of its importance to the protection of human health and its relationship with environmental factors that relate to health. This applied science relates to control of the biological, chemical, and physical hazards in a environment. Effective sanitation practices are needed to combat their proliferation and activity. Appropriate choice of disinfectant, setting clear goals and a reliable action plan are necessary steps to ensure the safety of animals, people, equipment and the environment.
The work was supported by the project VEGA 2/0125/17.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
pH | potential of hydrogen |
HLD | high-level disinfectants |
EPA | environmental protection agency |
HIV | human immunodeficiency virus |
OH− | hydroxide ions |
CO2 | carbon dioxide |
% | percentage |
°C | degree Celsius |
NaOH | sodium hydroxide |
CaOH | calcium hydroxide |
H+ | hydrogen ions |
HCl | hydrochloric acid |
HNO3 | nitric acid |
H3PO4 | phosphoric acid |
CH3COOH | peracetic acid |
ml m−3 | milliliter per cubic meter |
ClO− | hypochlorite |
PAL | surface active substances |
UV | ultraviolet |
nm | nanometer |
RNA | ribonucleic acid |
DNA | deoxyribonucleic acid |
kHz | kilohertz |
MHz | megahertz |
EPA | environmental protection agency |
EPS | extracellular polymeric substances |
QS | quorum sensing |
Abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) is a complex disease comprised of multifactorial molecular processes that carry a host of players yet to be solidified in literature. Although options continue to expand in the treatment of AAA, understanding the pathophysiology is pivotal for the development of screening tests and pharmacological treatment modalities.
\nIn this chapter, we will go beyond the clinical context of AAA and discuss the various pathologic pathways that lead to its creation. Some of these pathways overlap with other aortic pathologies such as aortic dissection as well as mycotic aneurysm. Lastly, we will discuss common genetic disorders that are predisposed to aortic aneurysm and aortic dissection.
\nThe aorta is the main artery of the body that carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the remaining major arteries of the body. It may be segmented into the thoracic aorta and abdominal aorta based on its location to the diaphragmatic hiatus.
\nThere are three sheaths that make up the aortic wall: tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica adventitia. The intimal layer is thin and mainly composed of endothelial cells, while the tunica media is the largest component of the aortic wall and consist of elastic fibers, smooth muscle cells, and collagenous tissue. Connective tissue makes up the most outer layer called the tunica adventitia and contains small blood vessels known as the vasa vasorum, which supply the cells of the arterial wall.
\nAn aneurysm is defined as the localized dilatation of a vessel exceeding 1.5 times the normal diameter of the vessel, which is defined as greater than 3 cm in the abdominal aorta. As the abdominal aorta dilates, it becomes prone to rupture or tearing within the layers of its wall, otherwise known as aortic dissection (AD). In AAA and AD, patients may present with low blood pressure and a tearing sensation in the chest or back. When blood rushes into the medial layer forming a new, “false” lumen, further expansion can compress the “true” lumen causing downstream ischemia.
\nAtherosclerosis is often present in the setting of aortic pathology and although no causal pathway has been established, understanding the bridge between atherosclerosis and the inflammatory response in AAA remains essential. Early atherogenesis begins with subendothelial retention of circulating lipoproteins on proteoglycans within the extracellular matrix of the arterial wall. Aggregation and oxidation of retained lipoproteins further leads to a maladaptive immune response with circulating monocytes entering the subendothelium, differentiating into macrophages, ingesting the modified lipoproteins, and transforming into the classic “foam cell.” The release of cytokines in this process, such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interferon-γ (IFN-γ), leads to immune cell infiltration and inflammation [1, 2].
\nMuch of our understanding of AAA until this point arises from histopathological studies dating back to 1972 when the “Inflammatory” variant of AAA was described [3]. Since then, the most prevalent features of studied AAA segments have demonstrated elastin degeneration, immune cell infiltration, and apoptosis of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). Although the complete pathogenesis is unknown, information from animal models, histopathological studies and genome-wide association studies (GWAS) may be used to partition this intricate process into proteolysis, inflammation, and vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) apoptosis. Oxidative stress appears to be a major player as well and balances different facets of AAA development and growth.
\nDuring aneurysmal growth, significant proteolytic degradation of elastin, collagen, laminin, fibronectin, and many other extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins occurs in the arterial wall. Upregulation of proteolytic enzymes in the aortic wall is stimulated by the presence of oxidized LDL and cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1, and IL-3 [4]. The most famous set of proteolytic enzymes are known as the matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), which have been implicated in cancer, wound healing, and many other processes. During normal homeostasis, regulation of MMPs in the aortic wall is carried out by tissue inhibitors of MMPs (TIMPs), but a higher MMP/TIMP ratio is typically observed in aneurysms [5, 6].
\nOf the multiple MMPs, MMP-9 and MMP-2 are considered crucial participants in AAA and aortic dissection (AD) development, both significantly upregulated in AAA segments with MMP-9 expression correlating with aneurysm diameter. MMP-9 is derived from macrophages and neutrophils and MMP-2 is produced by smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts; together, they both balance ECM remodeling, inflammation, and VSMC apoptosis through various signaling pathways such as the MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase)/ERK pathway [7]. TGF-beta signaling pathways help balance MMP-2 and MMP-9 in addition to creating protection against AAA formation by increasing type I and III collagen production and upregulating protease inhibitors [8].
\nInnate and adaptive arms of the immune system are involved in the development and growth of AAA. Neutrophil infiltration and release of elastase induces early degradation of the ECM in the aortic wall. Elastin breakdown products trigger either pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory macrophages in the adventitial layer of the aortic wall. T-cell derived interferon gamma and B cells are also involved in AAA formation. B cells provide a source of immunoglobulins, complement pathway, and cytokines, which add to the complexity of AAA formation [9, 10, 11].
