List of intron retention genes and their functions.
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9021",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Novel Perspectives of Stem Cell Manufacturing and Therapies",title:"Novel Perspectives of Stem Cell Manufacturing and Therapies",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"In the 1950s, Nobel Prize winner Dr. E. Donnall Thomas was the first to successfully transplant hematopoietic stem cells. Since then, studies on stem cells have evolved and expanded worldwide. There are more than 650,000 scientific publications on stem cells and more than 8000 stem cell clinical trials. This book summarizes types of stem cells, key studies, ongoing trials, and future perspectives. It also includes ethical, formal, and legal aspects to give the reader a comprehensive view of the field.",isbn:"978-1-83962-513-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-503-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-514-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82986",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"novel-perspectives-of-stem-cell-manufacturing-and-therapies",numberOfPages:178,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"522c6db871783d2a11c17b83f1fd4e18",bookSignature:"Diana Kitala and Ana Colette Maurício",publishedDate:"April 14th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9021.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3414,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:2,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 10th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 1st 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 30th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 18th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 17th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"203598",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Diana",middleName:null,surname:"Kitala",slug:"diana-kitala",fullName:"Diana Kitala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/203598/images/system/203598.png",biography:"Assistant Professor Diana Paula Kitala graduated with degrees in Biotechnology and Biomedical Engineering, and while writing her doctoral thesis she completed postgraduate studies in the fields of clinical research, biostatistics, laboratory diagnostics, LEAN methodology, and Six Sigma management. She worked for 10 years in a tissue bank as GMP Head of Quality Assurance, in Dr. Stanisław Sakiel Burns Treatment Center, and as a university lecturer. She has taken part in scientific grants, and in 2019 she won the EWMA grant for the project 'Theory of constraints (TOC) and LEAN management for wider application of amniotic mesenchymal stem cells in a group of patients with chronic wounds.” She was nominated for the golden medal for merits for the Silesian Voivodeship. Now she is involved in writing national programs for medical research and evaluation of clinical research in Medcial research Agency. Personally, she is a mom of two daughters and a volunteer in saving stray animals.",institutionString:"Medical Research Agency",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"56285",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Colette",middleName:null,surname:"Maurício",slug:"ana-colette-mauricio",fullName:"Ana Colette Maurício",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/56285/images/system/56285.jpeg",biography:"Ana Colette Pereira de Castro Osório Maurício has a degree on Veterinary Medicine since 1995, a PhD on Veterinary Sciences since 1999 from Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária (FMV) - Universidade de Lisboa (ULisboa) and Habilitation in Veterinary Sciences (ICBAS-UP) since 2011. The PhD experimental work was developed at Instituto Gulbenkian Ciência (IGC) in Oeiras, Portugal, at Freiburg Medicine Faculty in Germany and at Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia (FCT) from Universidade Nova de Lisboa (UNL). At the present, she is an Associated Professor with Habilitation, from the Veterinary Clinics Department of Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas de Abel Salazar (ICBAS), Universidade do Porto (UP), she is the vice-President of the Pedagogic Council of ICBAS – UP. She is a Member of the Scientific Council and Member of the Representatives Council of ICBAS-UP. She is the Director of the Veterinary Sciences Doctoral Program at ICBAS – UP. She is the Scientific Coordinator of Regenerative Medicine and Experimental Surgery sub-unit from Centro de Estudos de Ciência Animal (CECA) of Instituto Instituto de Ciências, Tecnologias e Agroambiente da Universidade do Porto (ICETA). For the past 12 years she coordinates a multidisciplinary research group of Experimental Surgery and Regenerative Medicine, working with several biomaterials and cellular therapies. She started working with embryonic stem cells obtained by somatic nuclear transfer for therapeutic use; with Ian Wilmut´s group (Dolly’s cloned sheep). Several relevant publications had been produced and conducted to a PhD thesis that she co-supervised together with Ian Wilmut and to the first Portuguese cloned animal (R Ribas, B Oback, W Ritchie, T Chebotareva, J Taylor, AC Maurício, M Sousa, I Wilmut, 2006. Cloning and Stem Cells 8(1): 10; R Ribas, J Taylor, C McCorquodale, AC Maurício, M Sousa, I Wilmut, 2006. Biology of Reproduction 74: 307; R Ribas, B Oback, W Ritchie, T Chebotareva, T Ferrier, C Clarke, J Taylor, E Gallagher, AC Maurício, M Sousa, I Wilmut, 2005. Cloning and Stem Cells 7(2): 126). But ethical issues related to the collection and manipulation of human embryonic stem cells, even for therapeutic use is very controversial and understandable. So, more recently the potential of fetal stem cells derived from extra-embryonic tissues has been deeply investigated by her research group. Therefore, a continued effort to identify and characterize novel stem cell populations appears critical for widespread clinical success. This effort implies in vitro studies, experimental surgery and in vivo testing, before the clinical trials and the compassive treatment in such clinical cases where the traditional and standard treatments failed. Her research groups works exactly in this direction, so she created a multidisciplinary team, including Veterinaries, Engineers, Medical Doctors that through Experimental Surgery have a crucial role in the development of biomaterials and cellular therapies, allowing a close share of knowledge between biomaterials design, development of cellular systems, and surgeons needs when related to specific clinical cases. This group has several recent relevant publications in the research areas of nerve, bone, musculoskeletal and vascular tissue regeneration. In her laboratory have been working several PhD and Post-Doctoral students from various countries who have acquired a high level of competence in the study of tissue regeneration. She is the supervisor of several PhD, Post-Doctoral and Master students (16 PhD thesis already concluded with success and 14 PhD thesis on going), she is the co-author of a large number of scientific articles published in Indexed Journals (she publishes as Maurício AC) and of several scientific book chapters. She was the principal researcher of several national and international scientific projects. Editor of three international scientific books, inventor of three international patents.",institutionString:"University of Porto",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"10",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Porto",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"980",title:"Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine",slug:"tissue-engineering-and-regenerative-medicine"}],chapters:[{id:"75623",title:"Introductory Chapter: Stem Cells - Do We Really Know Everything Already?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96590",slug:"introductory-chapter-stem-cells-do-we-really-know-everything-already-",totalDownloads:227,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Diana Kitala and Wojciech Łabuś",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75623",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75623",authors:[{id:"203598",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Diana",surname:"Kitala",slug:"diana-kitala",fullName:"Diana Kitala"}],corrections:null},{id:"73991",title:"Development of a Novel Electromagnetic Rewarming Technology for the Cryopreservation of Stem Cells with Large Volume",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94556",slug:"development-of-a-novel-electromagnetic-rewarming-technology-for-the-cryopreservation-of-stem-cells-w",totalDownloads:367,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Applications of stem cells have been playing significant roles in scientific and clinical settings in the last few decades. The foundation of these approaches is successful cryopreservation of stem cells for future use. However, so far we can only cryopreserve stem cell suspension of small volumes in the order of 1 mL mostly due to the lack of an effective rewarming technique. Rapid and uniform rewarming has been approved to be beneficial, and sometimes, indispensable for the survival of cryopreserved stem cells, inhibiting ice recrystallization or devitrification. Unfortunately, the conventional water bath thawing method failed in providing the rapid and uniform rewarming. The conversion of electromagnetic (EM) energy into heat provides a possible solution to this problem. This chapter will focus on (1) analysis of the combined EM and heat transfer phenomenon in the rewarming of a biospecimen, (2) numerical investigation of the rewarming system, (3) practical setup of an EM resonance system, and (4) test of heating performance with large volume of cells.",signatures:"Shen Ren, Zhiquan Shu, Jiaji Pan, Ji Peng, Junlan Wang, Chunhua Zhao and Dayong Gao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73991",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73991",authors:[{id:"302595",title:"Prof.",name:"Dayong",surname:"Gao",slug:"dayong-gao",fullName:"Dayong Gao"},{id:"329175",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Shen",surname:"Ren",slug:"shen-ren",fullName:"Shen Ren"}],corrections:null},{id:"71407",title:"Umbilical Cord Blood and Cord Tissue Bank as a Source for Allogeneic Use",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91649",slug:"umbilical-cord-blood-and-cord-tissue-bank-as-a-source-for-allogeneic-use",totalDownloads:861,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recently, umbilical cord blood (CB) has received attention as the allogeneic optimum source for immunotherapies. More recently, the umbilical cord (UC) has been rapidly utilized as an abundant source of mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs), which migrate toward the inflammatory and damaged tissue to subside the inflammation and support tissue repair. Both CB and UC can be provided “off-the-shelf” cell products for immunotherapies and regenerative medicine. As biomedical wastes, CB and UC can be obtained noninvasively without any risks to the donor. CB cells and UC-derived MSCs (UC-MSCs) also have higher proliferation potentials than other cells obtained from adult tissues. In addition, UC-MSCs are less immunogenic and have significant immunosuppressive ability. Several clinical trials with CB or UC-MSCs have been conducted based on these advantages. The establishment of a stable supply system of CB and UC-MSCs is critical now for their utilization in regenerative and immune cell therapies. We have thus established the cord blood/cord bank, “IMSUT CORD,” as a new type of biobank, to supply both frozen CB and UC tissues and derived cells for research and clinical uses. In this chapter, we will introduce the overall flow from collection to shipment and discuss several issues that need to be resolved in unrelated allogeneic stable supply system.",signatures:"Tokiko Nagamura-Inoue and Fumitaka Nagamura",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71407",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71407",authors:[{id:"314277",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tokiko",surname:"Nagamura-Inoue",slug:"tokiko-nagamura-inoue",fullName:"Tokiko Nagamura-Inoue"},{id:"314278",title:"Prof.",name:"Fumitaka",surname:"Nagamura",slug:"fumitaka-nagamura",fullName:"Fumitaka Nagamura"},{id:"412135",title:"Dr.",name:"Tokiko",surname:"Nagamura-Inoue",slug:"tokiko-nagamura-inoue",fullName:"Tokiko Nagamura-Inoue"},{id:"412136",title:"Dr.",name:"Fumitaka",surname:"Nagamura",slug:"fumitaka-nagamura",fullName:"Fumitaka Nagamura"}],corrections:null},{id:"74179",title:"Patentability of the Human Embryonic Stem Cell Lines: A Legal and Ethical Aspect",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94483",slug:"patentability-of-the-human-embryonic-stem-cell-lines-a-legal-and-ethical-aspect",totalDownloads:332,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this study, patentability of the human embryonic stem cell lines has discussed in the legal and ethical perspectives. In vitro human embryonic stem cells can be defined as body parts that are departed from the body. Human embryonic stem cell lines are constituted of differentiated self-renewal pluripotent stem cells, which means they have no characteristics to become a human-being. However, interpreting the terms like human embryo and right to property widely can cause the human embryonic stem cell lines are misunderstood as unpatentable. For our point of view, giving the human embryo the protections of both personal rights of the donor and the right to property of the owner of the invention does not reduce the legal/moral status of the human embryo. Besides, the obligations which these rights imposes to their owners, such as the principle of human dignity and prohibition of financial gain can protect the human embryo in a better way.",signatures:"Tansu Sayar Kanyış, Ezgi Arslan and Oğuzhan Kanyış",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74179",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74179",authors:[{id:"325731",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"TANSU",surname:"SAYAR KANYIŞ",slug:"tansu-sayar-kanyis",fullName:"TANSU SAYAR KANYIŞ"},{id:"326115",title:"Ms.",name:"Ezgi",surname:"Arslan",slug:"ezgi-arslan",fullName:"Ezgi Arslan"},{id:"326116",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Oğuzhan",surname:"Kanyiş",slug:"oguzhan-kanyis",fullName:"Oğuzhan Kanyiş"}],corrections:null},{id:"73827",title:"Combined Application Therapies of Stem Cells and Drugs in the Neurological Disorder Attenuation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94484",slug:"combined-application-therapies-of-stem-cells-and-drugs-in-the-neurological-disorder-attenuation",totalDownloads:354,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Neurological disorders (NDs) are diseases of the central and peripheral nervous system that affected the hundreds of millions of people worldwide. Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is a common NDs with hallucinations and disturbance of consciousness that cause the abnormal neurological activity in any part of brain. Neuroinflammation (NI) has been identified in epilepsy-related tissue from both experimental and clinical evidence and suspected to participate in the formation of neuronal cell death, reactive gliosis and neuroplastic changes in the hippocampus, may contribute to epileptogenesis. The NI is tightly regulated by microglia, but it is thought that excessive or chronic microglial activation can contribute to neurodegenerative processes. Therefore, the modulation of microglia responses may provide a therapeutic target for the treatment of severe or chronic NI conditions. Although the condition responds well to antiepileptic drugs (AEDs), there are still unresponsive to AEDs in about 1/3 of cases. Neural stem cells are the origin of various types of neural cells during embryonic development. Currently, many results of stem cell therapies in the animal experiments and clinical trials were demonstrated the efficacious therapeutic effects in the attenuated symptoms of ND. Therefore, the combined application therapies of stem cells and drugs may be a promising candidate for the therapeutic strategies of NDs, especially TLE.",signatures:"Chia-Chi Chen, Ying-Ching Hung, Chia-Yu Lin, Hsiao-Yun Chen, Ping-Min Huang and Shao-Wen Hung",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73827",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73827",authors:[{id:"51520",title:"Dr.",name:"Shao-Wen",surname:"Hung",slug:"shao-wen-hung",fullName:"Shao-Wen Hung"},{id:"326391",title:"Dr.",name:"Chia-Chi",surname:"Chen",slug:"chia-chi-chen",fullName:"Chia-Chi Chen"},{id:"326392",title:"Dr.",name:"Ying-Ching",surname:"Hung",slug:"ying-ching-hung",fullName:"Ying-Ching Hung"},{id:"326393",title:"Dr.",name:"Chia-Yu",surname:"Lin",slug:"chia-yu-lin",fullName:"Chia-Yu Lin"},{id:"326394",title:"Dr.",name:"Hsiao-Yun",surname:"Chen",slug:"hsiao-yun-chen",fullName:"Hsiao-Yun Chen"},{id:"326395",title:"Dr.",name:"Ping-Min",surname:"Huang",slug:"ping-min-huang",fullName:"Ping-Min Huang"}],corrections:null},{id:"74605",title:"Dental Stem Cell Banking and Applications of Dental Stem Cells for Regenerative Medicine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95407",slug:"dental-stem-cell-banking-and-applications-of-dental-stem-cells-for-regenerative-medicine",totalDownloads:300,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Since the identification of mesenchymal stem cells, stem cell biology is a greatly researched field of regenerative medicine and tissue engineering therapies and has become an essential part of dentistry. Mesenchymal stem cells are multipotent stem cells that can differentiate into many cell types. Dental mesenchymal stem cell populations have been identified in dental pulp, human exfoliated deciduous teeth, periodontal ligament, dental follicle of third molars, tooth germ of third molars, gingiva of periodontium, alveolar bone, and apical papilla. Dental stem cells are the most natural, noninvasive source of stem cells that have been identified, and they have gained recent attention due to their accessibility and the associated relatively low cost of integration into regenerative therapy. Long-term preservation of dental stem cells is becoming a popular consideration and mirrors the ideology of banking umbilical cord blood. This review outlines the recent progress in the mesenchymal stem cells used in dentistry as well as some advancements that are being made in preserving dental stem cells for future personalized medicine. The aim of this study was to completely and concisely review the current use of adult dental stem cells specifically oral sources of stem cells, banking of dental stem cells, and applications or uses of dental stem cells specifically in oral regions and in a clinical setting.",signatures:"Karley Bates and Vincent S. Gallicchio",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74605",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74605",authors:[{id:"169299",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincent Salvatore",surname:"Gallicchio",slug:"vincent-salvatore-gallicchio",fullName:"Vincent Salvatore Gallicchio"},{id:"336448",title:"Dr.",name:"Karley",surname:"Bates",slug:"karley-bates",fullName:"Karley Bates"}],corrections:null},{id:"73739",title:"Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells from Animal Models: Applications on Translational Research",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94199",slug:"induced-pluripotent-stem-cells-from-animal-models-applications-on-translational-research",totalDownloads:579,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Over the history of humankind, knowledge acquisition regarding the human body, health, and the development of new biomedical techniques have run through some animal model at some level. The mouse model has been primarily used as the role model for a long time; however, it is severely hampered regarding its feasibility for translational outcomes, in particular, to preclinical and clinical studies. Herein we aim to discuss how induced pluripotent stem cells generated from non-human primates, pigs and dogs, all well-known as adequate large biomedical models, associated or not with gene editing tools, can be used as models on in vivo or in vitro translational research, specifically on regenerative medicine, drug screening, and stem cell therapy.",signatures:"Laís Vicari de Figueiredo Pessôa, Naira Caroline Godoy Pieri, Kaiana Recchia and Fabiana Fernandes Bressan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73739",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73739",authors:[{id:"249253",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabiana",surname:"Bressan",slug:"fabiana-bressan",fullName:"Fabiana Bressan"},{id:"329576",title:"Prof.",name:"Lais Vicari De Figueiredo",surname:"Pessôa",slug:"lais-vicari-de-figueiredo-pessoa",fullName:"Lais Vicari De Figueiredo Pessôa"},{id:"329577",title:"Dr.",name:"Kaiana",surname:"Recchia",slug:"kaiana-recchia",fullName:"Kaiana Recchia"},{id:"329578",title:"Dr.",name:"Naira Caroline Godoy",surname:"Pieri",slug:"naira-caroline-godoy-pieri",fullName:"Naira Caroline Godoy Pieri"}],corrections:null},{id:"71523",title:"Challenges for Deriving Hepatocyte-Like Cells from Umbilical Cord Mesenchymal Stem Cells for In Vitro Toxicology Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91794",slug:"challenges-for-deriving-hepatocyte-like-cells-from-umbilical-cord-mesenchymal-stem-cells-for-em-in-v",totalDownloads:394,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The in vitro toxicology field seeks for reliable human relevant hepatic models for predicting xenobiotics metabolism and for the safety assessment of chemicals and developing drugs. The low availability and rapid loss of the phenotype or low biotransformation activity of primary hepatocytes urged the stem cell differentiation into hepatocyte-like cells (HLCs). Umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells (UC-MSC), in particular, offer a highly available cell source, with few ethical issues and higher genetic stability. However, the dynamic and complex microenvironment of liver development, including the cell-ECM and cell–cell interactions, pressure gradients (oxygen and nutrients) and growth factor signaling that are critical for the differentiation and maturation of hepatocytes, challenges the progress of in vitro hepatic models. Promising strategies like (i) cytokine and growth factor supplementation mimicking the liver development; (ii) epigenetic modification; and (iii) bioengineering techniques to recreate the liver microphysiological environment are gaining increasing importance for the development of relevant in vitro liver models to address the need for higher predictivity and cost efficiency. In this context, this chapter reviews the existing knowledge and recent advances on the approaches for deriving HLCs from UC-MSC and their application for in vitro toxicology.",signatures:"Ana Sofia Martins Serras, Madalena Zincke dos Reis Fernandes Cipriano, Pedro Miguel da Graça Silva and Joana Paiva Gomes Miranda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71523",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71523",authors:[{id:"313888",title:"Prof.",name:"Joana P.",surname:"Miranda",slug:"joana-p.-miranda",fullName:"Joana P. Miranda"},{id:"313889",title:"MSc.",name:"Ana",surname:"Serras",slug:"ana-serras",fullName:"Ana Serras"},{id:"313891",title:"Dr.",name:"Madalena",surname:"Cipriano",slug:"madalena-cipriano",fullName:"Madalena Cipriano"},{id:"318079",title:"BSc.",name:"Pedro",surname:"Silva",slug:"pedro-silva",fullName:"Pedro Silva"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3348",title:"Tissue Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"39bb39271df3b373edb7d5e2cdeffb18",slug:"tissue-engineering",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3348.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3361",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fe914d49a96b3dcd00d27292ae23536e",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering",bookSignature:"Jose A. Andrades",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3361.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"40914",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose A.",surname:"Andrades",slug:"jose-a.-andrades",fullName:"Jose A. Andrades"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"786",title:"Advances in Regenerative Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"06d8a9addc021349418ffcc670142467",slug:"advances-in-regenerative-medicine",bookSignature:"Sabine Wislet-Gendebien",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/786.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65329",title:"Dr.",name:"Sabine",surname:"Wislet",slug:"sabine-wislet",fullName:"Sabine Wislet"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"560",title:"Bone Regeneration",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"293cde681a800f168d0b3ceb13bac38a",slug:"bone-regeneration",bookSignature:"Haim Tal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/560.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"97351",title:"Prof.",name:"Haim",surname:"Tal",slug:"haim-tal",fullName:"Haim Tal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"637",title:"Tissue Engineering for Tissue and Organ Regeneration",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5bef0b1c31f0555294c7d49580c8d241",slug:"tissue-engineering-for-tissue-and-organ-regeneration",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/637.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2631",title:"Current Basic and Pathological Approaches to the Function of Muscle Cells and Tissues",subtitle:"From Molecules to Humans",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"34fa138dc948d7121e2915ac84ea30cf",slug:"current-basic-and-pathological-approaches-to-the-function-of-muscle-cells-and-tissues-from-molecules-to-humans",bookSignature:"Haruo Sugi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2631.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"140827",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Haruo",surname:"Sugi",slug:"haruo-sugi",fullName:"Haruo Sugi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4486",title:"Cells and Biomaterials in Regenerative Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1c333e655d47208db36f2a886b49c160",slug:"cells-and-biomaterials-in-regenerative-medicine",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4486.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"824",title:"Tissue Regeneration",subtitle:"From Basic Biology to Clinical Application",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7b540e4a2d901e0b3c940f69d0fc058",slug:"tissue-regeneration-from-basic-biology-to-clinical-application",bookSignature:"Jamie Davies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/824.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"63994",title:"Prof.",name:"Jamie",surname:"Davies",slug:"jamie-davies",fullName:"Jamie Davies"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4610",title:"Muscle Cell and Tissue",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f2719cb06d2a1327298528772eacec55",slug:"muscle-cell-and-tissue",bookSignature:"Kunihiro Sakuma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4610.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"173502",title:"Dr.",name:"Kunihiro",surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"74511",slug:"corrigendum-to-has-the-yield-curve-accurately-predicted-the-malaysian-economy-in-the-previous-two-de",title:"Corrigendum to: Has the Yield Curve Accurately Predicted the Malaysian Economy in the Previous Two Decades?",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74511.