Diversity interventions and perspectives.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6335",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Iron Ores and Iron Oxide Materials",title:"Iron Ores and Iron Oxide Materials",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book provides the multidisciplinary reading audience with a comprehensive state-of-the-art overview of research and innovations in the relationship between iron ores and iron ore materials. The book covers industrial sectors dealing with exploration and processing of iron ores as well as with advanced applications for iron ore materials and therefore entails a wide range of research fields including geology, exploration, beneficiation, agglomeration, reduction, smelting, and so on, thus encouraging life cycle thinking across the entire production chain. Iron remains the basis of modern civilization, and our sustainable future deeply depends upon our ability to satisfy the growing demand for iron and steel while decoupling hazardous emissions from economic growth. Therefore, environmental sustainability aspects are also broadly addressed. In response to socioeconomic and climatic challenges, the iron ore sector faces, this book delivers a vision for the new opportunities linked to deployment of the best available, innovative and breakthrough technologies as well as to advanced material applications.",isbn:"978-1-78923-321-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-320-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-411-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69715",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"iron-ores-and-iron-oxide-materials",numberOfPages:280,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"26195f784577133f2972d538cef6f8c9",bookSignature:"Volodymyr Shatokha",publishedDate:"July 11th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6335.jpg",numberOfDownloads:19425,numberOfWosCitations:28,numberOfCrossrefCitations:29,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:44,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:101,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 6th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 27th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 23rd 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 21st 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 22nd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"111000",title:"Dr.",name:"Volodymyr",middleName:null,surname:"Shatokha",slug:"volodymyr-shatokha",fullName:"Volodymyr Shatokha",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/111000/images/system/111000.jpg",biography:"Volodymyr Shatokha graduated in 1982 as a Ferrous Metallurgy engineer. In 1985, he received a Ph.D. degree from the Dnipropetrovsk Metallurgical Institute (known since 1999 as the National Metallurgical Academy of Ukraine and since 2021 as the Ukrainian State University of Science and Technology). In 1998, he received the title of professor with the Ironmaking Chair. During 1999–2002, he was the dean of the Metallurgical Faculty. During 2002-2021, he was the vice-rector for Research and Education. Since 2022 he is a professor of the Ironmaking & Steelmaking Department. His research deals mainly with the properties of iron ore materials, physicochemical processes of ironmaking, recycling methods, sustainability analysis, etc. He is the author of over 180 research papers, 7 books, and 7 patents. He is the honorary professor at the Inner Mongolia University of Science and Technology, China, and a visiting professor at the University of Tokyo (2013). He is a laureate of the State Prize of Ukraine in Science and Technology (2010) and a fellow of the Erasmus+ Jean Monnet Programme for the EU climate and energy policy studies (since 2015).",institutionString:"Ukrainian State University of Science and Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"950",title:"Solid-State Chemistry",slug:"metals-and-nonmetals-solid-state-chemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"61492",title:"The Chinese Iron Ore Deposits and Ore Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76729",slug:"the-chinese-iron-ore-deposits-and-ore-production",totalDownloads:1483,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Probably due to large national land area and multi-period orogeny, from the view of metallogeny, lots of iron deposits developed in China, and the proven total reserves of iron ores are relatively abundant, but mainly low-grade ores. For years, China’s iron ore reserves are far from being able to meet the requirement of rapid development of steel industry. China is the world’s largest importer of iron ore, whose imports accounted for one-third of the world’s total in recent decades; however, the buyer has not the final say. The strategic importance of iron ore resources in national economy not only depends on the social value and economic value created by the iron ore exploitation, but also depends on whether the requirements of the steel industry and steel downstream industry, and safety ensuring, economy and sustainability of steel and steel downstream industry. Herein, the iron mineral processing and metallurgy technology are also briefly illustrated.",signatures:"Guangrong Li",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61492",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61492",authors:[{id:"216668",title:"Prof.",name:"Guangrong",surname:"Li",slug:"guangrong-li",fullName:"Guangrong Li"}],corrections:null},{id:"60959",title:"Genesis, Uses and Environment Implications of Iron Oxides and Ores",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75776",slug:"genesis-uses-and-environment-implications-of-iron-oxides-and-ores",totalDownloads:1601,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Iron oxides are chemical complexes which occur naturally, comprising iron and oxygen. Here, together, 16 types of iron oxides and oxyhydroxides have been identified. These two