Octane number of oxygen generating gasoline additives, which is measured by different methods.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-80356-966-6",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-965-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-967-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"f86a9f720cc3ac0f1c385d0367ea89b9",bookSignature:"Dr. Fiaz Ahmad and Prof. Muhammad Sultan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11624.jpg",keywords:"Agricultural Waste, Reuse, Reduction, Soil Health, Recycling, Agriculture and Environment, Modelling and Simulation, Agro-Industrial Waste, Bioresource Processing, Processing and Management, Crop Residue, Forest Waste",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 8th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 16th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 15th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 3rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 2nd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Fiaz Ahmad is a researcher in the field of Agricultural Engineering with fifteen years of field and academic experience, currently in charge of the Agricultural Machinery Design Laboratory at Bahauddin Zakariya University. He applied for two patents at the national level.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"A renowned researcher in the field of Agricultural Engineering with 14 years of academic experience at Bahauddin Zakariya University. Winner of various prestigious fellowships, awards, and research grants. Published 250+ articles along with several books and chapters. Guest editor of seven ISI-SCI journals for publishers like SAGE, MDPI, and Frontiers.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"338219",title:"Dr.",name:"Fiaz",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"fiaz-ahmad",fullName:"Fiaz Ahmad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/338219/images/system/338219.png",biography:"Dr. Fiaz Ahmad is an assistant professor and lecturer at the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan. He obtained his Ph.D. in Agricultural Bioenvironmental and Energy Engineering from Nanjing Agriculture University, China, in 2015, and completed his postdoctorate in Agricultural Engineering from Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China, in 2020. He was awarded a fellowship from the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan for Ph.D. studies and from the Chinese Government for post-doctoral studies. He earned a BSc and MSc (Hons) in Agricultural Engineering from the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, in 2004 and 2007, respectively. He is the author of more than fifty journal and conference articles. He has supervised six master’s students to date, and is currently supervising six master and two doctoral students. Dr. Ahmad has completed three research projects with his research interest focusing on the design of agricultural machinery, agricultural waste management, artificial intelligence (AI), and agricultural bioenvironment.",institutionString:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"199381",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sultan",slug:"muhammad-sultan",fullName:"Muhammad Sultan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199381/images/system/199381.png",biography:"Muhammad Sultan is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Agricultural\r\nEngineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan (Pakistan). He completed his Ph.D.\r\nand Postdoc from Kyushu University (Japan) in the field of Energy & Environmental\r\nEngineering. He was an awardee of MEXT and JASSO fellowships (from the Japanese\r\nGovernment) during Ph.D. and Postdoc studies, respectively. He also did a Postdoc as\r\na Canadian Queen Elizabeth Advance Scholar at Simon Fraser University (Canada) in\r\nthe field of Mechatronic Systems Engineering. He worked for Kyushu University\r\nInternational Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research (WPI-I2CNER) for two years.\r\nCurrently, he is working on 4 research projects funded by the Higher Education\r\nCommission (HEC) of Pakistan. He has completed six projects in past in the field of\r\nagricultural engineering. He has supervised 10+ M.Eng. and Ph.D. thesis and 10+\r\nstudents are currently working under his supervision. He has published 120+ journal\r\narticles, 100+ conference articles, 13 book chapters, and 6 books. He is serving as guest\r\neditor for the journals like Sustainability (MDPI), Agriculture (MDPI), Energies (MDPI),\r\nAdvances in Mechanical Engineering (SAGE), Frontiers in Mechanical Engineering, and\r\nEvergreen Journal of Kyushu University. His research is focused on developing energy-\r\nefficient temperature and humidity control systems for agricultural storage, greenhouse,\r\nlivestock, and poultry applications. His research keywords include desiccant air-\r\nconditioning, evaporative cooling, adsorption heat pump, Maisotsenko cycle (M-cycle),\r\nenergy recovery ventilators; adsorption desalination; wastewater treatment.",institutionString:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"440212",firstName:"Elena",lastName:"Vracaric",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/440212/images/20007_n.jpg",email:"elena@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10454",title:"Technology in Agriculture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dcfc52d92f694b0848977a3c11c13d00",slug:"technology-in-agriculture",bookSignature:"Fiaz Ahmad and Muhammad Sultan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10454.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"338219",title:"Dr.",name:"Fiaz",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"fiaz-ahmad",fullName:"Fiaz Ahmad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6418",title:"Hyperspectral Imaging in Agriculture, Food and Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9005c36534a5dc065577a011aea13d4d",slug:"hyperspectral-imaging-in-agriculture-food-and-environment",bookSignature:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado, Humberto Rodríguez Fuentes and Juan Antonio Vidales Contreras",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6418.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"105774",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro Isabel",surname:"Luna Maldonado",slug:"alejandro-isabel-luna-maldonado",fullName:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10359",title:"Landraces",subtitle:"Traditional Variety and Natural Breed",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0600836fb2c422f7b624363d1e854f68",slug:"landraces-traditional-variety-and-natural-breed",bookSignature:"Amr Elkelish",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10359.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"231337",title:"Dr.",name:"Amr",surname:"Elkelish",slug:"amr-elkelish",fullName:"Amr Elkelish"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"52782",title:"Raman Study of the Crystalline-to-Amorphous State in Alpha- Decay–Damaged Materials",doi:"10.5772/65910",slug:"raman-study-of-the-crystalline-to-amorphous-state-in-alpha-decay-damaged-materials",body:'\nToday, there are over 430 commercial nuclear power reactors in 31 countries which provide over 10% of the world electricity [1]. As a result, huge amounts of highly radioactive nuclear wastes are produced each year. One of the critical issues in nuclear energy industry is the safe disposal of nuclear wastes, especially high‐level nuclear wastes (HLNW). The below are some minerals and synthetic materials proposed or developed as actinide‐bearing crystalline hosts for waste materials [2–4]: zircon (ZrSiO4), titanite (CaTiSiO5), baddeleyite (Zr,Hf,…)O2, hafnon (HfSiO4), perovskite [(Ca,Gd,…)(Al,Fe,Ti,…)O3], zirconolite [CaZrTi2O7 and CaZrSi2O7], apatite [Ca10(PO4)6(OH,F,Cl,B)2], pyrochlore [CaZrGd2Ti2O7, Gd2Zr2O7, and La2Zr2O7‐Nd2Zr2O7], monazite [(La,Ce,…)PO4], and garnet [(Ca,Fe,Gd,…)3 (Al,Fe,Si,…)5O12]. Among them, zircon is one of the most studied and modeled minerals. Currently, pyrochlore has attracted attention because of its radiation damage resistance.
\nSelf‐radiation from alpha‐decay of the incorporated actinides can lead to lattice damage resulting in structural change and transformation from crystalline state to an amorphous or aperiodic state, that is, metamict state (the process is known as metamictization) [5–7].
\nThe effects of radiation damage on the structure of metamict minerals can be seen as systematic changes of its physical properties [8]: an increase in cell parameters and broadening of X‐ray diffraction patterns [9–12]; a decrease in Raman and infrared intensities and dramatic band broadening [13, 14]; decreases in refractive index and birefringence [9, 15]; absorption of hydrous species [16–19]; an increase in fracture toughness [20]; a decrease in density [9, 10]; a variation of TEM diffraction patterns [10, 21, 22]; an increase of leach rate [23]; changes in bulk modulus and hardness [24]; a change of 29Si NMR features [11, 25]; changes of diffuse X‐ray scattering from single crystals [6]; occurrences of Huang type diffuse X‐ray diffraction [26]; a change in EXAFS [27]; a variation of Mössbauer spectra [11, 28]; and a variation of positron annihilation lifetime [29]. Therefore, the durability and performance of these actinide‐bearing phases can be altered by self‐radiation damage from alpha‐decay of the incorporated actinides. To gain better comprehension of the effect of radiation on crystal structure at the atomic level, the related damage process and damage mechanism are issues of critical importance.
\nVibrational spectroscopy (Raman and infrared (IR) spectroscopy) is a very powerful tool in the analysis and study of structural variations related to medium‐ and short‐range order [30]. Early analysis of alpha‐decay damaged materials by Raman spectroscopy can be traced back to about two decades ago [31, 32]. The main advantages of vibrational spectroscopy (Raman and infrared spectroscopy) [30] are their fast response time (which can be in the range of ~10-12 s), short correlation length scale (which is in the order of a few unit cells), and good sensitivity to hydrous and hydroxyl species (e.g., H2O and OH). In contrast to diffraction methods which are generally sensitive to periodicity of lattices and the crystallinity of a specimen, vibrational spectroscopy is mainly associated with the strength and length of interatomic bonds, as well as the atomic masses of the sample. Therefore, vibrational spectroscopy can give valuable information on phonon energy, bulk structure, chemical composition, and surface for not only crystalline materials, but also disordered phases. The method has, in fact, been widely applied in studying disordered and amorphous materials such as glasses.