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74511",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74511",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74511",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74511",chapter:{id:"72452",slug:"has-the-yield-curve-accurately-predicted-the-malaysian-economy-in-the-previous-two-decades-",signatures:"Maya Puspa Rahman",dateSubmitted:"December 9th 2019",dateReviewed:"March 21st 2020",datePrePublished:"June 11th 2020",datePublished:"December 23rd 2020",book:{id:"9534",title:"Banking and Finance",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Banking and Finance",slug:"banking-and-finance",publishedDate:"December 23rd 2020",bookSignature:"Razali Haron, Maizaitulaidawati Md Husin and Michael Murg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9534.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206517",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Razali",middleName:null,surname:"Haron",slug:"razali-haron",fullName:"Razali Haron"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"316535",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Maya Puspa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",fullName:"Maya Puspa Rahman",slug:"maya-puspa-rahman",email:"mayapuspa@iium.edu.my",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"72452",slug:"has-the-yield-curve-accurately-predicted-the-malaysian-economy-in-the-previous-two-decades-",signatures:"Maya Puspa Rahman",dateSubmitted:"December 9th 2019",dateReviewed:"March 21st 2020",datePrePublished:"June 11th 2020",datePublished:"December 23rd 2020",book:{id:"9534",title:"Banking and Finance",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Banking and Finance",slug:"banking-and-finance",publishedDate:"December 23rd 2020",bookSignature:"Razali Haron, Maizaitulaidawati Md Husin and Michael Murg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9534.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206517",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Razali",middleName:null,surname:"Haron",slug:"razali-haron",fullName:"Razali Haron"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"316535",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Maya Puspa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",fullName:"Maya Puspa Rahman",slug:"maya-puspa-rahman",email:"mayapuspa@iium.edu.my",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"9534",title:"Banking and Finance",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Banking and Finance",slug:"banking-and-finance",publishedDate:"December 23rd 2020",bookSignature:"Razali Haron, Maizaitulaidawati Md Husin and Michael Murg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9534.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206517",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Razali",middleName:null,surname:"Haron",slug:"razali-haron",fullName:"Razali Haron"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"12030",leadTitle:null,title:"Remote Sensing",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book will be a self-contained collection of scholarly papers targeting an audience of practicing researchers, academics, PhD students and other scientists. The contents of the book will be written by multiple authors and edited by experts in the field.",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"4c72e8ef86d70bb4f35a3b70ff698427",bookSignature:"",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12030.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 28th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 21st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 20th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 8th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 7th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10198",title:"Response Surface Methodology in Engineering Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1942bec30d40572f519327ca7a6d7aae",slug:"response-surface-methodology-in-engineering-science",bookSignature:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10198.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"321730",title:"Prof.",name:"Palanikumar",surname:"Kayaroganam",slug:"palanikumar-kayaroganam",fullName:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3828",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51a27e7adbfafcfedb6e9683f209cba4",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"75931",title:"The Role of Introns for the Development of Inflammation-Mediated Cancer Cell",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96754",slug:"the-role-of-introns-for-the-development-of-inflammation-mediated-cancer-cell",body:'
The functioning links between cancer and inflammation was approached by a great scientist and physician Rudolf Ludwing Carl Virchow in 1863 [1, 2, 3]. Thereafter, for long Virchow’s idea had almost been unevaluated and discussed insufficiently [1]. Balkwill and colleagues (2001) supported Virchow’s idea and stated that if molecular deregulation is the “match that lights the fire” of cancer, then some types of inflammation may act as the fuel that stimulates the flame. For instance, the inflammatory process act as a cofactor in malignancy in the bladder, cervical, ovarian, gastric, MALT (mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue) lymphoma, esophageal, colorectal, hepatocellular, bronchial, mesothelioma, and Kaposi sarcoma [3].
Currently, it is scientifically proven that inflammation promotes all stages of tumor formation as well as the development of cancer where chronic inflammation or non-resolving inflammation is playing a principal role in the initiation, promotion, malignant transformation, invasion and metastasis of cancer [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. Interestingly, cancer-related inflammation is representing its 7th position as a cancer hallmark and catching the current research attention in human cancer biology [5]. Basically, Inflammation act on cancer development by linking extrinsic and intrinsic pathway [9]. The extrinsic pathway develops inflammatory condition or microenvironment by inflammatory leukocytes particularly macrophages and soluble mediators (vasoactive amines such as histamine and serotonin, peptide such as bradykinin, and eicosanoids such as thromboxanes, leukotrienes, and prostaglandins) that raises cancer risk [9, 10, 11]. Intrinsic pathway is driven by genetic events (e.g. oncogenes, genetic aberrations) causing neoplastic transformation, initiate the expression of inflammation-related programs which guide the construction of an inflammatory microenvironment [11]. Inflammatory system involves the dynamic regulations of hundreds of genes and complex transcriptional program [12]. Moreover, the gene regulations by intron are often expressed in most of the cell through the effects of splicing or specific features [13, 14, 15]. Recently, several scientific reports claim that retained intron deregulates splicing machine in tumor transcriptoms [16, 17, 18]. Intron retention is considered as mis-splicing in which rather than being spliced out intron stays back and retained in mature mRNA [17]. However, the broad gap exists in monitoring of introns role in understanding of gene expression which could be a powerful tool in biotechnological and therapeutic applications. This chapter will cover intron’s role in the development of inflammation, intron retaining genes causing inflammation to cancer and finally unfolding of a hypothesis about CRISPR like machine to monitor introns function.
Inflammation is activated by leukocytes which make inflammatory mediators in the extrinsic pathway and this pathway is also triggered by various infections and toxic agents such as gastric acid reflux, autoimmune disease etc. [9]. Patients with inflammatory bowel diseases have an increased chance of getting colorectal cancer. As an example, about 43% of patients with ulcerative colitis develop colorectal cancer [19]. Moreover,
Intrinsic pathway is activated by genetic variation such as proto-oncogene activation, inactivated tumor suppressor genes, and chromosomal multiplication as well as mutation which develops neoplasia [22]. A gene coding protein namely tyrosine kinase RET shows rapid and ample genetic variation in human papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) and initiates the transcriptional program that links to the development of inflammation [33]. Transcriptome profile is activated by tyrosine kinase RET in human papillary carcinoma and comprises with colony-stimulating factors (CSFs), interleukin 1β (IL-1β), cyclo-oxygenase 2 (COX2), chemokines attacking monocytes and dendritic cells (CCL2 & CCL20), angiogenicchemokines (CXCL8), matrix-degrading enzymes and inhibitors, chemokine receptor (CXCR4) [34]. For example, patients with lymph nodes metastasis have shown an elevated level of tyrosine kinase RET activated inflammatory molecules in their biopsy results which demonstrate that genetic events have taken place in the pathogenesis of tumor and constructed an inflammatory environment [33, 34, 35]. Moreover,
Intron is defined as any intervening nucleotide sequence that formed splicing at the RNA level [39]. Intron was first discovered in 1970s with a traditional views that the coding region of eukaryotic genes are interrupted by introns which are spliced out from pre mature mRNA transcripts before the formation of mature mRNA [39, 40, 41]. After the elucidation of intron splicing mechanism, scientist became excited about its function on gene expression and speculated that may be introns carry out some function like regulation of splicing function, regulation of transcription, evolutionary function or coding capacity but there was no clear examples of their active functions on gene expression [41]. From the starting 21st century, many researches have claimed about the intron function on gene expression or intron mediated enhancement of gene expression [13, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47]. However, a question remains unclear that within the genome, who is responsible to remember or decide which intron or parts of nucleotide sequences are necessary to stay within the mature mRNA stand for inflammatory gene expression rather than form splicing that result in cancer? Current chapter sheds light on the above question and hypothesize CRISPR like machine in perspective of inflammation mediated cancer development.
After the discovery of alternative splicing (AS), the transcriptomic and proteomic complexity has increases significantly [47, 48]. Recent breakthrough studies in high-throughput sequencing have explored a pivotal role of AS in normal biology that more than 95% of human multi exonic genes are subject to AS and produce at least two alternative isoforms [49, 50]. Moreover, Braunschweig and colleague compared 11 vertebrate species and observed that about 50–75% of multi-exonic genes are affected by intron retention (IR) which is one kind of AS [47, 48, 51]. While another study showed that IR affects near about 80% of protein coding genes in humans [52]. Some scientific reports also considered IR as a harmful process for the body by slowing down splicing kinetics and delaying the onset of gene expression, by raising pre-mRNA degradation in the nucleus through nuclear exosomes and finally by enhancing cytoplasmic pre-mRNA degradation through nonsense-mediated decay [51, 53, 54]. This statement is also supported by the Green and colleague’s research as the genes that encoded the regulators of macrophage transcription, signaling inflammation, and phagocytosis has increased their expression when the IR events decreased [55]. As it is known, that intron retention (IR) is the process where instead of typically being spliced out, the introns remain intact in the mature mRNAs and thus whole process of IR supposedly has numerous physiological drawbacks resulting in different diseases [47, 48]. Currently, many researchers strongly claim that IR is a key mechanism to control gene expression during the development, differentiation and activation of several types of mammalian cell [56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63]. A recent study by Green and colleague claimed that intron retention affected the expression of key genes
Gene name | Protein name | General function | Types of cancer that is developed by IR gene | Abnormal function | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
TGFB Induced Factor Homeobox 2 | TGF-β-induced factor homeobox 2 ( | Ovarian cancer | Over expressed | [64, 65] | |
Epstein–Barr nuclear antigen 3 | This gene plays a principle role for activation and immortalization of human B-cells. Represses transcription of viral promoters TP1 and Cp interact with RBPJ and also inhibits the | Lymphoma and Epithelial cancers | Amplication | [66, 67] | |
Apolipoprotein E4 | This gene gives instructions to make a protein called apolipoprotein E. This protein combines with fats (lipids) in the human body to form molecules called lipoproteins. Lipoproteins in body package cholesterol and other fats and transfer them by the bloodstream. | Breast cancer | Increased frequency | [68, 69] | |
Epidermal growth factor receptor | Receptor tyrosine kinase binding ligands of the EGF family. They activate a lot of signaling cascades to transform them extracellular cues into appropriate cellular responses. | Lung cancer | Mutation or cell damage | [70, 71] | |
Receptor Tyrosine Kinase | Ovarian cancer, cholangiocarcinoma, inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor, colorectal, and angiosarcoma | Mutation | [72, 73] | ||
RUNX Family Transcription Factor 1 | The protein encoded by this gene represents the alpha subunit of CBF(Core binding factor) and is thought to be involved in the development of normal hematopoiesis. Chromosomal translocations involving by this gene are well-documented and have been associated with several types of leukemia. Three transcript variants encoding different isoforms have been found for this gene | Myeloid and lymphoid | Mutation | [74, 75] | |
Tumor Protein 53 | Breast cancer, bone and soft tissue sarcomas, brain tumors and adrenocortical carcinomas (ADC), leukemia, stomach cancer and colorectal cancer | Gene Alternation or Deletion or Mutation | [76, 77] |
List of intron retention genes and their functions.