\nNecrosis and apoptosis have traditionally been deemed different mechanisms [12]. Apoptosis is considered an organized and instructed route of cell death while necrosis is regarded as an unorganized disruption of a cell with an additional immune response. With this in mind, VSMC apoptosis occurring in the tunica media of the aortic wall in AAA formation is not a recent discovery, although the exact phenomenon is not known.
\nIn addition to a review on cell death nomenclature, Wang et al. describe receptor-interacting protein kinase 3 (RIP3) on VSMCs as a key player in a structured form of necrosis, also known as necroptosis [12]. It is believed that RIP3 mediating inflammatory cytokine production by smooth muscle cells is mediated in the aortic wall through TNF-α signaling pathways. Additionally, protein kinase C-delta (PKC) is upregulated in aneurysmal tissues which lack VSMCs and murine models have demonstrated decreased RIP3 levels in aortic tissue that lacks PKC, further validating the role of PKC in AAA formation [13, 14].
\nOxidative stress is defined as cellular injury induced by reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS), taken as a combined ROS/RNS system [15]. Pathologic oxidative stress to the vasculature occurs via a multi-faceted, highly complex mechanism that is thought to occur in part by the ROS/RNS system. The ROS/RNS system is defined as a group of molecules consisting of free radicals or molecules which predispose to free radical formation. A free radical is any species that contains one or more unpaired electrons that is capable of existing independently, which makes them highly unstable and will react readily with lipids, cellular proteins, and nucleic acids [15, 16].
\nThe production of ROS/RNS is highly regulated and occurs naturally to some degree in all normal cells due to the incomplete reduction of molecular oxygen to water during cellular respiration and within phagosomes of phagocytic cells (chiefly neutrophils and macrophages) [15]. ROS/RNS are typically short-lived, owing to their instability and prompt removal/inactivation by endogenous cellular antioxidants and antioxidant enzymes such as catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase. Dysregulation occurs when ROS/RNS production exceeds clearance.
\nThe principal ROS/RNS involved in cellular injury include superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radicals, and peroxynitrite. These entities mediate vascular damage either directly or indirectly by conversion to more reactive substances [15, 16].
\n
\n
The hydroxyl radical is produced by a variety of chemical reactions involving H2O2, H2O, and O2\n•−. The hydroxyl radical is highly reactive and will readily react with virtually any biomolecule it encounters in a short diffusion distance (about the diameter of the typical protein) [16]. It is removed via conversion to H2O via glutathione peroxidase and has direct damaging effects on lipoproteins and DNA.
In addition to ROS, reactive nitrogen species (RNS) also play a role in the pathophysiology of vascular dysfunction. Nitric oxide (NO) is produced via an l-arginine precursor by nitric oxide synthases with multiple cofactors. Encoded isozymes of mammalian NOS include endothelial, neuronal, and inducible subtypes (eNOS, nNOS, and iNOS, respectively). Endothelial homeostasis rests firmly upon tight regulation of endogenous NO production, but pathologic uncoupling of NOS isozymes or IFN-γ mediated NO production by macrophages can lead to excess NO and/or ROS. Peroxynitrite (ONOO−), a powerful non-radical nitrosative stressor, is formed by the reaction of O2\n•− and NO and serves as the basis for other RNS derivatives such as nitrogen dioxide (NO2) [16, 17].
\nPeroxynitrite is a highly reactive proatherogenic mediator and readily reacts with protein side chains and carbon dioxide to cause cellular injury [16]. A notable example is 3-nitrotyrosine, formed by the reaction of peroxynitrite with tyrosine, which has been suggested as a local marker of oxidative stress in immunostained samples of aneurysmal aortas [19]. Additionally, Kotlarczyk et al. revealed a pathway consisting of oxidative and hemodynamic stress on the aortic wall leading to increased superoxide production and NO bioavailability. This linkage corresponded to an increased rate of asymmetric thoracic aorta dilatation in patients with bicuspid aortopathy versus their tricuspid counterparts [20].
\nThe role of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of aortic pathologies such as aortic aneurysm involves pathologic vascular remodeling along with dysfunctional balancing of connective tissue breakdown and synthesis by VSMCs [19, 20, 21]. This is thought to occur due to several mechanisms, including ROS/RNS induced VSMC apoptosis and enhanced matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activity, which leads to progressive weakening of the aortic wall, dilatation, and eventual aneurysm formation via the breakdown of collagen, elastin, and laminin. Oxidative stress is a major modulator of MMP formation and can disrupt the corresponding balance of TIMPs that are otherwise crucial to the structural integrity of the extracellular matrix of the arterial wall [21, 22].
\nAdditionally, ROS can disrupt VSMC proliferation via a mechanism linked to the relative local redox microenvironment concentrations of hydrogen peroxide and lipid hydroperoxides [16, 18, 23]. Hydrogen peroxide is involved in various pathways and serves as a mediator of vascular inflammation, upregulating various chemotactic and adhesion molecules such as ICAM-1, IL-8, and P-selectin which facilitate leukocyte migration into the aortic wall. In a study of patients undergoing elective infrarenal AAA repair, tissue samples of aneurysmal aortic segments demonstrated superoxide levels 2.5 times that of adjacent non-aneurysmal aortic segments, as well as increased expression and activity of NADPH oxidase [18]. In addition, changes in normal local blood flow hemodynamics in aneurysmal aortas may also induce ROS production and contribute to aortic remodeling and dissection [20, 24, 25].
\nXanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) is a famous complex molybdoflavin protein known to healthcare providers as a catalyzer in the terminal steps of purine degradation, and when therapeutically inhibited, a target for treatment of hyperuricemia and gout. Although XOR may be involved in the pro-inflammatory state associated with crystal formation in gout, it may have an antioxidant role when under the optimal conditions, which necessitates further studies [26].
\nSimilar to AAA, the physiology of aortic dissection (AD) entails a complex multifactorial process consisting of proteolysis, inflammation, and VSMC apoptosis. The differentiating factor is that hemodynamic stress results in intimal tearing of the aortic wall allowing blood to rush into the medial layer. This process creates a “true” and “false” lumen that may propagate in either direction to occlude the true lumen and/or cause a variety of issues resulting in significant morbidity and mortality.
\nA mycotic aortic aneurysm is characterized by a local, irreversible dilatation of the aorta which is secondary to a direct bacterial or fungal inoculation of the vessel wall. The term mycotic aneurysm is actually a misnomer, as these “infective” aneurysms are most commonly bacterial in nature and fungal to a lesser extent. Staphylococcus and Salmonella species are the two most commonly cultured organisms in mycotic aneurysms, however, improved bacteriologic techniques have led to the detection of anaerobic bacteria (mostly Bacteroides, and Clostridium spp.). Mycotic aneurysms are rare as they only represent 1–2.6% of all aortic aneurysms [27, 28].
\nThe formation of mycotic aneurysms is initiated by a microbial induced pro-inflammatory cascade of cytokines, such as TNF-α, IL-1, IL-6, invading the aortic vessel wall [28]. The recruitment of inflammatory cells within the vessel causes functional changes to VSMCs and endothelial cells with subsequent loss of integrity in the tunica media. This intense cytokine cascade causes mycotic aneurysms to progress more rapidly and aggressively than inflammatory aneurysms and thus have a higher mortality rate when compared [29].
\nMycotic aneurysms most commonly affect diseased aortic endothelium in the setting of bacteremia and may present as nonspecific back pain or abdominal pain depending on the location of the lesion. Patients will typically be febrile, indicating a systemic infection, and lab values will show signs of leukocytosis and elevated ESR. Importantly, Gram negative organisms tend to cause a more virulent arterial infection than Gram positive bacteria, which makes the resultant aneurysm even more prone to rupture and further increases the risk of mortality [30, 31, 32].
\nTreatment of mycotic aneurysm focuses on empiric antibiotic therapy while waiting for blood culture susceptibility panel with individualized duration, surgical excision with wide debridement of infected tissues, and revascularization as needed.
\nThe primary role of AAA screening and surveillance is mortality reduction, primarily through one-time and/or periodic non-invasive imaging. The initial workup of any aortic pathology begins with a focused history and physical examination. Classically, AAA may present with a pulsatile epigastric abdominal mass, but many patients are asymptomatic and lack this finding. However, the physical exam may assist in identifying more distal aneurysmal disease, particularly those occurring in the femoropopliteal distribution, which may be predictive of coexisting AAA. The physical examination is also crucial to determine a patient’s baseline status in terms of perioperative risk with regards to a future surgical or endovascular intervention [33]. A number of serum biomarkers and genetic factors are known to be associated with AAA, and despite being an exciting area of developing research, the prognostic and diagnostic value of these factors has not yet been validated clinically, and therefore do not yet play a significant role in the diagnosis and management of AAA [33].
\nUltrasound (US) and computed tomography (CT) angiography are the two primary imaging modalities used for AAA and are both highly accurate and reproducible. Transabdominal US is relatively inexpensive and can be performed in minutes without the use of ionizing radiation or iodinated contrast media. US carries a sensitivity and specificity approaching 100% in asymptomatic patients with AAA, making it the modality of choice for AAA screening and surveillance. Both the Society for Vascular Surgery (SVS) and the US Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) recommend a one-time screening ultrasound for AAA in men or women 65–75 years of age with a history of tobacco use [33, 34]. Various additional recommendations exist for that of first-degree relatives of those presenting with AAA, follow-up US examinations based on initial aortic diameter at initial screening, and screening in non-smokers or females, but these recommendations are supported by lower-level data or are of unclear benefit. Obesity, overlying bowel gas, and user dependence are recognized limitations ultrasound evaluation for AAA, and US may underestimate AAA size by 2 mm [33, 34]. However, limitations are invariably offset by the aforementioned benefits, and US can be useful evaluating other causes of abdominal pain, particularly in the emergent setting, resulting in a reduction in time to diagnosis and treatment. When AAA repair is indicated in an otherwise stable patient, CT offers more precise pre-operative planning via multiplanar orthogonal measurements.
\nAside from baseline screening, AAA surveillance also plays a significant role in mortality reduction, by monitoring changes in AAA size over time and subsequent timely identification of patients whose risk of rupture begins to approach or outweigh the risks of intervention. Despite multiple large-scale clinical research trials comparing AAA size versus risk of rupture, vascular and radiology literature has yet to produce a single unifying surveillance parameter, but several evidence-based criteria allow patients to be safely observed over time despite a relatively small background risk of rupture. The SVS recently provided updated guidelines for the surveillance of patients with AAA, including recommended surveillance imaging at 3-year intervals for patients with AAA between 3.0 and 3.9 cm in diameter, 12-month intervals for 4.0–4.9 cm, and 6-month intervals for 5.0 and 5.4 cm [33]. The American College of Radiology (ACR) appropriateness criteria designates duplex ultrasound of the aorta/abdomen, CTA of the abdomen and pelvis with intravenous contrast, or MRA of the abdomen and pelvis with intravenous contrast as “usually appropriate” (a rating of 7, 8, or 9) for surveillance of asymptomatic AAA without previous repair [35].
