Number of intoxication cases involving general pesticides in Brazil. Source: (SINITOX, 2008).
\r\n\tThe present book intends to provide to the reader a comprehensive overview of the state of art in empathy studies, embracing the different theoretical points of view and illustrating the advanced research such as the application of new technologies to promote perspective-taking. The critical aspects and the future directions of the study on empathy will also be presented.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-612-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-611-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-613-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"4c1042dfe15aa9cea6019524c4cbff38",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Sara Ventura",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11443.jpg",keywords:"Theoretical Model, Skill, Perspective Taking, Training Programs, Practical Implications, Advanced Research, Future Directions, Virtual Reality, Augmented Reality, New Trends, Assistive Technology",numberOfDownloads:19,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 1st 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 8th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 7th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 26th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 25th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Passionate researcher in the application of new technologies to psychological treatments, neuro-rehabilitation, human behavior, and the evolution of the human-computer interaction. In 2017 Dr. Ventura won a competitive grant (Santiago Grisolia) at the University of Valencia at LABPSITEC group, where she was awarded her Ph.D. degree, supervised by Prof. Rosa Baños at the University of Valencia, and co-directed by Prof. Giuseppe Riva of the Catholic University of Milan.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"227763",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura",slug:"sara-ventura",fullName:"Sara Ventura",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/227763/images/system/227763.jpg",biography:"Sara Ventura gained a B.Sc in Psychology at the University of Padua (Italy) in 2013 and an M.Sc. in Ergonomic Psychology at the Catholic University of Milan (Italy) in 2015. In 2016, she carried out a postgraduate training at Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico (Mexico) at the Ciberpsychology lab, working on a rehabilitation protocol for people with acquired brain injury through Virtual Reality. In 2020, Sara gained the Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology at University of Valencia (Spain) working with the LabPsitec group and focusing her research on the study of embodiment and empathy with the support of Virtual Reality. Actually, she is working both with Alma Mater Studiorum – University of Bologna (Italy), and the University of Valencia (Spain) on the fields of embodiment, stroke rehabilitation, empathy and patient care. Her research interests mainly focus on the adoption of new technologies, particularly Virtual/Augmented Reality and Artificial Intelligence for the psycho-social wellbeing with clinical and non-clinical populations, the study of human-computer interaction, and the user experience. She is the author of several scientific papers and various presentations at national and international conferences.",institutionString:"University of Valencia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Valencia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"21",title:"Psychology",slug:"psychology"}],chapters:[{id:"82719",title:"Empathy as a High-Performance Competency",slug:"empathy-as-a-high-performance-competency",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"82888",title:"From Empathy to the Aggression–Compassion Continuum",slug:"from-empathy-to-the-aggression-compassion-continuum",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"191531",title:"Dr.",name:"Neil E.",surname:"Grunberg",slug:"neil-e.-grunberg",fullName:"Neil E. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"19602",title:"A Forensic View of Pesticide Poisonings in Brazil",doi:"10.5772/16497",slug:"a-forensic-view-of-pesticide-poisonings-in-brazil",body:'\n\t\tPesticides are substances extensively used in the country or in town for preventing, destroying, repelling or mitigating any pest. These groups of substances include different classes of compounds that present different types of toxicity. Although there are benefits to the use of pesticides, there are also drawbacks, such as potential toxicity to humans and other animals. According to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, 10 of the 12 most dangerous and persistent organic chemicals are pesticides.
\n\t\t\tBecause of their potential toxicity, these substances are commonly used as poisons in homicides, homicides attempts, suicides and also in cases of crime against animals. In forensic laboratories, foodstuffs and drinks used to cause the poisoning are usually analyzed to determine the presence of any potential toxic substance in the material. In this chapter we will explore the forensic aspects evolving the use of pesticides in crimes against life.
\n\t\t\tPrimarily, we will present a database of the types of pesticides found in our forensic laboratories. We will analyze these data to create a pesticide poisoning profile in Brazil, determining the classes of pesticides used by region; the types of matrices used to cause the poisoning, and the incidence of death associated to the poisoning.
\n\t\t\tAfter tracing the main types of pesticides used in suspected cases of poisoning analyzed in forensic laboratories, we will be able to discuss the acute toxicity of the different types of pesticides currently associated with poisonings. We can use the literature to preview the acute effects of the ingestion of the foodstuffs and the drinks contaminated with the pesticides. Besides, we can determine the potential of causing death due to the ingestion of the contaminated material.
\n\t\t\tOther important aspect to be discussed in this chapter is the legal regulation of pesticides trade in Brazil. The Brazilian law is restrictive in the regulation of pesticides use and sale. The permission of pesticides use is specific for the culture exploited and for the class of pesticide released. Besides, the purchase of these compounds, in regard to the most toxic ones, are restricted to the agronomist engineer and requires the presentation of prescription. The legal aspects will alert us about the importance of the fiscalization to inhibit the indiscriminate use of these substances in crimes.
\n\t\t\tFinally, we will detail the forensic analytical chemistry of pesticides in diverse matrices currently found in forensic institutes. In Brazilian Institutes, the techniques used in forensic chemistry in pesticides analysis most often includes the simple Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) with confirmation by using a Gas Chromatography coupled to Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) technique. In some Brazilian advanced Institutes and in developed countries, other sophisticated methods can be used, such as: Liquid Chromatography coupled to Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS), and Gas Chromatography coupled to Mass Spectrometry in tandem (CG-MS-MS). Alternatively, our group has recently published a simple liquid–liquid extraction step followed by an enzymatic analysis using a freeze-dried preparation of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase obtained from rat brain to detect the presence of aldicarb and other cholinesterase inhibitors in meat products for forensic purposes. We will also present some confirmatory techniques that can be used in a portable presentation, like Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), and Raman Spectroscopy. We will discuss the different types of sample preparation to obtain the best clean-up of the sample. Besides, we will list and discuss the main advantages and disadvantages of the principal instrumental methods used to detect and quantify the pesticides in foodstuffs and drinks matrices.
\n\t\t\tIn conclusion, this chapter will discuss the main aspects of forensic toxicology involving the pesticides and intends to be an alert for other countries that faces the growing problem of pesticides poisoning.
\n\t\tThe first global estimates of the extent of pesticide poisoning were published in 1990 by the World Health Organisation (WHO) (WHO, 1990). Based on extrapolations from limited data, it was estimated that 3 million cases of pesticide poisonings annually occurred worldwide, with 220,000 deaths; the majority of which are intentional (Konradsen, van der Hoek et al., 2003).
\n\t\t\tThe WHO estimates, based on data from 2001, that 849,000 people die globally from self-harm each year (WHO, 2002). How many of these cases are a result of poisoning with pesticides is not known. However, poisoning is the most common form of fatal self-harm, such as suicides, in rural Asia, accounting for over 60% of all deaths (Somasundaram & Rajadurai, 1995; Phillips, Li et al., 2002; Joseph, Abraham et al., 2003) and is of far greater importance than hanging and other physical forms of self-harm. Furthermore, a review of poisoning studies reveals that pesticides are the most common way of self-poisoning in many rural areas and are associated with a high mortality rate (Eddleston, 2000). A recent national survey, in the year 2000, in Bangladesh showed that 14% of all deaths (3971 of 28,998) of women between 10 and 50 years of age were due to self-poisoning; the majority of which used pesticides (Yusuf, Akhter et al., 2000). The problem is particularly severe in Sri Lanka (Berger, 1988; Van der Hoek, Konradsen et al., 1998), where pesticide poisoning was the commonest cause of hospital death in six rural districts in 1995 (Sri_Lanka, 1995). In many countries, the widespread availability of acutely toxic pesticides used in agriculture has made the selection of pesticides as the agents of choice for self-harm well known to both healthcare workers and public-health authorities (Nalin, 1973; Kasilo, Hobane et al., 1991; Daisley & Hutchinson, 1998).
\n\t\t\tA retrospective study, covering the period from January 2000 to December 2005, based on autopsies samples sent to the Laboratory of Forensic Toxicology in the National Institute of Health in Morocco shows that, from total of 3104 analyses performed in the laboratory, 130 cases (4.19%) were related to fatal pesticide poisoning (El Cadi, Mezzane et al., 2008).
\n\t\t\tIn the Morroco survey, fatal pesticide intoxications were classified as suicide in 23.1% of cases, uncertain in 75% of cases, and accidental in only 1.5% of fatal poisonings. The average of age in all cases was 28±15 years old. The highest frequency of pesticide poisoning (40.8%) was found for those 20-39 years old. The difference between genders in fatal pesticide poisoning was small: 51% male and 48% female. This difference may be explained by the predominance of suicides for females. Another study confirms this result (Abdullat, Hadidi et al., 2006). The Samples were sent for toxicological analysis from the majority of Moroccan cities, including urban areas and rural regions; however, the best represented city was Rabat with 55 cases (42.3%). This representation may be explained by the time of storage of samples from other cities. The data show that insecticides were the most frequent cause of fatal pesticide poisoning (75.2%), followed by aluminium phosphide (21.5%). Among insecticides, organophosphorus compounds were the most frequent (55.4%), followed by carbamates (15.4%) and organochlorine (4.6%). One case of pyrethroid and one case of coumarinic anticoagulant were found (El Cadi, Mezzane et al., 2008).
\n\t\t\tThe incidence of pesticide poisoning in Morocco in the period between 2000 and 2005 was 4.19%, which is compared to other series (Casey & Vale, 1994; Vougiouklakis, Boumba et al., 2006; Soltaninejad, Faryadi et al., 2007). However, there is a lack of systematic study and declaration in Morocco, especially in rural areas. This lack makes the discussion of the results difficult and may underestimate the number of fatal pesticide poisonings. The data show that pesticides are commonly used for suicide. This result is in accordance with previous studies (Eddleston & Phillips, 2004; Nesime, Lokman et al., 2004; Vougiouklakis, Boumba et al., 2005). In fact, in Sri Lanka, 90% of suicides are due to deliberate pesticide ingestion (Manuel, Gunnell et al., 2008), and the WHO reports that pesticides are now the most common method of suicide worldwide (Testud & Grillet, 2007).
\n\t\t\tIn Coimbra, Portugal, a three-year retrospective study was performed between January 2000 and December 2002 in the Forensic Toxicology Laboratory, which received 639 blood samples for pesticide-analysis. In 2000, out of a total of 149 analysis requests, 30 cases were positive, 63.3% from male individuals and 36.7% from female individuals. In 2001, the analysis requests increased (240), as did the number of positive cases (43), 74.4% from male individuals and 25.6% from female individuals. In 2002, the total cases analysed increased to 250, with 38 positive results (73.6% from male individuals and 26.4% from female individuals) (Teixeira, Proenca et al., 2004).
\n\t\t\tAccording to this study, among the pesticides, organophosphorus insecticides still constitute the most important class detected in forensic intoxications, representing 63% of the total positive cases, followed by herbicides, with 33% of the positive results. Quinalphos is the most common organophosphorus insecticide, which was present in 32 of the 111 positive cases, followed by the herbicide paraquat, which was detected in 31 cases (Teixeira, Proenca et al., 2004).
\n\t\t\tIn the 2009 census, the population of Brazil reached 194,400,000, the 5th-largest country in population in the world. Brazil is administratively divided into 26 Federal States and one Federal District. Rio de Janeiro State, with about 16,000,000 people (2010), represents almost 8% of the national population and 0.5% of the national territory area.
\n\t\t\t\tIn 2005, Brazil was 6th in the world in the rate of homicide of the entire population, counting 25.8 homicides per hundred-thousand inhabitants. In 1997, Rio de Janeiro had the highest homicide index in the country (66.3), and in 2007, it had the 4th-highest index of 52,2, much higher than the national index and higher than that of the country with the highest index, El Salvador, with a 50,1 index (Waiselfisz, 1998).