PCR technique revealed two alternate splice forms of
The expression of the
It was claimed that 2340 and 1422 genes show tumor-specific and normal tissue-specific retention events respectively [89, 90]. For example,
Intron retention frequency may be responsible to inactive tumor suppressor genes in many cancers cell [93]. Study revealed that in cancerous condition, retained intron transcript exits in NMD pathway and inactivates the
The evolutionary history and relationship of an organism or group of species are named phylogeny. Phylogeny depicts the connection of an organism. Phylogenetic relationships give information on shared common ancestry but not obligatory how organisms are similar or different. Phylogenic tree analysis of all genes those are performing intron retention scenario, PcGs and Ras oncogenes (Figures 1–3) has done to find out the relation among the genes. MEGA X software has been used to construct the phylogenic tree to understand the relation among all the cancers genes (Tables 1 and 2).
Phylogenetic tree of intron retaining (IR) genes.
Phylogenic tree between
Phylogenic tree among IR gene, RAS oncogenes and PcGs.
Gene name | Protein name | General function | Types of cancer that is developed by IR gene | Abnormal function | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
B-lymphoma Moloney murine leukemia virus insertion region-1 | This gene functions through chromatin remodeling as a principle epigenetic repressor of numerous regulatory genes involved in embryonic development and self-renewal in somatic stem cell and also plays a median role in DNA damage repair. It is an oncogene and abnormal expression is related with multiple cancers and resistance to certain chemotherapies. | Gastric, ovarian, breast, head and neck, pancreatic and lung cancer, primary hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and endometrial carcinoma | Over expression | [95, 96] | |
Chromobox proteins 7 | This gene encodes a protein that comprises the CHROMO (CHRomatin Organization MOdifier) domain. It is thought to control the lifespan of several normal human cells. | Breast, Thyroid, Colorectal, Pancreas, Lung carcinoma and Glioblastoma | Down regulation | [97, 98] | |
Phenylalanine Hydroxylase | This gene gives instructions for making an enzyme called phenylalanine hydroxylase. This enzyme is responsible for the primary step in processing phenylalanine, which is a building block of proteins (an amino acid) obtained through the diet. | Liver cancer | Down regulation | [99, 100] | |
Ring Finger 1A | This gene encodes proteins characterized by a RING domain, a zinc-binding motif related to the zinc finger domain. The gene product can bind DNA and can act as a transcriptional repressor. It is related with the multimericpolycomb group protein complex. | Hepatocellular and colorectal carcinomas | Down regulation | [101, 102] | |
Polycomb group ring finger 2 | Breast cancer, Prostate cancer | Loss of expression and down regulation | [103, 104] | ||
Enhancer of zeste homolog-2 | The | Breast cancer, Colorectal cancer, Endometrial cancer, Gastric cancer, Liver cancer, Lung cancer | Over expression | [105, 106] | |
Embryonic ectoderm development | This gene encodes a member of the Polycomb-group family. It maintains the transcriptional repressive state of genes over successive cell generations. This protein interacts with enhancer of zeste 2, the cytoplasmic tail of integrin beta7, immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) MA protein, and histone deacetylase proteins. This protein mediates repression of gene activity through histone deacetylation, and may act as a specific regulator of integrin function. Two transcript variants encoding distinct isoforms have been identified for this gene. | Colorectal Cancer, acute myeloid leukemia and diffuse large B cell lymphoma | High expression | [107, 108, 109] | |
suppressor of zeste 12 homolog | This zinc finger gene has been detected at the breakpoints of a recurrent chromosomal translocation reported in endometrial stromal sarcoma. Recombination of these breakpoints results in the fusion of this gene and | Colorectal, ovarian and non-small lung cancer, head and neck squamous cell carcinoma | Over expression | [110, 111] | |
PHD fing protein 19 | Hepatocellular carcinoma, glioma, and ovarian cancers, glioblastoma progression, prostate cancer | Over expression | [112, 113] | ||
TumourProtein 53 | Functions are the same as discussed in Table 1 | Types of cancers are the same as discussed in Table 1 | Gene alternation or deletion or mutation | [76, 77] | |
Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene | The | Non-small cell lung cancer, colorectal cancer, and pancreatic cancer | Mutation | [114, 115] |
List of PcGs genes and their functions.
Figure 1 demonstrates that the vertical line on the left side is the common ancestor or the root of the seven gene sequences from which the genes have been evolved in a period. The evolution period can be explained through the horizontal lines near the sequences. The small length of lines before sequences means the sequences evolved in a short period whereas the long length of lines means longer time was needed for the sequences to be evolved. The common ancestor or root has been divided into two branch points. From the first branch point total of five sequences have been modified which were
Figure 2 depicts that both type of cancer genes (
Figure 3 demonstrates that all the genes were evolved from a common ancestor. The IR gene
CRISPR-Cas9 is also known as a genome-editing tool where CRISPR stands for “Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats and Cas9 is an enzyme that cuts foreign DNA [116]. In the 21st century, CRISPR-Cas9 is being used immensely in medical technology to edit, remove or add a gene to correct genetic defects [116]. CRISPR has conformed from the natural defense mechanism of bacteria, archaea and developed an immune system by CRISPR loci [116]. CRISPR and Cas9 enzyme serve as an immune guard and provide safety against bacteriophage, viruses, and foreign invaders [117, 118, 119]. The immunization process after invading foreign genetic elements, a small fragments of foreign DNA are integrated into the CRISPR repeat-spacer array within the host chromosome as new spacers. Thus, a genetic record of prior infection will save into the host body that enables to prevent future invasion of the same invader [120, 121] (Figure 4).
CRISPR biology.
The nucleotide repeats and spacers are main two component of CRISPR. Repeated sequence of nucleotide is distributed in the CRISPR region and Spacers are a small portion of DNA present in the CRISPR region. Destruction of foreign invading DNA or RNA occurs by Cas9 enzyme. If in future, the foreign body again attacks the organism, they fight it off as they have the virus or foreign invader’s DNA from beforehand and thus they recognize it and kill it [121]. So in CRISPR biology, spacer acts as a responsible sequence to remember or decide which foreign body needs to be killed where Cas9 enzyme plays a pivotal role. According to our hypothesis, intron network might work as CRISPR like functioning model.
According to the section 3, it is confirmed that IR have the ability to influence inflammation mediated cancer development. From the CRISPR function it is clear that according to the demand of the cell, CRISPR can get activated. It might be possible that according to the demand of the abnormal cells, intron retention may form to confirm inflammation mediated malignancy state (Figure 5). Moreover, our phylogenetic tree analysis depicts that PcGs,
Illustration of retained intron in the gene causing mutation which leads to inflammation and tumorigenesis resulting in development of cancer.
Cancer is a genetic disease and is one of the leading causes of death around the world. As a genetic event, the intron retention causes inflammation as well as the development of cancer cells. So far, it is clear that the intron is spliced away during gene expression while exons remain and express the genes. However, the retention of introns is an unlikely phenomenon that differs from the common hypothesis and appears anomalous. The genes involved in retaining intron have a carcinogenic effect. It may be speculated that some nucleotide sequence whether it is coding or non-coding region could function as a memory sequence, hence are able to remember intronic sequence as like spacer responsibility of CRISPR system and would only be functioning according to the demand of the cell. Future in depth analysis on intron retaining genes is required to explore their effect on inflammation and cancer.
We gratefully acknowledge Asian Network of Research on Antidiabetic Plants (ANRAP) and Bangladesh University of Health Sciences (BUHS) for providing all types of logistic facilities to conduct this work.
Vascular endothelium growth factor Papillary thyroid carcinoma colony-stimulating factors Interleukin 1β Cyclo-oxygenase 2 Polycomb complex target genes Alzheimer’s disease Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats Alternative splicing Intron retention Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue
The control of industrial processes requires efficient control loops. A majority of the control loops in various industries are implemented by the Proportional-Integrative-Derivative (PID) control algorithms. For efficient control, the PID controllers require proper tuning of the PID controller parameters. The parameters can be calculated to optimise various performance criteria such as integral of error (IE), integral of absolute error (IAE), integral of squared error (ISE) and similar [1, 2, 3, 4]. However, the most important decision that should be made in advance is the choice of the main purpose of the closed-loop system. Namely, the user should choose between the optimal closed-loop responses to reference changes (so-called tracking responses) or the optimal response to process disturbances. While there are many industrial processes that require optimal reference tracking responses, such as robot manipulation, welding, and batch processes, the majority of industrial processes require optimal disturbance rejection.
The history of tuning rules is long, originating in the 1940s with the famous Ziegler-Nichols tuning rules. In the following decades, many other tuning rules have been developed [1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. The rules can be generally categorised according to the required data of the process. The process can be described either in parametric form, e.g., as a process model (transfer function), or in nonparametric form, e.g., as a process time-response.
A relatively new tuning method that optimises either closed-loop tracking or disturbance rejection is the Magnitude-Optimum-Multiple-Integration (MOMI) method [7, 9, 11, 12]. The MOMI method is based on the Magnitude Optimum method, which aims to optimise the frequency response of the closed loop to achieve fast and stable closed loop time response [10, 13, 14, 15]. An interesting feature of the MOMI method is that it works either on the process given by its transfer function (of arbitrary order with time delay) or directly on the time response of the process during the steady state change. It is worth noting that both the parametric and non-parametric process data give exactly the same PID tuning results.
Many tuning methods for PID controllers provide different sets of controller parameters for tracking and disturbance rejection response. Similarly, the MOMI method primarily optimises the tracking response, while its modification, the Disturbance-Rejection-Magnitude-Optimum (DRMO) method, aims at optimising the disturbance rejection response. The latter significantly improves the disturbance rejection response, while the tracking response slows down due to the implemented reference-weighting gain or reference signal filter [9, 16, 17].
The main approach presented in this chapter is the alternative approach. First, the parameters of the PID controller are optimised for tracking performance. Then, a simple disturbance estimator is introduced to significantly increase the disturbance rejection performance [18, 19]. The advantages of the above approach are twofold. First, the disturbance rejection performance can significantly outperform that obtained by the DRMO method. Second, the parameters of the disturbance estimator can also be obtained directly from the non-parametric process data in the time domain. Therefore, the proposed approach can still be applied to the process data which is either in parametric or non-parametric form.