\nThe remaining aortic pathologies, including that of aortic dissection, present with a wide range of clinical, laboratory, and imaging findings, and therefore are similarly evaluated with CT or CT angiography for prompt diagnosis.
\nHypertensive disease is the main major risk factor for aortic thoracic disease with genetic predisposition as second major risk factor [36, 37]. Although, this notion is based on studies mostly including Marfan disease patients [38]. For patients with asymptomatic AA, anti-hypertensive therapy with beta blockers is recommended for blood pressure control with the goal being to limit aortic wall expansion. Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) are preferred as well due to their role as modifiers of inflammatory mediators and by decreasing vascular smooth muscle apoptosis [38, 39].
\nBeta blockers have been the traditional treatment for thoracic aortic disease. It was originally demonstrated more than 70 years ago when turkeys eating sweet pea seed,
Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibition may have a beneficial role by modifying inflammatory mediators and decreasing vascular smooth muscle apoptosis. Angiotensin receptor blockers such as Losartan have been shown to prevent expansion of aneurysms by downregulation of transforming growth factor B [38, 46, 47]. Angiotensin II type 1 receptor blockade within the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system causes a decrease in TGF-B signaling further reducing levels of intracellular mediators within the TGF-B signaling cascade, such as phosphorylated SMAD [37, 48]. By this mechanism, there is a reduced proliferation of vascular smooth-muscle cells, fibrosis, and expression of matrix metalloproteinases [49]. Overactivation of the angiotensin II type 2 receptor pathway by ARBs causes antiproliferative and anti-inflammatory effects that are beneficial in aortic wall homeostasis [50]. In contrast, ACE inhibitors limit the production of angiotensin II, producing a negative effect on Angiotensin II type 1 and type 2 receptor pathways which do not influence alternative mechanisms [46].
\nMedical treatment with statins (3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase inhibitors) power many of the inflammatory pathways of the formation of aortic aneurysms. Statins provide a protective effect by inhibition of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and plasminogen activator due to the aforementioned proteolytic enzymes involved in the pathophysiology of aortic aneurysm formation [39, 51, 52].
\nHistorically, abdominal aortic aneurysm was treated with open surgical repair once aneurysmal growth reached a certain size or rate. Recent advancements have allowed endovascular repair to be used as the primary modality of repair with open surgical repair reserved for emergency/unconventional situations.
\nGenetics play an important role in the pathogenesis of various diseases. While multifactorial processes have been described in the development of AAA and AD, there are two Mendelian disorders which may lead to AAA or AD, Marfan syndrome and Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (EDS). Both have been connected to the development of AAs and ADs lacking classic risk factors such as smoking, hypertension, and old age. By definition, both of these syndromes result from mutations in a single gene and inheritance pattern. Overall, both Marfan syndrome and EDS share deleterious effects on connective tissues in the body which consequently have major ramifications on the integrity of major blood vessels.
\nEhlers-Danlos syndromes (EDS) are a rare group of inherited disorders of collagen which ultimately impair the integrity of the extracellular matrix of supporting structures such as connective tissues. Clinically, people with EDS usually feature remarkable hyperelastic skin, hypermobile joints, and often a bleeding diathesis. At least six clinical and genetic variants of EDS have been established and they all share a generalized defect in collagen, including abnormalities in its structure, synthesis, secretion and degradation.
\nIn this discussion, the vascular subtype of EDS, previously referred to as type IV EDS, is the focus of this section. The vascular subtype of EDS (vEDS) is manifested from a key mutation affecting the COL3A1 gene, which subsequently causes deficient synthesis of type III procollagen. The diagnosis of vEDS is made from major and minor clinical criteria and can be confirmed by abnormalities in procollagen production as seen in protein gel electrophoresis and molecular genetic testing.
\nThe incidence of vEDS is roughly 1:100,000 with a total of 1500 affected individuals in the United States having been identified on the basis of biochemical and genetic testing and analysis of family pedigrees [53].
\nThe COL3A1 gene is found on chromosome locus 2q32.2 and encodes for type III pro-collagen. The COL3A1 is estimated to be over 44 kb in size [54]. The vEDS subtype is inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern.
\nType III collagen is extremely prevalent in skin, vessel walls and reticular fibers of most tissues such as the lungs, liver, and spleen. Mutations in the COL3A1 gene responsible for vEDS can take various forms. These include point mutations, deletions, insertions, splicing mutations, and missense mutations. The most common genetic mutation associated with vEDS is a missense mutation of a crucial glycine residue in the triple helical domain of the alpha-1 (III)-chains of type III procollagen. The mutation almost always occurs in a particular region of the protein that is used to bind to other collagen proteins. Three collagen proteins always bind together into a trimer, which is required for collagen functionality; when not bound in a trimer, collagen is useless, as it cannot provide functional or structural support [55].
\nThe most common missense mutation recognized in the literature is a substitution of glycine to glutamic acid or lysine (Glu>Lys), both leading to the production of a defective polypeptide and disrupted (Gly-X-Y)n collagen motif [56]. This leads to the development of severely malformed collagen fibrils and reticulin fibers in the extracellular matrix of dermal and arterial tissues.
\nType III procollagen is a major structural protein in hollow organs and vessel walls. An altered structure of the protein makes it dysfunctional in large elastic arteries such as the aorta causing them to be more prone to rupture or dissection. The mechanisms by which mutant type III collagen molecules create vascular fragility are not well understood in humans, though clinically vEDS is characterized by weakness of tissues rich in type III collagen, such as blood vessels, thus predisposing them to aneurysm and dissection [57].