\nThis chapter illustrates recent applications of Raman spectroscopy in the study of radiation‐damaged or metamict zircon and titanite. Being different from simple identification of damaged phases with Raman techniques, the investigations are focused on important issues such as: What happens at the atomic level during radiation damage and recrystallization? What are the possible structural modifications during metamictization? And whether decomposition into oxides is the final result of radiation damage. The experimental results provide a better understanding of the mechanism of radiation damage and the recrystallization processes.
Zircon (ZrSiO4) is a common accessory mineral in igneous rocks, in metamorphic rocks, and as detrital grains in sedimentary rocks. The work [33] has showed that zircon crystallizes to a tetragonal structure with space group
Micro‐Raman spectra (with 488 nm excitation) of metamict zircon between 50 and 1100 cm-1 (Ref. [
The effect of alpha‐decay radiation damage on the structure of zircon is evidenced by a decrease in band frequencies, a line broadening of Raman modes and a decrease in Raman intensity (Figure 1). Well‐crystallized zircon samples have sharp and well‐resolved Raman modes. With increasing alpha‐decay radiation dose (the radiation dose of natural minerals is mainly related to sample\'s rock age and concentration of U and Th, and it can be calculated [9, 10]), the stretching modes of SiO4 tetrahedra near 975 and 1008 cm-1 become weaker and broader, while the lower frequency modes become gradually weaker and could hardly be analyzed for high‐dose cases. The broad Raman feature concurring near 950 cm-1 (the insert part in Figure 1) indicates the formation of amorphous phases in high‐dose samples. The behavior of the band also suggests that SiO4 tetrahedra remain in highly damaged zircon samples. As the 950 cm-1 feature is significantly away from the intense bands near 1008 cm–1 in terms of wavenumber, its appearance implies a new linkage of SiO4 tetrahedra.
\nThe dose dependence of the frequency and full width at half maximum of the 1008 cm
Phonon frequency and full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the ν3 stretching band (B1g) of SiO4 in radiation‐damaged zircon as a function of radiation dose (Ref. [
Raman band widths [full width at half maximum (FWHM)] and frequencies (especially those of the ν3 band of SiO4 near 1008 cm-1) in zircon have been used for investigating the relationship between U‐Pb isotopic discordance and metamictization [35–37]. More work is desirable to gain a better understanding of the behavior of this band during radiation damage and recrystallization, and the potential influence of chemical impurities on the band.
\nAnother good example of Raman study of alpha‐decay radiation damage is the application in metamict titanite. Titanite is a calcium titanium nesosilicate mineral, CaTiSiO5. Taylor and Brown [38] synthesized pure titanite, and their X‐ray data show that it is monoclinic (space group
Natural titanite occurs in igneous and metamorphic rock and incorporates a variety of impurity ions such as U, Th and other rare earth elements (REE). The structure of natural titanite is often metamict, as a result of self‐radiation damage associated with the alpha‐decay of the incorporated REEs. Raman spectra of crystalline or undamaged natural titanite (Figure 3) show spectral features similar to those of synthetic pure
Raman spectra of fine powders of titanites (CaTiSiO5) with different degrees of radiation damage (Ref. [
In the study of radiation effect and metamict state, what happens at the atomic level is an unclear and important question. Researchers have focused on issues such as possible changes in the coordination number of Zr [27], radiation‐induced disordering rather than amorphization [31], damage‐related distorted and disoriented isolated silica tetrahedra [16], the fraction of amorphized phase [14, 46], as well as whether metamictization leads to phase separation or damaged minerals decompose into their oxides, and what is the structural state of the decomposed phases [47, 48]. This issue of radiation‐induced decomposition was, in fact, debated over decades [30]. Based on infrared data on metamict zircon, a two‐stage damage process was proposed [49]. It was suggested that the first stage produces, throughout the lattice, highly stressed and expanded zircon with distorted SiO4 tetrahedra, while the second stage was suggested to result in the decomposition of ZrSiO4 to ZrO2 and SiO2, probably together with some aperiodic ZrSiO4 [49]. However, the decomposition of damaged zircon was often reported in zircon samples only annealed experimentally at high temperatures, in which the decomposition commonly leads to different polymorphs of ZrO2 and glassy silica. Monoclinic ZrO2 was found in heavily damaged samples heated to 1373 K [50]. In a high‐temperature study, Vance and Anderson [15] observed cubic and tetragonal ZrO2 at 1073 and 1373 K, respectively. It was reported that highly metamict zircon contained randomly orientated ZrO2 when annealed at 1173 K, and further annealing at 1523 K resulted in monoclinic ZrO2, as well as a silica glass phase [51]. Ellsworth et al. [52] suggested that decomposition of metamict zircon into ZrO2 and glassy SiO2 could be one possible path for recrystallization. In contrast, a high‐temperature neutron work by [53] suggested that zircon decomposes into crystalline β‐cristobalite (rather than silica glass) and tetragonal ZrO2. An X‐ray powder diffraction study at high temperatures reported the appearance of pseudo‐cubic ZrO2 [54]. Meldrum et al. [55] observed a decomposition of zircon into tetragonal ZrO2 when irradiating zircon with heavy ions at around 950 K. As discussed by different works [56, 57], some of these previous works based on X‐ray diffraction measurements might have experienced difficulties in the determination of cubic and tetragonal ZrO2.
\nVibrational (Raman and infrared) spectroscopy is a good analytical tool for resolving these problems related to decomposition of ZrSiO4 into ZrO2 and SiO2, as pointed out by Ref. [30], because Raman and infrared spectra of zirconia (ZrO2) have been well studied previously and also because vibrational spectroscopy has short length scales. ZrO2 has three common polymorphs at different temperatures. The room‐temperature phase is monoclinic, while the tetragonal and cubic phases occur at high temperatures [58]. The theoretical calculations [59, 60] have given the optical phonon modes (for zero wave vector) for each polymorph of zirconia ZrO2. The monoclinic ZrO2 has space group
The data in Figure 1 indicate that it is apparent that there is a lack of signals of ZrO2 in highly damaged zircons. This shows that ZrO2 and SiO2 are not the final products of metamictization in zircon. Results from infrared spectroscopy of radiation‐damaged zircon [14, 47] also support this observation. As mentioned early, although decomposed zircons were commonly reported in lab‐treated samples, tetragonal ZrO2 was recorded in only one natural sample [8], with an unknown thermal history, among a large number of natural zircon samples with different degrees of damage analyzed in Refs. [14, 47, 48]. In order to explore and examine high‐temperature behavior of damaged zircon and the possible causes for decomposition in zircon, systematic works were carried out by different groups [47, 36, 61, 62]. These works show that thermal annealing of heavily damaged zircon at high‐temperature experiments may lead to the decomposition of metamict zircon into tetragonal ZrO2 and glassy SiO2 at 1200 K, and upon further heating tetragonal ZrO2 transforms to monoclinic ZrO2 near 1400 K. Undamaged and weakly damaged zircons are less likely to show decomposition during high‐temperature annealing. It was reported that the decomposition‐induced silica tended to evaporate on further heating [61, 63]. As naturally damaged samples might experience high‐temperature processes, some reported decomposed metamict zircon could be due to natural thermal annealing prior to experiments. In contrast to high‐temperature annealing, the presence of ZrO2 in some natural zircons might be due to the reaction of fluids with metamict zircons, because radiation damage may alternate the chemical stability of zircon. The observation of ZrO2 in dissolution experiments was reported in highly damaged zircon samples [64]. Raman data of hydrothermally leached metamict zircon [65] showed the formation of monoclinic ZrO2. In general, the decomposition of zircon into ZrO2 and SiO2 is related to radiation‐damaged zircons. Their crystal lattice is heavily damaged and has more defects. As a result, the durability of these heavily damaged samples is expected to be affected, and they are vulnerable to the impact of external physical and chemical conditions (e.g., water, solutions, high temperature, and even high pressure).\x3c!-- As references [36] and [61] were same. So that we have deleted the duplicate references, renumbered and cited accordingly.
Raman data of metamict titanite (Figure 3) also show there is a lack of formation of oxides in highly damaged samples [40]. The findings are supported by X‐ray measurements and TEM [11] and infrared data [43]. The observation further shows that phase decomposition into oxides is not the final state of alpha‐decay damage in these materials, and the materials are safe to be used as nuclear waste forms. It has been found that decomposition of radiation‐damaged zircon is commonly related to high‐temperature heating (see a below section).
One of the interesting issues related to radiation damage and metamictization is the similarities or differences between the amorphous phases produced by alpha‐decay radiation damage and those produced through thermally quenched glass melts. Previous studies [47] have led to unanswered questions and concerns: for example, What is the relationship between the structural characteristics of disordered materials and the type of irradiation or physical process used to produce them?