\n\t\t\t\tIn 2003, Brazil created a computerised on-line system to transfer in real time the organophosphorus- and carbamates-intoxication information from Legal Medical Institutes (IML, acronym from the Portuguese, Institutos Médicos Legais), known as the National System of Toxico-Pharmacology Information (SINITOX, acronym from Portuguese, Sistema Nacional de Informações Fármaco-Toxicológicas) (SINITOX, 2008).
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tTable 1 shows the total number of general pesticide-intoxication cases in Brazil, according to SINITOX, involving pesticides used to protect agriculture and horticultural corps against damage, veterinary pesticides, veterinary products and rodenticides (SINITOX, 2008):
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2004 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t13,942 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2005 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t14,648 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2006 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t15,907 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2007 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t15,377 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2008 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t10,914 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Number of intoxication cases involving general pesticides in Brazil. Source: (SINITOX, 2008).
The circumstances of these intoxications include individual accident, group accident, environmental accident, occupational accident, therapeutic use, improper medical prescription, self-administration mistake, self-medication, abuse, food ingestion, abortion attempts, suicide attempts or suicide, violence, homicide and ignored cases. The cases with forensic linkage include abortion attempts, suicide attempts or suicide, violence and homicide. Figure 1 shows the percent index with forensic linkage in relation to the total number of cases in Brazil (Table 1) (SINITOX, 2008).
\n\t\t\t\tIn Rio de Janeiro State, the cases with forensic linkage show the following trend (Figure 2).
\n\t\t\t\tThe overall death rate per the population involving such occurrences is less than 2%, but this index may be underestimated because the deaths without medical assistance when the body is not sent for a health service might not be reported. In fact, the poisoning rates in Brazil are highly underestimated due to under-reporting. According to the Brazilian Ministry of Health, for each reported poisoning, another 50 were not reported. The reasons for not reporting include lack of access to medical care in poor areas, the lack of a precise diagnosis due to the symptoms of pesticide poisoning being similar to the other health problems and the lack of an efficient information transfer system from the hospitals to the National Centre of Toxicological Vigilance, despite the reporting being mandatory (SINITOX, 2008).
\n\t\t\t\tIn the state of Mato Grosso do Sul, the Brazilian state with the 8th-highest agricultural production (Rebelo, Vasconcelos et al., 2010), 1,355 cases of voluntary or involuntary poisoning were reported to the Integrated Centre of Toxicological Vigilance of the State Health Department from 1992 to 2002, with an average of 123.2 poisonings/year, 176 of which lead to death. The case fatality rate (CFR) was 3 times higher than that of the average states in Brazil (Recena, Pires et al., 2006).
\n\t\t\t\tSome studies have shown an association between exposure to pesticides and symptoms of depression, an important factor often linked to suicides and attempts. In Luz, a micro-region of the state of Minas Gerais, which is the 6th-highest agricultural producer in Brazil, a study
\n\t\t\t\tIntoxication Cases with Forensic Linkage involving pesticides in Brazil
Trend of cases involving pesticides with forensic linkage in state of Rio de Janeiro
investigated the relationship between poisoning cases and pesticides (Meyer, Resende et al., 2007). From 2000 to 2004, 19 suicides occurred in the region (22.6/100,000 inhab/year), 18 involved male rural workers, and 57.9% by ingestion of pesticides. A group of 50 residents was interviewed and gave biological samples for analysis. The results show that 98% of the residents handled pesticides regularly, 72% had never used any protection equipment, 56% had never read information sheets, and 40% presented poisoning values in the analysis results. The number of suicide incidence was more than twice the highest state average in Brazil, and the number of pesticide-poisoning cases was high compared to SINITOX data (Meyer, Resende et al., 2007).
\n\t\t\t\tIn Rio de Janeiro State, in the case of humans violent deaths and homicides attempts, and crimes against animals and/or to the environment, when the crime is registered to a police department, the victims, in death cases, are sent to the Legal Medical Institute to perform an autopsy and toxicological analysis. The materials associated to the poisoning collected at the crime scene are sent to the Criminalistic Institute for identification and characterisation.
\n\t\t\t\tRio de Janeiro is not considered to be a typical agricultural state in Brazil and is not among the top ten highest agricultural producers in the country. Despite this fact, the number of intoxication cases involving the use of pesticides is extremely high. Table 2 shows the number of materials examined in the Rio de Janeiro Criminalistic Institute, related to diverse crimes, where the presence of pesticides in the period of 2003 until 2010 was found using numerous analytical methods discussed later in this chapter (data not published):
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2003 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t77 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2004 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t76 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2005 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t77 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2006 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t71 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2007 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t69 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2008 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t81 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2009 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t78 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2010 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t89 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Number of materials associated to the poisoning collected at the crime scene that resulted positive in general pesticides analysis in state of Rio de Janeiro.
The slight increase in the number of cases identified in the last three years may be related to the diversification of the analytical techniques used, including enzymatic methods and instrumental analysis.
\n\t\t\t\tAccording to the data available at the Chemical Sector of the Rio de Janeiro Criminalistic Institute and the Rio de Janeiro Police State, out of the 89 investigated cases with positive pesticide identifications in 2010, 10 are related to the irregular commercialisation of the pesticide, 17 are related to crime against animals generally causing domestic-animal deaths, 30 are from materials used in completed suicides, 3 in suicide attempts, 18 are related to homicide attempts, 2 cases are related to the use of pesticide in homicide followed by suicide, and 5 cases have not be determined by the legal guidelines. In the related cases, aldicarb, from carbamate chemical group, was identified 77 times. Other carbamates detected include carbofuran (five times), carbaryl (Rebelo, Vasconcelos et al.) and iprovalicarb (Rebelo, Vasconcelos et al.). Other pesticides identified were second-generation coumarinic derivatives (six cases), picloran (two cases), cipermetrin (two cases), deltametrin (one case), and DDVP (one case). In two cases, the association of two pesticides among the 89 investigated cases with positive pesticide identifications was identified. Aldicarb was present in 78.6% of all cases, and at least one of the compounds identified was from the carbamate class in 85.4% of all cases (data not published).
\n\t\t\tThe numerous cases of pesticide poisoning all over the world and in Brazil, especially involving the use of the carbamate compound aldicarb, described in the previously sections, is consistent with the acute toxicity of this substance. In order to understand the lethal capacity of this pesticide we will briefly describe the well known toxicology of the carbamates. Then we will describe some studies with human volunteers to highlight the carbamate amount required to cause human death by oral ingestion.
\n\t\t\tThe primary mode of aldicarb toxicity is cholinesterase inhibition. Carbamate insecticides are known to directly affect the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE), which is associated with the outer surface of membranes. This results in a buildup of acetylcholine (ACh), which acts on the plasma membrane to produce the primary expression of neurotoxicity (Blum & Manzo, 1985). It is commonly accepted that carbamates interfere with the ability of AChE to break down the chemical transmitter ACh at synaptic and myoneural junctions, although the precise biochemical mechanism for this interaction remains an object of discussion. It is known, however, that the same mechanism of action is evident in both target and nontarget organisms. Aldicarb and other carbamate insecticides further cause depression of other cholinesterases ("pseudocholinesterases") in the red blood cells and plasma of humans and other vetebrate species, but the degree of inhibition necessary to produce adverse effects in exposed subjects is speculative and the subject of current research (Risher, Mink et al., 1987).
\n\t\t\t\tThe relationship for carbamates between intoxication symptoms and cholinesterase activity was first described in a series of experiments in which brain and plasma ChE activities were determined in rats after propoxur was administered intramuscularly at different dosages. The animals were killed at the moment the first symptoms appeared or at a given time after injection. At dosages that did not produce any noticeable symptoms (0.25-1.0 mg/kg), the activities of both brain and plasma ChE were reduced by varying amounts, down to about 60% of the normal level. The dose at which a very slight tremor occurred (2.0 mg/kg) reduced the brain and plasma ChE activities to 470% and 49% of the normal levels, respectively; the animals was killed immediately after this symptom was observed. At higher dosages (10.0 and 50.0 mg/kg) the degrees of inhibition of both brain and plasma cholinesterase closely followed the severity of the symptoms that were produced, with the brain ChE usually showing 5-15% greater inhibition than the plasma ChE (Vandekar, Plestina et al., 1971).
\n\t\t\t\tVarious cholinesterases have also been identified in the brain, liver, pancreas, intestine, heart, and skeletal muscle of mammals and may be distinguished from one another and from AChE ("true cholinesterases") by substrate and inhibitor specificity. Erythrocyte AChE is a more appropriate indicator of the level of AChE in the central nervous system (CNS) than plasma AChE. Blood ChE generally becomes markedly depressed prior to the onset of cholinergic symptoms, and symptoms do not usually appear until the cholinesterase level reaches 25% of the pre-exposure value. A decrease of 60% in RBC AChE level warrants removal from the source of exposure (Blum & Manzo, 1985).
\n\t\t\t\tThe relationship between brain cholinesterase inhibition and carbamates toxicity has also been studied. In another series of experiments, the relationship between the brain and plasma cholinesterase activities and the degree of symptoms was studied during the infusion of propoxur into the jugular vein of rats (Plestina, unpublished data). Different rates of infusion, ranging from 0.04 to 0.80 i.v.-LD50/hour, were used. At given time intervals, the animals were sacrificed and their brain and plasma ChE levels were determined spectrophotometrically (Ellman, Courtney et al., 1961) and the analytical procedure was completed within 12 min after the animals had been decapitated. Three main symptoms (tremor, muscle fasciculations, and salivation) were regularly recorded and were arbitrarily classified according to 5 degrees of intensity. These results show good correlation between the activities of the two enzymes and good agreement between the degree of enzyme depression and the intensity of symptoms, the onset of symptoms being recorded only after the brain ChE activity dropped to about 50% of the normal value. It may be noted that, during the second hour of infusion, a steady state was reached regarding enzyme inhibition and symptom severity (Vandekar, Plestina et al., 1971).
\n\t\t\t\tSigns and symptoms of aldicarb intoxication are typically cholinergic and may be ameliorated by the administration of atropine sulphate. Because AChE is present in substantial excess at cholinergic synapses, 60% to 90% of the enzyme must be inhibited before the onset of cholinergic dysfunction (35). Symptoms of AChE inhibition and subsequent accumulation of ACh in nervous tissue and effector organs mimic the muscarinic, nicotinic, and CNS actions of ACh and may be categorised as follows (Blum & Manzo, 1985):
\n\t\t\t\tMuscarinic Signs. The stimulation of muscarinic receptors (found primarily in the smooth muscle, the heart, and exocrine glands) results in the following symptoms:
\n\t\t\t\ttightness in the chest and wheezing due to bronchoconstriction;
increased bronchial secretions, salivation, lacrimation, and sweating;
increased gastrointestinal tone, with consequent development of nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, and involuntary defecation;
frequent contraction of the smooth muscle of the bladder, resulting in involuntary urination;
bradycardia that can progress to heart blockage;
constriction of the pupils.
Nicotinic Signs. The accumulation of Ach at the endings of motor nerves to skeletal muscle and autonomic ganglia results in the following symptoms (Blum & Manzo, 1985):
\n\t\t\t\ta.Muscular effects, including easy fatigability and mild weakness, followed by involuntary twitching and cramps. Weakness affects the muscles involved in respiration and contributes to dyspnea, hypoxemia, and cyanosis.
b. Nicotinic actions at autonomic ganglia may, in severe intoxication, mask some of the muscarinic effects. Thus, tachycardia caused by stimulation of sympathetic ganglia may override the usual bradycardia due to muscarinic action on the heart. Elevation of blood pressure and hyperglycemia also reflect nicotinic action at sympathetic ganglia.