\nMarfan syndrome is caused by an inherited mutation of the FBN1 gene coding for the extracellular glycoprotein Fibrillin-1. The mutation in FBN1 initiates instability of connective tissue extracellular matrix, manifesting broadly as changes to the skeleton, eyes, and cardiovascular system. There have been more than 1800 distinct causative mutations in the FBN1 gene which complicates the diagnosis by DNA sequencing alone. As a result, the diagnosis of Marfan syndrome is mainly based on clinical findings. Classically you will see ectopia lentis, tall stature with coinciding arachnodactyly, and hyperlaxity of joints.
\nThe prevalence of Marfan syndrome is estimated to be 1 in 5000. According to National Human Genome Research Institute, roughly 75% of cases are familial and the remaining 25% of cases are a result of a new (de novo) mutation in the FBN1 gene. In a 2015 study involving 412 people confirmed as having Marfan syndrome, the median age at diagnosis is found to be 19.0 years [58].
\nFibrillin-1 is encoded for by the FBN1 gene (chromosome locus 15q21) which is estimated to be 235 kb in size [59]. Marfan syndrome is inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern.
\nFibrillin-1 is secreted by fibroblasts, is modified post-translationally by glycosylation, and is the major component of microfibrils found in the extracellular matrix of connective tissue. Microfibrils are widely distributed in the body, more specifically they are abundant in the aorta, ligaments, and the ciliary zonules that support the ocular lens. This distribution of microfibrils gives rise to the unique clinical presentation classically known as Marfanoid habitus.
\nMore recently, microfibril-associated glycoprotein 4 (MFAP4) has been linked to the pathogenesis of Marfan syndrome. Yin et al. using a glycoproteomic analysis of aortic extracellular matrix in Marfan patients, found an increased and more diverse N-glycosylation of MFAP4 in patients with Marfan syndrome compared with control patients. Most importantly in our discussion of AA and AD, this increased N-glycosylation was particularly in the aneurysmal stages [60, 61].
\nThe defective Fibrillin-1 protein and subsequent faulty microfibrils are fundamental in the progression to an aortic aneurysm or an aortic dissection seen in Marfan syndrome. Not only do microfibrils provide structural integrity of specific organ systems, but they also provide a scaffold for elastogenesis in elastic tissues, most notably in elastic arteries such as the aorta [62]. In a way, malfunctioning FBN1 gene inserts malware into microfibrils, thus dismantling the scaffold needed for elastogenesis. This defective elasticity in the tunica media of elastic arteries such as the aorta weakens the vessel wall predisposing to early aneurysm. Weakening of the media also predisposes to any intimal tear, which may initiate an intramural hematoma that cleaves the layers of the media to produce aortic dissection.
\nInterestingly, the loss of microfibrils also gives rise to abnormal and excessive activation of transforming growth factor-B (TGF-B). Normally sequestered by well-functioning microfibrils, excessive TGF-B signaling has deleterious effects on both vascular smooth muscle development and the overall integrity of the extracellular matrix at a cellular level. Excessive TGF-B signaling in the adventitia of large elastic arteries causes increased deposition of weak fibrotic tissue leading to aneurysm development [58].
\nThe pathogenesis of AAA formation is complex and multidimensional. The traditional atherosclerotic or inflammatory variant of AAA may be segmented into a process of proteolysis, inflammation, and VSMC apoptosis. Oxidative stress acts as a fulcrum throughout this process which is also involved in other acquired aortic pathologies such as mycotic aneurysm and aortic dissection. Classically, aortic pathology is affiliated with connective tissue disorders like seen in Marfan and Ehlers-Danlos syndromes. With further studies and eventual development, the understanding of AAA formation as well as other aortic pathologies will lead to additional treatment tools for vascular specialists and other healthcare providers alike.
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The PA industry is spread out worldwide in Europe, Asia and America, including countries that operate phosphate rock (PR) mines and produce PA, phosphatic fertilizers and phosphate-based products.",book:{id:"5595",slug:"phosphoric-acid-industry-problems-and-solutions",title:"Phosphoric Acid Industry",fullTitle:"Phosphoric Acid Industry - Problems and Solutions"},signatures:"Benjamín Valdez Salas, Michael Schorr Wiener and Juan Ricardo\nSalinas Martinez",authors:[{id:"16436",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Schorr",slug:"michael-schorr",fullName:"Michael Schorr"}]},{id:"54906",doi:"10.5772/67926",title:"Purification of Phosphoric Acid by Liquid‐Liquid Equilibrium",slug:"purification-of-phosphoric-acid-by-liquid-liquid-equilibrium",totalDownloads:1681,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Various ternary and quaternary liquid‐liquid phase equilibrium data for water + phosphoric acid + solvent(s) have been reported. Salting‐out, solvent, and temperature effects on the binodal curve and the tie lines have been highlighted and the capability of solvents with different functional groups to extract phosphoric acid from water has been compared. Studying of influence of magnetic, electromagnetic, and ultrasonic fields on the separation factors and distribution coefficients of aqueous phosphoric acid mixtures has been proposed. Moreover, a summary of the optimized binary interaction values, which resulted from non‐random two‐liquid (NRTL) and universal quasi‐chemical (UNIQUAC) thermodynamic models using genetic algorithm (GA), bee algorithm (BA), and simulated annealing (SA), has been presented. Group method of data handling (GMDH) and linear solvation energy relationship (LSER) methods for the correlation of experimental liquid‐liquid equilibrium (LLE) data have been