Four major steps in the pathogenesis of acne.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8162",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Generation, Development and Modifications of Natural Fibers",title:"Generation, Development and Modifications of Natural Fibers",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book covers natural fibers at the basic level as well as a few advanced approaches for recent trends in natural fibers. The core chapters include an introduction to cellulosic fibers like cotton, protein fibers like silk, and other natural fibers. Overall the book provides comprehensive knowledge of natural fibers.",isbn:"978-1-78984-673-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-672-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-688-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78111",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"generation-development-and-modifications-of-natural-fibers",numberOfPages:142,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a4d6ebfffebe0d345c7cee3726519058",bookSignature:"Mudassar Abbas and Han-Yong Jeon",publishedDate:"March 4th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8162.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6288,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:16,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:22,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 7th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 19th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 17th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 8th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 7th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"225082",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mudassar",middleName:null,surname:"Abbas",slug:"mudassar-abbas",fullName:"Mudassar Abbas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225082/images/system/225082.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Mudassar Abbas pursued his PhD in the field of technical chemistry from the Graz University of Technology and was awarded with a doctoral degree in Natural Sciences (Dr. rer. nat.). During his PhD, he participated in many educational activities, conferences, and meetings, where he scientifically contributed with his writings and engaged in interdisciplinary work. After completing his PhD, he continued his research as a Post-Doctoral research fellow in the same group. Before that he obtained his MSc degree from Punjab University Lahore after graduating from FC College University, Lahore. During his postgraduate studies, the major areas of research were synthesis and studies of acid dyes and polyvinylacetate. Keeping in view the demands and practical application of these materials in industry, he started his professional carrier in the textile industry. Dr. Abbas then gained one year industrial experience, and afterwards diversified as an academic professional where he taught chemistry at various levels. Today, Dr. Abbas is an associate professor in the School of Textile and Design of University of Management and Technology, Lahore, and his current areas of research include 'the development of applied materials (ranging from nano-tomacromolecules)”.",institutionString:"University of Management and Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Graz University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Austria"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"114618",title:"Prof.",name:"Han-Yong",middleName:null,surname:"Jeon",slug:"han-yong-jeon",fullName:"Han-Yong Jeon",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/114618/images/system/114618.jpg",biography:"Prof. Han-Yong Jeon is an Emeritus Professor of geosynthetics/technical organic materials at Inha University, Incheon, South Korea. Since 1998, he has acted as the director of Geosynthetics Institute (Korea Directory). He has also worked as a council member of the International Geosynthetics Society (2006-2012), the 6th president of Korean Geosynthetics Society (2011-2013), and the 32nd president of Korean Fiber Society (2014-2015). Prof. Jeon has published more than 964 proceedings at national and international conferences, and 168 papers in national and international journals. He also wrote in 25 Korean and English books. He was featured on the Marquis Who's Who - Science and Engineering (2003-2021) and among the Top 100 Scientists in the World 2005/2011 of the International Biographical Centre, UK. He also received the 33rd Academy Award (Korean Fiber Society) in 2006, the “Excellent Paper Award of 2012” (The Korean Federation of Science and Technology Societies), the Best Publication Award (Korea Association of Technical Textile Industry) in 2017, the 41st JeongHun Textile Industry Prize (Academy Award) in 2020, and is the winner of the 2021 KCA Outstanding Professional Awards (Korea Consumer Association).",institutionString:"Inha University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Inha University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"934",title:"Polymers",slug:"materials-science-composite-materials-polymers"}],chapters:[{id:"67279",title:"Development, Characterization and Properties of Silk Fibre and Grafted Silk Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composite Films",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85022",slug:"development-characterization-and-properties-of-silk-fibre-and-grafted-silk-fibre-reinforced-polymer-",totalDownloads:1108,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The use of natural fibres over synthetic fibres is gaining widespread importance due to its availability; renewability, low density and satisfactory mechanical properties making them an ecological alternative to synthetic fibres. The innumerable properties of silk fibre have made it superior to be used by researchers both in the plastic and biomedical sector. Silk fibre reinforced PVA (polyvinylalcohol) and PVA/PVP (polyvinyl pyrrolidone) films were prepared via solution casting technique. The effect of silk fibre concentration, on the structural, thermal, mechanical, bio-degradable and the morphological properties of the composite films was assessed. The results indicated that the addition of silk fibres improved the thermal, morphological, mechanical and biodegradable properties of the films. The extensive use of silk fibroin in the biomedical field, due to its robust properties has made it a promising material, suitable in tissue engineering applications. Keeping this in view, the current study also focuses on re-tailoring the properties of silk fibres by grafting a natural polysaccharide like chitosan and thereby fabricate composite films of PVA reinforced with this grafted fibre. The films were tested for their potential applications in tissue engineering, by subjecting them to in vitro biocompatibility tests. The films were also tested for their antibacterial properties. The results thus obtained indicated that the films were non-toxic in all concentrations and were found to be suitable for biomaterial applications.",signatures:"Sareen Sheik and Gundibasappa Karikannar Nagaraja",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67279",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67279",authors:[{id:"285152",title:"Prof.",name:"G.K.",surname:"Nagaraja",slug:"g.k.-nagaraja",fullName:"G.K. Nagaraja"},{id:"285153",title:"Ms.",name:"Sareen",surname:"Sheik",slug:"sareen-sheik",fullName:"Sareen Sheik"}],corrections:null},{id:"69714",title:"Natural Fibers: Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86884",slug:"natural-fibers-applications",totalDownloads:1674,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Fibers derived from bio-based sources such as vegetables and animal origin are termed as natural fibers. This definition includes all natural cellulosic fibers (cotton, jute, sisal, coir, flax, hemp, abaca, ramie, etc.) and protein-based fibers such as wool and silk. There are also man-made cellulose fibers (e.g., viscose rayon and cellulose acetate) that are produced with chemical procedures from pulped wood or other sources (cotton, bamboo). Natural fibers being cost effective and abundantly available yields high potential in various industrial and commercial applications such as in the interior applications of the passenger cars, panels for partition and false ceiling, partition boards, roof tiles, coir fibers in packaging, furniture applications, as insulating materials in low energy houses, geo-textiles for soil protection and erosion control, enhancing barrier properties, composites etc. Due to research and developmental work in modification and treatment methods of natural fibers, utilization of natural fibers has observed a significant growth in various applications. The chapter addresses the potential applications of natural fibers in various commercial sectors for the development of environment-friendly products with an aim to replace synthetic fibers or inorganic fillers with cost-effective and efficient products.",signatures:"Jatinder Singh Dhaliwal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69714",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69714",authors:[{id:"272683",title:"Mr.",name:"Jatinder Singh",surname:"Dhaliwal",slug:"jatinder-singh-dhaliwal",fullName:"Jatinder Singh Dhaliwal"}],corrections:null},{id:"69732",title:"Surface Modification of Bast-Based Natural Fibers through Environment Friendly Methods",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85693",slug:"surface-modification-of-bast-based-natural-fibers-through-environment-friendly-methods",totalDownloads:832,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nowadays, natural products are extremely preferred among the people. These natural products are produced by environment friendly sources. In case of textiles, bast fibers play significant role in producing natural products that are extracted from the stem of various plant and environment friendly in nature. The bast fibers can also improve the livelihood of the poor farmers who are involved in the cultivation of the plants and extraction and processing of the fibers. Therefore, surface modification of established natural fibers (such as hemp, flax, jute, kenaf, urena, nettle, and ramie) and explored natural fibers are momentous area for doing research. And, these modifications can be done through environment friendly methods such as plasma treatment, and utilization of enzymes, bacteria, and fungi.",signatures:"Tayyaba Fatma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69732",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69732",authors:[{id:"285699",title:"Dr.",name:"Tayyaba",surname:"Fatma",slug:"tayyaba-fatma",fullName:"Tayyaba Fatma"}],corrections:null},{id:"66941",title:"Use of Recycled Cellulose Fibers to Obtain Sustainable Products for Bioeconomy Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86092",slug:"use-of-recycled-cellulose-fibers-to-obtain-sustainable-products-for-bioeconomy-applications",totalDownloads:1059,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Knowing the negative impact of plastic materials from agriculture sources on the environmental pollution, in this chapter, some of research activities carried on the utilization of secondary cellulose fibers (from recovered papers and boards) and other lignocellulosic materials on obtaining of sustainable composite materials are presented. The aim was to obtain the (bio)composite materials with applications in manufacturing processes of biodegradable nutritive pots used in the production of vegetable seedlings. The tests were developed on a pilot plant designed to obtain the pots from a mixture of secondary cellulose fibers, red peat, and other additives. These materials were characterized in terms of biodegradability and growth and development of tomatoes and lettuce seedlings. For all the compositional versions studied, the specific indicators of seedlings growth and development have recorded values that allow a normal growth of plants similar to the use of plastic pots or biodegradable pots available on the import market.",signatures:"Petronela