Without going into a lengthy discussion of the morphology and function of the mammalian neuromuscular system, the transmission of electrical impulses between nerves and at myoneural junctions generally occurs through the release of chemical transmitters that bind with specific receptors on the postsynaptic terminal or motor end plate, respectively. As the chemical transmitter, ACh in certain nerve synapses and at neuromuscular junctions binds to the receptor sites; an esterase (AChE) rapidly hydrolyses the ACh into acetyl and choline fractions so that the stimulated nerves or muscles are not continually excited. Essentially, aldicarb and other cholinesterase inhibitors in some way prevent the breakdown of ACh and the subsequent return to a more normal or resting state for the nerve and/or muscle cells (Risher, Mink et al., 1987).
\n\t\t\tIn order to evaluate the toxicity of carbamates in humans, a 42-year-old male volunteer (90 kg body weight) ingested 1.5 mg of propoxur per kg of body weight about 2 hours after his usual "continental" breakfast. The lowest erythrocyte cholinesterase level (27.0 %Y of normal) was observed 15 min after ingestion. No signs were observed at that time, but moderate discomfort, described as "pressure in the head", was present. Blurred vision and nausea developed 3 min later. Twenty minutes after ingestion, the subject was pale and his face was sweating; his pulse rate was 140/min (before ingestion it was 76/min) and his blood pressure was 175/95 mm Hg (before ingestion it was 135/90 mm Hg). Within the next 10 min, pronounced nausea, with repeated vomiting and profuse sweating, developed. These symptoms lasted, with no change in intensity, from about the 30th minute until about the 45th minute, and during this period, erythrocyte cholinesterase activity recovered from a level of 50.4 % to one of 55.5 % of its normal value. One hour after ingestion, the subject was feeling better and his sweating was less pronounced, but he still felt nauseated and tired. His pulse and blood pressure were found to be normal 10 min later, and 2 hr after ingestion, he was feeling well and he had a complete lunch and dinner without discomfort. The rapid disappearance of symptoms was consistent with the further rapid recovery of erythrocyte cholinesterase activity (Vandekar, Plestina et al., 1971).
\n\t\t\t\tStudies examining the acute effects of aldicarb administered orally to human volunteers show the same pattern of rapid acetylcholinesterase inhibition and rapid recovery seen in experimental animal models (NN Hamada, unpublished data). In human subjects, following two preliminary analyses of blood acetylcholinesterase activity, groups consisting of four adult male volunteers each were given aqueous solutions of aldicarb at acute oral doses of 0.025, 0.05, or 0.1 mg/kg. In a similar trial, two subjects were given doses of 0.05 or 0.26 mg/kg (Baron & Merriam, 1988; WHO, 1991; FAO/WHO, 1993). In both trials, individuals were monitored prior to aldicarb exposure and served as their own controls. Observation for signs of poisoning and measurements of whole-blood acetylcholinesterase activity was made for 6 hr following treatment (Baron, 1994).
\n\t\t\t\tAcute cholinergic signs and symptoms of overexposure were only observed in subjects exposed to a dose of 0.1 mg/kg or higher. Clinical signs of overexposure were not noted at doses of 0.05 mg/kg or lower. By 6 hr after administration, acetylcholinesterase activity had returned to normal, and clinical cholinergic signs and symptoms had disappeared without medical treatment. A dose-related depression from pre-trial values of whole blood acetylcholinesterase was observed in all individuals, mostly for 1 to 2 hr after exposure (Baron, 1994).
\n\t\t\t\tIn an experimental study with human subjects, three groups of four adult males, all in good health, were administered single oral doses of aldicarb (analytical grade, 99.2% pure) in water solutions corresponding to 0.1, 0.05, or 0.025 mg insecticide/kg body weight. Blood cholinesterase levels were monitored both before and after dosing, and the symptoms resulting from the treatment were observed by physicians. Blood samples were collected from all subjects at 18 hr and 1 hr before ingestion of the aldicarb and at 1, 2, 4, and 6 hr after dosing. A maximum dose of 0.1 mg/kg body weight was selected based upon the 0.1 mg/kg body weight no-effect level determined in the 2-year rat feeding study of Weil and Carpenter, while the other dosages selected for this experiment were one-half and one-fourth of the rat NOEL. Subjects receiving the 0.1 mg/kg dose manifested a variety of cholinergic symptoms including malaise, weakness in the arms and legs, pupils that were contracted and nonreactive to light, epigastric cramping pain, sweating of hands and forehead, air hunger, frequent yawning, salivation, slurred speech, nausea, and vomiting. The aldicarb-induced cholinesterase depression was reported to be rapidly reversible, and by 6 hr after administration, all symptoms had disappeared and the subjects reportedly felt normal again (Risher, Mink et al., 1987).
\n\t\t\t\tAccording to the data above, the mean dose of aldicarb responsible for acute intoxication in humans is about 0.1 mg/kg. The only commercial product containing aldicarb in Brazil is Temik15®, which has a declared percentage of 15% of aldicarb in its composition. Each Temik15® grain has a mean weight around 0.3 mg, which gives an aldicarb mean mass of 45 μg per grain. Thus, the minimum number of Temik15® grains necessary to cause an acute intoxication in humans, and possible the human death, is about 140 grains. Our casuistic at Carlos Éboli Criminalistic Institute includes the analysis of foodstuffs used to cause death (homicide or suicide) containing significantly more than 140 grains of Temik15®.
\n\t\t\tSeveral countries use the legal regulation of pesticides trading and utilization in order to control and prevent the acute deaths associated with the most toxic compounds described above. In this section we will discuss the effects of the legal regulation of pesticides in some countries and the perspectives for the future application of pesticides in agriculture. We will also explore the current situation of pesticides use in Brazil and the impacts of the legal regulation of these compounds in our country.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tEddleston et al. (2002) discussed four different avenues with potential for reducing the use and availability of pesticides important for acute poisonings: voluntary guidelines, safe-use initiatives, and international policy instruments; changes in farming practice, namely integrated pest management (IPM) and plant biotechnology; direct restrictions of pesticide use; and the introduction of a minimum pesticide list (Eddleston, Karalliedde et al., 2002).
\n\t\t\tIn the early 1980s, debate about the effects of uncontrolled pesticide use on health in the developing world grew worldwide. International organisations, national governments, and industry all responded to these concerns with a series of non-binding proposals (Konradsen, van der Hoek et al., 2003).
\n\t\t\tThe major response was the production of the International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides in 1985 by the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations (FAO, 2002). In November 2002, FAO adopted a revised Code of Conduct incorporating concerns and experiences generated since the drafting of the previous version. The Code attempts to rationalise the use of pesticides and reduce the health and environmental risks associated with pesticides establishing:
\n\t\t\t(...) voluntary standards of conduct for all public and private entities engaged in or associated with the distribution and use of pesticides, particularly where there is inadequate or no national legislation to regulate pesticides. (Article 1.1)
\n\t\t\tIn particular, it wished to ensure that the benefits derived from the use of pesticides be achieved without significant adverse effects on people or environment (Article 1.3).
\n\t\t\tThe new version of the Code of Conduct adapts a ‘life-cycle’ concept to address all stages from product development to the final disposal of containers and products. Manufacturers are requested to supply only pesticides of adequate quality, packaged and labelled as appropriate for each specific market, and to retain an interest in the product as far as the ultimate consumer, keeping track of uses and the occurrence of problems requiring changes in labelling, directions for use, packaging, formulation or product availability. In particular, the Code states that pesticides whose handling and application require the use of personal protective equipment that is uncomfortable, expensive or not readily available should be avoided, especially in the case of small-scale users in tropical climates (Article 3.5) (Konradsen, van der Hoek et al., 2003).
\n\t\t\tThe Code further stipulates that highly toxic and hazardous products (such as WHO Classes Ia and Ib) may be prohibited for importation, sale and purchase if other control measures or good marketing practices are insufficient to ensure that the product can be handled with acceptable risk to the user (Article 7.5). Many countries do not enforce these standards, and if the Code were to be followed, the use of Class I pesticides would be prohibited in many developing countries. This issue relates especially to occupational exposure because the required safety equipment is expensive and cumbersome in the tropics and almost never worn (Konradsen, van der Hoek et al., 2003).
\n\t\t\tNational governments are called upon in the Code of Conduct to have the overall responsibility to regulate the availability, distribution and use of pesticides in their countries and should ensure the allocation of adequate resources for the mandate (Article 3.1).
\n\t\t\tIn spite of international efforts to support developing countries in achieving the capacity to implement and supervise the Code of Conduct, many developing countries still do not have this necessary oversight capacity (Konradsen, van der Hoek et al., 2003).
\n\t\t\tIn the second global survey finalised in October 1994 to assess the state of implementation of the Code of Conduct, it was concluded that, although progress had been made towards compliance with various provisions of the Code, there is a continuing need by governments for assistance, especially in the Asia and Pacific region. More than half the national agencies responding to the questionnaire indicated a need for technical assistance and increased government support to strengthen their national capacities and infrastructures necessary to effectively operate their pesticide-control schemes (FAO, 1996).
\n\t\t\tThe crucial role of national-government capacity in enforcing the Code was explicitly acknowledged by the then-Director of the FAO in his introduction to the Code in 1985 (FAO, 1990):
\n\t\t\tIn the absence of effective pesticide registration processes and of a governmental infrastructure for controlling the availability of pesticides, some countries importing pesticides must heavily rely on the pesticide industry to promote the safe and proper distribution and use of pesticides. In these circumstances, foreign manufacturers, exporters and importers, (...), must accept a share of the responsibility for safety and efficiency in distribution and use.
\n\t\t\tUnfortunately, despite increasing support to improve the capacity of national agencies since the mid-1980s, policing of the Code is still so severely hampered by a lack of resources and political will that there is still no effective mechanism to enforce it or publicise violations. Furthermore, the Code of Conduct does not give direct attention to the issue of self-harm with pesticides and therefore fails to provide policy guidelines or assign responsibilities on this complex issue. Also, the revised Code does not directly call for an elimination of the most hazardous pesticides and that adherence to the great majority of the articles in the Code is voluntary will likely reduce its overall effect on the number of deaths from acute poisoning (Konradsen, van der Hoek et al., 2003). Recently, an updated version of this Code was published, reinforcing these concepts (FAO, 2010).
\n\t\t\tPiola and colleagues recently showed that a national ban on the organophosphate parathion reduced the number of deaths reported to their poison centre in Rosario, Argentina (Piola & Prada, 1999; Piola, Prada et al., 2001). Between 1977–1985 and 1990–1994, 21 lethal pesticide-poisoning cases were reported to the centre, including 15 adult cases of self-poisoning and 4 accidental cases in children, 17 of which were due to parathion. Due to the high number of deaths occurring nationally with this pesticide, it was banned throughout Argentina in 1994. The last death from parathion in Rosario was reported in 1995. There was a marked fall in the number of deaths due to poisoning from 16 in the first half of the decade to 4 in the second half of the decade (Piola, Prada et al., 2001).
\n\t\t\tParathion was also banned in Jordan in 1981 after studies showed that it was responsible for >90% of deaths from pesticides in the country. The total number of poisoning deaths undergoing autopsy in Amman fell from 58 in 1978 and 49 in 1980 to 28 in 1982 and 10 in 1984 (Konradsen, van der Hoek et al., 2003).
\n\t\t\tParaquat was introduced to Samoa in 1974. Soon after, public-health officials noticed a growing epidemic of self-poisoning. The total suicide rate increased from 10/100,000 in 1974 to 28/100,000 in 1978 to 50/100,000 in 1982. Because of this epidemic, a community-based campaign was set up to reduce its use for self-harm. At the same time, however, imports fell temporarily due to financial problems. The suicide rate fell rapidly, mirroring the fall in imports, to 15/100,000 within 2 years. Interestingly, the suicide rate between 1984 and 1988, although much reduced at 15–20/100,000, is still more than 80% due to paraquat and has continued to rise. Suicide with this pesticide had become the method of choice. The pesticide was never banned and remains the cause of around 80% of all self-harm deaths (Zinn, 1995). Banning paraquat is still the subject of active debate in Samoa today (Konradsen, van der Hoek et al., 2003).