used.",book:{id:"5595",slug:"phosphoric-acid-industry-problems-and-solutions",title:"Phosphoric Acid Industry",fullTitle:"Phosphoric Acid Industry - Problems and Solutions"},signatures:"Khatereh Bahrpaima",authors:[{id:"193562",title:"Dr.",name:"Khatereh",middleName:null,surname:"Bahrpaima",slug:"khatereh-bahrpaima",fullName:"Khatereh Bahrpaima"}]},{id:"55219",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68567",title:"Occupational, Public and Environmental Radiological Impact Caused by the Phosphoric Acid Industry: The Case of Huelva (Spain)",slug:"occupational-public-and-environmental-radiological-impact-caused-by-the-phosphoric-acid-industry-the",totalDownloads:1355,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The production of phosphate fertilizers usually uses as raw material sedimentary phosphate rock, which contains enhanced concentrations from U‐series radionuclides about 10–100 times higher than unperturbed soils. This fact implies the need for evaluating the radiological implications of this activity. In our case, the study has been performed in a large fertilizer industrial complex located at Huelva town (SW of Spain), where sedimentary phosphate rock has been processed since 1965 to 2010, generating annually an average of about 2.5 million tons of a by‐product called phosphogypsum (PG), which has been stored in big stacks 1 km away from Huelva city, covering 1000 ha. The fluxes of the radionuclides of interest along the production process and the effective doses received by the workers have been determined. In addition, the radioecological impact associated to the waste management strategy followed has been evaluated.",book:{id:"5595",slug:"phosphoric-acid-industry-problems-and-solutions",title:"Phosphoric Acid Industry",fullTitle:"Phosphoric Acid Industry - Problems and Solutions"},signatures:"José Luis Guerrero‐Márquez, Fernando Mosqueda Peña, Juan\nMantero, Guillermo Manjón, Rafael García‐Tenorio and Juan Pedro\nBolívar",authors:[{id:"57724",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Manjon",slug:"guillermo-manjon",fullName:"Guillermo Manjon"},{id:"111020",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Bolivar",slug:"juan-pedro-bolivar",fullName:"Juan Pedro Bolivar"},{id:"111022",title:"Prof.",name:"Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Gacia Tenorio",slug:"rafael-gacia-tenorio",fullName:"Rafael Gacia Tenorio"},{id:"193940",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Mosqueda",slug:"fernando-mosqueda",fullName:"Fernando Mosqueda"},{id:"193941",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Mantero",slug:"juan-mantero",fullName:"Juan Mantero"},{id:"193942",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"José Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero-Márquez",slug:"jose-luis-guerrero-marquez",fullName:"José Luis Guerrero-Márquez"}]},{id:"55434",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68236",title:"Diluted Thermopressurized Phosphoric Acid: A Gentle Proton Donor for Polysaccharide Acid Depolymerization and (Bio)processing",slug:"diluted-thermopressurized-phosphoric-acid-a-gentle-proton-donor-for-polysaccharide-acid-depolymeriza",totalDownloads:1710,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Phosphorus is a very important element for several metabolic pathways in all living organisms as exemplified by DNA, RNA, glucose and fructose-P, and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The whole metabolism of phosphate in any living organism involves the catalysis carried out by many enzymes, such as kinases, pyrophosphorylases, isomerases, and phosphatases. Symptoms of hypophosphatemia include neurological dysfunction and disruption of muscle and blood cells and could be caused by malnutrition, failure to absorb phosphate, and metabolic syndromes. Phosphoric acid is widely used as an acidifying agent in a variety of pharmaceutical formulations as an acidulant, flavor, and synergistic antioxidant and sequestering. At the laboratorial and industrial territories, due to safety precautions, phosphoric acid may be considered a valid acid alternative for stronger and risky acids such as sulfuric, hydrochloric, and nitric acids. Furthermore, phosphoric acid, among the mineral acids, is less corrosive for steel and all goods made therefrom. Taking into account all these favorable arguments, the applied research at our laboratory (LQBB) is focused, with success, in the utilization of much diluted and moderately thermopressurized phosphoric acid (o-PA) in the pretreatment of polysaccharides for many biotechnological, as oligosaccharides production, important prebiotics for the human gastrointestinal tract.",book:{id:"5595",slug:"phosphoric-acid-industry-problems-and-solutions",title:"Phosphoric Acid Industry",fullTitle:"Phosphoric Acid Industry - Problems and Solutions"},signatures:"José Domingos Fontana, Marcela Tiboni and Heidegrid Siebert\nKoop",authors:[{id:"192320",title:"Prof.",name:"José Domingos",middleName:null,surname:"Fontana",slug:"jose-domingos-fontana",fullName:"José Domingos Fontana"},{id:"195692",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcela",middleName:null,surname:"Tiboni",slug:"marcela-tiboni",fullName:"Marcela Tiboni"},{id:"195694",title:"Dr.",name:"Heidegrid",middleName:null,surname:"Siebert Koop",slug:"heidegrid-siebert-koop",fullName:"Heidegrid Siebert Koop"}]},{id:"56294",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68658",title:"Recent Trends in Phosphatase-Mediated Bioremediation",slug:"recent-trends-in-phosphatase-mediated-bioremediation",totalDownloads:2117,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Industrial effluents from tanneries and electroplating industries from small‐ and large‐scale sector industrial plants contain substantial amount of toxic heavy metal, which pollutes rivers and lakes, land, air and sea leading to imbalance of ecosystem and certain health issues to humans, animals as well as plants. The worldwide environmental regulations stipulate the reduction of heavy metals in the effluents to permissible levels