\nAs a type of disordered or amorphous materials, metamict minerals were commonly considered as “glass‐like” materials in early studies on naturally occurring radiation effect and metamictization, and the metamict state was referred as a glassy state, which is somehow similar to that obtained by rapid quenching of high‐temperature melts [30]. With experimental data gathering, evidences have emerged that indicate their important differences between the aperiodic states. The dispersion depends on the physical processes, which produce the amorphous states. Vibrational spectroscopy (Raman and infrared) is very useful to study this issue because of its sensitivity to local structures.
\nRaman data of metamict titanite (CaTiSiO5) and its glass analogue (with the same chemical compositions) produced by quenching melts show that the two types of materials have different vibrational features (especially in the Ti
Zircon has a high melting temperature (above 2700–2800 K), and crystalline ZrO2 and a liquid of SiO2 may coexist for a composition of ZrSiO4 at a temperature region of ~1960 K and ~2670 K [66]. It is difficult to quench zircon melts without decomposition into ZrO2 and SiO2; however, glass‐like zircon (ZrSiO4) has been recorded with Raman spectroscopy in laser‐treated zircon in a study with laser melting, near the boundaries between the unmolten and molten regions (where a relatively large temperature gradient could exist) [67]. The large temperature gradient is expected to increase the quench rate and facilitate a “freeze” of the local configuration of the ZrSiO4 melts before the decomposition takes place. These experimental results indicate that the metamict state is different from the glassy state obtained by quenching melts. Apparently, the processes and structural states associated with metamictization and irradiation amorphization are more complex than those in common thermal glasses. The formation of the metamict state involves not only amorphization, but also defect accumulation caused by alpha‐particle damage and further radiation or irradiation may lead to damage as well as recrystallization.
CaTiSiO5 glasses produced by quenching titanite melts (thermal glass‐1 and thermal glass‐2 are prepared by quenching CaTiSiO5 melts) show overall spectra patterns different from those of metamict titanite, especially in the region of 600 and 1100 cm–1 [Ref, [
So far, although the issue remains under debates, there have been substantial evidences indicating characteristic discrepancies between two types of amorphous states (metamict and glass states) [68], for example: (i) the two types of materials commonly have spectral and structural discrepancies [40, 43, 69, 70]; (ii) high‐energy heavy ion irradiation may lead to significant modifications in local structures of glasses [71–74]; (iii) upon heating, radiation‐damaged minerals tend to recrystallize epitaxially and recover to their original cryptographic orientations [48, 51, 75], while during high‐temperature treatments, glasses commonly undergo a glass transition; and (iv) for common glasses, their glass transition temperatures are roughly defined, while various responses at different temperatures are seen in metamict minerals. For example, radiation‐induced defects in metamict zircon may be annealed or healed at temperatures as low as 600 K accompanied by changes in the oxidation state of U ions; partial decomposition of ZrSiO4 into SiO2 and SiO2 in heavily damaged zircon may take place at 1050 K; diffusion and conversions of hydrogen‐related species together with dehydroxylation may occur between 1200 and 1600 K (e.g., [16, 18, 52, 76, 77], see for the transition point [6]).
Thermal annealing of metamict minerals at high temperatures is commonly used in studies of radiation‐damaged minerals [30]. Its aims are to restore the original crystal structure for the purpose of studying recrystallization temperature, activation energy, types of radiation‐induced local defects and phase identification, and to obtain a good comprehension of the recrystallization process and mechanism. Extensive studies were carried out to investigate changes at the atomic level in metamict materials during high‐temperature annealing [10, 15, 36, 40, 44, 47, 48, 50, 52, 54, 55, 65, 75, 78–81]. However, controversies remain regarding the recrystallization path and activation energy.
\nThermal annealing results in recrystallization of metamict zircon (Figure 5). The effect of annealing temperature on the structural recovery of damaged zircon can be clearly seen in the frequency and FWHM of the ν3 Si
Spectroscopic data [47, 48, 61] revealed different recrystallization processes between partially and heavily damaged zircons, that is, the recrystallization process depends on the cumulative radiation dose (Figure 5, 6a\nand 6b). Being similar to metamict zircon [47], the thermal response of the damaged titanite (CaTiSiO5) is affected by their initial degrees of damage, that is, at the same treatment conditions, weakly or partially damaged samples are more likely to recover to crystalline titanite as compared with highly metamict samples [40]. Intermediately and heavily damaged titanite samples show a recovery of Ti-O and Si-O bands after annealing at 1300–1400 K, and these recovered crystals are consistent with the
Raman spectra recorded from weakly metamict (dose = 1.8 × 1018 alpha‐events g−1), intermediately metamict (dose = 3.5) and highly metamict zircon (dose = 13.1) thermally treated in N2 up to 1700 K and then punched (Ref. [
Phonon frequency and \x3c!-- Part labels `a\' and `b\' were given in the artwork of Figure 6, but not mentioned in the caption. Please check and correct as necessary.
The thermally induced structural recovery and recrystallization of metamict zircon and titanite is also characterized a recovery of the anisotropy of the sample, which is restored during annealing, as evidenced by the recovery of orientational dependence of IR (as well as Raman) spectra along with the original crystallographic orientations as shown in Figure 7, which indicates an epitaxial recrystallization. This behavior indicates that in highly metamict zircon and titanite, crystalline nanodomains with original crystallographic orientations might still exist.
Orientational dependence of polarized infrared spectra of radiation‐damaged zircon crystal (dose = 3.8 × 1018 alpha‐events g−1) annealed between 292 and 1700 K (Ref. [
In conclusion, Raman spectroscopy, as shown above, is a very powerful tool for study of radiation damage in actinide‐bearing phases and for estimation of their long‐term durability of their physical properties and chemical stability. This type of Raman applications can provide a better understanding of the mechanism of radiation damage and thermal recrystallization processes. It has a wide usage in condensed mater physics, material science, nuclear material sciences, mineralogist, and geochemistry. It has also been used analysis other radiation‐damaged minerals, such as fergusonite [82, 83], actinide‐bearing monazite [32], titanoaeschynite (Nd) and nioboaeschynite (Ce) [84], uranyl titanate mineral davidite‐(La) [85], aeschynite‐(Y) and polycrase‐(Y) [86], and steenstrupine [87], and pyrochlore (Zietlow et al., personal \x3c!-- a: Ref. `Kusz et al. (2010)\' was cited in the text, but the same has not been provided in the reference list. Please check and correct as necessary.
Kindly check and provide the publisher name, publisher location for the reference [7] if possible.
Some methods for obtaining absolute alcohol are well known, namely: (1) by binding water to water by subtracting substances; (2) pressure absolutization on many column rectification (distillation) plants; (3) the so-called azeotropic rectification using methods based on the phenomenon of azeotropism of three-component systems; (4) using methods based on the phenomenon of vapor diffusion through porous partitions or molecular sieves [1, 2]. Using as a desiccant, calcined calcium oxide can achieve an ethanol concentration of 99.8%, using magnesium sawdust—89.95%. With the combined use of sodium alcoholate ethanol can be absolutized to 99.5% [3].
Another way to obtain absolute ethyl alcohol is to separate the mixtures in distillation columns operating at different pressure values. The method is based on the dependence of ethanol content in the mixture on pressure. Typically, the installation consists of two columns. In the first column receive the alcohol strength of 70–95%, which comes in second column under pressure. The pressure in different methods varies from 8 kPa to 7.6 MPa. It is in the second column that absolute alcohol (99.2%) is obtained. The absolute alcohol (99.2%) is obtained in the second column. The disadvantage of these methods is their high energy consumption, because the rectification columns operate under pressure and require of the using of vapor or other high-temperature media to provide the necessary parameters [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. Many industrial distillation plants that produce absolute ethanol are azeotropic using a third component, which forms an azeotrope with the components of the mixture—alcohol and water. Analysis of the literature shows that substances such as benzene, toluene, isooctane, cyclohexane and hexane can form the third component, which is capable of forming azeotropes with ethanol and water. The concentration of alcohol, obtained by this method, is reached to 99.7% [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21].
Others are the methods built on the application of the phenomenon of adsorption. For this purpose, the alcohol-water mixture should be converted into a vapor phase in which the water molecules are in dissociated form and can be separated by adsorbents that absorb only water molecules from the vapor mixture and can be regenerated for reuse. Such adsorbents include polymer compositions based on dioxols, silica gel, synthetic zeolites and the like. Technologically, they can be made in the form of membranes, which are ceramic tubes, the inner layer of which is covered with a thin layer of zeolite or in the form of molecular sieves. Different composition of synthetic zeolites is known, but aluminum-potassium and aluminum-sodium zeolites have become the most widely used because they have a high adsorption capacity [22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33]. Due to the high cost of synthetic zeolites, ethanol absolutization methods have been developed, using the so-called natural zeolites—clinoptilolite: (NaK)4CaAl6Si30O72·24H2O and mordenite, which are widespread in the form of ores in certain territories of Ukraine, which is an undeniable advantage of their use [34].