\n\t\t\tSince the late 1980s, the Sri Lankan government took an active role in determining which pesticides can be used in the country. By the mid-1990s, all Class I pesticides were banned in Sri Lanka. As a result, the number of deaths due to metamidaphos and other Class I organophosphorus fell dramatically, as documented for one district hospital. Unfortunately, another highly toxic (although Class II) compound, the organochlorine endosulfan, then replaced the Class I organophosphorus in agricultural practice. The number of self-poisoning deaths rose as endosulfan became more popular. Endosulfan was therefore banned in 1998 and deaths fell from 50 to 3 in the same district hospital over the next 3 years. No single compound has since taken its place, but there is currently an increase in the importance of WHO Class II organophosphorus, such as dimethoate and fenthion. Sri Lanka is attempting to shift to less toxic pesticides in the hope that this shift will reduce the number of deaths from deliberate self-poisoning. Thus far, these attempts have been complicated by the replacement pesticides also being sufficiently toxic to cause deaths from self-poisoning. Compared to the early 1990s, there has been little overall effect from switching from one form to another. Future attempts to ban pesticides must carefully predict the likely consequences of switching to another pesticide in agricultural and self-harming practice (Roberts, Karunarathna et al., 2003).
\n\t\t\tAn increased use of pesticides in the Philippines during the 1970s coincided with a 27% increase in mortality from non-traumatic causes among economically active men. The incidence in men between the age of 15 and 34 of stroke—a condition rare in this age group but that can be confused with some types of acute pesticide poisoning—also rose during this period but then fell by more than 60% in the two years following a ban on endrin (Loevinsohn, 1987).
\n\t\t\tA recent Chinese study concluded that a major component of preventive efforts to reduce acute poisoning in rural areas will be restricting the availability of pesticides. The authors indicate that the availability of potent pesticides in the homes of most residents makes this type of poisoning the preferred method of self-harm (Phillips, Li et al., 2002). This study also supports the idea that not all people who die following acts of self-harm actually wish to die (Eddleston, 2000). In a district in Sri Lanka, peaks of fatal self-harm poisoning coincided with ploughing seasons. This trend was not because people were more determined in their self-harm attempts in this season but because it was the time when farmers use paraquat (Hettiarachchi & Kodithuwakku, 1989). Furthermore, the often impulsive behaviour linked with the ingestion of pesticides and the influence of alcohol during the events makes it important to restrict pesticide availability in homes (Konradsen, van der Hoek et al., 2003).
\n\t\t\tOverall, these studies suggest that limiting the availability of toxic pesticides will reduce the number of deaths from poisoning and the number of deaths from self-harm. A similar reduction in self-harm deaths has occurred in the UK, Japan, Australia and India following the replacement of barbiturates with benzodiazepines as the most common sedative prescription (Singh, Singhi et al., 1997). Restrictions on availability are currently being adopted by the Ministers of Health of eight Central American and Caribbean countries. These countries have agreed to ban the 12 most problematic pesticides in their region together with a list of 115 pesticides that are restricted in at least one of these countries. The organizers of this approach—the PlagSalud initiative—hope to reduce pesticide poisoning in Central America by 50% by restricting the most toxic pesticides (Wesseling, Aragon et al., 2001). No results are yet available.
\n\t\t\tIn 2008, Brazil reached the alarming position of the greatest pesticide end user in the world. The National Union of Industries for Agricultural Defensive Products (Sindag, acronym from Portuguese) survey showed that pesticides sales totaled $7.125 billion USD, when the country with the second-highest index, the United States, had $6.6 billion USD in pesticide sales. It is important to highlight the marked increment in Brazilian rural production and export rate and, consequently, the use of agricultural products. Brazil is also the third largest exporting country in the world, losing only to United States and to the European Union, but Brazil was in the sixth place in 2000. The agricultural-exporting mean rate between the years of 2000 and 2008 has grown by 18% compared to 10% for the European Union and 8% for the United States (Rebelo, Vasconcelos et al., 2010).
\n\t\t\t\tThere are currently about 600 active compounds used in the formulation of pesticides, legally registered all over the world for use as agricultural chemical defence. Of these compounds, about 350 are part of the composition of 98% of the most-used pesticides and 80% are commonly used in the agriculture of Latin American countries, such as Brazil.
\n\t\t\t\tThe top ten most-used pesticides in Brazil are responsible for 76,45% of all commercialised pesticides. These compounds are as follows (in decreasing order): glyphosate and salts, cypermethrin, mineral oil, vegetal oil, sulphur, 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, atrazine, metamidophos, acephate and carbendanzim. In a class scale, organochlorines are the most-used compounds, followed by organophosphorus, carbamates, and pyrethroids (Rebelo, Vasconcelos et al., 2010).
\n\t\t\t\tIn Brazil, the 1989 Pesticide Law regulates the research, experimentation, production, packing, labeling, transport, storage, commercialization, final destination of packing, register, classification, control and supervision of pesticides and related compounds. Despite the constant updates of the monographs of pesticides compounds, several substances banned in the European Union and in United States are still used in Brazilian agriculture. Metamidophos, for example, will be totally prohibited in Brazilian farms from June 2012, according to Sanitary National Agency (ANVISA, acronym in Portuguese).
\n\t\t\t\tAldicarb, used as insecticide, acaricide or nematicide in potato, coffee, sugar cane, and citrus cultures, is considered extremely toxic. This substance is produced in only one industry in the United States. The use of this substance as a pesticide is prohibited in more than 60 countries, including members of the European Union. In the state of California in the United States, close to 2000 people showed intoxication symptoms after eating contaminated fruit in 1985. Despite this great toxic potential, the deadline for use in the USA is August 2018, according to the factory producer. In Latin America, this substance is legally used in Brazil, Chile, Argentina, Peru and Colombia, among other countries. This pesticide is also used in Australia and in South Africa; in the latter, there are several problems related to misuse, as in Brazil. The formulated aldicarb product to Brazil is special and includes the addition of a distressingly agent, denatonuim benzoate, to avoid accidental ingestion by humans and/or animals. This product arrives in Brazil, and a sole importer in São Paulo State receives and distributes it to a few allowed resales in three states, only to registered and certified farmers. Aldicarb is one of the five most-used pesticides in the state of Bahia.
\n\t\t\t\tSeveral banned pesticides in European Union and in United States are still commonly used in Brazilian crops. The regulatory agencies are working very slow in the law revision of the real necessity of using these pesticides. In 2008, 14 substances were sent to be evaluated; from this group, eight (methyl parathion, lacotophen, phorate, carbofuran, abamectin, tyran, paraquat and glyphosate) are still waiting for government decision (February of 2011). Cyhexatin, used in citrus, has been banned since 2011. In a revision published in 2010, trichlorfon was banned in Brazil. In addition, the commercialisation of all the formulated products with endosulfan will be cancelled from 2013 by manufacturer solicitation, and the use and application of phosmet products were reassessed. A 2011 publication has mandated the banning of methamidophos starting in June 2012.
\n\t\t\t\tRegarding aldicarb, the deadline of its use is 2018, according to information from the manufacturer. In Brazil, in relation to intoxications, the main problem is the irregular commercialisation of aldicarb-based products in small packaging containing about five grams of the product for use as a rodenticide. Nevertheless, this substance has one common fault as a rodenticide; it produces symptoms very rapidly. Rodent behaviour is such that an individual encountering a new food for the first time will normally test feed and may not take a substantial quantity for many hours or even days (Hadler & Buckle, 1992). If the bait causes distressing symptoms during the test-feeding period, the rodent is intelligent enough to recognise cause and effect and becomes “poison shy” or \'bait shy.\' However, it is very common to find the irregular street trade of this product in big urban centres, far from agricultural regions. To the facility of obtaining this product in small doses, it is usual the association of aldicarb in crime scenes, generally in the typical grains of the commercial product and in the package used in irregular trade.
\n\t\t\t\tBrazilian legislation imposes that subdivision and packaging of pesticides are restricted to the manufacturer or to the handler, supervised by the producer, and used in conditions and places pre-authorised by the government. In addition, pesticides can only be sold directly to the final user and with the legally licensed professional prescription submission. This irregular trade also disrespects the Environmental Law that considers the production, processing, packaging, import, export, trade, gift, transport, maintenance, keeping, storing or use of substances that are dangerous or harmful to human health or the environment to be a crime, in disagreement with specific legislation.
\n\t\t\tAs forensic laboratories work for the Justice, their responsibility is very peculiar. Analysis certifies the eventual correlation between illness and toxicity, and in medico-legal cases, the presence of a poison furnishes the first and foremost evidence. Whichever is the cause of poisoning (therapeutic, industrial or criminal), even if damage is not voluntary, common law imposes at least compensation for the ill effects that follow intoxication. This aspect, which is of great importance, shows the permanence of the relationship between toxicology and forensic medicine, which requires an exceptional security of the methods used in the laboratory and extreme prudence in statement and interpretation of results.
\n\t\t\tThe wide variety of matrices and pesticides associated with homicides and suicides, as described above, requires the development of detection and quantification techniques with adequate precision and accuracy of pesticides residues in different matrices, such as water, soil, foodstuffs and biological matrices.
\n\t\t\tThe main pesticides associated with intoxications and the instrumental methods used in forensic analysis of these compounds in different matrices are organochlorines, organophosphorus, and carbamates.
\n\t\t\tOrganochlorine pesticides are composed by carbon and chlorine atoms in several isomers conformations from hexachlorocyclohexane and from cyclodienes. The main representative substances of this group are cyclohexanes (BHC, DDT, lindane, pentachlorophenol) and cyclodienes (aldrin, endrin, endosulphan). The organophosphorus have, with no exception, a central pentavalent phosphorus atom linked to an oxygen or sulphur atom by a double covalent linkage and can be represented by the compounds Malathion, Parathion, and others. Finally, the carbamate pesticides are compounds derivated from carbamic acid, and their main substances analysed in toxicological laboratories are aldicarb, carbofuran and carbaril (Figure 3).
\n\t\t\tChemical structures of some pesticides
In the last few years, several studies have been published based on the development of more precise, cheaper and faster analytical procedures. Analytical chemistry has witness a significant improvement with the establishment of new methodologies by the use of more sensible instrumental techniques that use small quantities of samples, such as mass spectrometry (MS), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and Ultraviolet-Visible Spectrometry (UV-Vis) and Raman Spectrometry (RAMAN).
\n\t\t\tPesticide analysis in different matrices is traditionally accomplished using chromatographic techniques and liquid and gas chromatography in particular. These techniques are used because of their capacities to separate the compounds present in a sample and to permit the identification and quantification of these compounds using specific detector systems. The identification and quantification of pesticides can be accomplished by coupling the detectors, such as electron capture (Suchan, 2004), fluorescence (Nedelkoska, 2004), UV-VIS (Nedelkoska, 2004), flame ionisation (Engelmann, 2003) and MS, with the chromatographic systems.
\n\t\t\tFor gas-chromatography (GC) separation, a great variety of stationary phases have been used in capillary columns. Most research groups have only used one column for the same class of pesticides. However, some authors have reported the use of two columns with different polarities and different geometric parameters under the same or different chromatographic conditions to confirm the peak identification. Different columns have also been used to compare mass spectrometry detectors to classical detectors for analysing residues from the same class of pesticides, even more so when compounds from different pesticide classes were analysed in one run in gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (CG-MS). GC is combined with different types of detection methods, mainly depending on the class of pesticides to be detected. Electron-capture detection (ECD) is often employed for organochlorine and pyrethroid analyses. Electrolytic-conductivity detection after GC separation has also been proposed for the detection of several pesticides residues, including organochlorines, pyrethroids, triazines and carbamates. Both flame photometric detection (FPD) with a phosphorus filter and nitrogen-phosphorus detection (NPD) have been used for organophosphorus detection. Besides these conventional element-specific detection methods, GC use with mass spectrometric detectors, including single-quadrupole, ion-trap, and triple-quadrupole mass spectrometers, has been adapted to the analysis of pesticides. The use of MS has the advantages over conventional element-specific detectors of being able to determine pesticides from different classes (organochlorines, organophosphorus, pyrethroids, triazines and carbamates) in the same acquisition run (Le Doux, 2011).