Nechita",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66941",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66941",authors:[{id:"188572",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Nechita",surname:"Petronela",slug:"nechita-petronela",fullName:"Nechita Petronela"}],corrections:null},{id:"66731",title:"Characteristics of Eco-friendly Kenaf Fiber-Imbedded Nonwoven for Automotive Application",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85367",slug:"characteristics-of-eco-friendly-kenaf-fiber-imbedded-nonwoven-for-automotive-application",totalDownloads:852,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This study examined the physical properties of kenaf fiber-imbedded nonwoven for automotive pillar trim according to the blend ratio of the fibers and needle-punching process conditions. Kenaf-imbedded nonwoven specimens mixed with polypropylene (PP) and low-melt PET (LM PET) fibers were prepared via needle-punching, and their physical properties such as air permeability, water absorption, sound absorption coefficient, and porosity were investigated according to the various processing conditions. The kenaf-imbedded nonwoven treated with high needle depth in the needle-punching process and/or mixed with a large amount of LM PET exhibited the highest breaking and tearing strengths, due to the high weight of the nonwoven specimens. A high blend percentage of LM PET fibers reduced the pore size, which resulted in low air permeability and water absorption. The sound absorption coefficient of the kenaf-imbedded nonwoven specimens was highly dependent on its weight and thickness. Regarding the lamination treatment, the laminated nonwoven exhibited higher breaking and tearing strengths, thermal conductivity, and sound absorption coefficient than the non-treated one. In addition, the HDPE powder-treated nonwoven exhibited lower breaking and tearing strengths, air permeability, water absorption, and sound absorption, due to the reduced pore size.",signatures:"Seung Jin Kim and Hyun Ah Kim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66731",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66731",authors:[{id:"11176",title:"Prof.",name:"Seungjin",surname:"Kim",slug:"seungjin-kim",fullName:"Seungjin Kim"},{id:"280557",title:"Dr.",name:"Hyun Ah",surname:"Kim",slug:"hyun-ah-kim",fullName:"Hyun Ah Kim"}],corrections:null},{id:"68617",title:"3D Nonwoven Fabrics for Biomedical Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88584",slug:"3d-nonwoven-fabrics-for-biomedical-applications",totalDownloads:763,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fibrous materials are attractive for biomedical applications owing to their structural superiorities, which include large surface-area-to-volume ratio, high porosity, and pore interconnectivity in a controlled manner. Among the various methods of fiber fabrication, electrospinning has emerged as an attractive nanotechnology to produce ultrafine fibrous materials for myriad applications, including tissue scaffolding. In this technique, processing parameters, such as the solution properties, tip-to-collector distance, applied voltage, etc., can be tailored to obtain the fibers of the desired morphology and physicochemical properties. Ideal scaffolds should meet the basic requirements, such as three-dimensional (3D) architecture, proper mechanical properties and biodegradability, and the sufficient surface characteristics for cell adhesion and proliferation. However, most of the electrospun nanofiber-based scaffolds have densely packed two-dimensional (2D) array which hinders the cell infiltration and growth throughout the scaffolds, thereby limiting their applicability in tissue regeneration. To overcome this problem, several attempts have been made to develop a biomimetic three-dimensional, nanofibrous scaffold. This chapter deals with noble techniques including gas foaming (GF), charge repulsion-assisted fabrication, post-processing, liquid-assisted collection, collector modification, and porogen-assisted methods for the fabrication of 3D nanofibrous scaffold for biomedical applications.",signatures:"Mahesh Kumar Joshi, Rajeshwar Man Shrestha and Hem Raj Pant",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68617",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68617",authors:[{id:"281117",title:"Prof.",name:"Hem Raj",surname:"Pant",slug:"hem-raj-pant",fullName:"Hem Raj Pant"},{id:"281121",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahesh Kumar",surname:"Joshi",slug:"mahesh-kumar-joshi",fullName:"Mahesh Kumar Joshi"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3052",title:"Composites and Their Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3be6dcd2546b8ebb9f71fb8ce8a7fc93",slug:"composites-and-their-applications",bookSignature:"Ning Hu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3052.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"35547",title:"Dr.",name:"Ning",surname:"Hu",slug:"ning-hu",fullName:"Ning Hu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2249",title:"Thermoplastic",subtitle:"Composite Materials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"84ebf678d368aa21f6794a0d9a806490",slug:"thermoplastic-composite-materials",bookSignature:"Adel Zaki El-Sonbati",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2249.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"98324",title:"Prof.",name:"Adel",surname:"El-Sonbati",slug:"adel-el-sonbati",fullName:"Adel El-Sonbati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6499",title:"Zeolites and Their Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79c24d88452b8f5f51df9fcfb2116920",slug:"zeolites-and-their-applications",bookSignature:"M.Nageeb Rashed and P.N. 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Emerging Trends and Future Perspectives",slug:"transgenic-crops-emerging-trends-and-future-perspectives",publishedDate:"October 23rd 2019",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarwar Khan and Kauser Abdulla Malik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6976.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"212511",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad Sarwar",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"muhammad-sarwar-khan",fullName:"Muhammad Sarwar Khan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11513",leadTitle:null,title:"Gas Sensors",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tWe are living in a society where automation in each electrical appliance/instrument is a great demand. We wish to have automatic devices/gadgets/instruments with no or minimal intervention from humans in their daily operation. Then only, these devices can qualify to call it is smart instruments. To fulfill this, one of the major requirements is to come up with highly sensitive, long-lasting, low-cost smart sensors. On the other hand, the healthcare industry demands low-cost, Lab-on-chip type biosensors for simple and rapid detection of various biomolecules or biogases. A sensor is an analytical device that detects the change in the environment and responds to some output in terms of a measurable analog resistance/voltage/current converted into a human-readable display or transmitted for further processing. In the last two decades, a significant amount of research has been devoted to the development of various types of gas sensors using different nanomaterials in the electronic and healthcare industry.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to provide the reader (research scholars, scientists, and engineers working in the field of sensors) an overview of the recent advances made in the development of various gas sensors for the electronic and healthcare industries for the betterment of the human lifestyle. Also, this book will intend to address existing challenges and a few future directions of research for easy integration and cost-effective fast sensing of such
\r\n\tgas sensors.
Acne vulgaris is the most common skin disease in adolescents and young adults with 70–95% prevalence rate. Adult or postadolescent acne occurs in 12–14% of this population and is seen as the continuation of acne from adolescence into adulthood or starts in the adult life [1, 2].
\nAcne has a serious influence on quality of life of the patients. The negative impact of acne on behavioral and social functions has found to be greater than medical conditions such as asthma and epilepsy. Additionally, compared to unemployment, acne has been shown to be more highly associated with anxiety and depression [2, 3]. Fortunately, it is possible to improve the quality of life of patients with successful treatment. Over the past few decades, a large spectrum of local and systemic drugs has been introduced and a lot of efforts have been devoted to reach a consensus on the treatment approach of acne. As new drugs are constantly being added to the list, it is critical to update the current recommendations.
The Global Alliance to Improve Outcomes in Acne Group (“Global Alliance”) is an international group of dermatologists with clinical and research expertise in acne vulgaris. The first consensus guidelines were published in 2003 in JAAD and were very well received as an evidence-based and thoughtful document [1]. In the 2009 and 2016 guidelines updated information on pathogenesis, mechanism of action of therapies, and clinical results are presented [2, 4].
\nFor this purpose, Global Alliance to Improve Outcomes in Acne Group (“Global Alliance”) was formed and the recommendations of the group have been published in 2003 as a supplement in the Journal of the Academy of Dermatology [2]. In the light of novel evidence-based studies, these recommendations have been updated recently [4]. On the other hand, racial and regional differences may affect the therapeutic approach to acne. Accordingly, in this ongoing process regional treatment guidelines are also being published [1, 2, 5–10].
Acne vulgaris is characterized by the presence of comedones and suggested to be a chronic disease. It has been traditionally thought that comedones are the noninflammatory lesions which present as either open or closed form. Inflammatory lesions of acne are papules, pustules, and nodules. In the previous guidelines, acne was graded into four levels as follows “Comedonal acne, mild to moderate papulopustular acne, severe papulopustular/moderate nodular acne, severe nodular acne/acne conglobata” [1, 7].
\nIn the last guideline [4], acne has been divided simply as “Mild, moderate, and severe”.
The first step in the treatment of acne is to understand the pathophysiology of disease and to act on all factors involved in the development of acne. The initial lesions of acne are the microcomedones that already exist in normal-appearing skin. These microcomedones can only be observed histologically [1–3, 8]. Additionally, the role of inflammatory cytokine such as interleukin-1 (IL-1), relative deficiency of linoleic acid, and hormonal and genetic factors has been reported [7].
\nFour major steps that have been hypothesized in the pathogenesis of acne are outlined in Table 1. Although the inflammatory step was previously believed to occur at the end of these stages, now it is thought to occur after the increased sebum secretion from sebaceous glands because of the proinflammatory properties of lipids of hyperseborrhea as well as some other factors including excess androgen and smoking [1–4, 11].
Increased sebum secretion from sebaceous glands |
Secretion of inflammatory mediators |
Altered keratinization and follicular plugging |
Follicular colonization of |
Four major steps in the pathogenesis of acne.
*P. acnes: Propionibacterium acnes
Reviewing the guidelines on the treatment of acne, a recommended common approach is outlined in Table 2 [1–4].
Start with topical treatment, if appropriate |
Give systemic treatment when necessary |
Limit the use of local and systemic antibiotic concomitantly OR add topical BPO2_1 |
Recommended general approach for the treatment of acne.
*BPO: Benzoyl peroxide
There is a large spectrum of topical agents for the treatment of acne (Table 3).
|
Topical agents for the treatment of acne.