Due to stabilization production of the volume petroleum and decrease in its price and the ban on the use of the tetraethyl lead gasoline in recent years, many countries of the world tend to increase the usage of oxygen-containing compounds as the additions in commercial high-octane gasoline. Methyl (MA), ethyl (EA) and tert-butyl (TBA) alcohols, methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), having high octane numbers and low boiling points are quite widely used among the oxygen-containing compounds. The usage of these additions results in an increase of the octane number and the improvement of the oxygen coefficient and the efficiency of the fuel combustion. All types of the fuel with oxygen-generating additives reduce the release of carbon monoxide (CO) and unburnt fuel parts (C) into the atmosphere. Thus, the addition of 10–15% MTBE reduces CO content in exhaust gases by 20%. The use of alcohol-gasoline mixtures as a motor fuel is also promising. The world ethanol production has recently reached 90 million m3 per year [35]. The main producers are the USA, Brazil and India. It should be noted that more than 80% of produced ethanol is used as a component of motor fuels (fuel ethanol). The rest is used for manufacture of the strong drinks, solvents, the ethyl ethers and esters synthesis and as a raw material for organic synthesis [36].
In many countries of the world, gasoline with 10–15% of various fuel additives is already used. In particular, a mixture of gasoline and ethanol (10–12%) is successfully used in the USA, Canada and Brazil, where its production is based on a national program. In the United States, 80% of produced ethanol is used as a fuel. In France, fuel containing ethanol (5%) is used too. Ukraine consumes around 200 million tons of fuel and energy resources annually and has a deficit of energy resources because the needs for energy consumption are covered only up to 53% by its own resources. The rest is covered by import: 75% of the required volume of natural gas and 85% of crude oil and petroleum products. Such a structure of the energy economy creates Ukraine’s dependence on oil and gas exporters and is threatening its energy and national security. Motor transport occupies a leading place in the transportation of goods. The prognosis of the development of Ukraine’s motor car park proves the tendency toward a steady increasing of the number of cars and fuel consumption. In 2016, the total motor car park and the park of light commercial vehicles in Ukraine consist of, according to AUTO-Consulting, 9121,000 cars, which consume 32.7 million tons of motor fuel. The alcohol industry of Ukraine fully provides internal needs of alcohol for the manufacture of alcoholic drinks, working only up to 30% of its total capacity [37].
Recently, ethanol production of Ukraine has decreased almost twice from 310 million liters in 1996 to 140 million liters in 2017. Today, 25% of the 80 distilleries with a total capacity of 480 million liters per year operate. To date, in Ukraine there are more than 40 licensed distilleries that can process 900,000 tons of grain per year and obtain 320 million liters of grain ethanol. The annual need of beet molasses is 1.1 million tons, from which you can get other 300 million liters of ethanol. In the structure of realization of rectified ethanol the largest part is occupied by vodka and ethanol from 81 to 94.5% in 2015. In January 2016, the manufacturer “Ukrspirt” produced more than 860,000 l of ethyl alcohol, 85,000 l of strong drinks and 756,000 l of car washers. At the same time, the company work is provided by 16 factories [38].
In recent years, the production of bioethanol has been steadily increasing. From 2000 to 2014 the amount of produced ethanol has increased by five times. The market leaders are: USA (corn), Brazil (sugar cane), Germany and France (sugar beet and grain). Governments of these countries intend to increase the bioethanol production by 70%. If 10% of bioethanol is added to gasoline, emissions of aerosol particles are reduced by 50% and carbon monoxide emissions by 30%. Therefore, there is a Directive 2009/28/EC, which requires up to 10% bioethanol in a motor fuel by 2020. Ukraine signed the Association Agreement with the European Union, so it should undertake the similar obligations. While in the EU this index is gradually approaching 5% in Ukraine, it does not exceed 1% [39].
Macroeconomic analysis has shown that adding 20% of bioethanol to gasoline leads to an annual decrease in gasoline import by $ 400 million, which will result in $ 640 million increase in Ukraine’s gross domestic product (GPD). Replacing 20% of heavy distillates with biodiesel will reduce imports by $ 1 billion, which can increase Ukraine’s GDP by $ 1.4 billion.
In August 2014, there were 13 enterprises operating in Ukraine that produced alcoholic fuels, 10 of which based on the state alcohol distilleries with a capacity of 23,700 tons/month. However, in August 2014 there was introduced 99 EUR tax on alternative gasoline in favor of importers and network monopolists, resulting in the fact that by the beginning of 2015 only two plants (“Haysinsky” and “Ekoeenergy”) with a total capacity of 2700 tons/month worked [39]. The cost of growing rape grain in recent years ranged from 800 to 1200 UAH/t. At the same time, when the seed market price is 3000 UAH/t, the cost of production of biodiesel from the fossil is 11,000–12,000 UAH/t (about 10 UAH/l), which is 2.5 times lower than the existing prices for diesel oil from oil [40]. The dynamics of growth of bioethanol and biodiesel part in the world represented by the author [37] speaks for itself, so the production of bioethanol has exceeded 100 billion liters, and biodiesel amount reaches 30 billion liters.
It is known that for homogenization of gasoline ethanol mixtures the third component is used. This component is aromatic hydrocarbons [41], which are added to ordinary gasoline to increase the octane number. In addition, it is not profitable, because the cost of toluene is by many times higher than the cost of absolute ethanol. As for the preparation of perfect mixtures of bioethanol and biodiesel with gasoline and diesel, only absolute ethanol (99.95%) must be used, therefore the research of new methods and reagents of ethanol absolutization is an actual problem and purpose of our work, which has a practical and economic value.
The properties of known oxygen-generating additives which activate the motor fuel combustion are presented in Table 1 [38]. The table shows reagents which do not contain water, including ethyl alcohol and ethers, but in this work it is not described how the ethyl alcohol was absolutized, therefore in different sources it has a different octane number. Consequently, we propose our own method of ethanol absolutization with calcium oxide or tetraethoxytitanium (TET).
Indices | MTBE | ETBE | MTAE | DIPE | Methanol | Ethanol | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Research octane number (RON) | 112–130 | 120 | 105–115 | 111.6 | 120 | 106 | 108 |
Motor octane number (MON) | 75–115 | 102 | 95–105 | 98.4 | 90 | 95 | 98 |
Octane number index (RON + MON)/2 | 110 | 111 | 105 | 105 | 101 | 100.5 | 103 |
Saturated vapor pressure, МPа (at 293 K) | 0.06 | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.03 | 0.42 | 0.13 | 0.07 |
Octane number of oxygen generating gasoline additives, which is measured by different methods.
Researches of the method of ethanol absolutization by chemically binding water reagents such as calcium oxide and TET are conducted. Alcohols practically do not interact with alkalis, because among the reaction products there is water that decomposes formed alcoholate and a reverse reaction takes place.
Therefore, fresh prepared (1123 K, 2 h) mineral calcium carbonate, which has the following characteristics, presented in Table 2, was used for ethanol absolutization.
The component content of calcium oxide | Types of CaO obtained from mineral calcium carbonate, CaCO3 | ||
---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | |
Active CaO | ≤90 | ≤80 | ≤70 |
Active MgO | ≥5 | ≥5 | ≥5 |
CaCO3 and MgCO3 carbons | ≥3 | ≥5 | ≥10 |
Impurities SiO2 and Al2O3 | ≥1 | ≥10 | ≥15 |
Properties of calcium oxide.
After calcination, samples of CaO were cooled in a vacuum desiccator, to reduce air access and to re-carbonize calcium oxide. Only 1 grade with minimum content of impurities was taken for work (Table 2).
It was suggested that if you take freshly calcined calcium oxide, then absolutized ethyl alcohol and alcoholates of the corresponding metals can be obtained during an irreversible reaction:
The insoluble calcium hydroxide in the alcohol was filtered off, and the absolute ethyl alcohol by reactions (4) and (3) was discharged through a direct refrigerator, and the calcium hydroxide remained in the flask in the precipitate form.
Tetraethoxytitanium (CH3CH2O)4Ti as a dehydrator acts in different way.
During the hydrolysis of TET the titanium tetrahydroxide, which is insoluble in alcohol, precipitates and can be filtered out; the absolutized alcohol is distilled at a special installation under vacuum, or with air dehydrators under normal conditions.