\n\t\t\tParveen et al. monitored pesticide residues belonging to different pesticide classes, such as organochlorines, organophosphorus, pyrethroids and carbamates, in 206 vegetables samples from Karachi, Pakistan using HPLC and GC-FID (Parveen, Khuhro et al., 2005).
\n\t\t\tPesticide residues of organochlorines, organophosphorus, pyrethroids and carbamates groups in fruits and vegetables were monitored in Sao Paulo City, Brazil by Gebara et al. (Gebara, Ciscato et al., 2005). A total of 2223 samples comprising 700 vegetables and 1523 fruits collected from general stores and wholesale shops were analysed for 100 pesticide residues of insecticides and fungicides with GC equipped with different detectors (ECD, NPD, FPD).
\n\t\t\tFresh foodstuffs from El Ejido, Almeria, Spain were collected from September 2001 to July 2002 to monitor 81 multiclass pesticides (organophosphorus, organochlorines and pyrimidine) in approximately 4000 vegetable samples by Arrebola et al. (Arrebola, 2003). The analysis was conducted through single injection using gas-chromatography chemical ionisation and electron ionisation tandem mass spectrometry (GC–MS–MS).The vegetable samples were extracted in dichloromethane for multi-pesticide residues of dichlorvos, methamidophos, mevinphos, acephate, omethoate, lindane, diazinon, disulfoto, parathionmethyl, chlorpyrifos, malthion, fenthion, dicofol, ethion, endosulfan-I, II, permethrin, cyfluthrin and deltamethrin and were analysed with GC–MS–MS.
\n\t\t\tLiquid chromatography has been used for the analysis of polar and/or non-volatile and/or thermally labile pesticides for which GC conditions were not suitable, mainly carbamates and triazines. Various stationary phases have been tried for the separation of pesticides (Pacáková, 1996), but reverse phase is generally preferred (Le Doux, 2011). Liquid chromatography has also been combined with conventional detectors, such as fluorescence or UV detectors, to identify and quantify pesticides. The first has been used for carbamates analyses and the second for triazines analyses. Liquid chromatography coupled with a diode-array detector (LC-DAD) has been used in triazine and carbamate analyses (Baranowska, 2005; Baranowska, 2006). Recently, liquid chromatography has been coupled with different kinds of mass spectrometric detectors, including single-quadrupole, ion-trap, tandem-MS, and time-of-flight MS (TOF-MS), to determine pesticides in aqueous and solid environmental samples and in foods of vegetable origin (Pico, Blasco et al., 2004; Hercegová, 2007; Le Doux, 2011).
\n\t\t\tRecently, the number of compounds that are only amenable to liquid-chromatographic techniques has increased in relation to those amenable to the previously widely used gas-chromatographic techniques. For this reason, liquid-chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) detection systems are increasingly commonly used (Sannino, 2004; Soler, 2004; Liu, 2005; \n\t\t\t\t\tSoler, 2005\n\t\t\t\t; \n\t\t\t\t\tSoler, 2005\n\t\t\t\t; Soler, 2007; Kmellár, 2008). B. Kmellar et al. developed a sensitive multi-residue pesticide method for the determination of 160 multi-class pesticides in different kinds of vegetables using an LC-MS/MS system (Kmellár, 2008).
\n\t\t\tLiu et al. determined carbamates and organophosphorus in 25 samples, including vegetables and fruits, using LC-MS. All samples were collected from local markets and supermarkets in China (Liu, 2005).
\n\t\t\tSpecial care must be taken when using the techniques mentioned above that the preparation, extraction and clean-up of the samples are performed well, especially the most complex steps, to reduce the matrix effects. Even with the advent of advanced hyphenated techniques based on mass spectrometry, some complex fatty matrices usually require extensive sample extraction and purification (Gilbert-López, 2009). There are diverse methods of extraction described in the literature, such as solid-liquid extraction, liquid-liquid extraction, supercritical-fluid extraction, Soxhlet extraction and microwave-assisted extraction. The best method will depend on the sample matrix to be analysed. Current methods involve the use of one or more of the techniques for the sample-extraction steps. Several solid-liquid extraction and liquid-liquid extraction protocols have been standardised for extracting 23 organochlorines and 22 organophosphorus residues from the fatty foods of animal origin (milk and milk products, meat and meat products, fish and seafood, eggs) (European_Committee_of_Standardization, 1996).
\n\t\t\tIn GC-MS analysis of carbamate, organophosphorus and organochlorine pesticides, the use of solvent extraction is recommended, such as chloroform or dichloromethane. In HPLC analysis, the recommended solvents are acetonitrile or methanol, and for thin layer chromatography, acetone (Passagli, 2009).
\n\t\t\tMoreover, co-extracted matrix constituents, especially lipids, can interfere with target-compound identification. Several approaches have been attempted to eliminate co-extraction interference from extracts, including freezing centrifugation, liquid-liquid partitioning, gel-permeation chromatography (GPC), solid-phase extraction (SPE), solid-phase micro-extraction (SPME) matrix solid-phase dispersion (MSPD), etc. Out of all of these techniques, the most commonly applied approach for pesticides extraction in fatty vegetable matrices so far is liquid partitioning with organic solvents followed by a clean-up with SPE or GPC (Gilbert-López, 2009).
\n\t\t\tCases involving acute fatalities due to ingestion of organophosphorus pesticides, such as chlorpyrifos, diazinon, malathion and parathion, are presented by Mee-Jung Park et al. In this work, SPE and GC-MS were used for the analysis of organophosphorus in post-mortem blood (Park 2009).
\n\t\t\tTraditional chromatographic methods are effective for the environmental analysis of pesticides but have limitations and require adequate monitoring. Enzymatic methods have been used for many years as an alternative method of the detection of pesticides. The main enzymes used are acetylcholinesterase, butyrylcholinesterase, alkaline phosphatase, organophosphorus hydrolase and tyrosinase. The enzymatic methods are based on the proportional activation or inhibition of the enzyme with the concentration of the pesticide. Research on enzymatic methods of detection and some of the problems and challenges associated with these methods are extensively discussed in a review written by Van Dyk et al. These methods can serve as a tool for screening large samples and can be followed up with the more traditional chromatographic methods of analysis (Dyk, 2011).
\n\t\t\tOur group in Brazil developed a simple and low-cost methodology based on the inhibition of a stable preparation of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase obtained from rat brain specially adapted for forensic purposes. The method proved to be precise and accurate, detecting as little as 40 µg/kg of the pesticide aldicarb in meat samples (Sabino, Torraca et al., 2010). The technique comprises an initial extraction step with the solvent methylene chloride followed by a colourimetric acetylcholinesterase assay. This method is rapid and cheap, demanding only basic laboratory equipment and glassware. Although the method was validated for use with meats samples, it can be easily adapted for other matrices. Taking into account that all other carbamates are also potent enzyme inhibitors but that aldicarb is the contaminant most frequently found in Brazil, the results of contaminated forensic samples were expressed in aldicarb equivalents. This method could also be adapted to detect thionophosphate insecticides (Cunha Bastos V, 1991; de Lima, Bastos Neto Jda et al., 1996; Sabino, Torraca et al., 2010).
\n\t\t\tIn our routine at the Chemistry Division of Carlos Éboli Rio de Janeiro Criminalistic Institute (SPQ-ICCE-RJ, acronym in Portuguese), we seldom receive food contaminated with pesticides, especially Temik15®, used in homicide and suicide intoxications. In such cases, the use of a TLC technique is not always capable of revealing the presence of aldicarb due to the lipids presents in food that hinder the chromatographic separation of the compounds. In these cases, the use of the enzymatic methodology described above was applied and showed good results (data not published).
\n\t\t\t\tVibrational spectrometry provides useful, well-established analytical techniques for quantitative determinations of major and minor components from solid, liquid and gaseous samples. Applications of Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) and FT-Raman spectrometry can be found in a variety of fields, from pharmaceuticals to paint solvents, and the references found in the literature related to different procedures based on the use of both techniques have grown dramatically in recent years. This effect is probably due to the improvements in FT-based equipment and the decreasing acquisition and maintenance cost, together with the advances in automation that enhance data acquisition. Armenta et al. showed the applicability of vibrational spectrometry, basically FTIR and FT-Raman, for the analysis of pesticides in agrochemical formulations. The main advantage that FT-Raman presents over FTIR spectrometry is the very weak Raman spectra of glass, water and plastic packaging, which allow direct analysis of samples inside glass bottles or plastic bags without opening the package, thus minimising the risk of contamination. In this article, it is clearly shown that these techniques enable fast, non-destructive, precise and accurate measurements, and thus vibrational spectrometry is a promising tool for analysis in the agrochemical-industry samples (Armenta, 2005).
\n\t\t\t\tIn Brazil, thin-layer chromatography (TLC) is still a common technique used in pesticide identification in forensic toxicological and chemistry laboratories. It is widely used in laboratories throughout the world for food analysis and quality control. Numerous applications of TLC have been reported in the areas of food-composition intentional additives, adulterants, contaminants, and decomposition involving determinations of compound classes. This old technique consists of the separation of compounds in a mixture by differential migration through an adsorbent layer withheld in a plane surface plate. It is also routinely used in many laboratories in the chemical/pharmaceutical and related industries for both qualitative and semi-quantitative work. It is a simple, fast and economic technique. There is considerable literature describing pesticide analysis by TLC with environmental and food monitoring. Marcos P. work describes the use of this technique in carbamate (aldicarb, carbofuran, carbaryl and propoxur) pesticide identifications by applying a mixture of hexane/ethyl acetate (6:4) (Passagli, 2009).
\n\t\t\t\tIn Brazilian forensic laboratories, especially outside the big urban centres, there is an enormous lack of instrumental methodologies. In these laboratories, the main technique available to the forensic scientist to determine the presence of a pesticide in a material is TLC. The major disadvantage of TLC is its limited sensitivity when compared to other instrumental techniques (GC-MS and LC-MS).
\n\t\t\t\tGeneral reviews of pesticide TLC analysis, including some information on the analysis of foods, crops, and other agricultural samples, have been published (Chen & Wang, 1996; Torres, Pico et al., 1996; Sherma, 2000). Diverse papers describing the analysis of synthetic pyrethroids and their metabolites using thin-layer chromatography have been reported: cypermethrin in soil and in animals, deltamethrin in animals (Ruzo, Engel et al., 1979), fenpropathrin in water, soil and plants, fenvalerate in plants, permethrin in insects and plants, permethrin and cypermethrin in soil and plants (Chen & Wang, 1996). Carbofuran and its environmental by-products, hydroxycarbofuran and 3-ketocarbofuran, were analysed using high-performance TLC. Carbaryl, aldicarb, oxamyl, butocarboxim and butoxycarboxim and several other pesticides in drinking water were detected at picogram levels by coupling TLC with an enzymic inhibition test designed for cholinesterase-inhibiting insecticides (Yang, Goldsmith et al., 1996).
\n\t\t\t\tCurrently, gas chromatography is widespread and extremely valuable in routine analysis in Brazilian forensic laboratories. The ability to couple this technique to mass spectrometry has enhanced its use in drug analysis, pesticide identification in foodstuffs and environmental samples, and perfume control quality, among others. There are several works describing pesticide identifications using gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Marcos P. work uses this technique in the identification of some organophosphorus pesticides (chlorpyriphos, armitraz and diazinon) and carbamate pesticides (aldicarb, carbophuran, carbaryl and propoxur) (Passagli, 2009).