Topical retinoids have multiple effects in the treatment of acne and act on more than one factor implicated in the etiology of acne (Table 4) [1–4, 12–14].
|
Multiple effects of topical retinoids in the treatment of acne.
Topical retinoids have been the first-line treatment for most forms of acne vulgaris. They are used either alone or together with other agents as a first-line treatment in the treatment of acne forms other than severe nodular acne and acne conglobata. Alternative retinoids are included in alternative treatment options as well. In maintenance treatment, topical retinoids are used alone or in combination with BPO [1–4].
Retinoids are vitamin A (retinol) or functional analogs with vitamin A activity. The abnormal keratinization in animals with vitamin A deficiency has exposed the importance of vitamin A in antikeratinization. As the systemic retinols given in effective dose have resulted in severe side effects, synthetic retinoids and their topical forms have been developed with similar clinical effect and fewer side effects. The first retinoid synthesized is all-trans-retinoic acid (ATRA, tretinoin) but as it has no significant advantages over retinol, it is used generally in topical form. ATRA is the natural metabolite of retinol. Isotretinoin has both systemic and topical forms. Today various topical retinoids are available for different purposes [14–16]. Human skin has retinoid receptors, belonging to thyroid receptor family, which have the capacity to store and metabolize retinoids [17]. The biologic effects of topical retinoids are mediated through nuclear hormone receptors and cytosolic binding proteins because human skin expresses RAR (RAR-γ > RAR-α) and RXR (RXR-α > RXR-β) [14–16]. Table 5 outlines retinoid receptors and their main endogenous ligands.
The receptors of retinoids | Main endogenous ligand |
---|---|
RAR α, β, γ | Retinoic acid, 9-cis retinoic acid |
RXR α, β, γ | 9-cis retinoic acid |
Retinoid receptors and their endogenous ligands.
RAR, retinoic acid receptor; RXR, retinoid X receptor.
Tretinoin and isotretinoin are the first-generation retinoids whereas adapalene and tazarotene are the third-generation retinoids. Retinaldehyde and retinol are found in cosmetic formulations [5]. Commercially available topical retinoids for acne treatment are presented in Table 6.
Tretinoin 13-cis retinoic acid (isotretinoin) Adapalene Tazarotene |
Topical retinoids used in the treatment of acne.
Tretinoin is the first retinoid studied and has been used more than 30 years in the treatment of acne. It induces the breakage of bonds between keratinized cells and enables the disintegration and the removal of the keratin plug. Besides comedolytic effect, it exerts anti-inflammatory effect; however, it does not have an effect on sebaceous gland activity. It binds to RARs on cytosol and regulates the expression of genes after moving to nucleus. It can bind all three types of RARs, namely, α, β, and γ [13–15]. Tretinoin can be used alone or in combination with other agents. As it enhances the penetration of other drugs, it creates a synergistic effect in combined use. Different formulations of tretinoin molecule have been introduced including 0.025, 0.05, and 0.1% cream, 0.025 and 0.1 gel, 0.05% solution, microsphere gel, and polymer cream [13–16].
Adapalene is a third-generation retinoid. It is available in 0.1 and 0.3 % gel and 0.1% cream form [1–4, 13–15, 18].
13-cis retinoic acid is produced from the isomerization of retinoic acid. The effects and efficacy are similar to retinoic acids. Other than oral form, it is available in 0.05% gel, and 0.05 and 0.1% cream form [1–4, 13–15].
Tazarotene is a third-generation retinoid and its active metabolite is tazarotenic acid and it can bind all three types of RARs. It has not only anti-inflammatory effect like other retinoids, but also antiproliferative properties and normalizes the Filaggrin expression. Therefore, it is used also in the treatment of psoriasis. It is available in 0.05 and 0.1% cream form [1–4, 13–15].\x3c!-- Please check the usage of the phrase “flaggrin” in the sentence “It has not …” Do you mean “filaggrin”?
Retinaldehyde has a pivotal role in the natural vitamin A metabolism of keratinocytes. It is converted into all-trans retinoic acid and acts as topical retinoic acid in lower concentrations and generally found in cosmetic formulations. It has a mild comedolytic effect and has an antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria including
After the superiority of combining erythromycin 2% solution with 0.05% tretinoin to the monotherapy of each had been shown, fixed combination formulations of topical retinoids have been in production since 1978. Then, 0.025% tretinoid-4% erythromycin and 0.005% isotretinoin-2% erythromycin fixed combination formulations have been introduced [5]. It was reported that the usage of combination products were associated with better patient compliance. Recently, adapalene 0.1% and BPO 2.5% combination has been introduced. Theoretically, retinoid and BPO combination has been suggested to be advantageous due to the lack of bacterial resistance [1, 4, 13, 14].
Nast et al. conducted an evidence-based guideline for the treatment of acne in 2012 [7]. In this study, previous treatments were compared; superior efficacy was defined as a difference of more than 10% reduction of lesions in head-to-head comparisons.
\nTopical retinoids were found to show comparable-to-superior efficacy on noninflammatory lesions when compared to benzoyl peroxide [7].
\nAdapalene has shown comparable efficacy against noninflammatory lesions compared with tretinoin. Isotretinoin was effective as adapalene in the treatment of noninflammatory lesions, whereas it was found to be superior to tretinoin. Combination of adapalene and BPO shows a comparable-to-superior efficacy compared with BPO or adapalene alone. There was no trial comparing fixed-dose combinations of erythromycin and isotretinoin; however, using both erythromycin and isotretinoin was found to show comparable efficacy compared to erythromycin or isotretinoin alone [7].
\nFixed-dose combination of adapalene-BPO has shown comparable-to-superior efficacy compared to adapalene or BPO alone, however, it was associated with lower patient tolerance [7].
The efficacy of adapalene against inflammatory lesions was comparable to azelaic acid, BPO, tretinoin, and isotretinoin. Tretinoin was found to show comparable efficacy compared to isotretinoin. Fixed-dose combination of adapalene-BPO was superior to adapalene alone and was effective as BPO or clindamycin-BPO combination [7].
\nCombination of erythromycin and isotretinoin was superior to isotretinoin alone and was effective as erythromycin alone [7].
Adapalene was found to display the best tolerability and safety among the topical retinoids followed by isotretinoin and tretinoin [7]. The tolerability and safety profile of fixed-dose adapalene-BPO preparation was lower than adapalene or BPO alone. The tolerability and safety of erythromycin-isotretinoin combination was comparable to erythromycin or isotretinoin alone [7].
\nTreatment with less irritant topical retinoids was associated with better patient tolerance. To increase tolerance, it is advised to increase the dose gradually [5]. The carrier is also important as the active ingredient in topical formulation. Drugs with same active ingredient but different carriers were reported to show different tolerability profile [6, 13]. As these factors affect patient compliance they even influence the efficacy of the drug. Therefore, preparations with less irritant properties are more effective due to increased patient adherence. The other factors involved in treatment compliance are cosmetic products and skin cleaning habits. Application of drying agents was associated with the increased side effects of topical products. Also, racial differences were reported to affect the tolerance to topical retinoids. Asians are more prone to the irritation effect of topical retinoids compared to Caucasians [1, 3, 6].
The major side effects of topical retinoids are local skin reactions such as erythema, scaling, dryness, burning, and stinging; rarely, they can cause pustular eruption. In comparative studies, adapalene with lower irritation rates has showed better tolerability profile compared to tretinoin or isotretinoin. Patient preferred adapalene over tretinoin [1, 7, 13].
\nEven in long-term usage local retinoids were absorbed percutaneously only 1–2% and found in the range of natural endogenous levels in plasma [13]. However, congenital anomalies have been reported after the usage of local retinoids in the first trimester [20]. On the other hand, according to two retrospective cohort study topical retinoic acids were found not to associate with minor malformations in first trimester [21, 22]. According to many studies, systemic absorption of 0.05 and 1% isotretinoin gel is negligible even in 12 times greater than the normal dose. Adapalene is a derivative of naphthoic acid. It contains methoxyphenyl adamantyl chain and is stable against oxygen and light. Its cutaneous absorption is low due to its chemical structure. It could not be found in plasma after the application of 0.1% gel form [13]. In animal experiments, only systemic and high dose adapalene was reported to induce teratogenicity. However, as no studies have been carried out in pregnant subjects, potential risk cannot be excluded. In the literature, anophthalmia and abortion on 22nd week have been reported in a pregnant woman who used adapalene in 13th week of pregnancy [23]. Percutaneous absorption of tazarotene is less than 6%. No teratogenicity has been reported so far. Pregnancy category of tretinoin and adapalene is C, so they should be prescribed during pregnancy only if the potential benefit justifies potential risk to the fetus. On the other hand, erythromycin, azelaic acid, and BPO can be used during pregnancy, and retinoids are not recommended during pregnancy [13, 14, 24]. As no studies have been conducted on breastfeeding women, they should be avoided during lactation period. The pregnancy category of oral isotretinoin and tazarotene is X and their topical formulations are contraindicatory [21, 22].
According to an investigation, dermatologists prescribe topical retinoids as second-line treatment after clindamycin, oral minocycline, and topical BPO [25]. Since topical retinoids inhibit microcomedones that are the precursor lesions of acne, they are recommended in most forms of acne. In acne patients, microcomedones are observed histopathologically even in normal-appearing skin. This underlines the fact that topical acne drugs can also be applied to normal-appearing skin [26].