As can be seen from Table 3 [42], ethanol has the most similar properties with gasoline according to the main indicators (boiling point and octane number). In addition, it is the cheapest and most affordable as a bioethanol—a product of natural raw materials processing, therefore, it was selected for absolutization. The ethanol concentrations were measured by the weight pycnometer method and determined by theoretical data [43]. The volume concentration of alcohol is determined by the areometers (ASP-1, ASP-2) using tabular data. Chromatography of ethanol and gasoline is carried out on by a gas–liquid chromatography, a method for determining oxygen-containing compounds in gasoline (HPCHEM\\SEQUENCE\\D161124A. S\\METHOD\\ D4815N.M) by internal standard (ISTD) based on 15 known calibrated substances, including ethanol (Figures 2–4). Infrared spectroscopy of ethanol samples is carried out by IR spectroscope (IS 50 FT-IR “NICOLET” Slovensko). Mass spectroscopy of the samples is carried by a mass spectroscope (MX-7304A, AO.SELMI, Sumy, Ukraine, 1 to 210 mass range). Determination of the cetane number of diesel fuel L-0.2-40 and the octane number of petrol A-80, as well as the freezing point of diesel fuel was carried out using the laboratory analyzer “Octane meter” of Shatox sx-100 k type [44]. Also, an assessment of the petrol gasoline by a motor method was carried out at the “OKKO” quality control laboratory in Galich, Ivano-Frankivsk region of Ukraine.
Parameter | Units | Methanol | Еthanol | Butanol | Gasoline |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Molecular formula | СН3ОН | С2Н5ОН | С4Н9ОН | С6Н6 | |
Molecular weight | g/mol | 32.04 | 46.07 | 74.12 | 78.11 |
Melting point | K | 175 | 159 | 183 | 278 |
Boiling point | K | 338 | 351 | 390 | 353 |
Density | g/cm3 | 0.791 | 0.789 | 0.81 | 0.879 |
Saturated vap. pres. | kPa, 298 K | 16.2 | 6.5–7.5 | 0.8 | 12.7 |
Vapor density | g/l, 298 K | 1.3 | 1.9 | 2.4 | 3.2 |
Water solubility | g/100 ml | Unlimited | Unlimited | 7.9 g/100 ml | 1800 mg/l |
Viscosity | s·Pа, 298 K | 0.544 | 1.074 | – | 0.649 |
Henry’s constant | 1.087Е−4 | 2.097Е−4 to 2.571Е−4 | – | 2.219Е−1 | |
Energy density | МJ/l | 16 | 19.6 | 29.2 | – |
Octane number RON | – | 156 | 132 | 104 | 82.5–98.0 |
Cetane number MON | – | 92 | 89 | 78 | 95 |
Comparative physico-chemical characteristics of oxygen generating additives—gasoline combustion activators [42].
Table 4 shows the results of the ethanol absolutization using tetraethoxytitanium. As can be seen from the table, absolutized ethanol can be obtained with the ethanol concentration, which increases from 92.5 to 93–96 wt% (or 95.41–99.50 vol%), but does not reach 100 wt%.
Initial ethanol amount, SSU 4221:200 95 vol%, 92.5 wt % | The amount of ethanol obtained after absolutization | Ethanol yield after absolutization | The amount of Ti(OC2H5)4 | Ethanol density after absolutization | Ethanol concentration after absolutization | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
wt% | % | g/cm3 | vol% | wt% | |||||
100 | 82.15 | 85 | 69.07 | 84.08 | 26.65 | 25 | 0.8126 | 95.41 | 93.0 |
100 | 82.16 | 85.1 | 70.72 | 86.08 | 27.55 | 25.11 | 0.8065 | 95.85 | 93.5 |
100 | 82.10 | 77.59 | 62.1 | 75.14 | 29.15 | 26.20 | 0.8014 | 97.49 | 96.0 |
100 | 82.10 | 77.59 | 62.1 | 75.14 | 29.15 | 26.20 | 0.8014 | 99.50 | 96.0 |
Properties of ethanol after absolutization with tetraethoxytitanium.
Therefore, at the second stage of our research, we used a more reactive dehydrator—calcium oxide which was calcined at 1123 K; its characteristics are presented in Table 2. We selected a sample no. 1 with a minimum content of magnesium oxide (MgO—5%), carbonates (CaCO3 + MgCO3−3%) and other impurities (SiO2 + Al2O3–1%). As can be seen from the results presented in Table 4, the CaO consumption decreases to 17 wt%, compared with 25 wt% of (C2H5O)4Ti, and the concentration of absolutized ethanol increases to 99.5–100.0 wt %, or 99.7–100.0 vol%. In addition, the loss of alcohol decreases. After absolutization with (C2H5O)4Ti these losses reaches 15–25% C2H5OH (Table 3), while for CaO they decrease to 8–13% relative to the initial C2H5OH (Table 4). So we can say that calcium oxide as a chemically binding water reagent is much more effective dehydrator. As can be seen from Figure 1, the ethanol concentration after treatment with calcined calcium oxide (17.5% CaO) reaches 99.95 wt%, while the absolutization with tetraethoxytitanium increases the concentration of ethanol only to 96.5 wt%.
The initial ethanol amount, 95 vol%, 92.5% mas. | The amount of ethanol obtained after absolutization | Ethanol yield after absolutization | The amount of СаО | Ethanol density after absolutization | Ethanol concentration after absolutization | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
wt% | % | g/cm3 | vol% | wt% | |||||
100 | 82.15 | 96 | 75.77 | 92.23 | 18 | 17.9 | 0.7893 | 100.0 | 100.0 |
100 | 82.16 | 93 | 73.42 | 89.36 | 17.8 | 17.8 | 0.7894 | 99.97 | 99.95 |
100 | 82.10 | 93 | 73.42 | 89.43 | 17.5 | 17.5 | 0.7895 | 99.93 | 99.89 |
100 | 82.10 | 90 | 71.69 | 87.32 | 17 | 17.1 | 0.7899 | 99.72 | 99.51 |
Properties of ethanol after absolutization by CaO (90%).
Dependence of the ethyl alcohol concentration after absolutization with tetraethoxytitanium (25% (C2H5O)4Ti) and calcium oxide (20% CaO).
At the same time, the non-absolutized 95% ethanol contains an admixture of MTBE (0.09531 wt %). In this case, the low-boiling impurity in the non-absolute ethanol is absent (Figure 2).
Chromatogram of the initial, non-absolutized ethanol (95.0 vol%) with corresponding interpretation.
According to the chromatogram (Figure 2), the concentration of non-absolutized ethanol reaches 97.8499 vol % against 95.0%, as it was measured by the weight pycnometer method (Tables 4 and 5). At the same time, the concentration of ethanol absolutized with calcium oxide (Figure 3) is 97.5724 vol %. Taking into account 2.3432% of unidentified low-boiling impurity (
Chromatogram of the ethanol (99.95 vol%), absolutized with calcium oxide with corresponding interpretation.
Taking into account the chromatogram data in Figure 3 and its interpretation, we determine the qualitative composition of one of the unknown components (X = 2.3432%), which appears in the chromatogram of ethyl alcohol (99.95%), absolutized with CaO for 2.8 min. At the same time, the chromatographic analysis of 99.99% ethyl alcohol absolutized by industrial method [43] (Figure 4), shows 100.03 vol % of ethanol. The difference of 0.03% might be a mistake of the device or an alcohol supplier analysis method.
Chromatogram of the ethanol (99.99 vol%), absolutized by industrial method [
Unfortunately, this impurity is not identified by graded chromatograms of alcohols and ethers, therefore, an IR spectral analysis of this alcohol is performed, which is compared with the IR spectra of the original (95%) and pure absolute (100%) ethyl alcohol (Figure 5). As can be seen from Figure 5, the IR spectra of all three samples do not differ significantly from each other. Only in two absorption regions 3320–3330 and 1630–1640 cm−1, there is a noticeable difference in the absorption intensity of the fluctuations of the corresponding groups, which significantly decrease from the maximum in the original non-absolutized 95% C2H5OH (curve 1, Figure 5) to a minimum in absolute 100% C2H5OH (curve 3, Figure 5).
Infrared spectra of different ethyl alcohols: 95.0 vol% non-absolutized C2H5OH (1); 99.95 vol% C2H5OH absolutized with CaO (2) and 100% C2H5OH of industrial product (3).
First of all, the amount of water in samples of ethanol decreases from 4–5% in the initial non-absolutized alcohol (
For identification and more proper determination of the composition and structure of the impurity (
Mass spectra of initial 95% ethanol (a) and absolutized with CaO 99.95% ethanol (b).
As can be seen in the mass spectrogram of non-absolutized 95% ethyl alcohol (Figure 6a), radical composition of the impurity is formed by the electron action of the mass spectrometer, there can be three types of free radicals with molecular weights such as 32.01 m.u.—C2H5• = 29 m.u.; 76.99 m.u.—(CH3)3O• = 73 m.u.; 105.1 m.u.—C(CH3)3OOCH2• = 103 m.u. They may be formed by the action of electrons of the mass spectrometer on ethyl alcohol C2H5OH and methyl
Taking into account that we know the retention time of the impurity (
Dependence of retention time (min) of
The analysis of the curves shows that the diethyl ether retention time at the boiling point of 307.6 K (34.6°C) is 2.85 min, which coincides with the chromatogram data (2.845 min). In this way, we confirm the assumption that during the absolutization of 95% ethanol with calcium oxide, ethyl alcohol containing 2.3432% of diethyl ether and 97.5724% C2H5OH can be obtained.