However, in practice, the process output noise is always present. If the controller or estimator gains are too high, the process input signals may be too noisy for practical applications. Therefore, noise attenuation should already be taken into account when calculating the controller and estimator parameters. This chapter shows how to achieve the best trade-off between performance and noise attenuation.
The classic 1-degree-of-freedom (1-DOF) control loop configuration of the process and the controller is shown in Figure 1, where the signals
The 1-DOF PID controller and the process in the closed-loop configuration.
A process model (1) can be described by the following process transfer function:
where
The PID controller is described by the following expression:
where
The closed-loop transfer function
Since the structure of a 1-DOF PID controller does not provide optimal tracking and disturbance rejection at the same time, the 2-degrees-of-freedom (2-DOF) controller can be used instead [1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 20], where
as shown in Figure 2, where parameters
The 2-DOF PID controller and process in the closed-loop configuration.
The MOMI and DRMO methods, as mentioned earlier, are based on the Magnitude Optimum (MO) method, which goes back to Whitley in 1946 [10]. The MO method shapes the closed-loop amplitude frequency response equal to one in a wide frequency range [6, 7, 10, 12, 13, 14, 21]. Such a closed-loop frequency response is usually “mirrored” into a fast and stable closed-loop time response.
The calculation of controller parameters has been simplified when using the MO method by determining the process characteristic areas or moments, which can be measured directly from the time responses during the change of the process steady-state [12, 15, 21, 22]. The mentioned areas or moments (
The controller parameters, for a given filter time constant
where the modified areas A0* to A5* are:
The reference-weighting factors are
by using expression (7) [9]. The aforementioned modification of the method, referred to as the MOMI method, allowed the controller parameters to be computed directly from the process time response [12, 21] or from the process transfer function.
Since the MOMI method aims at optimising the tracking performance, the disturbance rejection performance may be degraded for some types of processes.
To improve the disturbance-rejection performance, the optimisation criteria of the MOMI method were modified accordingly. The new method, referred to as the DRMO (Disturbance-Rejection-Magnitude-Optimum) method, achieved significantly improved disturbance rejection performance [9, 16, 17].
Similar to the MOMI method, the controller parameters in the DRMO method are also based on characteristic areas or moments. Therefore, the controller parameters can be calculated either from the process time-response or from the process transfer function.
The PID controller parameters are calculated according to the following expressions when using the DRMO method [9, 16, 17]:
where
and the derivative gain
The DRMO tuning method significantly improved the disturbance rejection performance, especially for the lower-order processes. However, the reference tracking becomes slower due to the reference-weighting factors
In order to improve the disturbance rejection response, while retaining the tracking response obtained by the MOMI method, a disturbance estimator has been added to the PID controller
The PID controller with disturbance estimator.
The disturbance estimator consists of the process model
the estimated disturbance
In this case the ideal disturbance compensation is achieved. However, in practice, model mismatch may occur (due to changing process characteristics in time or working point, lower-order process model or the process non-linearity), and the inverse of the process usually cannot be obtained, since majority of the actual processes are either strictly proper or they have time delays. Therefore, another strategy is required.
For practical applications, the solution has to be as simple as possible. In this manner we decided to use the following process model, the inverse process model and the disturbance estimator filter:
where
The remaining question is how to obtain the process model if the actual process is of the higher order or if the actual process is not known (e.g. the areas (moments) were calculated directly from the process time-response)? Fortunately, the process model can be calculated directly from the obtained areas (5), as derived in [23]:
The process model delay
Now, all the model parameters are known and the disturbance filter
Derivation of disturbance filter parameters depends mainly on desired disturbance rejection performance. It is natural that the disturbance signal reconstruction (
With sufficiently small time constant (
One remaining parameter of the disturbance filter
It means that, by applying
Figure 4 shows an example on delayed second-order process, when applying the step-wise external process input disturbance signal
The closed-loop signals when applying step-wise external process input disturbance signal with disturbance filter gains
The remaining question is how to find the most appropriate filter gain
should be optimised according to the modified MO criterion [9, 16]. Note that expression (17) holds when the process and the model transfer functions are equivalent. Since the disturbance filter time constant is defined, and all of the controller and the model parameters are calculated, the only optimisation parameter is the gain
where
For the given controller filter (
Calculation of the controller, model and filter parameters.
Illustrative example 1
To illustrate the proposed design of DE-MOMI method, according to control structure in Figure 5, let us calculate the controller, model and disturbance filter parameters for the following processes:
The a-priori chosen filter time constants were:
The characteristic areas, calculated from (5) and (7), are given in Table 1.
Areas | 1 | 2.50 | 4.13 | 5.77 | 7.42 | 9.07 |
Areas | 1 | 2.60 | 4.39 | 6.21 | 8.04 | 9.87 |
Areas | 1 | 3.20 | 6.62 | 11.26 | 17.12 | 24.21 |
Areas | 1 | 3.30 | 6.95 | 11.96 | 18.32 | 26.04 |
The calculated areas for the processes (20) without and with the controller filter.
Next, the PID controller parameters are calculated from (6) and from (9), since we are going to compare the proposed DE-MOMI method with MOMI and DRMO methods. The calculated controller parameters are given in Table 2.
Controller parameters | |||
---|---|---|---|
MOMI controller for | 1.81 | 0.89 | 0.93 |
DRMO controller for | 2.25 | 1.49 | 0.93 |
MOMI controller for | 1.61 | 0.64 | 1.08 |
DRMO controller for | 1.93 | 0.98 | 1.08 |
The process models
Finally, the disturbance filter gain
Therefore, the complete inverse of the models with accompanying disturbance filters (see Figure 3) are the following:
The closed-loop responses, obtained with the calculated controller, model and filter parameters, for the MOMI, DRMO and the proposed DE-MOMI method, are given in Figures 6 and 7. At
The closed-loop responses on the process
The closed-loop responses on the process
The disturbance rejection performance of the DE-MOMI method can be increased by decreasing the disturbance filter time constant
Calculating the controller and DE parameters is a relatively simple process. However, to simplify it even further, all Matlab/Octave scripts are available on the OctaveOnline Bucket website [25]. The layout of the website is shown in Figure 8. To calculate the controller and DE parameters, the user must 1) change the process and filter parameters, 2) press the “Save” button, and 3) press the “Run” button. The script will be executed and on the right side of the web screen all calculated parameters will be displayed. Note that users can change the content of the script only temporarily.
The website layout for the calculation of the controller and the DE parameters.
As already mentioned in the previous sub-chapter, the output noise of disturbance estimator (
In practice, it is important to keep the controller output noise within some limits. Namely, if the controller’s and the estimator’s filter time constants are too low, the DE-MOMI controller output noise can be so high that the controller would be useless in practice.
The controller noise is mainly caused by the process output noise
In practice, on the other side, it is enough to keep the noise sufficiently low at some sufficiently high frequency. The definition of “high frequency” is arguable. In discrete-realisation of the controller, the sampling frequency is
where
As already mentioned above, the source of controller noise is the process output noise
where
In practical applications of the DE-MOMI method, the noise specifications (limitations) should be given in as simple form as possible for the user (operator). We decided that the actual parameters, given by the user should be the high-frequency gains of the controller (
The actual gain of the PID controller around the chosen high frequency
The controller filter time constant can then be calculated as:
Since the PID controller parameters depend on the filter time constant
Calculation of the filter and controller parameters according to the desired controller high-frequency gain
The calculation of the disturbance filter high-frequency gain
In a similar manner, the disturbance filter time constant can be derived as:
Since the calculated filter gain
Calculation of the disturbance filter parameters according to the desired disturbance filter high-frequency gain
Illustrative example 2
Let us illustrate the calculation procedure for the following processes:
Note that other process models were chosen as in the previous case (20) in order to test different types of processes. The chosen high-frequency gains of the PID controller and the disturbance filter are
The initially chosen filter time constants were (the values are not critical):
The characteristic areas are calculated from (5). For the given high-frequency gain
Note that indexes 3 and 4 in above filter time constants stand for the processes
The areas are given in Table 3 and the controller parameters are given in Table 4.
Areas | 1 | 1.40 | 1.50 | 1.52 | 1.53 | 1.53 |
Areas | 1 | 1.52 | 1.68 | 1.72 | 1.73 | 1.73 |
Areas | 1 | 5.00 | 14.50 | 32.17 | 60.71 | 102.8 |
Areas | 1 | 5.19 | 15.50 | 35.14 | 67.45 | 115.8 |
The calculated areas for the processes (32) without and with the controller filter.
Controller parameters | |||
---|---|---|---|
MOMI controller for | 2.35 | 1.88 | 0.48 |
DRMO controller for | 2.91 | 3.83 | 0.48 |
MOMI controller for | 0.84 | 0.26 | 0.77 |
DRMO controller for | 0.94 | 0.32 | 0.77 |
The process models
According to the chosen high-frequency gain
Therefore, the complete inverse of the models with accompanying disturbance filters (see Figure 3) are the following:
The closed-loop responses for the MOMI, DRMO and the proposed DE-MOMI method, are given in Figures 11 and 12. Again, the disturbance rejection performance of the DE-MOMI method is the best (note that the unity-step process input disturbance signal was applied at the half of experiment time). The level of controller output (
The closed-loop responses on the process
The closed-loop responses on the process
The disturbance rejection performance of the DE-MOMI method can be additionally improved by increasing the high-frequency gain
The computation of the controller and the DE parameters can be performed similarly as before on another OctaveOnline Bucket website [26]. The calculation of the parameters can be performed similarly as shown in Figure 8, with the difference that the name of the script is now Octave_Calc_GC_GF_Noise.m. To calculate the controller and DE parameters, the user must 1) change the process and noise gain parameters, 2) press the “Save” button, and then 3) press the “Run” button. The script will run and the right side of the web screen will display all the calculated parameters. Note that users can only temporarily change the contents of the script.
In this sub-chapter the proposed method will be compared to some other tuning methods based on non-parametric description of the process. Besides the already introduced MOMI and DRMO methods, the DE-MOMI method will be compared to Åström and Hägglund’s tuning method [1] (denoted as “AH”) and to ADRC method [27].
The AH method [1] is based on the calculation of the maximum sensitivity index
The ADRC method [27, 28, 29, 30, 31] is based on a simple controller with three gains associated with extended state-observer (ESO), as shown in Figure 13.
The ADRC control structure with the controller gains (up) and the extended state observer (down).