\nMild, noninflammatory acne can be treated by topical retinoids alone. If the comedonal lesions present together with inflammatory lesions topical retinoids should be combined with antimicrobial agents. As the combination treatment targets multiple pathophysiological factors, it is possible to get faster and permanent results. In the first-line treatment of moderate inflammatory acne, topical retinoids are recommended in combination with antimicrobial agents. Topical retinoids are the essential part of the maintenance treatment of acne [1–4, 13, 14].
Please cite reference “18” in the text or else delete it from the reference list
The use of additives in the food industry has become a routine process due to the ability of this type of compound to improve the organoleptic properties (flavor, aroma, color) of foodstuff or to extend its shelf-life due to its bioactivities (mainly, antioxidant and antimicrobial) [1]. Food additives are the most useful tool to improve foodstuff quality. According to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), food additives are defined as “substances that are not normally consumed as food nor used as intrinsic ingredients of food, which has a technological purpose” [2]. In this context, the nature of some additives, known to be potentially hazardous if consumed in excess, has derived to an increasing consumer trend to avoid these types of products. One possible effect of these molecules is the potential allergic reactions or health risks associated with a frequent consumption. Compounds that have been subjected to this controversy are sulfites, nitrosamines or palm oil, whose presence in food have been sometimes forbidden (
Properties and main applications of major additives of natural origin in foods.
Studies pointed out that natural additives may have higher bioactivity than artificial ones. For example, it has been observed that phenolic compounds (phenolic acids and flavanols) have comparable or even more potent antioxidant activity than currently used artificial additives like propyl gallate or butylhydroxytoluene in meat, fish and bakery products [13, 14, 15, 16]. Hence, there is scientific evidence to propose their use as alternative condiments. On this matter, many of these compounds and/or extracts, like essential oils, are already approved and generally recognized as safe (GRAS) flavoring food additives by the
In parallel, the effectiveness and new potential applications of additives like food active packaging and their addition into novel food matrices are the focus of study by many research groups. To release new functional food to market, health claims and properties must be supported by scientific evidences to be legally labeled as functional food [19]. Thereupon, a great number of compounds or extracts may be obtained from natural sources, such as vegetables, fruits, algae or even by-products for their application as food and feed additives but also as cosmetic ingredients [20]. Table 1 collects a list of selected natural additives that may be directly extracted from natural sources. Although these compounds are of natural origin and may be extracted from natural sources, efficient yields, costs and steady production has led the chemical and biotechnology industry to manufacture them by biological or chemical synthesis. Representative examples are ascorbic acid and citric acid. Ascorbic acid is a potent antioxidant and an essential vitamin with many uses in agriculture and food industry. While it is present in a wide number of fruits and vegetables (
Compound | Applications | Current & Potential Natural Sources | E-Number | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Benzoic acid | Antioxidant & antimicrobial preservatives | Cranberries, blueberries ( | E-210 | [21] |
Ascorbic acid | Antioxidant | Peppers, kiwifruit, citrus, rosehip. | E-300 | [22] |
Citric acid | Antioxidant, acidifier | Citrus | E-330 | [23] |
Tartaric acid | Acidifier | Grapes | E-334 | [24] |
Chlorophylls | Colorant | Green leaves from alfalfa, nettles, spinach, green microalgae | E-140, E-141 | [25] |
Carotenoids (β-carotene) | Colorant, antioxidant | Pigmented vegetables (carrots, palm fruit), red microalgae | E160a | [26] |
Curcumin | Colorant, flavoring, antioxidant | Turmeric ( | E-100 | [27] |
Lutein | Colorant, antioxidant | Kale ( | E-160b | [28] |
Paprika extract (capsaicin, captaxanthin, capsorubin) | Colorant, flavoring | Red peppers ( | E-160c | [29] |
Lycopene | Colorant | Tomato peels | E-160d | [30] |
Anthocyanins | Colorant | Red grape skin, pomegranate, black currant | E-163 | [31] |
Glutamate | Flavoring | Wheat gluten, de-oiled soybeans | E-620 | [32] |
Limonene | Odorant, antimicrobial | Citrus peels | — | [33] |
Eugenol | Flavoring, antimicrobial preservative | Clove | — | [34, 35] |
Carvacrol | Flavoring, antimicrobial preservative | Oregano, thyme, rosemary | — | [35, 36] |
Rosemary extract (carnosic acid, carnosol) | Preserver (antioxidant, antimicrobial), flavoring | Rosemary | E-392 | [37] |
Lecithins | Emulsifiers, lubricants | Soybean, sunflower kernels, rapeseed | E-322 | [38] |
Alginates | Texturizer, binder, thickener | Brown seaweeds | E-401, E-402 | [39] |
Agar | Texturizer, binder, softener | Red seaweeds | E-406 | [40] |
Carrageenan | Texturizer, binder, softener | Red seaweeds | E-407 | [41] |
Pectins | Thickener, texturizer | Apple pomace, citrus peels | E-440 | [42] |
Arabic gum | Thickener, texturizer | E-414 | [43] | |
Tannic acid | Antioxidant, plasticizer, flavoring | Grape seeds, skins | — | [44, 45] |
Phytosterols | Functional, health | Soybean | E-499 | [46] |
Tocopherols | Health, antioxidant | Vegetal oils, cereal germs, rapeseed, soybean | E-306, E-307, E-308, E-309 | [47] |
Summary of main natural additives from vegetable sources* and EU E-number reference, if they are at present approved for use in the EU.
Described natural sources are indicated and evidenced in the used references, but chemical or microbiological synthesis as well as enzymatic transformations from natural sources may be the most extended production method.
Extracting compounds from complex vegetable matrixes requires the application of several techniques to extract and isolate the selected molecules. Thus, it is important to choose the best fitting extraction technique to the specific additive in need of isolation. Conventional extraction techniques, which have been applied for many years, include maceration, Soxhlet extraction, distillations, infusions, and cold-pressed extractions [50]. They are usually not eco-friendly due to the large amounts of solvents and energy required for their application [51], which also provides a safety concern for the workers and consumers involved, as well as the lack of sustainability, and green extraction protocols [52]. Besides, some of these techniques are also very time-consuming which aggravates the energy spending problem as the equipment must remain working for long periods of time, being one of the biggest expenses heating or cooling. Lastly, the yields obtained using these methodologies are usually not as rentable as the ones produced using more innovative extraction techniques, that are faster and more efficient than the previously available protocols. For this reason, conventional methodologies are started to be conjugated with new technologies resulting in Soxhlet or distillations assisted by ultrasound or microwave technologies to respond to the current needs of the industry.
Nevertheless, these techniques are still used nowadays because they allow the extraction of compounds in a cost-effectively manner with simpler equipment [52], like the distillation of essential oils [53], or they achieved a better stability of the extracted compound to be used as additive, as is the case cold pressing for oils extraction [54].
Maceration is one of the most known and used conventional extraction techniques [55]. It is a solid–liquid extraction achieved by applying heat and agitation to a previously selected solvent, with a convenient polarity, that is in contact with the sample of interest [52, 56].
Maceration has few advantages. It can be performed using low-cost and simple equipment compared with other conventional and innovative techniques. Besides, a large range of molecules can be extracted by changing the protocols and adapting the variables like solvent [57], temperature, agitation, and time in order to optimize the extraction of the desired compounds [58]. Furthermore, this extraction technique is still used due to its easy scale-up to several applications in the industry.
In comparison, maceration also has some major drawbacks. It often requires long extraction times, large volumes of solvent (mostly organic solvents), high temperatures which translate in a big amount of energy spent, and it has to be coupled with several filtration or centrifugation steps in order to separate the extract from the biomass [52, 59, 60, 61, 62].
Soxhlet is a reference extraction method to evaluate the performance of other liquid–solid extraction methodologies [56]. This technique, developed in 1879, uses a particular type of condenser known as the Soxhlet apparatus [50]. The traditional Soxhlet extractor is composed by a thimble-holder where the sample is placed inside the thimble, and a distillation flask where fresh solvent is added. When the solvent reaches the boiling point, it vaporizes and enters the matrix, solubilizing compatible compounds. After that, the solvent hits the cooling tubes of the condenser and condense back into the initial flask with the extracted compounds. This operation repeats until the full extraction is completed [50, 52].
This type of extraction presents several advantages. Firstly, the constant renovation of the solvent in contact with the matrix, allows for a disequilibrium between the compounds in the sample and the lack of them in the solvent, favoring the extraction of these compounds. Secondly, the temperature of the system is maintained throughout the process. Soxhlet extraction also does not require filtration or centrifugation of the final extracts, being perfectly separated from the original biomass. And lastly, it allows for the treatment of several samples in parallel at a relatively low cost and easy operational processes, considering that the basic equipment is quite affordable and simple [52, 63].
However, Soxhlet extraction also presents some disadvantages, as a large amount of organic solvents required, long periods of extraction until the final number of cycles is completed [52], the high temperatures employed to boil the solvents that can degrade the compounds [50], and this technique cannot be accelerated by adding agitation [55, 63].