We checked how 2.3432% of diethyl ether influences the ethanol octane number and the gasoline octane number. Previously, the physico-chemical characteristics of some oxygen-generating additives for gasoline, shown in Figure 8, were analyzed. As can be seen from Figure 8, the density and molecular mass of diethyl ether are close to those of gasoline A-95. The boiling point of the diethyl ether 307.6 K is lower than that of gasoline. It is approaching the boiling point of the first fraction of gasoline, which is 307.6 K. These properties are especially useful for accelerated engines of gasoline cars in winter, when ignition is hampered by a lowered ambient temperature (below 263 K). Thus, the diethyl ether presence improves the gasoline combustion efficiency, which we have checked by adding 10–95% absolutized (97.5%) alcohol containing 2.34% of diethyl ether, which is presented in Figure 9 [46].
Physico-chemical characteristics (1, boiling temperature oC; 2, density g/sm3 × 10; 3, molecular weight; 4, octane number) of oxygen-generating additives (DME—dimethyl ether, DEE—diethyl ether, methanol, ethanol) in comparison with the characteristics of gasoline A-95.
Dependence of the octane number of gasoline A-80 on the amount and kind of added ethanol: theoretically calculated ON (1) of gasoline-ethanol mixtures from the formula [
Octane numbers of A-80 gasoline with absolute ethanol additives (gasoline-ethanol mixture) are counted according to the authorship formula which is derived from experimental data [47]. These octane numbers are compared with the octane numbers of gasoline, in which ethanol with diethyl ether is added.
where ONGE—octane number of gasoline-ethanol mixture; ON0—octane number of initial gasoline; Ce—ethanol content [48].
Obtained data of the octane number dependence is performed in Figure 9 (
The properties and high ability of calcium oxide and tetraethoxytitanium as dehydrators for chemical binding of water and absolutization of 96% ethyl alcohol to 99.95% have been investigated. The dependence of the properties and composition of the absolute alcohol on the dehydrator nature was shown. Infrared spectroscopy, mass spectroscopy, and gas-liquid chromatography confirmed the presence of 2–2.34% of diethyl ether in ethanol, which is absolutized by freshly prepared calcium oxide. It was determined that the octane number of gasoline A-80 with the addition of 20–90% of the absolutized ethanol containing 2.34% of the combustion activator—diethyl ether—increases gasoline octane number more significantly than with the addition of the same amount of an ordinary absolute 99.95% alcohol without diethyl ether and reaches 95–97 U, whereas the octane number of gasoline with ordinary absolute ethanol reaches only 88–95 U. We confirmed literary data that the content of even very small amounts of ethers, as combustion activators, combined with the absolute ethyl alcohol leads to an improvement in the gasoline running abilities [45].
IntechOpen - where academia and industry create content with global impact
",metaTitle:"Team",metaDescription:"Advancing discovery in Open Access for the scientists by the scientist",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"page/team",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Our business values are based on those any scientist applies to their research. We have created a culture of respect and collaboration within a relaxed, friendly and progressive atmosphere, while maintaining academic rigour.
\\n\\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\\n\\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\\n\\nSara Uhac, COO
\\n\\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\\n\\nDr Alex Lazinica
\\n\\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"Our business values are based on those any scientist applies to their research. We have created a culture of respect and collaboration within a relaxed, friendly and progressive atmosphere, while maintaining academic rigour.
\n\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\n\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\n\nSara Uhac, COO
\n\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\n\nDr Alex Lazinica
\n\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
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Nanoparticles are sized between 1 and 100 nm in diameter. Nanoparticles can act against the microbes in multiple ways, and the microbes are less likely to develop resistance against nanoparticles because it requires multiple gene mutations. The large surface-to-volume ratio of nanoparticles, their ability to easily interact with other particles, and several other features make them attractive tools in various fields. Nanoparticles are widely used various fields such as electronics, cosmetics, biomedical, and biotechnology. Nanoparticles can be synthesized by physical methods such as attrition, pyrolysis, and using some wet chemical methods. The physical and chemical methods have various drawbacks such as high cost of production, require high energy input and generation of toxic by-products. To overcome this, several biological methods are employed in the synthesis of nanoparticles. The biological methods are generally cost effective, nontoxic, and ecofriendly. 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In the ecological niche, the appearance of organisms is affected by anthropogenic and non-anthropogenic environmental factors. Algae composition and temporal variation in abundances are important in determining the trophic level of lakes. Algal communities are sensitive to changes in their habitat, and thus, total biomass of algae and many algae species are used as indicators of water quality. Algae communities give more knowledge on variations in water quality than nutrient or chlorophyll-a values. Water quality is a canonical group of physical, chemical, and biological properties of the given water. Consequently, eutrophication of freshwater is regarded as a water quality which results in the degeneration of the aquatic ecosystem and affects water utilisation. Cyanobacteria has been accepted as a major indicator of eutrophication in freshwater as their blooms are common in waters affected by nutrient concentration. The purpose of this chapter is to assess physical and chemical variables and the role of algal abundance to determine the water quality in the freshwater ecosystems.",book:{id:"5128",slug:"algae-organisms-for-imminent-biotechnology",title:"Algae",fullTitle:"Algae - Organisms for Imminent Biotechnology"},signatures:"Didem Gökçe",authors:[{id:"178260",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Didem",middleName:null,surname:"Gokce",slug:"didem-gokce",fullName:"Didem Gokce"}]},{id:"50534",doi:"10.5772/63069",title:"Considerations for Photobioreactor Design and Operation for Mass Cultivation of Microalgae",slug:"considerations-for-photobioreactor-design-and-operation-for-mass-cultivation-of-microalgae",totalDownloads:6066,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Microalgae have great biotechnological potential for production of substances through photosynthesis. Light capture process and electron transportation imply energy losses due to reflection, fluorescence emission, and energy dissipation as heat, giving a maximum theoretical value of 8‐9% for microalgae energy capture efficiency and conversion to biomass. For development of full potential of microalgae the knowledge of the light capture process is required. High yields can only be obtained linking photobioreactor design with biological process taking place inside. In massive microalgae cultures, light gradients are generated and this depends on the biomass concentration, cellular types, cells sizes, and pigment content, and also on geometry, hydrodynamic, and light conditions inside the photobioreactor. In the present chapter we explain the relationship between light energy capture process and photobioreactor design and operation conditions, like turbulence, gas exchange, and nutrient requirements. Finally, the productivity and costs are discussed, and the parameters that determine the economic viability of any microalgae culture.",book:{id:"5128",slug:"algae-organisms-for-imminent-biotechnology",title:"Algae",fullTitle:"Algae - Organisms for Imminent Biotechnology"},signatures:"Juan Cristóbal García Cañedo and Gema Lorena López Lizárraga",authors:[{id:"185868",title:"Dr.",name:"Gema Lorena",middleName:null,surname:"López-Lizárraga",slug:"gema-lorena-lopez-lizarraga",fullName:"Gema Lorena López-Lizárraga"},{id:"293413",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Cristóbal",middleName:null,surname:"García Cañedo",slug:"juan-cristobal-garcia-canedo",fullName:"Juan Cristóbal García Cañedo"}]},{id:"69201",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89324",title:"Drying and Quality of Microalgal Powders for Human Alimentation",slug:"drying-and-quality-of-microalgal-powders-for-human-alimentation",totalDownloads:1329,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"The demand for natural foods with high protein content and functional properties is constantly growing in the last years. In this context, microalgae as Spirulina (Arthrospira spp.), Chlorella spp., Haematococcus pluvialis, Dunaliella salina, and others, assume a key role to diversify the offer of nutritious and functional ingredients and supplements. Microalgae are commercialized, mostly, as dried powders to facilitate their use as food ingredients and to allow easy transportation and long-term stability. Microalgal powder quality and storage stability depend mainly on drying method, packaging, and storage conditions. Most of the studies that approach the subject of microalgal drying evaluate the efficiency of the process and suitability for this raw material. However, studies that assess the effect of traditional and innovative drying methods on quality of microalgal powder for human consumption are rare in literature. In this chapter, the state of the art of drying processing technology for microalgae was reviewed, discussing the effect of dehydration on quality and stability of microalgal powders with potential use in human alimentation.",book:{id:"9354",slug:"microalgae-from-physiology-to-application",title:"Microalgae",fullTitle:"Microalgae - From Physiology to Application"},signatures:"Fábio de Farias Neves, Mariana Demarco and Giustino Tribuzi",authors:null},{id:"50507",doi:"10.5772/63006",title:"Microalgae and Cyanobacteria as Green Molecular Factories: Tools and Perspectives",slug:"microalgae-and-cyanobacteria-as-green-molecular-factories-tools-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:2282,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Cyanobacteria and eukaryotic microalgae are phototrophic microorganisms capable of producing organic compounds using solar energy. Owing to their fast growth, low cost cultivation, and the diversity of high-value chemical substances produced, they are considered an attractive target to be exploited by the biotechnology industry. While genetic modulation of these organisms has been extensively proved in the laboratory, present-day microalgal industry uses mainly non-transgenic strains. Although some unicellular cyanobacteria can be successfully engineered, many commercial bioproducts are synthesized preferably by eukaryotic microalgae or filamentous cyanobacteria to take advantage of their better-suited natural physiological characteristics. The successful genetic engineering of these microorganisms is not limited to the understanding of the gene expression machinery (e.g., promoters, codon usage, ribosome binding sites), but it must also include other subjects, such as defense mechanisms against the intrusion of foreign DNA. This chapter reviews current strategies in microalgae biotechnology and analyzes the most frequent problems we faced to genetically manipulate these microorganisms, including their transformation and selection methodologies. In summary, we attempt to provide a comprehensive review of the relevant information and tools required for optimal engineering of a photosynthetic microorganism employed in sustainable biotechnology applications.",book:{id:"5128",slug:"algae-organisms-for-imminent-biotechnology",title:"Algae",fullTitle:"Algae - Organisms for Imminent Biotechnology"},signatures:"Hector Osorio Urtubia, Lucy Belmar Betanzo and Mónica Vásquez",authors:[{id:"178217",title:"Dr.",name:"Mónica",middleName:null,surname:"Vásquez",slug:"monica-vasquez",fullName:"Mónica Vásquez"},{id:"178306",title:"Dr.