\n\t\t\t\tAnother important technique used in Brazilian forensic toxicological and chemistry laboratories is high-efficiency liquid chromatography (HPLC). This technique is an imperative tool used in forensic laboratories in Brazil and in other countries around the world. It is very common to see the use of this type of equipment in forensic television programs, such as CSI, CSI Miami, Crossing Jordan, and Law and Order, to obtain criminal evidence. The application of this technique is not limited to forensic chemistry but is also used in biochemistry, environmental sciences, pharmacological chemistry, and toxicology. HPLC uses a liquid mobile phase and a finely divided stationary phase in the chromatography system. The main detectors coupled to HPLC are based in the absorption of ultraviolet or visible radiation. Marcos P. Work uses this technique in carbamate-pesticide (aldicarb, carbophuran, carbaryl and propoxur) and in coumarinic-rodenticide (cumatetralil, bromadiolone, brodifacoum and difethialone) identifications, which are the most common compounds used in suicide attempts (Passagli, 2009). A few toxicological laboratories in Brazil have a mass spectrometer coupled to HPLC equipment, but there is a growing number of laboratories using this association due to its great sensibility and to the preparation facility of aqueous samples compared to GC-MS.
\n\t\t\t\tThe previously cited techniques could also be used in association with other techniques, such as spectroscopic techniques. Recently, SPQ-ICCE-RJ have acquired FTIR equipments. The infrared absorption technique is able to detect microscope residues without sample damage, a substantial forensic advantage allowing future sample re-analysis. The interaction of infrared light with the substance alters the vibrations of atoms, giving important information that permits the identification of the compound. The FTIR spectrometer can be used in diverse matrices (solids, liquids and pastes) and has a coupled library that can be used in the compounds identifications. The FTIR applications are very diverse and have a huge contribution in several pesticide-identification occurrences.
\n\t\t\t\tSome suicide and homicide attempts are described next, including photos of materials collected in police occurrences, which were identified as pesticides using the instrumental techniques cited above. The use of the distressingly agent, denatonium benzoate, in the formulation of Temik15® to avoid accidental ingestion may explain why the number of completed homicides using this product is low.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe use of crossing techniques has permitted the unequivocal identifications of the substances, enhancing the results’ reliability. About ten years ago, SPQ-ICCE-RJ only used TLC comparative with standard solutions of the pesticides to identify the presence of a pesticide in a sample. With the introduction of other techniques (FTIR and GC-MS), other compounds that were not previously detected have been identified, increasing the toxic-substance positive-identification index and the number of cases resolved. Recently, homicide attempts using juice contaminated with cypermethrin and water contaminated with chlorpyrifos were solved using the GC-MS technique.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe use of FTIR techniques in forensic science in association with other analytical techniques or as a stand-alone method, increases the quality of the results available to assist with the solving of police cases and, consequently, improves justice.
\n\t\t\t\t\tHomicide attempt. Glass with jelly found in the victim’s refrigerator possibly left by his cousin. The grey-coloured grains permeated into the food. The use of TLC, GC-MS, and FTIR instrumental techniques permitted the identification of aldicarb and carbophuran in the grains found in the food.
Homicide attempt against a child possibly accomplished by the stepmother. A tin containing a mixture of chocolate powder and grey-coloured grains. The use of TLC and FTIR instrumental techniques permitted the identification of aldicarb in the grains found in the food.
Homicide Attempt. Mixture of coffee and typical rose grains. The use of TLC permitted the identification of a coumarin compound used in rodenticide formulations.
Suicide. Food (pasta) found next to the corpse. On the surface of the food, grey-coloured grains were identified. The use of TLC and FTIR instrumental techniques permitted the identification of aldicarb in the grains found in the food.
This study has clearly shown that pesticides, specially carbamates, are extensively used in Brazil and other countries for self-poisoning and homicides attempts, and contributes to the population patterns of morbidity and mortality in these developing nations. These results point to the need of a deep investigation of poisonings in these areas and for the implementation of strategies that would minimize the number of cases related to intentional and unintentional pesticide poisoning.
\n\t\t\tIn our text we have presented several examples where government restriction to the most hazardous pesticides were of great importance in reducing the number of poisoning cases and deaths related. Government actions, such as educational and preventive programs, stronger regulation and a more efficient information system are essential to access and avoid intentional poisoning involving the use of pesticides. Moreover, the adequate control of pesticides trade must be effective to prevent the free access of the population to these toxic compounds.
\n\t\t\tAction has to be effective at least in the areas of pesticide policy, pesticide information, mental healthcare, clinical management of pesticide intoxication and occupational safety. The role of forensic sciences in this context is crucial to identify the compounds involved in the poisoning and characterize the criminal intent in an homicide attempt, for example. Besides, the results obtained in forensic laboratories could be used to generate a valuable database of the most common used pesticides for poisoning. Such database would help the activities of the regulatory agencies concerning the compounds most used in crimes against life. However, taken into account the complex chemical structures and wide variety of pesticides and matrices used in human poisoning, the Criminalistic Institutes must have adequate and validated techniques and advanced analytical equipments to be able to perform the chemical analysis of these samples.
\n\t\tThe authors thank the Rio de Janeiro Police Department and Institute of Criminalistics for providing the data of apprehended samples, and the Brazilian science foundation’s FAPERJ for financial assistance.
\n\t\tSoybean [
The countries that lead as soybean producers are Brazil and the United States of America, which account for up to 69% of the total world production of the commodity, for both countries soybean is the most exported commodity. The amount (US$) exported of soybean considering the top 10 exporters in 2020 was 54.4 billion US dollars, most of the production going to China [2].
As the biggest producer of soya, Brazil had in the 2020/2021 season a crop production of 135.9 million tons over 38.5 million ha resulting in a productivity of 3.52 kg ha−1. The productivity above the global average indicates high technification of this crop production. In relation to the previous crop season, Brazil has increased the production by 8.9% and productivity by 4.4%. The income to the Brazilian’s commercial balance considering all the products from soybean was US$35.2 billion in 2020 [3].
In Brazil, the soybean production depends on biological nitrogen fixation, on the no-tilled area that represents more than 70% of the cultivated area, and on integrated pest management. However, the biggest challenge is the monitoring of crops due to the large extension of cultivated areas.
In soybean crop plant protection, problems begin at sowing, especially in areas of crop succession with insect pests in the cultural remains of the previous crop, such as stink bugs and pathogens in the soil whose main target is the seeds. Currently, in Brazil, seed treatment is over 95% of all soybeans planted in the country, carried out by manufacturers of plant protection products or companies specialized in this activity.
Initially, soybean seed treatment is aimed to control soil-dwelling fungi as a seed protection measure, but with little curative effect. In Brazil, currently, mixtures containing three or four different fungicides are available to the farmer for the treatment of seeds. The aim is to protect the seed and seedling in the early stages of development. For the control of insect pests that damage seeds for a long period, carbofuran was used, a very toxic product and sometimes toxic to seedlings. Currently, diamide-based products such as cyantraniliprole are used in seed treatment for the control of caterpillars and neonicotinoids such as imidacloprid and thiamethoxam for the control of sucking insects. More recently, chemical or biological products are available for the control of nematodes in seeds, such as abamectin and
The treatment of the seed with nitrogen-fixing bacteria can be carried out together with the treatment with chemical products or later before sowing, directly in the seed or in the planting furrow. The seed protection period does not exceed 25 days, and depending on the occurrence of caterpillars and other insects in the area, it may be necessary to apply an insecticide to protect the seedlings, which can be associated with the application of non-selective herbicide for weeds control.
Plants in the initial growth stages can be attacked by soil-dwelling fungi of the
Disease control is essentially made by use of fungicides with a specific site of action and/or protectors with multiple sites of action. Due to the frequent use of fungicides in the crop, the pathogen’s resistance to chemical molecules is of increasing concern. There are reports of selection of populations of
In addition to chemical control with fungicides, methods such as sanitary vacuum are also adopted, which aim to reduce the inoculum of the fungus during the off-season due to the absence of a host, some tolerant cultivars, and crop rotation with grass instead of soybean, favoring the management of plants from the previous culture that spontaneously germinated in the area of the current culture (voluntary plant). The sanitary vacuum is a law of the Brazilian Ministry of Agriculture and defined as the period of at least 90 days without the culture and voluntary plants in the field. The purpose of the sanitary vacuum is to reduce the survival of the fungus that causes Asian rust during the off-season and thus delay the occurrence of the disease in the crop.
In addition to the traditional diseases at the beginning and full development of soybeans, a group of diseases is characterized by affecting soybeans mainly at the end of the crop development cycle. This group of diseases are called late season diseases (DFC). The main diseases and pathogens of this group are cercospora leaf blight (
After sowing, young forms of beetles, aphids, bugs, and caterpillars that cut the seedlings causing failures in the stand constitute the biggest problems for the establishment of the soybeans crop. Thus, chemical products based on diamides and neonicotinoids have been frequently used both in seed treatment and in spraying up to 30 days after crop emergence. In the initial stages of development, the stink bugs existing in the area may come from the previous culture that remained in the straw and are harmful to plants since the beginning of their development.
In the vegetative development stages, defoliating caterpillars and, depending on the growing region, whitefly can cause direct and indirect damage to the crop with the transmission of viruses. Diamide-based products can be interspersed with active ingredients from other chemical groups or biological products based on
In the reproductive development stages, the stinkbug complex becomes the biggest problem, as in addition to causing direct damage to the grains, it can cause physiological disorders in the plant, such as leaf retention. Like defoliating caterpillars, bed bugs in the hottest hours of the day have the habit of staying closer to the ground, and in times with milder conditions, they become more exposed to spraying, which can make a difference for the control of these insects.
Weed control depends on the management adopted in the area, especially in crop succession, and two herbicide applications may be necessary in the initial post emergence of the crop, spaced 15–20 days apart. On weed management in soybeans, there is an initial period that the presence of weeds does not affect soybean yield; this interval is between 11 and 24 days after plant emergence. This interval can vary depending on the cultivar, weed infestation, and weather conditions [11]. The advance of GMO technology in cultivars that are resistant to different types of herbicides (i.e., Roundup Ready® soybean and Intacta 2 Xtend® soybean) allowed the use of post-emergence herbicides. The use of herbicides is the most economical and used technique for weed control. However, the inadequate use of the herbicides can select resistant or less tolerant weeds. In soybean crops, 335 cases of resistance have been reported worldwide since 1996 regarding different modes of action. In Brazil,
Weeds resistant to the 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPs) enzyme inhibitor herbicide started to be controlled with acetolactate synthase (ALS) enzyme inhibitor herbicides and are currently resistant to these two chemical groups.
In no-tillage cultivation areas, the application of plant protection products begins with the desiccation of the crop that precedes the soybean crop. Self-propelled sprayers, tractor-pulled or mounted on the three points of the hydraulic system are quite common in soybeans.
In the more advanced vegetative growth stages and in the reproductive stages, the high leaf area index, in some cultivars, reaches its maximum at the R2 development stage, making it difficult to control pests and diseases by the leaves forming a barrier to the penetration of spray droplets inside the crop canopy. The use of air assistance and transfer of electrical charge to the droplets at the spray boom can contribute to the reduction of these harmful agents to culture.
The adoption of technologies in a combined way can allow greater penetration of the droplets inside the canopy of the culture, favoring the contract of the chemical or biological product with the target to be reached. During this period, depending on the climatic conditions in the field, the appearance of soybean rust is common and, in Brazil, the existence of cultivars with an indeterminate growth habit makes it difficult to place the product in the lower parts of the canopy.
In some countries due to the use of early cultivars with determinate growth habits and greater spacing between planting rows, single or double, it is common to use hose drops. The hose drops are pendulum artifacts in the spray boom, and commonly with two spray tips at the distal end of the structure, spraying laterally, and providing better distribution of fungicides in the lower portion of the canopy.