Nevertheless, the Soxhlet extraction has continued to evolve to try to compensate some of these disadvantages, by automating the process, aiming to shorten the extraction times, and even recently Soxhlet extraction has been coupled to innovative technologies like high-pressure Soxhlet extraction, supercritical fluid-Soxhlet extraction, and automated Soxhlet extraction or by applying auxiliary energies such as ultrasounds or microwaves, that results in higher efficiency than the conventional Soxhlet extraction [52, 63].
Distillation is one of the oldest extraction techniques that has been used for over 5000 years and is still currently used. It main application is to separate liquid mixtures through the boiling point of each component of the mixture after which condensation steps take place [64]. Another ancient application is to create “distilled waters” from plant materials [65]. Distillation is still used in chemical refineries to separate and purify compounds, due to its simplicity and easy scale up [66]. Even though distillation processes are still quite common, they have many drawbacks. For example, the necessity for the consumption of large amounts of energy for long periods of time, as well as the high temperatures used which can degrade the additive of interest. In addition, the large amounts of solvent required [52] and the long extraction times [66].
Regarding the extraction of compounds from natural products, distillation is mostly used to isolate volatile molecules from mixtures of compounds of even several biological matrices, but it is only efficient in the case of thermostable molecules due to the high temperatures employed. Even so, steam distillation is still currently the most used technique in the food industry for extracting volatile compounds and essential oils to be used as food additives. Distillation can be divided into three types: water, water-steam, and steam distillations, and the extraction of essential oils is based on the latest, which the steam goes into a recipient containing the plant matrix, releasing the essential oils from the samples, then the essential oil is cooled and condensed, generating two different phases that can be separated [53].
Infusions are very short macerations, where the plant is put in contact with boiling or sometimes cold water, for short periods of time. Therefore, infusions contain the readily soluble active chemical compounds that were present in the crude plant, in a diluted concentration. This methodology is used to obtain fresh infusions with the phytochemicals from aromatic or medicinal plants which can be further used as food additives [55]. Many infusions nowadays are prepared starting from a very concentrated infusion and diluting one volume of it to 9 volumes of water. To prepare the concentrated infusions the most common strategy is a percolation or modified maceration. In a modified maceration it is added 25% ethanol to the extraction solvent during or after the maceration process. The final solution is then diluted with water to resemble the scent and the potency of a normal fresh infusion.
One of the greatest susceptibilities of this method is that infusions are very prone to fungus and bacterial growth, due to the large amount of water they contain, so they have a very short shelf life and need to be used right away. For that reason, infusions are rarely used in industrial fields [67].
This technique relies on pure pressure applied to the ground plant material to squeeze out what they contain. When the plant is well dried and grounded, this extraction technique is a viable, simple and eco-friendly option to consider for the extraction of some oils. During the process, cold pressers apply a large amount of pressure which translates into a mechanical rupture of the oil glands in the plant. The oil is extracted independently of its polarity and is rich in several lipophilic compounds. This process is still used in some industries because of its simplicity and easy scalability and for the fact that the obtained oils are more stable and resistant to oxidative stress than oils that have been refined or processed in any other way [54]. However, this technique can only be used to produce some specific vegetable and seed oil and it is not suitable to produce essential oils. Furthermore, the final product can many times contain other chemicals or contaminants [50].
The application of green extraction techniques to obtain food natural additives is gaining great interest in recent years due to the growing demand of healthier and more sustainable products. Figure 2 collects the main advantages of the green extraction techniques applied to natural sources.
Conventional and green extraction techniques development.
Ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE) is used in different fields such as biomedicine or food technology, in which UAE is applied to obtain compounds of interest or as a pre-step in numerous technological procedures. There are several parameters to consider optimizing the method including ultrasound power intensities, frequency, wavelength and time. High frequency and low power ultrasounds are used in medical science. However, low frequency and high power ultrasounds are used in food industry [68].
Low frequency and high-power conditions produce cell disruption and the subsequent release of compounds present in the matrix [69, 70, 71]. This liberation of the compounds is based on the principle of cavitation. This physical–chemical process comprises generating bubbles that grow in such a way that they explode causing the rupture of the cell wall of plants, and the consequent release of the substances in their interior [72]. Another important characteristic of ultrasonic-assisted extraction is that the hot spots created by cavitation bubbles during the extraction process hardly generate heating and have a great capacity to cool down while the process is taking place, in this way UAE is cataloged as an extraction method suitable for extracting thermolabile compounds. However, when the extraction is longer than five minutes, at high powers it is necessary to use some refrigeration to keep the temperature constant [73].
Among the advantages of this technology are reduction of solvents consumption, temperature and time, low equipment investment and easy implementation, so it can be basically industrially employed in local companies [74]. One of the main disadvantages of UAE is that heating can degrade the additives present in the sample. Other common applications of UAE in food industry are cooking of meat and vegetable, drying of dehydrated products, degassing of juices, sterilization and in the formation of emulsions among others [72]. This is due to UAE can reduce the activity of enzymes and microorganisms without modifying the organoleptic characteristics and the presence of bioactive compounds in food. Table 2 collects some studies supporting the application of UAE to obtain bioactive compounds to be used as food additives from natural sources.
Compound | Raw material | Conditions | Yield | Ref. | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Freq. | Intensity | t | T | Solvent | ||||
kHz | W/cm3 | min | °C | |||||
Phenolics | — | 20 | 20 | 50 | H2O | 5.53 mg GAE/g | [75] | |
Phenolics | 25 | 150 | 10 | 30 | EtOH | 92.8 mg GAE/g | [76] | |
Phenolics | Microalgae | 40 | 700 | 60 | 75 | EtOH | 9.8 mg GAE/g | [77] |
Phenolics | 24 | 400 | 5 | 21 | EtOH | 50% | [78] | |
Phenolics | 20 | 750 | 25 | 21 | 0.06 M HCl | 143.12 mg GAE/g | [79] | |
Phenolics | 20 | 110 | 49 | 48 | EtOH | 279.9 mg GAE/g | [80] | |
Phenolics | 40 | 300 | 120 | 21 | EtOH | 92.4 mg GAE/g | [81] | |
Capsaicinoids | Peppers | 20 | 360 | 10 | 50 | MeOH | 448 μmol/kg | [82] |
Vitamin C | 20 | 400 | 30 | 21 | EtOH | 53.78 mg AA/100 g | [83] | |
Carotenoids | 20 | 130 | 30 | 51.5 | Sunflower oil and soy oil | 93.8% | [84] | |
Carotenoids | 20 | 22.5 | 20 | 40 | Sunflower oil | 334.75 mg/L | [85] | |
β-Carotene | 20 | 100 | 50 | 50 | — | 83.32% | [86] | |
Sulfated polysaccharide | 20 | 196 | 58 | 70 | EtOH | 3.51% | [87] | |
Fucoidan | 35 | 150 | 15 | 23 | H2O | 3.63% | [88] | |
Polysaccharides | — | 3.8 | — | 50 | EtOH | 23% | [89] |
Different experimental conditions carried out with ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE).
Abbreviations: EtOH: ethanol; MeOH: methanol; T: temperature; t: time; Freq: frequency.
Several are the parameters that have influence on the UAE extraction. They include the type of the reactor, the ultrasonic intensity and frequency, the extraction time and temperature, the solvent proportion and nature [90]. In this sense, the intensity or power is proportional to the ultrasonic amplitude, however, a greater ultrasonic amplitude is not directly related to a better efficiency of the process. On the contrary, it could be related to certain problems such as those that cause the erosion of the probe and reduce the formation of cavitation which can even promote the degradation of the extracted compounds [91]. Regarding the frequencies used, they must be selected together with the ultrasonic intensity to obtain the desired cavitation. Higher extraction yields are reported in the low frequency range (20–40 kHz). Regarding temperature, high temperatures help to interrupt the interaction of the solvent and the matrix and improve the diffusion rates of the solvent, while low temperatures improve cavitation. Extraction time is another variable to consider. Long extraction time improves extraction yields; however, it can cause changes in the extracted compound. In addition, the nature of the solvent has influence in the UAE, so that a viscous solvent reduces cavitation and a volatile solvent can be evaporated if the extraction is carried out at a higher temperature for a long period. Finally, the size of the matrix, its interaction with the solvent and the ratio of solvent to matrix are also parameters to consider when UAE is used [91].
High pressure assisted extraction (HPAE) is a novel technique used for extraction of active ingredients from plant materials. Its mechanism of action is based on two principles: the isostatic principle and the Le Chatelier’s principle. Isostatic principle establishes that the pressure is exerted uniformly on the matrix regardless of its shape or constitution. In turn, according to Le Chatelier’s principle, by applying a force (pressure) that alters the equilibrium, the system acts trying to minimize said disturbance [92]. To carry out this type of extraction, it is necessary to apply pressures ranging from 100 to 800 MPa, even in some cases reaching values of 1000 MPa, which has been proved to be more effective. However, HPAE cannot be applied for the extraction of all compounds since this technique can cause some structural changes in foods, such as cellular deformation, cellular membrane damage or protein denaturation. The parameters that must be optimized to increase the extraction yield are type and amount of solvent, temperature, pressure, extraction time and number of cycles [93].