The method does not require the process transfer function. However, few user-defined parameters, like the observer speed, the desired settling time and the main controller gain
Since ADRC method depends on three user-defined parameters, which, in great extent, determine the closed-loop performance, we were limited to the set of processes tested in [27]. Someone would argue that, by limiting our choice to the mentioned processes, we are favouring the ADRC method. However, it should be noted that in [27], the ADRC method was tested on 8 different processes, so the choice of processes was actually not significantly limited. In this regard, the following two processes have been selected:
The PID controller parameters for the MOMI, DRMO, DE-MOMI and AH methods are given in Tables 5 and 6. The ADRC controller parameters are given in Table 7. The chosen high frequency gains for the PID controller and disturbance estimator are
Process | Tuning method | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
MOMI | 6.45 | 5.35 | 1.108 | 0.055 | 1 | 1 | |
DRMO | 9.69 | 23.71 | 1.108 | 0.055 | 0 | 0 | |
DE-MOMI | 6.45 | 5.35 | 1.108 | 0.055 | 1 | 1 | |
AH | 21.35 | 53.05 | 2.22 | 0.055 | 0.24 | 0 | |
MOMI | 0.53 | 0.126 | 0.66 | 0.165 | 1 | 1 | |
DRMO | 0.57 | 0.140 | 0.66 | 0.165 | 0 | 0 | |
DE-MOMI | 0.53 | 0.126 | 0.66 | 0.165 | 1 | 1 | |
AH | 0.52 | 0.136 | 0.52 | 0.165 | 0.36 | 0 |
The calculated controller parameters for the processes (39) for MOMI, DRMO, DE-MOMI and AH method.
Process | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 1.205 | 0.205 | 0.043 | 0.018 | 0.909 | |
1 | 2.58 | 1.84 | 5.42 | 0.077 | 0.159 |
The calculated disturbance estimator’s parameters for the processes (39) for DE-MOMI method.
Process | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1/5 | 100 | 20 | 120 | 4800 | 19200 | |
1/3 | 0.16 | 0.8 | 4.8 | 7.68 | 30.72 |
The calculated ADRC controller parameters for the processes (39).
The sampling time for
The closed-loop process responses are given in Figures 14 and 15. In both experiments the unity-step process input disturbance signal was applied at the half of experiment time.
The closed-loop responses on the process
The closed-loop responses on the process
It can be seen that the proposed DE-MOMI method, when compared to some other methods, gives quite good responses. The AH method for process
For more objective comparison between the methods, the integral of absolute error (IAE) measure is used. The IAE value has been measured on tracking response (unity step-change of the reference
Process | experiment | DE-MOMI | MOMI | DRMO | AH | ADRC |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
GP5 | tracking | 0.216 | 0.217 | 0.526 | 0.336 | 0.256 |
DR | 0.017 | 0.186 | 0.055 | 0.020 | 0.019 | |
GP6 | tracking | 8.66 | 8.66 | 12.34 | 11.06 | 12.32 |
DR | 7.80 | 8.42 | 8.79 | 8.89 | 8.83 |
The calculated IAE values for tracking and disturbance rejection (DR) responses for the processes (39).
The DE-MOMI method, therefore, compares favourably with few other methods, based on the non-parametric description of the process.
The process closed-loop responses for all the process models tested in this chapter (
In the chapter, it was shown that the disturbance rejection performance of the PID controller can be improved by adding a simple disturbance estimator (DE). The disturbance estimator consists of the process model and the inverse process model with DE filter. The advantage of the proposed approach is that the DE parameters can also be obtained directly from the nonparametric process data (time response of the process) without prior process identification. The same is true for the PID controller parameters, which are obtained using the MOMI tuning method. Of course, all PID and DE parameters can also be calculated from the process transfer function if it is known.
The proposed solution, called DE-MOMI method, has been tested on several different process models. It was shown that the control performance of the DE-MOMI method was significantly improved compared to similar MOMI and DRMO methods, especially for lower order processes with smaller time delays. In contrast, the improvements were noticeable but not as significant for higher order processes or processes with larger time delays. The additional advantage of the proposed method was that the tracking performance remained similar to that of the MOMI method.
The controller noise was controlled by the high frequency noise factors KPIDn and KDEn. The advantage of using these factors is that they can be easily understood and defined by the user.
The DE-MOMI method was also compared with some other non-parametric disturbance-rejection methods including the ADRC method. The results showed that the DE-MOMI method has either comparable or better control and tracking performance than the other tested methods. Nevertheless, it should be mentioned that the ADRC method uses a somewhat simpler control structure.
Future research activities could therefore focus on combining the advantages of the DE-MOMI and ADRC methods.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the contribution of the Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology of the Republic of Slovenia, Grant No. P2-0001 as well as the support by the grants APVV SK-IL-RD-18-0008 Platoon Modelling and Control for mixed autonomous and conventional vehicles: a laboratory experimental analysis and VEGA 1/0745/19 Control and modelling of mechatronic systems in emobility.
The Edited Volume, also known as the IntechOpen Book, is an IntechOpen pioneered publishing product. Edited Volumes make up the core of our business - and as pioneers and developers of this Open Access book publishing format, we have helped change the way scholars and scientists publish their scientific papers - as scientific chapters.
",metaTitle:"Edited Volumes",metaDescription:"The Edited Volume, also known as the InTechOpen Book, is an InTechOpen pioneered publishing product. Edited Volumes make up the core of our business - and as pioneers and developers of this Open Access book publishing format, we have helped change the way scholars and scientists publish their scientific papers - as scientific chapters. ",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/pages/edited-volumes",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"WHY PUBLISH IN AN INTECHOPEN EDITED VOLUME?
\\n\\nOut of all of the publishing options available to researchers, why choose to contribute your research to an IntechOpen Edited Volume? The reasons are simple. IntechOpen has worked exceptionally hard over the past years to fine tune the Open Access book publishing process and we continue to work hard to deliver the best for all of our contributors. The quality of published content is of utmost importance to us, followed closely by speed, and of course, availability and accessibility. To view current Open Access book projects that are Open for Submissions visit us here.
\\n\\nQUALITY CONTENT
\\n\\nOver the years we have learned what is important. What makes a difference to the researchers that work with us, what they value. Something that is very high not only on their lists, but our own, is the quality of the published content.
\\n\\nOur books contain scientific content written by two Nobel Prize winners, two Breakthrough Prize winners and 73 authors who are in the top 1% Most Cited.
\\n\\nWith regular submission for coverage in the single most important database, the Book Citation Index in the Web of Science™ Core Collection (BKCI), and no rejected submissions to date, over 43% of all Open Access books indexed in the BKCI are IntechOpen published books.
\\n\\nIn addition to BKCI, IntechOpen covers a number of important discipline specific databases as well, such as Thomson Reuters’ BIOSIS Previews.
\\n\\nACCESS
\\n\\nThe need for up to date information available at the click of a mouse is one thing that sets IntechOpen apart. By developing our own technologies in order to streamline the publishing process, we are able to minimize the amount of time from initial submission of a manuscript to its final publication date, without compromising the rigor of the editorial and peer review process. This means that the research published stays relevant, and in this fast paced world, this is very important.
\\n\\nYOUR WORK, YOUR COPYRIGHT
\\n\\nThe utilization of CC licenses allow researchers to retain copyright to their work. Researchers are free to use, adapt and share all content they publish with us. You will never have to pay permission fees to reuse a part of an experiment that you worked so hard to complete and are free to build upon your own research and the research of others. The Edited Volume helps bring together research from all over the world and compiles that research into one book - accessible for all. The research presented in chapter one can inspire the author of chapter three to take his or her research to the next level. It is about sharing ideas, insights and knowledge.
\\n\\nCan collaboration be inspired by a publishing format? At IntechOpen, the answer is yes. The way the research is published, the way it is accessed, it’s all part of our mission to help academics make a greater impact by giving readers free access to all published work.
\\n\\nOur Open Access book collection includes:
\\n\\n3,332 OPEN ACCESS BOOKS
\\n\\n107,564 INTERNATIONAL AUTHORS AND ACADEMIC EDITORS
\\n\\n113+ MILLION DOWNLOADS
\\n\\nPUBLISHING PROCESS STEPS
\\n\\nSee a complete overview of all publishing process steps and descriptions here.
\\n\\nCURRENT PROJECTS
\\n\\nTo view current Open Access book projects that are Open for Submissions visit us here.
\\n\\nNot sure if this is the right publishing option for you? Feel free to contact us at book.department@intechopen.com.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'WHY PUBLISH IN AN INTECHOPEN EDITED VOLUME?
\n\nOut of all of the publishing options available to researchers, why choose to contribute your research to an IntechOpen Edited Volume? The reasons are simple. IntechOpen has worked exceptionally hard over the past years to fine tune the Open Access book publishing process and we continue to work hard to deliver the best for all of our contributors. The quality of published content is of utmost importance to us, followed closely by speed, and of course, availability and accessibility. To view current Open Access book projects that are Open for Submissions visit us here.
\n\nQUALITY CONTENT
\n\nOver the years we have learned what is important. What makes a difference to the researchers that work with us, what they value. Something that is very high not only on their lists, but our own, is the quality of the published content.
\n\nOur books contain scientific content written by two Nobel Prize winners, two Breakthrough Prize winners and 73 authors who are in the top 1% Most Cited.
\n\nWith regular submission for coverage in the single most important database, the Book Citation Index in the Web of Science™ Core Collection (BKCI), and no rejected submissions to date, over 43% of all Open Access books indexed in the BKCI are IntechOpen published books.
\n\nIn addition to BKCI, IntechOpen covers a number of important discipline specific databases as well, such as Thomson Reuters’ BIOSIS Previews.
\n\nACCESS
\n\nThe need for up to date information available at the click of a mouse is one thing that sets IntechOpen apart. By developing our own technologies in order to streamline the publishing process, we are able to minimize the amount of time from initial submission of a manuscript to its final publication date, without compromising the rigor of the editorial and peer review process. This means that the research published stays relevant, and in this fast paced world, this is very important.
\n\nYOUR WORK, YOUR COPYRIGHT
\n\nThe utilization of CC licenses allow researchers to retain copyright to their work. Researchers are free to use, adapt and share all content they publish with us. You will never have to pay permission fees to reuse a part of an experiment that you worked so hard to complete and are free to build upon your own research and the research of others. The Edited Volume helps bring together research from all over the world and compiles that research into one book - accessible for all. The research presented in chapter one can inspire the author of chapter three to take his or her research to the next level. It is about sharing ideas, insights and knowledge.
\n\nCan collaboration be inspired by a publishing format? At IntechOpen, the answer is yes. The way the research is published, the way it is accessed, it’s all part of our mission to help academics make a greater impact by giving readers free access to all published work.
\n\nOur Open Access book collection includes:
\n\n3,332 OPEN ACCESS BOOKS
\n\n107,564 INTERNATIONAL AUTHORS AND ACADEMIC EDITORS
\n\n113+ MILLION DOWNLOADS
\n\nPUBLISHING PROCESS STEPS
\n\nSee a complete overview of all publishing process steps and descriptions here.
\n\nCURRENT PROJECTS
\n\nTo view current Open Access book projects that are Open for Submissions visit us here.