The applications of plant protection products with drones are complementary to those carried out with self-propelled and aircraft on borders or specific points, depending on the harmful agent to be controlled. In the Midwest, Northeast, and North regions of Brazil, the predominance of large properties and the short interval between applications favor the use of agricultural aircraft and self-propelled for plant protection treatments in soybean crops. In areas of crop succession, anticipating the harvest through desiccation with herbicides has been a common practice.
In Brazil, sprayers coupled to the tractor’s hydraulic system, dragging and self-propelled, are still the most used equipment in the protection of the soybean crop. Self-propelled equipment appeared in Brazil in 1987 [13] and is currently the most widespread equipment in large agricultural properties. In recent years, boom sprayers have increased boom sizes from 9 m to up to 58 m. On the national market, boom supports or parts of the boom support made of metal, aluminum, or carbon fiber are available, thus making the structure lighter. The boom supports started to be developed with coil spring and shock absorber and the frame for fixing the spray boom in the system in a pendulum or trapezoidal shape, providing greater stability to the boom and greater uniformity in the application of phytosanitary products.
With the increase in the size of the spray boom and in an attempt to improve the stability of the entire system, some sprayer manufacturers opted for placing the spray boom in the front or middle part of the self-propelled. The new system for spray boom opening and closing is no longer mechanical and has become electronic. However, the greatest difficulty is the opening of the crop canopy to allow greater penetration of spray droplets in the lower parts of the canopy, especially in cultivars with indeterminate growth habits.
Soybean rust, due to the epidemiology of the disease, starts in the lower parts of the canopy, and the placement of the chemical in this region of the crop canopy becomes essential to control the disease. Different devices were developed for canopy opening, such as hose systems dragged over the crop and roller boom attached to the spray boom “canopy opener” [14]. These devices can potentially spread the pathogen’s inoculum faster in the growing area, in addition to causing the flower to fall in the crop’s reproductive development stage. Although the use of air assistance at the spray boom appeared in the 1980 [15], only in 1996, in Germany, air-assisted sprayers were shown at the spray boom manufactured by the Hardi company [16].
In 1997, the biggest Brazilian manufacturer of sprayers started the production of sprayers mounted on the tractor’s hydraulic system and pulled by an air-assisted tractor at the spray boom. Air assistance at the spray boom gives additional kinetic energy to those smaller droplets, making it possible to reach into the crop canopy by plant movement, provided there is sufficient leaf area index in the crop. The characterization and benefits of this technology associated with the spray boom are reported in research carried out by many researchers [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23]. With the use of technology in different crops and plant protection problems, the limitation of the use of air assistance at the spray boom on bare soil or in crops at early stages of development was evident, as drift by air deflection through the soil can be incremented. Currently, for the acquisition of equipment with this technology, it is essential for the farmer to analyze the cost-benefit ratio, considering that the use of the technology is limited.
In recent decades, another technology that was definitely adopted in the spraying of agricultural crops with the possibility of reducing application rates, drift, and environmental impact was the transfer of electrical charge to the drops (by indirect induction). This technology is dependent on the load-mass ratio and the distance from the target for good functioning, when not associated with air assistance. However, using only the transfer of electrical charge to the droplets is not enough to improve the penetration of spray droplets inside the crop canopy. The attraction of droplets by the plants promotes better spray coverage only at the top of the crop. Thus, in 2019, at Show Rural in the city of Cascavel, PR, Brazil, the self-propelled device was shown with air assistance at the spray boom and transfer of electrical charge to the drops combined.
In China and the United States, other companies also develop sprayers with the combination of both technologies (air assistance combined with the transfer of electrical charge to the drops). The first self-propelled prototype with a combination of both technologies compared with air assistance and conventional spraying on spray deposits on soybean crop was evaluated by our team in the Midwest region of Brazil, and the results are reported in [23].
Adjuvants can be defined by “a product added to the formulation or the spray application mixture that helps or modifies the pesticide action aiming to guarantee efficacy and safety of the application process.” The real role of the adjuvants in the spray process needs yet to be more discussed. However, the main characteristics of the adjuvants can be divided in modifiers of the compatibility, solubility, stability, foam formation and pH of the spray mix, reducer of drift and evaporation, also can interfere in the process of retention, adhesion, wetting, scattering, and mobility (absorption, penetration, and translocation) in the target (Table 1) [24].
Classification | Recommendation | Examples |
---|---|---|
Spreader | Increase leaf surface covered by spraying | Surfactants |
Adhesives and penetrating agents | Increase penetration, absorption or adhesion of the | Mineral oils, vegetable oils, latex derivatives |
Drift reducers | Decrease of very fine droplet size formation or increase the size of the droplet | Polymers, polysaccharides, oils, phospholipids |
Classification, recommendation of use and examples of adjuvants used in soybean crops.
A study [25] using different adjuvants mixed with the fungicide mancozeb conducted to evaluate the retention of the spray mix in soybean leaves showed that each adjuvant has a different interaction with the foliar surface. The adjuvants that promoted a greater retention, compared with the others tested, were a mineral oil and a polymer and the lower retention a surfactant. Also, this study concluded that the retention was associated with the surface tension of the spray mix, where both variables had a positive linear relationship, when both variables increase or decrease concurrently and at a constant rate.
Another variable frequently added to the use of adjuvants is the reduction of the spray volume, a technique often used to increase the operational capacity of sprayers, which may impact on the leaf coverage. The leaf area covered can increase exponentially as droplet diameter increases. However, doubling droplet diameter requires an eightfold of spray volume. The use of a soybean methylated oil, nonylphenol ethoxylate blend, for example, can increase the average wetted area in plant surfaces from 0.055 mm2 (water only) to 0.229 mm2. The addition of the adjuvant results in 4.16 times reduction in spray volume with equal spray coverage [26].
The control of soybean rust, one of the most important diseases for soybean crop, showed greater dependence of the surfactant at low spray volumes applications, which provided increases in the leaf surface coverage [27]. A big concern regarding spray application, even more important for nonselective herbicides, is spray drift and volatility. A study conducted to evaluate dicamba volatilization and drift showed that the addition of adjuvants (lecithin + propionic acid, lecithin + soybean methylated ester + ethoxylated alcohol or soybean methylated oil) can decrease droplet size and increase driftable droplet percentage [28]. However, when also considering surface tension and contact angle results also measured, the dicamba-only treatment has low droplet spread potential, which may negatively affect herbicide efficacy. These results demonstrate that it is not adequate to consider only one variable, but the interaction among them when choosing an adjuvant to mix. Therefore, the choice of which adjuvant is best in each situation should take in consideration the whole scenario.
When it comes to biopesticides (i.e., natural organisms, including their genes or metabolites or substances derived from natural materials, for controlling pests), the application technique is one of the most challenging steps because originally the concepts involving spraying were designed to synthetic molecules and not live organisms such as the biocontrol agents. Therefore, the correct method of delivery is as crucial as it is for synthetic molecules for an optimal performance, once its control efficacy against many pathogens and pests has been already proven throughout many years of research, not only on soybean but many other crops. Therefore, the concepts of spray application technology must be improved or modified to attend to the needs of the biocontrol agent.
There are three major types of augmented biological control: classical, inoculative and inundative. In this section of the chapter, the application techniques are going to regard mostly the inundative method, which is the massive production and release of biocontrol agents or natural enemies to control the pest or pathogen quickly. In this method, no significant reproduction by the natural enemy is expected in order to control the pest population. The disease/pest control is only a result of the released individuals. This strategy can be compared with those used for synthetic chemical pesticides.
The first step when spraying biocontrol agents is to understand the life cycle of the pathogen/pest and its dynamic in the environment to decide which is the better application technique for that specific target and is crucial to understand if the methodology chosen is adequate for the biocontrol agent, beyond that, the knowledge of the biocontrol agent mode of action is also a factor that should be accounted for.
Among the application techniques, there are three that stand out for biopesticides: spraying over the crop, seed treatment, and in furrow application, where each of them has its particularities.
The spray application over the crop is recommended mostly for most of the bioinsecticides and the biofungicides recommended to control foliar diseases and white mold. As an example of the importance of understanding the biocontrol agent and its target, white mold (
The seed treatment application recommendation for biocontrol agents follows almost the same principles of disease control as the synthetic fungicides. Biocontrol agents can be precoated or encapsulated onto the seed, the formulation of the biopesticide should guarantee a surviving period of desiccation. The seed encapsulation involves enveloping the seed, the biocontrol agent, and possibly other components such as pesticides or micronutrients, in a gelatinous or polymer gel matrix, promoting an enhancement of survival of the biocontrol agents on seed [29]. The products used in the seed treatment must be compatible with the biocontrol agent. Moreover, the seed has a maximum amount of product that can be added onto it, usually 10 mL per soybean seed.
In furrow application, targets are commonly nematodes and soilborne pathogens, this methodology applies the biocontrol agent during the soybean sowing directly on the seed. The seeder is adapted with a tank specific for this purpose, and in each row a solid stream nozzle is placed and the biopesticide is applied in a furrow. This technique when compared with seed treatment delivers the biopesticide in a more precise dose and at the correct moment.
Remote sensing is the process to retrieve important information from an object without physical contact between the sensor and the target [30, 31]. Along with the global positioning system (GPS) and geographic information system (GIS), remote sensing is part of the precision farming techniques. Remote sensing works by capturing information from a specific area (data or imaging), while GPS is responsible for georeferencing it to locate field variables as precisely as possible, and GIS is used to interpret the data obtained to produce the final outcomes, such as application maps. Therefore, through the integration of these techniques, it is possible to obtain sufficient data to interpret and decide on the most appropriate management for a field [31, 32].
From an electromagnetic flux emitted in different wavebands, there is an interaction with the object that can be manifested in reflectance, transmittance, absorbance, fluorescence, and phosphorescence [33]. Sensors have the ability to detect differences in these values, generating indicative data regarding its physical characteristics [31, 32, 34]. These characteristics are used to identify morpho-physiological changes in plants or vegetation, such as the incidence of pathogens or insects [35] and to distinguish between plant species, biomass level, and soil, helping to identify weeds within the crop [36]. The processes of acquiring spectral data, data modeling, and detection model construction are usually extensive and require a great amount of time and research.
For pesticides technology application, remote sensing is a powerful tool for a specific branch of precision agriculture known as spot spraying or site-specific spraying [37]. Firstly, it is necessary to acquire spectral data in the field, which is usually conducted through a passive sensor that does not have its own source of energy, such as satellites and spectroradiometers, but instead is capable of retrieving information through spectral analysis (spectral signature) or imaging [31]. All information from a field is gathered with the geographical positions of certain points of interest and finally supplied to the spraying system to spray locally only where it is necessary. These places can be defined based on the incidence of disease, pests, or weeds in the field. One of the greatest benefits is the savings of product waste where application is not necessary, environmental preservation, and a more conscious application toward a sustainable agriculture [36]. The capacity of identifying diseases even prior to visual symptoms is also a great opportunity to improve control efficacy as well as the spraying technology [33].
Another example for fungicides and insecticides application is to use remote sensing to identify different biomass levels of the crop canopy during the application and using this information to adjust the water volume according to its foliage density [38]. In the study [38], a mechanical sensor was used in front of a sprayer to evaluate the crop canopy density and to vary the spraying volumes based on the canopy foliar density. This operation allowed them to reduce 13% of insecticide use, while maintaining pest control efficacy and improving natural enemies’ preservation.
Nowadays, a more common monitoring by remote sensors is the one applied to herbicide treatments in preplant or over-the-top applications. An active sensor is placed at different sections of the sprayer boom and is capable of detecting weeds incidence as it moves through the field (real time monitoring), transmitting the information to a data center analyzer that uses it to make the application at the exact spot where the weed is located (Figure 1). These systems are equipped with dedicated valves at each spray nozzle in order to allow a unique nozzle control, such as actuated ball valves, solenoids, or PWM (pulse width modulation) valves.