Among the advantages of HPAE are the improvement of the mass transfer rate, the enhancement of solvent permeability in cells as well as secondary metabolite diffusion. Other advantages include shorter extractions times, the process may be performed at room temperature (avoiding thermal degradation of heat labile components) and higher extraction yields. In addition, the use of solvents with different polarity allows to extract a great variety of compounds [94].
Some studies can already be observed that support the application of HPAE to obtain bioactive compounds derived from both plants and food (Table 3). However, research in the field of HPAE is in its initial stages, and more in-depth studies are still needed to determine the full potential of HPAE.
Compound | Raw material | Conditions | Yield | Ref. | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
P | t | T | Solvent | ||||
MPa | min | °C | |||||
Flavonoids | 600 | 18–29 | — | 40% EtOH | 35% | [94] | |
Phenolics | 10.3 | 110 | 60 | EtOH | 386.42 mg GAE g/ extract | [95] | |
Phenolics | 600 | 5 | 25 | 70% EtOH | 567–642 mg GAE/g | [96] | |
Melanoidins | 300 | 5 | 25 | DW | (595.14 ± 12.14 μg/mg melanoidins | [97] |
Different experimental conditions carried out with high pressure assisted extraction (HPAE).
Abbreviations: EtOH: ethanol; P: pressure; T: temperature; t: time; DW: distilled water; DPPH: 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl-hydrate free radical method; GAE: gallic acid equivalent.
Microwave assisted extraction (MAE) is a technique which combines conventional solvent extraction with microwave heating. Microwaves are composed of electric and magnetic fields with spectral frequency ranging from 300 to 300,000 MHz [98]. Many reports have been published on the extraction of secondary metabolite from plants using MAE. Some of them are collected in Table 4. The advantages of this technique include high efficiency, rapid temperature rise, short extraction time, better process monitoring, and low energy consumption and cost [104]. One of the disadvantages of MAE is the degradation of some compounds due to the heat produced by irradiation. The efficiency of the MAE depends on factors such as the extractant nature, the power of microwave irradiation, the temperature, and the extraction time as well as the characteristics of the matrices and the solvent-food relationship. The extraction efficiency usually behaves directly proportional to the microwave power due to the local heating that contributes to the rupture of the matrix. However, there is a limit in the microwave power that can cause a decrease in the extraction efficiency. In this sense, Alara and co-workers point out that a power between 400 and 500 W in the microwave, the extraction amount of phenolic compounds is greater than that achieved using a power upper 500 W [111]. This is because overexposure to radiation from the microwaves produce overheating and degradation of compounds [112]. On the other hand, the choice of solvent influences the extraction of compounds. It was reported that a mixture of organic solvents and water has a desirable impact on the extraction efficiency. On the contrary, it was observed that the presence of water in organic solvents leads to greater penetration of the extractant in the matrix molecules promoting microwave heating and causing a positive impact on the general efficiency and extraction time compared to MAE that uses only organic solvents [113].
Compound | Raw material | Conditions of extraction | Yield | Ref. | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
T | t | Power | Solvent ratios | ||||
°C | min | W | |||||
Polysaccharides | 63.3 | 76.8 | 369 | Water:raw material 14.5:1 | 13.33% | [98] | |
Polysaccharides | 80 | 120 | 480 | EtOH (80%) 1:10 | 2.92% | [99] | |
Polysaccharides | 120 | 15 | — | EtOH (80%) 1:10 | 16.08% | [100] | |
Polysaccharides | 70 | 10 | 500 | Water 1:70 | 17.01% | [101] | |
Polysaccharides | 30 | 41 | 414 | Water 1:30 | 10.59% | [102] | |
Essential oil | 60 | 50 | 600 | Water 20:1 | 7.1% | [103] | |
Crocetin | 96 | 30 | 2.45 GHz | 59.59% EtOH | 228 mg/g | [104] | |
Polyphenols | 150 | 90 | 60 | Water 1:10 | 50.4 mg GAE/g | [105] | |
Phenolics | 164 | 12.5 | 850 | EtOH (45%) | 42.4% | [106] | |
Phenolics | 100 | 2 | 800 | MeOH (60%) | 54.3 mg/g | [107] | |
Usnic acid | 80 | 5 | — | ACE 1:10 | 4.2 mg/g | [108] | |
Flavonolignan | 30 | 12 | 600 | EtOH (80%) 1:25 | 79% | [109] | |
Vicine | 30 | 0.5 | 1140 | MeOH (50%) | — | [110] |
Different experimental conditions carried out with microwave-assisted extraction (MAE).
Abbreviations: EtOH: ethanol; MeOH: methanol; ACE: acetone; T: temperature; t: time; GAE: gallic acid equivalent.
Also, the toxicity of the solvent is another important factor that must be evaluated with respect to the selection of a suitable extractant for MAE [114] since some theories highlight the efficiency and selectivity of MAE depends on the dielectric constant of the solvent mixture [115]. The polarity of organic solvents increases with the addition of water, the temperature within the sample increases due to better absorption of microwave energy, and extraction increases. The extraction time is another parameter that influences the extraction by MAE. Long times of extraction decreases the yield due to the alteration of the structural integrity of the chemically active principles. In this way, the extraction time in most of the MAE process is ranged from a few minutes to 30 min. Nevertheless, when MAE is used without solvent, longer extraction times can be employed. In this case, extraction cycles can be used to reduce the degradation of the compounds [116]. Additionally, the agitator effect influences the extraction process, reducing the negative effects of the S/F ratio on extraction recovery [116].
Enzymes are protein molecules whose function is to catalyze chemical reactions. Due to this ability to accelerate reactions, enzymes have always been important to food technology and are widely used to transform raw materials into improved food products such as starch processing, meat processing, dairy industry, wine industry and manufacturing of predigested foods [117]. However, with the advancement of technology, new applications have been developed as well as new sources for obtaining enzymes, being microbial enzymes the preferred source due to the advantages they present, among which it is worth highlighting an easy, profitable and constant production [118]. Among the novel applications of enzymes is the extraction of compounds of interest from different raw materials to be used as additives in the food industry. However, they are typically used for a feedstock pretreatment that makes conventional solvent extraction or distillation more efficient. Enzymes promote access to the substances of interest, so its applications include, among others, the extraction of flavor and color from plant materials as a pre-treatment of the raw material before subjecting the plant material to hydro-distillation/solvent extraction [119].
This entire process must be optimized to obtain the extract with the highest yield, that is, in a more purified and profitable way. To carry out this optimization, it is necessary to know the mechanism of action of the enzymes and, therefore, their optimal conditions of activity, being pH and temperature of vital importance. Another important factor to take into account is the majority composition of the raw material, which will determine the type of enzyme to be used (lipases, celluloses, proteases) [120]. This system has been investigated for extracting lipids, proteins, polysaccharides, phenols and oils among others (Table 5).
Compound | Raw material | Enzyme | Conditions | Yield | Ref. | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
T | pH | t | |||||
°C | — | h | |||||
Proteins | Protease | 50 | 9.0 | 1 | 97% | [121] | |
Proteins | Pectinase, cellulase, β-glucanase | 48 | 10.0 | 4 | 83.0% | [122] | |
Proteins | Alcalase | 60 | 9.5 | 1.5 | 88.2% | [123] | |
Lipids | Proteases | 60 | 9.0 | 2 | 38% | [124] | |
Polysaccharides | Cellulase | 45 | 5.0 | 1.3 | 35.3% | [125] | |
Polysaccharides | Cellulase, pectin, pectase | 52.7 | 3.9 | 2.73 | 5.1% | [126] | |
Phenols | Pectinase | 48 | 3.5 | 2.7 | 18–20 mg/g | [127] | |
Phenols | Viscozyme | 35 | 4.0 | 0.5 | 0.6 mg/g | [128] | |
Phenols | Cellulase, pectinase, β-glucosidase | 52.6 | 4.6 | 1 | 16.04 mg/g | [129] | |
Oils | Protex | 47.1 | 7.9 | 7.8 | 97.9% | [130] | |
Oils | Yellow mustard flour | Protex | 60 | 4.5 | 3 | 91.0% | [131] |
Vitamin C | Celluclast | 50 | 4.5 | 2 | 23.4 g/L | [132] | |
Carotenoids | Viscozyme L | 60 | 4.5 | 1 | 87.0% | [133] | |
Carotenoids | Viscozyme L | 50 | 4.5 | 5 | 78.0% | [134] | |
Lycopene | Pectinase | 60 | 5.0 | 0.4 | 1.1 mg/g | [135] |
Different experimental conditions carried out to obtain additives by enzyme-assisted extraction.
Abbreviations: T: temperature; t: time.
This technique has the advantages over other traditional methods of having a high selectivity and efficiency, being an environmentally friendly process with a minimum consumption of energy and chemical products, having good performance and the possibility of recycling the process. However, it also has some drawbacks such as the cost of the enzymes, the need for storage tanks that may require long-term incubation, the lack of knowledge about optimal or compatible enzyme formulations for cell disruption and the inability to fully hydrolyze the bonds in the plant cell wall [136].
Extraction by supercritical fluids is characterized by bringing the fluid to conditions of temperature and pressure above the critical point, at which time the extracting agent behaves as a liquid and a gas simultaneously. Among the advantages of this method are the absence of toxic residues in the final product, high selectivity, short times, low consumption of solvents, high stability of the product obtained and that the remaining biomass can be treated with other techniques to continue the extraction. This technique can also be used to remove undesirable compounds such as pollutants, toxins, and pesticides [136].