\n\nNot sure if this is the right publishing option for you? Feel free to contact us at book.department@intechopen.com.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. He is a very good player of squash but has not played squash since his arrival in Denmark.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"611",title:"Prof.",name:"T",middleName:null,surname:"Nagarajan",slug:"t-nagarajan",fullName:"T Nagarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi Petronas",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:6602},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5908},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:2400},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:12542},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:1008},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:17561}],offset:12,limit:12,total:132766},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"1",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",src:"EDCMP",topicId:"14"},books:[{type:"book",id:"11988",title:"Magnesium Alloys",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4da7079fb57ccc6aa9f8323d8d42bda6",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11988.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11990",title:"Iron Ores and Iron Oxide",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"20cbec723d56ff06096e08d93750ad58",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11990.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11991",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"668c7f042fb58587e82ac90c32a22447",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11991.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11993",title:"Reinforced Concrete",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"74188d8583c4569b6cf7755128a311be",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11993.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11995",title:"Elastomers",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e37c2de13a51e358b06c9cf637b55d33",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11995.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11996",title:"Granite",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"03b9e834fd0abe7ffef7ef85e7c02426",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11996.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11998",title:"Biocomposites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"31d8afbb8256b34918ddc7ce910cc6e5",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11998.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12264",title:"Polyaniline",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2e0710de2d17485e9d56a87461a2b0b8",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12264.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12265",title:"Silk-based Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"7f580af2140c873052c6e12f9318ee95",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12265.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12261",title:"Sol-gel Method",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5d96c89299217a36052ad1b8031be001",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12261.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12263",title:"Geosynthetic Materials and Products",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9f1b26209b356040678d896248f51215",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12263.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:39},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:32},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:100},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:32},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:11},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[],latestBooks:[]},subject:{topic:{id:"135",title:"Environmental Studies",slug:"environmental-studies",parent:{id:"12",title:"Environmental Sciences",slug:"environmental-sciences"},numberOfBooks:5,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:177,numberOfWosCitations:193,numberOfCrossrefCitations:126,numberOfDimensionsCitations:332,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"135",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"8969",title:"Deserts and Desertification",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4df95c7f295de7f6003e635d9a309fe9",slug:"deserts-and-desertification",bookSignature:"Yajuan Zhu, Qinghong Luo and Yuguo Liu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8969.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"180427",title:"Dr.",name:"Yajuan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",slug:"yajuan-zhu",fullName:"Yajuan Zhu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6706",title:"Environmental Risks",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea444f5d9f74628b340b2d9514bca236",slug:"environmental-risks",bookSignature:"Florin-Constantin Mihai and Adrian Grozavu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6706.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"175726",title:"Dr.",name:"Florin-Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Mihai",slug:"florin-constantin-mihai",fullName:"Florin-Constantin Mihai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5995",title:"Mediterranean Identities",subtitle:"Environment, Society, Culture",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5254b511e85984b9457a09ddc2758a1c",slug:"mediterranean-identities-environment-society-culture",bookSignature:"Borna Fuerst-Bjelis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5995.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"138475",title:"Prof.",name:"Borna",middleName:null,surname:"Fuerst-Bjeliš",slug:"borna-fuerst-bjelis",fullName:"Borna Fuerst-Bjeliš"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1011",title:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"aaa208c16030078cdca711a1867ca7ff",slug:"international-perspectives-on-global-environmental-change",bookSignature:"Stephen S. Young and Steven E. Silvern",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1011.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"96190",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephen",middleName:null,surname:"Young",slug:"stephen-young",fullName:"Stephen Young"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2110",title:"Relevant Perspectives in Global Environmental Change",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a531a19888ec539192408b7a229fdbf9",slug:"relevant-perspectives-in-global-environmental-change",bookSignature:"Julius Ibukun Agboola",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2110.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"107567",title:"Dr.",name:"Julius",middleName:"Ibukun",surname:"Agboola",slug:"julius-agboola",fullName:"Julius Agboola"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:5,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"27194",doi:"10.5772/29375",title:"Using Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping in Environmental Decision Making and Management: A Methodological Primer and an Application",slug:"using-fuzzy-cognitive-mapping-in-environmental-decision-making-and-management-a-methodological-prime",totalDownloads:4642,totalCrossrefCites:40,totalDimensionsCites:87,abstract:null,book:{id:"1011",slug:"international-perspectives-on-global-environmental-change",title:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change",fullTitle:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change"},signatures:"Elpiniki Papageorgiou and Areti Kontogianni",authors:[{id:"6011",title:"Dr.",name:"Elpiniki",middleName:null,surname:"Papageorgiou",slug:"elpiniki-papageorgiou",fullName:"Elpiniki Papageorgiou"},{id:"71620",title:"Prof.",name:"Areti",middleName:"D.",surname:"Kontogianni",slug:"areti-kontogianni",fullName:"Areti Kontogianni"}]},{id:"27184",doi:"10.5772/26954",title:"Effect of Environmental Change on Secondary Metabolite Production in Lichen-Forming Fungi",slug:"effect-of-environmental-change-on-secondary-metabolite-production-in-lichen-forming-fungi",totalDownloads:7053,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:null,book:{id:"1011",slug:"international-perspectives-on-global-environmental-change",title:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change",fullTitle:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change"},signatures:"Christopher Deduke, Brinda Timsina and Michele D. Piercey-Normore",authors:[{id:"68386",title:"Dr.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Piercey-Normore",slug:"michele-piercey-normore",fullName:"Michele Piercey-Normore"},{id:"68390",title:"BSc.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Deduke",slug:"chris-deduke",fullName:"Chris Deduke"},{id:"102711",title:"Ms.",name:"Brinda",middleName:null,surname:"Timsina",slug:"brinda-timsina",fullName:"Brinda Timsina"}]},{id:"27182",doi:"10.5772/26536",title:"Primary Succession in Glacier Forelands: How Small Animals Conquer New Land Around Melting Glaciers",slug:"primary-succession-in-glacier-forelands-how-small-animals-conquer-new-land-around-melting-glaciers",totalDownloads:4972,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"1011",slug:"international-perspectives-on-global-environmental-change",title:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change",fullTitle:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change"},signatures:"Sigmund Hågvar",authors:[{id:"66992",title:"Prof.",name:"Sigmund",middleName:null,surname:"Hågvar",slug:"sigmund-hagvar",fullName:"Sigmund Hågvar"}]},{id:"27188",doi:"10.5772/26365",title:"Heavy Metals Contamination of a Mediterranean Coastal Ecosystem, Eastern Nile Delta, Egypt",slug:"heavy-metals-contamination-of-a-mediterranean-coastal-ecosystem-eastern-nile-delta-egypt",totalDownloads:3106,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:null,book:{id:"1011",slug:"international-perspectives-on-global-environmental-change",title:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change",fullTitle:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change"},signatures:"M. F. Kaiser, H.A. Aboulela, H. A. El-Serehy and H. Ezz El-Din",authors:[{id:"3900",title:"Dr.",name:"Mona",middleName:null,surname:"Kaiser",slug:"mona-kaiser",fullName:"Mona Kaiser"},{id:"126516",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamdy",middleName:null,surname:"Aboulela",slug:"hamdy-aboulela",fullName:"Hamdy Aboulela"},{id:"150469",title:"Dr.",name:"H.",middleName:null,surname:"El-Serehy",slug:"h.-el-serehy",fullName:"H. El-Serehy"}]},{id:"55867",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69214",title:"The Marine Biodiversity of the Mediterranean Sea in a Changing Climate: The Impact of Biological Invasions",slug:"the-marine-biodiversity-of-the-mediterranean-sea-in-a-changing-climate-the-impact-of-biological-inva",totalDownloads:2332,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"The Mediterranean Sea, one of the most complex marine ecosystems, is inhabited by a rich and diverse biota which is disproportionate to its dimensions. It is currently affected by different pressures, mainly driven by human activities such as climate change and bioinvasions. This Sea, also due to its geographic position (wedged between the temperate climate of central Europe and the arid climate of northern Africa), seems to be one of the regions most susceptible to global climate change. The increased rates of introduction and spread of marine alien species may represent a supplementary stress factor to Mediterranean marine native biota already challenged by climatic abnormalities. The Suez Canal is considered to be the main vector of introduction of non‐indigenous marine species into the Mediterranean Sea. Due to the dramatically accelerating rate of such introductions and due to the sheer magnitude of shipping traffic, the Mediterranean Sea may be considered as a true hotspot of marine bioinvasions. The complexity of interactions between native and invasive species and the associated resulting impacts make environmental management of such an issue particularly difficult. A collaboration between researchers, resource management agencies and policy makers is called for to bolster the effectiveness of invasive species management procedures.",book:{id:"5995",slug:"mediterranean-identities-environment-society-culture",title:"Mediterranean Identities",fullTitle:"Mediterranean Identities - Environment, Society, Culture"},signatures:"Anna M. Mannino, Paolo Balistreri and Alan Deidun",authors:[{id:"202075",title:"Prof.",name:"Alan",middleName:null,surname:"Deidun",slug:"alan-deidun",fullName:"Alan Deidun"},{id:"203773",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Mannino",slug:"anna-maria-mannino",fullName:"Anna Maria Mannino"},{id:"203777",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Balistreri",slug:"paolo-balistreri",fullName:"Paolo Balistreri"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"77362",title:"Role of Eco-Village Initiatives in Mitigating Desertification in Semi-Arid Areas of Tanzania",slug:"role-of-eco-village-initiatives-in-mitigating-desertification-in-semi-arid-areas-of-tanzania",totalDownloads:109,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Climate change adaptation actions for mitigating desertification and improving community livelihood in developing countries have attracted numerous scholarly works. However, there have been insufficient findings on the adaptation regarding the eco-village practices in semi-arid areas in particular. This inspired a study to assess the role of eco-village practices in strengthening climate change adaptive capacity and mitigating desertification in semi-arid areas of Chololo village, Dodoma region in central Tanzania. Data were collected using mixed methods, that is, household survey (92), focus group discussions (21), key informants interviews (6), field observation and documentary review. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and content analysis were used in analyzing quantitative and qualitative data respectively. The study found a relatively high level of community awareness on the eco-village initiative; the initiative rehabilitated village forest reserve; improved land productivity for sorghum and pearl millet; increased number of planted trees; and strengthening communities’ adaptation to climate change through improved households’ nutrition, income and reduced water stress.",book:{id:"8969",slug:"deserts-and-desertification",title:"Deserts and Desertification",fullTitle:"Deserts and Desertification"},signatures:"Fredy S. Mswima and Abiud L. Kaswamila",authors:[{id:"115390",title:"Prof.",name:"Abiud L.",middleName:"Lucas",surname:"Kaswamila",slug:"abiud-l.-kaswamila",fullName:"Abiud L. Kaswamila"},{id:"415117",title:"Dr.",name:"Fredy S.",middleName:null,surname:"Mswima",slug:"fredy-s.-mswima",fullName:"Fredy S. Mswima"}]},{id:"77741",title:"Characteristic on the Stability of Haloxylon ammodendron Plantation in the Southern Fringe of Gurbantunggut Desert, Northwest China",slug:"characteristic-on-the-stability-of-em-haloxylon-ammodendron-em-plantation-in-the-southern-fringe-of-",totalDownloads:155,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Using chronosequence theory and method, the characteristics of vegetation-soil coupling and structure stability of Haloxylon ammodendron plantations in the southern fringe of Gurbantunggut Desert were analyzed. The results showed, the canopy storey of H. ammodendron plantation experienced three stages, rapid growth (the age of 7 to 20), then slow growth (the age of 20 to 28) and last decline (over the age of 28). The best natural regeneration started from 17-yr-old plantation. Vegetation-soil system coupling degree (C) and coupling coordinative degree (D) of plantations with different age were not one-to-one correspondence. The system of H. ammodendron plantations always stayed in disorder recession, vegetation and soil were prone to loss type during the process of sand-fixation. Five principal components evaluated that the first rank was 42-yr-old plantation. It was inferred that the trend of the vegetation and soil system was from senescence to harmonious development. So the trend of coordinated development between vegetation and soil would be promoted, if the artificial tending and management measures strengthened.",book:{id:"8969",slug:"deserts-and-desertification",title:"Deserts and Desertification",fullTitle:"Deserts and Desertification"},signatures:"Qinghong Luo, Qimin Chen, Miao He and Na Li",authors:[{id:"340564",title:"Dr.",name:"Qinghong",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"qinghong-luo",fullName:"Qinghong Luo"},{id:"347848",title:"Mr.",name:"Qimin",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"qimin-chen",fullName:"Qimin Chen"},{id:"348214",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Miao",middleName:null,surname:"He",slug:"miao-he",fullName:"Miao He"},{id:"348215",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Na",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"na-li",fullName:"Na Li"}]},{id:"77086",title:"Bowing Sand, Dust, and Dunes, Then and Now–A North American Perspective",slug:"bowing-sand-dust-and-dunes-then-and-now-a-north-american-perspective",totalDownloads:84,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Dune fields of the present day, the Dust Bowl disaster of the 1930s U.S. Great Plains, and contemporary efforts to forecast, simulate, and understand dust storms have a striking, uniform commonality. What these apparently diverse phenomena have in common is that they all result from blowing sand and dust. This review paper unifies these three disparate but related phenomena. Its over-arching goal is to clearly explain these manifestations of windblown sand and dust. First, for contemporary dune fields, we offer reviews of two technical papers that explain the eolian formation and the continuing development of two major dune fields in southeastern California and northwestern Sonora, Mexico: the Algodones Dunes and the Gran Desierto de Altar. Second, historical, geological, meteorological, and socioeconomic aspects of the 1930s Great Plains Dust Bowl are discussed. Third, and last, we return to the present day to summarize two lengthy reports on dust storms and to review two technical papers that concern their forecasting and simulation. The intent of this review is to acquaint the interested reader with how eolian transport of sand and dust affects the formation of present-day dune fields, human agricultural enterprises, and efforts to better forecast and simulate dust storms. Implications: Blowing sand and dust have drastically affected the geological landscape and continue to shape the formation of dune fields today. Nearly a century ago the U.S. Great Plains suffered through the Dust Bowl, yet another consequence of blowing sand and dust brought on by drought and mismanagement of agricultural lands. Today, this phenomenon adversely affects landscapes, transportation, and human respiratory health. A more complete understanding of this phenomenon could (and has) led to more effective mitigation of dust sources, as well as to a more accurate predictive system by which the public can be forewarned.",book:{id:"8969",slug:"deserts-and-desertification",title:"Deserts and Desertification",fullTitle:"Deserts and Desertification"},signatures:"Peter Hyde and Alex Mahalov",authors:[{id:"348247",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Hyde",slug:"peter-hyde",fullName:"Peter Hyde"},{id:"419631",title:"Dr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Mahalov",slug:"alex-mahalov",fullName:"Alex Mahalov"}]},{id:"61738",title:"Assessment of the Riparian Vegetation Changes Downstream of Selected Dams in Vhembe District, Limpopo Province on Based on Historical Aerial Photography",slug:"assessment-of-the-riparian-vegetation-changes-downstream-of-selected-dams-in-vhembe-district-limpopo",totalDownloads:1542,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Dams have been associated with various impacts on downstream river ecosystems, including a decrease in stream flow, species biodiversity, water quality, altered hydrology and colonisation of the area by invasive alien plant species. The impacts normally interfere with the ecosystem functioning of riparian and aquatic environments, thereby leading to decreased biodiversity. This study aims to assess the impacts of dams on downstream river ecosystems, using data from aerial photographs and orthophotos, supplemented by field work. Five dams in Limpopo Province, South Africa, were selected (Albasini, Damani, Mambedi, Nandoni and Vondo), and photographs from different years were used. The area devoid of trees of certain species both downstream and upstream of the dams was calculated using grids of predetermined square sizes on each available photograph. Aerial photographs and orthophoto data were supplemented by field work. The nearest-individual method was used in the field to determine tree density of particular tree species. The environments downstream of the dams show a loss of obligate riparian vegetation and an increase of obligate terrestrial vegetation (Acacia Karroo, Acacia Ataxacantha and Bauhinia galpinii). Treeless area increased in all cases, especially in the case of Mambedi and Vondo dams, indicating lower resilience and higher fragility there.",book:{id:"6706",slug:"environmental-risks",title:"Environmental Risks",fullTitle:"Environmental Risks"},signatures:"John M. Mokgoebo, Tibangayuka A. Kabanda and Jabulani R.\nGumbo",authors:[{id:"224099",title:"Prof.",name:"Jabulani",middleName:null,surname:"Gumbo",slug:"jabulani-gumbo",fullName:"Jabulani Gumbo"},{id:"250766",title:"Mr.",name:"M.J.",middleName:null,surname:"Mokgoebo",slug:"m.j.-mokgoebo",fullName:"M.J. Mokgoebo"},{id:"250767",title:"Prof.",name:"T.A.",middleName:null,surname:"Kabanda",slug:"t.a.-kabanda",fullName:"T.A. Kabanda"}]},{id:"78428",title:"Jojoba - The Gold of Desert",slug:"jojoba-the-gold-of-desert",totalDownloads:222,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Jojoba [Simmondsia chinensis (Link) Schneider] is evergreen, perennial and drought resistant shrub belongs to the family of Simmondsiaceae. It is a multipurpose oil seed crop mainly grown in desert regions of world. This plant has unique oil among plant kingdom which is chemically a liquid-wax. The liquid-wax is made up of an ester of long chain fatty acids and alcohols. The liquid-wax is unique in nature because have no traces of glycerine and easily modified via hydrolysis, hydrogenation, halogenation, sulfurization, phosphosulfurization and ozonization techniques. The main uses of liquid-wax in various industries like cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, petrochemicals and lubricants. It is a potential seed oil crop for desert region so it is well known as the gold of desert. The main purpose of this chapter is to review the complete information about this plant so that it can produce and utilized maximally. Moreover, the review focuses on biology, biogeography, physico-chemical properties of jojoba oil and propagation techniques of the plant of desert regions.",book:{id:"8969",slug:"deserts-and-desertification",title:"Deserts and Desertification",fullTitle:"Deserts and Desertification"},signatures:"Raman Bala",authors:[{id:"347678",title:"Dr.",name:"Raman",middleName:null,surname:"Bala",slug:"raman-bala",fullName:"Raman Bala"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"135",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:288,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 19th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"81821",title:"Pneumococcal Carriage in Jordanian Children and the Importance of Vaccination",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104999",signatures:"Adnan Al-Lahham",slug:"pneumococcal-carriage-in-jordanian-children-and-the-importance-of-vaccination",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"81813",title:"Schistosomiasis: Discovery of New Molecules for Disease Treatment and Vaccine Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104738",signatures:"Andressa Barban do Patrocinio",slug:"schistosomiasis-discovery-of-new-molecules-for-disease-treatment-and-vaccine-development",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"New Horizons for Schistosomiasis Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10829.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"81644",title:"Perspective Chapter: Ethics of Using Placebo Controlled Trials for Covid-19 Vaccine Development in Vulnerable Populations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104776",signatures:"Lesley Burgess, Jurie Jordaan and Matthew Wilson",slug:"perspective-chapter-ethics-of-using-placebo-controlled-trials-for-covid-19-vaccine-development-in-vu",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"SARS-CoV-2 Variants - Two Years After",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11573.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"80546",title:"Streptococcal Skin and Skin-Structure Infections",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102894",signatures:"Alwyn Rapose",slug:"streptococcal-skin-and-skin-structure-infections",totalDownloads:48,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6667",title:"Influenza",subtitle:"Therapeutics and Challenges",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6667.jpg",slug:"influenza-therapeutics-and-challenges",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"105e347b2d5dbbe6b593aceffa051efa",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Influenza - Therapeutics and Challenges",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7064",title:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",slug:"current-perspectives-in-human-papillomavirus",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7839",title:"Malaria",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7839.jpg",slug:"malaria",publishedDate:"December 11th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Fyson H. Kasenga",hash:"91cde4582ead884cb0f355a19b67cd56",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Malaria",editors:[{id:"86725",title:"Dr.",name:"Fyson",middleName:"Hanania",surname:"Kasenga",slug:"fyson-kasenga",fullName:"Fyson Kasenga",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/86725/images/system/86725.jpg",biography:"Dr. Kasenga is a graduate of Tumaini University, Kilimanjaro Christian Medical College, Moshi, Tanzania and Umeå University, Sweden. He obtained a Master’s degree in Public Health and PhD in Public Health and Epidemiology. He has a background in Clinical Medicine and has taken courses at higher diploma levels in public health from University of Transkei, Republic of South Africa, and African Medical and Research Foundation (AMREF) in Nairobi, Kenya. Dr. Kasenga worked in different places in and outside Malawi, and has held various positions, such as Licensed Medical Officer, HIV/AIDS Programme Officer, HIV/AIDS resource person in the International Department of Diakonhjemet College, Oslo, Norway. He also managed an Integrated HIV/AIDS Prevention programme for over 5 years. He is currently working as a Director for the Health Ministries Department of Malawi Union of the Seventh Day Adventist Church. Dr. Kasenga has published over 5 articles on HIV/AIDS issues focusing on Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT), including a book chapter on HIV testing counseling (currently in press). Dr. Kasenga is married to Grace and blessed with three children, a son and two daughters: Happy, Lettice and Sungani.",institutionString:"Malawi Adventist University",institution:{name:"Malawi Adventist University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malawi"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{},onlineFirstChapters:{},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[],publishedBooks:{},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[],publicationYearFilters:[],authors:{}},subseries:{item:{id:"41",type:"subseries",title:"Water Science",keywords:"Water, Water resources, Freshwater, Hydrological processes, Utilization, Protection",scope:"