Schematic demonstration of the real-time weed detection in the field by an active sensor, sending the signal to the spraying system that opens the spray nozzle right onto the weed.
Few innovations have been applied to these real-time sensors for herbicide management in soybean. At first, most of the systems were dependent on the weed detection in contrast to the soil (Green-on-Brown), therefore could only be applied to fallow lands [37]. Due to similarities in morphologies, physical characteristics, and colors, differentiation between plant species required advanced technology such as hyperspectral imaging sensors and deep learning algorithms [39]. This new system enables the differentiation of weeds from the main crop and is known as Green-on-Green technology.
Moreover, spot spraying application is promising to promote a proper pesticide resistance management of weeds and pathogens populations due to minimal exposure to the herbicides [40]. These technologies have potential to significantly improve spraying techniques toward a more sustainable application, acting heavily on chemicals waste reduction, resistance management, and a more precise application for a better control efficacy.
Tank mixing seeks to improve spraying operational capacity and reduce application costs by associating different plant protection products, fertilizers, as well as other products in the spray tank moments before application [41]. This practice was regulated in Brazil only in 2018 (Normative Instruction No. 40, October 11, 2018) [42], although it was widely performed a long time before this period, often with complex mixtures of products [43]. According to [43], 97% of applications in Brazil contained at least two products mixed in the spray tank.
Many applications of herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides in soybean crop are conducted at the same period, making it more convenient to combine the products in a single application. Therefore, it reduces the cost and time spent in operations, the movement of machines in the fields and, thereby, saves fuel, water and even reduces the number of machines needed [44]. Another great advantage of tank mixing different products is to help reduce pesticide resistance of pathogens and weeds. In Ref. [45], it is reported that applications of more than two modes of action of herbicides in tank mix reduce 83 times the likelihood of herbicide resistance selection.
Although very beneficial in terms of practicality, tank mixing requires guidelines to be correctly conducted, especially due to chemicals compatibility in the tank and positioning of technology application parameters, such as spray volume and droplet size. Overall, chemical compatibility is the main factor defining whether certain products can be mixed in the spray tank, regarding its physical and chemical compatibility [46].
Physical incompatibility may cause loss of spray solution stability, leading to the formation of precipitates, complexation, and phase separation. These changes are influenced by the pH, electrical conductivity, and surface tension of the spray liquid [46]. Furthermore, degradation of active ingredients is possible due to oxidation, hydrolysis, and encapsulation reactions [41]. On the other hand, chemical compatibility is related to the product effectiveness, in which certain products, when mixed, may vary the control efficacy it was expected to have when used alone [47]. Among several factors, incompatibilities can also occur due to improper agitation systems, water quality, application rate, and the solution pH [41].
Physical compatibility can be quickly tested in the field or laboratory through a common test known as “the jar test” [41]. The compatibility can be evaluated in a small proportion by mixing all products into a jar at the same rate or dose that it would be used in the tank, as well as the proportion of water and order added in the tank. Although it does not represent entirely how this mixing process would happen in the sprayer due to additional effects of pumps and accessories, it can be a great advantage to foresee any formation of precipitates or phase separation. Chemical compatibility can be evaluated through an efficacy test in laboratory or in the field.
One of the most important factors is the order that each product is added to the tank. In general, oily solutions are added lastly to the tank using water as a carrier. Among several methodologies, one of the most common is the addition of compatibility agents firstly, then water-dispersible granules, wettable powder, concentrated suspension, concentrated solution, and emulsifiable concentrate [41]. The product label should always be followed in this mixing process.
Tank mixes of different products are a common activity in soybean crops and have the potential to develop even more. More studies need to be conducted to assess different chemicals compatibility as well as to instruct farmers and operators on how to do it properly. However, its benefits are evident, and the need to gain operational conditions will still increase, which makes it even more important and applicable nowadays.
Several species of pests can attack during the initial development of the soybean/reduction in the crop stand and/or harming plant development, which consequently negatively affects the production of grains and/or seeds [48]. Among the soil pests, insects and nematodes may occur throughout the entire crop cycle, causing severe damage in the early stages of development of plants.
The preventive insecticide application on sowing furrowing is a promising alternative to avoid or minimize the damages caused by some pests on soybean plants [49, 50, 51]. In crop areas with high soil pest infestations, the application on planting furrows can be an option to ensure better distribution of pesticides [52]. Spraying pesticides in a planting furrow, especially when the pests are located nearby of the soil surface, can provide a good pest control [53].
In general, the insecticide application on sowing furrows is performed at the time of sowing and before covering the furrow with soil by the use of a sowing—fertilizer machine with a tank to store the pesticide solution or pesticide granules. This equipment may at the same operations fertilizer, planting and apply pesticide.
In Brazil, the application of insecticides in the seed furrow is still little used by soybean farmers with few studies in this area. However, it is noted that the insecticides application in the seed furrow has a great potential in soil pests control, promoting an initial protection to the plants with an adequate initial stand [54].
The use of insecticides applied in the seed furrow is limited, due to the need to use special machines for this operation, in addition to the higher costs of granules formulations available on the pesticide market [54]. Although this application technique is limited, some studies reported that this method of applying insecticides at label doses is effective in controlling pests that attack seeds, plants, or other subterranean plants parts for a period of 35–49 days [55].
As mentioned above, the use of pesticides on furrows to control soil pests and nematodes is not usually practiced by farmers. Most of the studies aimed to verify the effectiveness of insecticides. The effects of insecticides spraying on sowing furrow and seed treatment in order to control the insect
The same authors mentioned that the compatibility of insecticides with nitrogen fixing bacteria (
Greater grain yield values have been reported when the insecticides fipronil, clothianidin, endosulfan, and chlorpyrifos were applied in the sowing furrow of soybean in order to control larvae of
Increased soybean yield (approximately 20%) by application of disulfoton to the sowing furrow against two-striped leaf beetles (
The performance of insecticide efficiency applied in the sowing furrow against
The applications of insecticides in sowing furrows in soybean crops can be a viable and economic alternative to be used as one more tool in Integrated Pest Management (IPM). Studies with new insecticides molecules, recently available on the pesticide market, should be encouraged in order to elucidate the control effectiveness and compatibility with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, which is widely used by Brazilian farmers. The appropriate method of applications also should be considered to maximize the insecticide performance and reduce environmental contamination.
nlike aircraft with the presence of an on-board pilot, UAVs are used as a tool for applying pesticides in more complex terrain, with the surface with greater undulation, presence of obstacles, and in smaller areas [58]. In addition to spraying plant protection products, UAVs can also be used for image capture and remote sensing [59, 60, 61, 62].
The use of UAVs in spraying, already well established in some countries such as China and Japan, is due to the compatibility with the farms that predominate in the region [60]. In the year 2018, there were about 30,000 spraying UAVs in China, covering an area of approximately 17.8 million hectares [63].
It is possible that, even in large areas, as in the case of soybean crops that require a large number of applications, the use of UAVs can optimize the operational capacity of the application, reduce costs, and ensure the effectiveness of phytosanitary management, which can be used in localized applications for the control of weeds, pests, and diseases.
UAVs can be classified into two segments, fixed wing and rotary wing. Fixed-wing UAVs follow the same operating principle as an airplane and are primarily used in remote sensing to capture images and map creation used in precision agriculture. The rotary wing UAVs are divided into helicopters and multirotors, which have shown a high growth in use, presenting models that are widely used to obtain images and also in the application/spraying of agricultural pesticides. Rotary-wing UAVs, especially multirotor UAVs, have the advantage of remaining stable in the air even with fluctuating winds and perform maneuvers with greater precision [58, 62, 64, 65].
The majority of spray drones available are capable of carrying 10–15 kg of liquids corresponding to 10–15 L of spray liquid. Ability to spray from 1 to 4 ha h−1 (10–50 ha day−1), which can be 40–60 times faster than a manual operation. They have 4–6 spray nozzles, where each one can be positioned directly below a rotor or arranged on a spray boom. The application range can vary from 3 to 7 m in width [61, 62, 63]. Nozzles can be hydraulic (same as those used on land sprayers and airplanes) and also rotatory. As in airplanes, in UAVs, the electrostatic spraying system can also be used [66].
The drone’s flight time is highly dependent on its weight and the presence and/or intensity of winds, but in general, it varies from 10 to 30 minutes with a fully charged battery [63, 64].
The main limitation in the use of UAVs for spraying agricultural pesticides is related to the flight autonomy provided by the batteries. One solution would be to increase the capacity and size of the batteries; however, the greater the capacity and size, the greater the weight and consequently reducing autonomy [62, 64].
In 2021, the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Supply—MAPA, Brazil, through Ordinance No. 298, of September 22, 2021, established rules for the operation of remotely piloted aircraft intended for the application of pesticides and the like, adjuvants, fertilizers, inoculants, correctives, and seeds [67].
In the soybean crop, research has been conducted comparing weed control, soybean rust and stink bug control by conventional spraying methods (tractor-mounted sprayer) and with drones varying the application rate. Although research has been conducted on soybean crop with spraying, its aim is to obtain information to support applications in areas with difficult access with land sprayers, greater assertiveness in localized applications and in borders in soybean crop.
Some studies show the potential of using UAVs in soybean crops, evidencing that the deposition of the marker in the upper and middle thirds of soybean plants in applications carried out with UAV was similar to the deposition obtained with a CO2-propelled knapsack boom sprayer [68].
Recently, a field trial was installed on soybean crops at V4 stage crop to compare weed control between spraying performed with Sky Drones Pelicano 2020 drone (application rate 15 L ha−1, flight height 3.0 m, displacement velocity of 18 km h−1) and with the boom sprayer (application rate 120 L ha−1 and displacement velocity of 8.5 km h−1). At 7 days after application (DAA), weed control with both application techniques was very similar after application of the herbicide mixture clethodim plus glyphosate. In the next evaluations, the differences in the control can be better evidenced.
In Brazil, the potential for use is greater for small farmers and agricultural crops with greater added value. The biggest difficulty in using this technology is in the adjustment and calibration of the equipment in view of the variation in the application rate, flight height, droplet size, and spray tips more suited to the target to be reached.
Other challenges are the size of the plots and the experimental design, as the dimensions of the plots are larger when compared with spraying with terrestrial equipment. The potential risk of drift is little known with remotely piloted aircraft. In this sense, research has been conducted with adjuvants to minimize problems with drift in drone spraying. The use of rotating nozzles has also been adopted in this technology for providing a more homogeneous droplet spectrum and, depending on the droplet size, with greater control of spray drift.
Considerable advances have been made with another one tactic within the IPM using remotely piloted aircraft, which is the distribution of parasitoids in capsules in different crops for the control of insect pests. The use of this technique presupposes knowledge of the parasitoid’s ability to disperse, and through georeferenced points in the sites, the release of these insects is established.
In order to optimize the pesticide application technology in plant protection, it is necessary to overcome challenges such as connectivity in the field to better use the available resources of precision agriculture, as well as the training of people with specialized labor and the joint use of techniques of integrated management in the control of harmful agents to plants. In Brazil, especially in soybean, due to the existence of large areas of cultivation, the implementation of integrated management in plant protection has been a constant challenge, from the monitoring of pests, diseases, and weeds to decision-making and selection of techniques of control. From the south to the north of the country, the climatic conditions are very different, requiring different procedures for specific regions. In this sense, the Brazilian agricultural research company Embrapa has contributed significantly to the diffusion of technology to different regions. Regulatory activities in the commercialization of adjuvants with the inspection of the actual functionality of the adjuvants, the implementation of periodic inspection of agricultural machines, and the establishment of spray drift limits for manual, land (mounted, trailed, or self-propelled), and aerial (unmanned or with on-board pilot) applicator equipment could significantly contribute to the optimization of the entire national agricultural production process.
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He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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