The extraction process takes place in several stages. At the beginning, the plant matrix absorbs the supercritical solvent, producing a swelling of the cell structure with the consequent dilation of the intercellular channels. This results in a decrease in resistance to mass transfer. In addition, there is a simultaneous transfer of matter from the internal matrix to the surface. After that, these compounds are transported from the surface to the supercritical solvent and finally removed from the solvent [137].
To increase extraction performance, several parameters need to be optimized. These are fundamentally temperature, pressure and co-solvent type and all depend on the compound to be extracted. The most widely used solvent is CO2 for its thermodynamic and heat transfer properties. Furthermore, it has a low critical point (31°C, 73 bar). In addition, the polarity of CO2 can be modified by using co-solvents such as ethanol, so that the polar components are also extracted [138].
Several reviews have been published on SFE fundamentals, experimental design and specific applications on food processing, surface coating analysis, vegetable matrices, extraction of metals as complexes, functional ingredients from natural sources, constituents of fish oil and decontamination of hazardous substances [139]. Table 6 shows some examples. Despite the large number of studies using this extraction technique, the comparatively high cost of investment has kept this expertise from being broadly considered as an alternative. Nevertheless, new studies have proved that SFE is an economically viable choice [152]. Moreover, the interest in SFE is not only at the laboratory level as an analytical tool but also in industrial processing, mainly decaffeination of coffee or tea, extraction of essential oils, extraction of high added value compounds and fatty acids [153].
Compound | Raw material | Conditions | Yield | Ref. | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pressure | T | Flow | t | Mass | ||||
bar | °C | h | g | mg/g | ||||
Lipids | 241–379 | 40–50 | 1 mL/min | 2 | 2 | 58 mg/g | [140] | |
Vitamin E | 361 | 83 | 50 mL/min | 1.5 | 75 | 29.4 mg/g | [141] | |
Protein | 350 | 40 | 400 g/min | 4 | — | — | [142] | |
Astaxanthin | 435 | 65 | 167 mL/min | 3.5 | 240 | 87.4% | [143] | |
Lycopene | 300 | 60 | 1.44 cm/min | 6 | 1 | 213 mg/g | [144] | |
Capsaicinoids | 150 | 60 | 2 mL/min | 1.4 | 2.5 | 0.5% | [145] | |
Flavonoids | 200 | 60 | 15 g/min | 1 | 30 | 60.57 mg/g | [146] | |
Phenols | 160 | 45 | 0.2 mL/min | 0.3 | 3 | 12.3% | [147] | |
Decaffeination | Green tea | 300 | 80 | 1500 mL/min | 2 | 10 | 70.2% | [148] |
Decaffeination | 300 | 60 | 15.83 g/min | 4.25 | 0.65 | 99.97% | [149] | |
Aroma | Vinegar | 350 | 50 | 0.42 g/min | 2 | 200 | 96.6% | [150] |
Sulforaphane | 250 | 60 | 2 g/min | 3 | 25 | 0.47% | [151] |
Different experimental conditions carried out with supercritical-fluid extraction (SFE).
Abbreviations: T: temperature; t: time.
The extraction through supercritical fluids presents greater efficiency in terms of increased yields and shorter extraction times compared to conventional methods. There are several factors that could limit its effectiveness, including solvent type, temperature, pressure, extraction time and particle size of the matrix to be studied [153]. Among them, it seems that the effectiveness of an SFE depends mainly on temperature and pressure. When temperature and pressure variations are considered, these have important repercussions on fluid hydrodynamics, solubility, and mass transfer [146]. In this sense, the low temperature is crucial for the conservation of bioactive compounds in the extracts and to achieve higher global/specific yields or greater bioactive capacities in the extracts. Numerous studies apply an extraction temperature range of 40–50°C [154, 155, 156, 157]. Regarding pressure, there is evidence that the optimum range is between 200 and 400 bars [154, 158, 159, 160, 161]. Additionally, an increase in pressure can modify the solubility of the solute, therefore, it is interesting to control the composition of the extract by pressure [162]. In addition, the optimal conditions of pressure and temperature can be influenced by the origin of the biomass and their morphology. The type of modifier and its proportion are also of extreme importance within the extraction, since they determine the solubility of the analytes, ethanol being the most applied modifier [155]. The size of the biomass particle, shape and porosity are also important factors in terms of the mass transfer rate [152]. The use of small particles would have the advantage of increasing the accessible solute, but could lead to clogging of the extraction, making the use of dispersing agents useful in such cases.
Electric pulse is one of the newest techniques in the field of thermal food processing. Its mechanism of action is based on causing the permeability of cell membranes in a short period of time and with low energy consumption. This is achieved by applying short duration pulses (μs to ms) of moderate electric voltage (typically 0.5–20 kV/cm) to a substrate of choice placed between two electrodes, which is commonly used for preservation, enzyme and microbial inactivation purposes [163].
These characteristics have led to different studies being carried out in order to improve the extraction performance of bioactive compounds, such as polyphenols, anthocyanins and vegetable oil from plant tissues and their by-products, as well as soluble intracellular matter of microorganisms [164]. However, low to mild PEF treatment intensities are often considered an effective pretreatment method for enhancement of secondary metabolite extraction yields in cell cultures and plant systems [165].
Critical parameters of the process are electric field intensity, treatment time (number of pulses x pulse duration), pulse waveform, conductivity, pH and ionic strength of the medium [166]. Among the advantages of this method are avoidance of undesirable changes in a biological material, which are typical of other techniques such as thermal, chemical and enzymatic ones. Moreover, it is able of killing microorganism [167].
As it can be observed in Table 7, most PEF-assisted extraction studies from by-products have targeted the polyphenolic compounds; nonetheless, extraction of polysaccharides, proteins, phytosterols, alkaloids, seed and germ oil among others have also been investigated. In general, according to the studies available so far, it has been demonstrated that the application of moderate electric field pulse technology either as pretreatment step or as continuous extraction system improves the extraction in the area of phytochemical extraction from by-products.
Compound | Raw material | Conditions | Yield | Ref. | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
E | Power | Pulse t | No. pulses | Mass | Flow | ||||
kWh/kg | kV/cm | μs | — | g | mL/min | mg/g | |||
Proteins | — | 40 | 8.3 | 500 | 0.5% w/w | 166 | 1% | [168] | |
Polysaccharide | — | 38.4 | 2 | 136 | 9% w/w | 336 | 7.9 mg/g | [169] | |
Polysacharide | 30 | 6 | 50% w/w | 25 | 7.3% | [170] | |||
Pigments | 7 | 1 | 10 | 270 | — | 48 | 90% | [171] | |
Betanine | 2.5 | 7 | 2 | 5 | — | — | 90% | [171] | |
Anthocyanins | 13.5 | 3.4 | 3 | 35 | 14 g | — | 0.66 mg/g | [172] | |
Anthocyanins | 3.77 | 3.4 | 3 | 105 | — | 65.8 mg/g | [173] | ||
Anthocyanins | 10 | 3.0 | 15 | 30 | — | — | 14.05 mg/g | [174] | |
Phenols | — | 7 | 3 | 20 | 100 | — | 3.1 mg/g | [173] | |
Phenols | — | 38.4 | 2 | 68 | 9% w/w | 498 | 51% | [169] | |
Oil | 0.62 | 0.6 | — | 120 | 2 | 1 | 88.4% | [175] | |
Copra | — | 2.5 | 575 | 20 | — | — | 20% | [176] | |
Alkaloids | 18.5 | 0.75 | 3 | 200 | — | — | 1.85 mg/g | [177] |
Different experimental conditions carried out with pulse electrified extraction (PEF).
Abbreviations: E: energy; T: temperature; t: time.
This technique is also known as Accelerated Solvent Extraction (ASE), Pressurized Hot Water Extraction (HSPE), Pressurized Fluid Extraction (PFE) or Enhanced Solvent Extraction (ESE) [178]. This technique, firstly described in 1996 as a new emerging environmentally-friendly technique, presents the following advantages [179]: reduced use of solvents, lower energy consumption and short time periods (5–10 min). It consists of an extraction procedure which uses organic liquid solvents applied at high pressures (normally up to 200 bar) and temperatures (normally up to 200°C) to extract target compounds, this is, PLE is based on applying high pressures to heat the extraction solvent above its boiling point while using low volume of organic solvents [178, 180].
Extraction efficiency and selectivity is significantly affected by the following parameters, namely: i) extraction solvent; ii) temperature; iii) pressure; iv) static extraction time and number of cycles and v) sample weight [178]. Temperature and pressure have a significant effect on PLE, therefore, they are the most important for PLE optimization. Many studies support that the use of solvents at high temperatures and pressures improve the yield in comparison to other conventional techniques [178, 180, 181].