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Osorio",slug:"hector-osorio",fullName:"Hector Osorio"},{id:"178307",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucy",middleName:null,surname:"Belmar",slug:"lucy-belmar",fullName:"Lucy Belmar"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64156",title:"Cyanobacteria Growth Kinetics",slug:"cyanobacteria-growth-kinetics",totalDownloads:1870,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Harmful cyanobacterial blooms are a global problem for freshwater ecosystems used for drinking water supply and recreational purposes. Cyanobacteria also produce a wide variety of toxic secondary metabolites, called cyanotoxins. High water temperatures have been known to lead to cyanobacterial bloom development in temperate and semiarid regions. Increased temperatures as a result of climate change could therefore favor the growth of cyanobacteria, thus augmenting the risks associated with the blooms. Though temperature is the main factor affecting the growth kinetics of bacteria, the availability of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus also plays a significant role. This chapter studies the growth kinetics of toxin-producing Microcystis aeruginosa and evaluates potential risks to the population in scenarios of climate change and the presence of nutrients. The most suitable control methods for mitigation are also evaluated.",book:{id:"6889",slug:"algae",title:"Algae",fullTitle:"Algae"},signatures:"Leda Giannuzzi",authors:[{id:"252117",title:"Dr.",name:"Leda",middleName:null,surname:"Giannuzzi",slug:"leda-giannuzzi",fullName:"Leda Giannuzzi"}]},{id:"65952",title:"CO2 Capture for Industries by Algae",slug:"co-sub-2-sub-capture-for-industries-by-algae",totalDownloads:2171,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"The increased usage of fossil fuels has led to increase in the concentration of CO2, which is a greenhouse gas responsible for global warming. Algae-based CO2 conversion is a cost-effective option for reducing carbon footprint. In addition, algae-based CO2 mitigation strategy has the potential to obtain valuable products at the end of the process. In the present study, freshwater algal species were isolated and identified for CO2 capture, such as Hydrodictyon, Spirogyra, Oscillatoria, Oedogonium, and Chlorella. The algal strains were screened based on different parameters like fast growth rate, high rate of photosynthesis, strong tolerance to the trace constituents of other gases (gaseous hydrocarbons, NOx, SOx, etc.), high temperature tolerance, and possibility to produce high value products, etc. The study involves integrated methods for utilizing 90–99% CO2 from a natural gas processing industry (GAIL India, Ltd.) as well as 13–15% of CO2 from flue gas of thermal power plants (Chandrapura and Santaldih Thermal Power Station) as carbon nutrient source along with the additional nutritional supplements. A 400-ml and 25-l flat panel photo-bioreactor (PSI Photo-bioreactors) was used for CO2 capture. After CO2 capture, the algal biomass was used to extract value-added products such as amino acid rich feed, algal oil, algal pellets, etc.",book:{id:"6889",slug:"algae",title:"Algae",fullTitle:"Algae"},signatures:"Vetrivel Anguselvi, Reginald Ebhin Masto, Ashis Mukherjee and Pradeep Kumar Singh",authors:[{id:"255851",title:"Dr.",name:"Vetrivel",middleName:null,surname:"Anguselvi",slug:"vetrivel-anguselvi",fullName:"Vetrivel Anguselvi"},{id:"269996",title:"Dr.",name:"R E",middleName:null,surname:"Masto",slug:"r-e-masto",fullName:"R E Masto"},{id:"269997",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashis",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"ashis-mukherjee",fullName:"Ashis Mukherjee"},{id:"270059",title:"Dr.",name:"P K",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"p-k-singh",fullName:"P K Singh"}]},{id:"51074",title:"Algae as an Indicator of Water Quality",slug:"algae-as-an-indicator-of-water-quality",totalDownloads:5132,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"The formation of plankton/algae under natural conditions is related to tolerance class (ecological optimum) due to abiotic limiting factors of ecosystem, as well as the biotic interactions among algae. In the ecological niche, the appearance of organisms is affected by anthropogenic and non-anthropogenic environmental factors. Algae composition and temporal variation in abundances are important in determining the trophic level of lakes. Algal communities are sensitive to changes in their habitat, and thus, total biomass of algae and many algae species are used as indicators of water quality. Algae communities give more knowledge on variations in water quality than nutrient or chlorophyll-a values. Water quality is a canonical group of physical, chemical, and biological properties of the given water. Consequently, eutrophication of freshwater is regarded as a water quality which results in the degeneration of the aquatic ecosystem and affects water utilisation. Cyanobacteria has been accepted as a major indicator of eutrophication in freshwater as their blooms are common in waters affected by nutrient concentration. The purpose of this chapter is to assess physical and chemical variables and the role of algal abundance to determine the water quality in the freshwater ecosystems.",book:{id:"5128",slug:"algae-organisms-for-imminent-biotechnology",title:"Algae",fullTitle:"Algae - Organisms for Imminent Biotechnology"},signatures:"Didem Gökçe",authors:[{id:"178260",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Didem",middleName:null,surname:"Gokce",slug:"didem-gokce",fullName:"Didem Gokce"}]},{id:"64455",title:"Cyanobacteria for PHB Bioplastics Production: A Review",slug:"cyanobacteria-for-phb-bioplastics-production-a-review",totalDownloads:2313,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Cyanobacteria, or blue-green algae, can be used as host to produce polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), which are promising bioplastic raw materials. The most important material thereof is polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), which can replace the commodity polymer polypropylene (PP) in many applications, yielding a bio-based, biodegradable alternative solution. The advantage from using cyanobacteria to make PHB over the standard fermentation processes, with sugar or other organic (waste) materials as feedstock, is that the sustainability is better (compare first-generation biofuels with the feed vs. fuel debate), with CO2 being the only carbon source and sunlight being the sole energy source. In this review article, the state of the art of cyanobacterial PHB production and its outlook is discussed. Thirty-seven percent of dry cell weight of PHB could be obtained in 2018, which is getting close to up to 78% of PHB dry cell weight in heterotrophic microorganisms in fermentation reactors. A good potential for cyanobacterial PHB is seen throughout the literature.",book:{id:"6889",slug:"algae",title:"Algae",fullTitle:"Algae"},signatures:"Erich Markl, Hannes Grünbichler and Maximilian Lackner",authors:[{id:"251081",title:"Dr.",name:"Maximilian",middleName:null,surname:"Lackner",slug:"maximilian-lackner",fullName:"Maximilian Lackner"},{id:"255232",title:"Prof.",name:"Erich",middleName:null,surname:"Markl",slug:"erich-markl",fullName:"Erich Markl"},{id:"277237",title:"Dr.",name:"Hannes",middleName:null,surname:"Grünbichler",slug:"hannes-grunbichler",fullName:"Hannes Grünbichler"}]},{id:"50544",title:"Algal Nanoparticles: Synthesis and Biotechnological Potentials",slug:"algal-nanoparticles-synthesis-and-biotechnological-potentials",totalDownloads:5862,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:71,abstract:"A nanoparticle can be defined as a small object that behaves as a whole unit in terms of its transport and properties. Nanoparticles are sized between 1 and 100 nm in diameter. Nanoparticles can act against the microbes in multiple ways, and the microbes are less likely to develop resistance against nanoparticles because it requires multiple gene mutations. The large surface-to-volume ratio of nanoparticles, their ability to easily interact with other particles, and several other features make them attractive tools in various fields. Nanoparticles are widely used various fields such as electronics, cosmetics, biomedical, and biotechnology. Nanoparticles can be synthesized by physical methods such as attrition, pyrolysis, and using some wet chemical methods. The physical and chemical methods have various drawbacks such as high cost of production, require high energy input and generation of toxic by-products. To overcome this, several biological methods are employed in the synthesis of nanoparticles. The biological methods are generally cost effective, nontoxic, and ecofriendly. This chapter focuses on the methods involved in algal-synthesized nanoparticles and its applications.",book:{id:"5128",slug:"algae-organisms-for-imminent-biotechnology",title:"Algae",fullTitle:"Algae - Organisms for Imminent Biotechnology"},signatures:"Felix LewisOscar, Sasikumar Vismaya, Manivel Arunkumar,\nNooruddin Thajuddin, Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran and Chari\nNithya",authors:[{id:"183668",title:"Dr.",name:"Nithya",middleName:null,surname:"Chari",slug:"nithya-chari",fullName:"Nithya Chari"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"424",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:333,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:144,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:126,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:23,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:13,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. 