before discharging into water bodies. Enzyme‐mediated precipitation of heavy metals affords a novel eco‐friendly method for remediation of toxic heavy metals from various industrial effluents like tannery, electroplating and dye industries. This chapter has paid attention to bacterial alkaline phosphatase (BAP) from Escherichia coli C90 and calf‐intestinal alkaline phosphatase (CIAP), which catalyses phospho mono‐ and diesters and produces inorganic phosphate (Pi). The Pi thus generated precipitates the heavy metals as metal‐phosphate complexes. The kinetic behaviour of both the enzymes with para‐nitrophenyl phosphate, ascorbic acid 2‐phosphate and α‐naphthyl phosphate was investigated at various pH regimes from 8 to 11. The chapter also explains in detail the descriptive information on the capability of BAP‐ and CIAP‐mediated precipitation of heavy metals, which is desirable and convenient method for the toxic heavy metals such as chromium, cadmium, nickel and cobalt.",book:{id:"5595",slug:"phosphoric-acid-industry-problems-and-solutions",title:"Phosphoric Acid Industry",fullTitle:"Phosphoric Acid Industry - Problems and Solutions"},signatures:"Gouri Chaudhuri, Uma Selvaraj, Venu Babu and Richard W.\nThilagaraj",authors:[{id:"192857",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Thilagaraj",slug:"richard-thilagaraj",fullName:"Richard Thilagaraj"},{id:"195962",title:"Dr.",name:"P. Venu",middleName:null,surname:"Babu",slug:"p.-venu-babu",fullName:"P. Venu Babu"},{id:"195963",title:"Dr.",name:"Gouri",middleName:null,surname:"Chaudhuri",slug:"gouri-chaudhuri",fullName:"Gouri Chaudhuri"},{id:"195964",title:"Ms.",name:"Uma",middleName:null,surname:"Selvaraj",slug:"uma-selvaraj",fullName:"Uma Selvaraj"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56162",title:"Phosphoric Acid Industry: Problems and Solutions",slug:"phosphoric-acid-industry-problems-and-solutions",totalDownloads:5178,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Phosphoric acid (PA) is an important industrial chemical used as an intermediate in the fertilizer industry, for metal surface treatment in the metallurgical industry and as an additive in the food industry. The PA industry is spread out worldwide in Europe, Asia and America, including countries that operate phosphate rock (PR) mines and produce PA, phosphatic fertilizers and phosphate-based products.",book:{id:"5595",slug:"phosphoric-acid-industry-problems-and-solutions",title:"Phosphoric Acid Industry",fullTitle:"Phosphoric Acid Industry - Problems and Solutions"},signatures:"Benjamín Valdez Salas, Michael Schorr Wiener and Juan Ricardo\nSalinas Martinez",authors:[{id:"16436",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Schorr",slug:"michael-schorr",fullName:"Michael Schorr"}]},{id:"55389",title:"Thermochemistry and Kinetics of the Reactions of Apatite Phosphates with Acid Solutions (II)",slug:"thermochemistry-and-kinetics-of-the-reactions-of-apatite-phosphates-with-acid-solutions-ii-",totalDownloads:1877,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The principal material in the phosphate ores is composed of calcium fluorapatite Ca10(PO4)6F2, in which the various components have been partially substituted by magnesium, sodium, carbonate, and hydroxyl ions. These substitutions affect the stability of the material and its reactivity toward the acid attack. The present chapter reports the influence of carbonates and magnesium on these properties. Using different calorimeters, dissolution experiments of carbonated and noncarbonated Ca and Ca/Mg apatites were carried out in acid solutions leading to thermochemical quantities. The results show that substitution of carbonate for F ions in the channel (to get A-type carbonate F-apatites) results in increasing the stability of the edifice, while substitution of CO3 for PO4 in fluor- or hydroxyapatites (to get B-type apatites) leads to a decrease in stability. The latter phenomenon was also observed when substituting magnesium for calcium in F-apatites. The presence of the former in the apatite structure results in an increase of the speed of dissolution in acid solution that is enhanced when carbonate is also replacing phosphate groups. Dissolution mechanism of synthesized Ca/Mg F-apatites seems to be a one-step process, while dissolution of a Gafsa (TN) natural phosphate to get superphosphate fertilizer is more complex.",book:{id:"5595",slug:"phosphoric-acid-industry-problems-and-solutions",title:"Phosphoric Acid Industry",fullTitle:"Phosphoric Acid Industry - Problems and Solutions"},signatures:"Mohamed Jemal",authors:[{id:"15449",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Jemal",slug:"mohamed-jemal",fullName:"Mohamed Jemal"}]},{id:"55219",title:"Occupational, Public and Environmental Radiological Impact Caused by the Phosphoric Acid Industry: The Case of Huelva (Spain)",slug:"occupational-public-and-environmental-radiological-impact-caused-by-the-phosphoric-acid-industry-the",totalDownloads:1355,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The production of phosphate fertilizers usually uses as raw material sedimentary phosphate rock, which contains enhanced concentrations from U‐series radionuclides about 10–100 times higher than unperturbed soils. This fact implies the need for evaluating the radiological implications of this activity. In our case, the study has been performed in a large fertilizer industrial complex located at Huelva town (SW of Spain), where sedimentary phosphate rock has been processed since 1965 to 2010, generating annually an average of about 2.5 million tons of a by‐product called phosphogypsum (PG), which has been stored in big stacks 1 km away from Huelva city, covering 1000 ha. The fluxes of the radionuclides of interest along the production process and the effective doses received by the workers have been determined. In addition, the radioecological impact associated to the waste management strategy followed has been evaluated.",book:{id:"5595",slug:"phosphoric-acid-industry-problems-and-solutions",title:"Phosphoric Acid Industry",fullTitle:"Phosphoric