On the other hand, two types of instrumentation can be used in PLE: static and dynamic. However, generally, the equipment is very similar between them, except for some small differences such as a more sophisticated high-pressure pump and a pressure restrictor in the case of dynamic PLE. The extraction design equipment can contain the following basic parts: i) solvent supply; ii) a pump; iii) a heater; iv) a pressure vessel where occurs the extraction and v) a collected vessel for the extract [182]. Regarding static PLE, the process occurs in one or several extraction cycles with replacement of solvent in between. When the static time finishes (normally between 5 and 10 min), part of solvent in the extraction cells is replaced with fresh solvent (new extraction cycle). After the last cycle, the nitrogen gas is used for purging the sample cell and to remove the remaining solvent. As regards dynamic PLE, the extraction solvent is continuously pumped through the extraction vessel containing the sample [183]. Currently, static PLE is the most used and there are not equipment of dynamic PLE in the market [184]. This system has been employed to recover different target compounds that can be used as food additives, including proteins, phenolic compounds or fatty acids, among others (Table 8).
Compound | Raw material | Conditions | Yield | Ref. | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
P | T | Solvent | Static cycles | t | ||||
MPa | °C | min | ||||||
Proteins | 10.34 | 120 | E 70% (v/v) | 4, s.t. 3 min | 12 | 9% | [185] | |
Phenolic compounds | 10.34 | 200 | E 100% (v/v) E | 1 | 20 | — | [186] | |
Fatty acids | 8 | 80 | E-Pr | 4, s.t. 5 min; 4, s.t. 10 min | 60 | 19.2–33.1% | [187] | |
Cafestol and Kahweol diterpenes | 10.34 | 70 | E (99.3%) | 3, s.t. 8 min | 24 | 9.78% | [188] | |
Anthocyanins | 10 | 60 | E-CA (30:70) (v/v) | 1 | 26 | 3.96 mg C3GE/g DW | [189] | |
Phenolic, antioxidant and antimicrobial compounds | 10 | 80 | E | 1 | 60 | 42% | [190] | |
E-W | 50% | |||||||
Antihyaluronidase | 15 | 60 | W | 2, s.t. 10 min | 20 | 0.04 mg/mL (IC50) | [191] | |
Polysaccharides | 15 | 120 | UW (pH 6.9) | 1 | 15 | 5.70% of pectin | [192] |
Different experimental conditions carried out with pressurized liquid extraction (PLE).
Abbreviations: P: pressure; T: temperature; t: time; C3GE: cyanidin-3-glucoside equivalents, DW: dry weight; s.t.: static time. W: water, E: ethanol, CA: citric acid, Pr: propane, UW: Ultrapure water.
Parameters such as the characteristics of the matrix, the solvent type, the extraction time, and temperature show a big influence on the extraction efficiency of PLE. It is pursued an appropriate combination of analyte and solvent to achieve high diffusion rates and mass transfer, the use of binary solvents such as ethanol: water or methanol: water is more efficient and respectful with the environment than pure reagents [193]. Regarding the characteristics of the matrix, they affect the recovery rate of the compounds, including the nature of the target compounds, the relative binding behavior of the analyte with the solvent, the particle size, and the moisture content [181]. Additionally, temperature and pressure significantly influence the selectivity and efficiency of PLE. The use of high temperatures under reduced pressure helps to break the matrix structure by overcoming the molecular bonding forces [194] In this way the use of high temperatures reduces the activation energy and overcomes the interactive forces (cohesive and adhesive) between the matrix and the solvent molecules to cause desorption. However, the use of high pressure causes bubbling problems during extraction, causing low solubility rate [181].
Surfactants are components able to lower the surface tension between two liquids (gas–liquid) or between liquid and solid. They are usually amphiphilic organic compounds: with a polar group in the head part (hydrophilic) and a nonpolar group in the queue part. Their distinctive characteristic is their capacity to lower surface tension of a solvent. Generally, the higher surfactant concentration in the solution, the lower surface tension. This occurs due to adsorption of the surfactant at the interface. Surfactants can be classified following two criteria: according to its structure or its hydrophilic–lipophilic balance (HLB).
Regarding its structure, some authors divide surfactants in three groups: i) ionic: within this group are anionic and cationic; ii) nonionic (without electric charge); iii) amphoteric (they contain anionic and cationic groups in the molecule) and v) no hydrocarbons. Among them, nonionic surfactants are the most used [195]. Regarding its balance, Griffin and co-workers introduced an arbitrary scale for classifying surfactants according to HLB. The HLB scale has a ranges from 0 to 20, so that a molecule is hydrophilic when HLB value is above 9, and lipophilic when HLB value is below 9 [196].
One of the main parameters used in surfactant assisted extraction (SAE) is the adsorption efficiency (pC20). The higher pC20, the lower concentration of surfactant required to surface tension of pure solvent to decrease to 20 mM/m. Ideally, a surfactant employed to extract a compound of interest should have a high adsorption efficiency. A study verified that pC20 was higher when the surfactant consists of an anionic and nonionic mixture than when the surfactant was only anionic [197]. Nowadays, SAE is not used as an individual technique to extract bioactive compounds in food or nutraceutical industry. Generally, it is used as a complement in other type of extractions, mainly with MAE. A study employed surfactant-MAE method to obtain high yield bioactive compounds from fig leaves [198]; another study used a MAE - solid–liquid extraction approach using a surfactant to extract bioactive phenolic compounds from
There are many natural compounds with possible potential applications as preservatives to act either antioxidants, antimicrobials or to provide specific flavor, aroma, or color to foods. A great number of compounds can be obtained from natural sources, such as vegetables, fruits, plants, macroalgae and microalgae for their application as food and feed additives but also as cosmetic ingredients.
To isolate the molecules of interest to be used as food additives, it is necessary to apply adequate extraction techniques which preserve intact the
2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl-hydrate free radical method
Gallic Acid Equivalent
Generally Recognized as Safe
European Food Safety Authority
Low-density lipoprotein
Ultrasound Assisted Extraction
High Pressure Assisted Extraction
Microwave Assisted Extraction
Enzyme Assisted Extraction
Supercritical Fluid Extraction
Pulse Electrified Field extraction
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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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This change influences one another at various temporal and spatial scales; however, improper land uses are the primary causal factor on climate change. It studies relevant literature and Nepal’s case to assess the relationship between land use and climate change. Similarly focuses on how land-use impacts climate change and vice versa. In recent centuries land-use change significant effects on ecological variables and climate change. Likewise, understanding the research on both topics will help decision-makers and conservation planners manage land and climate.",book:{id:"10754",slug:"the-nature-causes-effects-and-mitigation-of-climate-change-on-the-environment",title:"The Nature, Causes, Effects and Mitigation of Climate Change on the Environment",fullTitle:"The Nature, Causes, Effects and Mitigation of Climate Change on the Environment"},signatures:"Pawan Thapa",authors:[{id:"349566",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Pawan",middleName:null,surname:"Thapa",slug:"pawan-thapa",fullName:"Pawan Thapa"}]},{id:"42926",title:"Disaster Risk Management and Social Impact Assessment: Understanding Preparedness, Response and Recovery in Community Projects",slug:"disaster-risk-management-and-social-impact-assessment-understanding-preparedness-response-and-recove",totalDownloads:10017,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"3364",slug:"environmental-change-and-sustainability",title:"Environmental Change and Sustainability",fullTitle:"Environmental Change and Sustainability"},signatures:"Raheem A. 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The consequences of greenhouse effect and climate change from rising temperatures, frequent droughts, irregular rainfall, etc. are already evident. Insects and plants are affected by climate change and extreme weather events and the direct impact of anthropogenic climate change has been reported on every continent, in every ocean and in most major taxonomic groups. In the modern period, as a result of natural cycles and anthropogenic activities and their effects on the global climate, plants are typically susceptible to new environmental factors, i.e. higher levels solar radiation, rise in temperatures, greenhouse effect and changes in rainfall patterns over the seasons. Increased temperatures, CO2 and rapid changes in rainfall patterns can dramatically alter the biochemistry of plants and thus plant defence responses. This can have important implications in insect fertility, feeding rates, survival, population size, and dispersal. The relationships between plants and insects are thus changed with significant consequences for food security and natural ecosystems. Similarly, mismatches between plants and insect pollinators are caused by the acceleration of plant phenology by warming. Human nutrition which depends on insect pollination can be affected with reduction in plant reproduction and fitness. Thus, understanding abiotic stress reactions in plants and insects is relevant and challenging in agriculture. In the preparation and implementation of effective strategies for future insect pest management programmes, the impact of climate change on crop production, mediated by changes in the populations of extreme insect pests should be carefully considered.",book:{id:"10754",slug:"the-nature-causes-effects-and-mitigation-of-climate-change-on-the-environment",title:"The Nature, Causes, Effects and Mitigation of Climate Change on the Environment",fullTitle:"The Nature, Causes, Effects and Mitigation of Climate Change on the Environment"},signatures:"Somala Karthik, M.S. Sai Reddy and Gummudala Yashaswini",authors:[{id:"416107",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Somala",middleName:null,surname:"Karthik",slug:"somala-karthik",fullName:"Somala Karthik"},{id:"416115",title:"Prof.",name:"M.S.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Reddy",slug:"m.s.-sai-reddy",fullName:"M.S. 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He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. 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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. 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Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"20",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Nutrition",keywords:"Sustainable Animal Diets, Carbon Footprint, Meta Analyses",scope:"An essential part of animal production is nutrition. Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). These new feed options must also be environmentally friendly, reducing the Carbon footprint, CH4, N, and P emissions to the environment, with an adequate formulation of nutrients.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"175762",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo J.",middleName:null,surname:"Escribano",slug:"alfredo-j.-escribano",fullName:"Alfredo J. 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