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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"86",title:"Business and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/86.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",middleName:null,surname:"Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/128342/images/system/128342.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vito Bobek works as an international management professor at the University of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria. He has published more than 400 works in his academic career and visited twenty-two universities worldwide as a visiting professor. Dr. Bobek is a member of the editorial boards of six international journals and a member of the Strategic Council of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Slovenia. He has a long history in academia, consulting, and entrepreneurship. His own consulting firm, Palemid, has managed twenty significant projects, such as Cooperation Program Interreg V-A (Slovenia-Austria) and Capacity Building for the Serbian Chamber of Enforcement Agents. He has also participated in many international projects in Italy, Germany, Great Britain, the United States, Spain, Turkey, France, Romania, Croatia, Montenegro, Malaysia, and China. Dr. Bobek is also a co-founder of the Academy of Regional Management in Slovenia.",institutionString:"Universities of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Austria",institution:{name:"Universities of Applied Sciences Joanneum",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Austria"}}},editorTwo:{id:"293992",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatjana",middleName:null,surname:"Horvat",slug:"tatjana-horvat",fullName:"Tatjana Horvat",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hXb0hQAC/Profile_Picture_1642419002203",biography:"Tatjana Horvat works as a professor for accountant and auditing at the University of Primorska, Slovenia. She is a Certified State Internal Auditor (licensed by Ministry of Finance RS) and Certified Internal Auditor for Business Sector and Certified accountant (licensed by Slovenian Institute of Auditors). At the Ministry of Justice of Slovenia, she is a member of examination boards for court expert candidates and judicial appraisers in the following areas: economy/finance, valuation of companies, banking, and forensic investigation of economic operations/accounting. At the leading business newspaper Finance in Slovenia (Swedish ownership), she is the editor and head of the area for business, finance, tax-related articles, and educational programs.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Primorska",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"87",title:"Economics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/87.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"327730",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaime",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz",slug:"jaime-ortiz",fullName:"Jaime Ortiz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002zaOKZQA2/Profile_Picture_1642145584421",biography:"Dr. Jaime Ortiz holds degrees from Chile, the Netherlands, and the United States. He has held tenured faculty, distinguished professorship, and executive leadership appointments in several universities around the world. Dr. Ortiz has previously worked for international organizations and non-government entities in economic and business matters, and he has university-wide globalization engagement in more than thirty-six countries. He has advised, among others, the United Nations Development Program, Inter-American Development Bank, Organization of American States, Pre-investment Organization of Latin America and the Caribbean, Technical Cooperation of the Suisse Government, and the World Bank. Dr. Ortiz is the author, co-author, or editor of books, book chapters, textbooks, research monographs and technical reports, and refereed journal articles. He is listed in Who’s Who in the World, Who’s Who in America, Who’s Who in Finance and Business, Who’s Who in Business Higher Education, Who’s Who in American Education, and Who’s Who Directory of Economists. Dr. Ortiz has been a Fulbright Scholar and an MSI Leadership Fellow with the W.K. Kellogg Foundation. His teaching interests revolve around global economies and markets while his research focuses on topics related to development and growth, global business decisions, and the economics of technical innovation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Houston",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"88",title:"Marketing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/88.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"203609",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Hanna",middleName:null,surname:"Gorska-Warsewicz",slug:"hanna-gorska-warsewicz",fullName:"Hanna Gorska-Warsewicz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSD9pQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-14T11:58:32.jpeg",biography:"Hanna Górska-Warsewicz, Ph.D. is Associate Professor at Warsaw University of Life Sciences and Head of Department of Food Market and Consumption Research. She specializes in the subject of brands, brand equity, and brand management in production, service, and trade enterprises. She combines this subject with marketing and marketing management in both theoretical and practical aspects. Prof. Hanna Górska-Warsewicz also analyzes brands in the context of trademarks, legal regulations and the protection of intangible. She is an author or co-author of over 200 publications in this field, including 8 books. She works with the business sector and has participated in projects for the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and the Ministry of Education and Science in Poland.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Warsaw University of Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:12,paginationItems:[{id:"83040",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility and Social Report: A Case Study in the Basque Country",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105511",signatures:"Vincenzo Basile",slug:"corporate-social-responsibility-and-social-report-a-case-study-in-the-basque-country",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg",subseries:{id:"86",title:"Business and Management"}}},{id:"83075",title:"Practices and Challenges of Community Services at Debre Markos University, Ethiopia: A Case Study",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105896",signatures:"Adane Mengist",slug:"practices-and-challenges-of-community-services-at-debre-markos-university-ethiopia-a-case-study",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg",subseries:{id:"86",title:"Business and Management"}}},{id:"82858",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility a Case of the Provision of Recreational Facilities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105608",signatures:"Peter Musa Wash, Shida Irwana Omar, Badaruddin Mohamed and Mohd Ismail Isa",slug:"corporate-social-responsibility-a-case-of-the-provision-of-recreational-facilities",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg",subseries:{id:"86",title:"Business and Management"}}},{id:"82786",title:"Discussion of Purchasing Virtual Digital Nature and Tourism",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105869",signatures:"Hiroko Oe and Yasuyuki Yamaoka",slug:"discussion-of-purchasing-virtual-digital-nature-and-tourism",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"A New Era of Consumer Behavior - Beyond the Pandemic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11581.jpg",subseries:{id:"88",title:"Marketing"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"11392",title:"Leadership in a Changing World",subtitle:"A Multidimensional Perspective",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11392.jpg",slug:"leadership-in-a-changing-world-a-multidimensional-perspective",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Muhammad Mohiuddin, Bilal Khalid, Md. 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He has published research in Research Policy, Applied Economics, Review of Economic Philosophy, Strategic Change, International Journal of Logistics, Sustainability, Journal of Environmental Management, Journal of Global Information Management, Journal of Cleaner Production, M@N@GEMENT, and more. He is a member of CEDIMES Institut (France), Academy of International Business (AIB), Strategic Management Society (SMS), Academy of Management (AOM), Administrative Science Association of Canada (ASAC), and Canadian council of small business and entrepreneurship (CCSBE). He is currently the director of the Research Group on Contemporary Asia (GERAC) at Laval University. 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He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"417317",title:"Mrs.",name:"Chiedza",middleName:null,surname:"Elvina Mashiri",slug:"chiedza-elvina-mashiri",fullName:"Chiedza Elvina Mashiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"352140",title:"Dr.",name:"Edina",middleName:null,surname:"Chandiwana",slug:"edina-chandiwana",fullName:"Edina Chandiwana",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"342259",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Leonard",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"leonard-mushunje",fullName:"Leonard Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"347042",title:"Mr.",name:"Maxwell",middleName:null,surname:"Mashasha",slug:"maxwell-mashasha",fullName:"Maxwell Mashasha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"2941",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto J.",middleName:"Jorge",surname:"Rosales-Silva",slug:"alberto-j.-rosales-silva",fullName:"Alberto J. Rosales-Silva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"437913",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Urriolagoitia-Sosa",slug:"guillermo-urriolagoitia-sosa",fullName:"Guillermo Urriolagoitia-Sosa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"435126",title:"Prof.",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"José de Castro Ferreira",slug:"joaquim-jose-de-castro-ferreira",fullName:"Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"437899",title:"MSc.",name:"Miguel Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Ángel Castillo-Martínez",slug:"miguel-angel-angel-castillo-martinez",fullName:"Miguel Angel Ángel Castillo-Martínez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"289955",title:"Dr.",name:"Raja",middleName:null,surname:"Kishor Duggirala",slug:"raja-kishor-duggirala",fullName:"Raja Kishor Duggirala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"27",type:"subseries",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11423,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. 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