Acid Industry - Problems and Solutions"},signatures:"José Luis Guerrero‐Márquez, Fernando Mosqueda Peña, Juan\nMantero, Guillermo Manjón, Rafael García‐Tenorio and Juan Pedro\nBolívar",authors:[{id:"57724",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Manjon",slug:"guillermo-manjon",fullName:"Guillermo Manjon"},{id:"111020",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Bolivar",slug:"juan-pedro-bolivar",fullName:"Juan Pedro Bolivar"},{id:"111022",title:"Prof.",name:"Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Gacia Tenorio",slug:"rafael-gacia-tenorio",fullName:"Rafael Gacia Tenorio"},{id:"193940",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Mosqueda",slug:"fernando-mosqueda",fullName:"Fernando Mosqueda"},{id:"193941",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Mantero",slug:"juan-mantero",fullName:"Juan Mantero"},{id:"193942",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"José Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero-Márquez",slug:"jose-luis-guerrero-marquez",fullName:"José Luis Guerrero-Márquez"}]},{id:"56294",title:"Recent Trends in Phosphatase-Mediated Bioremediation",slug:"recent-trends-in-phosphatase-mediated-bioremediation",totalDownloads:2117,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Industrial effluents from tanneries and electroplating industries from small‐ and large‐scale sector industrial plants contain substantial amount of toxic heavy metal, which pollutes rivers and lakes, land, air and sea leading to imbalance of ecosystem and certain health issues to humans, animals as well as plants. The worldwide environmental regulations stipulate the reduction of heavy metals in the effluents to permissible levels before discharging into water bodies. Enzyme‐mediated precipitation of heavy metals affords a novel eco‐friendly method for remediation of toxic heavy metals from various industrial effluents like tannery, electroplating and dye industries. This chapter has paid attention to bacterial alkaline phosphatase (BAP) from Escherichia coli C90 and calf‐intestinal alkaline phosphatase (CIAP), which catalyses phospho mono‐ and diesters and produces inorganic phosphate (Pi). The Pi thus generated precipitates the heavy metals as metal‐phosphate complexes. The kinetic behaviour of both the enzymes with para‐nitrophenyl phosphate, ascorbic acid 2‐phosphate and α‐naphthyl phosphate was investigated at various pH regimes from 8 to 11. The chapter also explains in detail the descriptive information on the capability of BAP‐ and CIAP‐mediated precipitation of heavy metals, which is desirable and convenient method for the toxic heavy metals such as chromium, cadmium, nickel and cobalt.",book:{id:"5595",slug:"phosphoric-acid-industry-problems-and-solutions",title:"Phosphoric Acid Industry",fullTitle:"Phosphoric Acid Industry - Problems and Solutions"},signatures:"Gouri Chaudhuri, Uma Selvaraj, Venu Babu and Richard W.\nThilagaraj",authors:[{id:"192857",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Thilagaraj",slug:"richard-thilagaraj",fullName:"Richard Thilagaraj"},{id:"195962",title:"Dr.",name:"P. Venu",middleName:null,surname:"Babu",slug:"p.-venu-babu",fullName:"P. Venu Babu"},{id:"195963",title:"Dr.",name:"Gouri",middleName:null,surname:"Chaudhuri",slug:"gouri-chaudhuri",fullName:"Gouri Chaudhuri"},{id:"195964",title:"Ms.",name:"Uma",middleName:null,surname:"Selvaraj",slug:"uma-selvaraj",fullName:"Uma Selvaraj"}]},{id:"55434",title:"Diluted Thermopressurized Phosphoric Acid: A Gentle Proton Donor for Polysaccharide Acid Depolymerization and (Bio)processing",slug:"diluted-thermopressurized-phosphoric-acid-a-gentle-proton-donor-for-polysaccharide-acid-depolymeriza",totalDownloads:1710,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Phosphorus is a very important element for several metabolic pathways in all living organisms as exemplified by DNA, RNA, glucose and fructose-P, and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The whole metabolism of phosphate in any living organism involves the catalysis carried out by many enzymes, such as kinases, pyrophosphorylases, isomerases, and phosphatases. Symptoms of hypophosphatemia include neurological dysfunction and disruption of muscle and blood cells and could be caused by malnutrition, failure to absorb phosphate, and metabolic syndromes. Phosphoric acid is widely used as an acidifying agent in a variety of pharmaceutical formulations as an acidulant, flavor, and synergistic antioxidant and sequestering. At the laboratorial and industrial territories, due to safety precautions, phosphoric acid may be considered a valid acid alternative for stronger and risky acids such as sulfuric, hydrochloric, and nitric acids. Furthermore, phosphoric acid, among the mineral acids, is less corrosive for steel and all goods made therefrom. Taking into account all these favorable arguments, the applied research at our laboratory (LQBB) is focused, with success, in the utilization of much diluted and moderately thermopressurized phosphoric acid (o-PA) in the pretreatment of polysaccharides for many biotechnological, as oligosaccharides production, important prebiotics for the human gastrointestinal tract.",book:{id:"5595",slug:"phosphoric-acid-industry-problems-and-solutions",title:"Phosphoric Acid Industry",fullTitle:"Phosphoric Acid Industry - Problems and Solutions"},signatures:"José Domingos Fontana, Marcela Tiboni and Heidegrid Siebert\nKoop",authors:[{id:"192320",title:"Prof.",name:"José Domingos",middleName:null,surname:"Fontana",slug:"jose-domingos-fontana",fullName:"José Domingos Fontana"},{id:"195692",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcela",middleName:null,surname:"Tiboni",slug:"marcela-tiboni",fullName:"Marcela Tiboni"},{id:"195694",title:"Dr.",name:"Heidegrid",middleName:null,surname:"Siebert Koop",slug:"heidegrid-siebert-koop",fullName:"Heidegrid Siebert Koop"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"490",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. 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