components of oxides are widely spread naturally. They are vital to humans and useful in most geological and biological activities. In addition, they are useful as pigments and catalyst in industries and hemoglobin in blood circulation. The interplay and conversion of these components from one form to another are essentially controlled by bacterial species. These contain 70 and 72% iron, respectively. Furthermore, iron ores are classified in terms of occurrence. Banded iron formation (BIF) comprises 15% iron, comprising minerals of iron that are bedded besides silica. Beneficiation processes of iron ore generate dust in the atmosphere, acid mine drainage in the ecosystem and metallic iron for steelmaking. Beneficiation process requires dissolution of minerals surrounding the ore and the release of metals and cement matrix into water courses. These generates acid leading to acid mine drainage. Therefore, there is a need for impact assessment of the environment in the planned beneficiation cycle. Sustainable beneficiation must be done to reduce impact on the natural, social or economic environment.",signatures:"Davidson E. Egirani, Mohd T. Latif, Nanfe R. Poyi, Napoleon Wessey\nand Shukla Acharjee",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60959",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60959",authors:[{id:"217113",title:"Dr.",name:"Davidson",surname:"Egirani",slug:"davidson-egirani",fullName:"Davidson Egirani"},{id:"227028",title:"Dr.",name:"Shukla",surname:"Acharjee",slug:"shukla-acharjee",fullName:"Shukla Acharjee"},{id:"229260",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Latif",slug:"mohamed-latif",fullName:"Mohamed Latif"},{id:"229261",title:"Ms.",name:"Nanfe",surname:"Poyi",slug:"nanfe-poyi",fullName:"Nanfe Poyi"},{id:"229262",title:"Dr.",name:"Napoleon",surname:"Wessey",slug:"napoleon-wessey",fullName:"Napoleon Wessey"}],corrections:null},{id:"58868",title:"Iron Ore Pelletizing Process: An Overview",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73164",slug:"iron-ore-pelletizing-process-an-overview",totalDownloads:4593,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The iron ore production has significantly expanded in recent years, owing to increasing steel demands in developing countries. However, the content of iron in ore deposits has deteriorated and low-grade iron ore has been processed. The fines resulting from the concentration process must be agglomerated for use in iron and steelmaking. This chapter shows the status of the pelletizing process with a special focus on binders. Bentonite is the most used binder due to favorable mechanical and metallurgical pellet properties, but it contains impurities especially silica and alumina. The importance of many researches concerning alternative binders is also discussed in this chapter. Better quality wet, dry, preheated, and fired pellets can be produced with combined binders, such as organic and inorganic salts, when compared with bentonite-bonded pellets. While organic binders provide sufficient wet and dry pellet strengths, inorganic salts provide the required preheated and fired pellet strengths.",signatures:"Sandra Lúcia de Moraes, José Renato Baptista de Lima and Tiago\nRamos Ribeiro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58868",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58868",authors:[{id:"216788",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",surname:"De Moraes",slug:"sandra-de-moraes",fullName:"Sandra De Moraes"},{id:"233466",title:"Prof.",name:"José Renato Baptista",surname:"De Lima",slug:"jose-renato-baptista-de-lima",fullName:"José Renato Baptista De Lima"},{id:"233467",title:"MSc.",name:"Tiago Ramos",surname:"Ribeiro",slug:"tiago-ramos-ribeiro",fullName:"Tiago Ramos Ribeiro"}],corrections:null},{id:"58288",title:"Iron Ore Agglomeration Technologies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72546",slug:"iron-ore-agglomeration-technologies",totalDownloads:1604,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Until the 1950s of the last century, the oxidized iron ores that were loaded into the blast furnace had granulometries within 10 and 120 mm. However, the depletion of high-grade iron ore sources has made necessary the utilization of concentration processes with the purpose of enriching the iron ore. Because of these processes, a fine granulometry is produced, and thus iron agglomeration process is necessary. There are several agglomeration processes including: briquetting, extrusion, nodulization, pelletizing and sintering, although pelletizing and sintering are the most widely used, and especially sintering process (70% blast furnace load). Apart from obtaining an agglomerated product, the objective is reaching the suitable characteristics (thermal, mechanical, physical, and chemical) in a product that is then fed into the blast furnace, achieving a homogenous and stable operation in this furnace with economical profitability.",signatures:"Daniel Fernández-González, Juan Piñuela-Noval and Luis Felipe\nVerdeja",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58288",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58288",authors:[{id:"211395",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Fernández González",slug:"daniel-fernandez-gonzalez",fullName:"Daniel Fernández González"},{id:"212958",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Felipe",surname:"Verdeja González",slug:"luis-felipe-verdeja-gonzalez",fullName:"Luis Felipe Verdeja González"},{id:"229106",title:"Mr.",name:"Juan",surname:"Piñuela-Noval",slug:"juan-pinuela-noval",fullName:"Juan Piñuela-Noval"}],corrections:null},{id:"58482",title:"Calcination and Pelletizing of Siderite Ore",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72808",slug:"calcination-and-pelletizing-of-siderite-ore",totalDownloads:1283,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the present study, calcination properties of Hekimhan-Deveci siderite (FeCO3) ore and the effect of calcination process before the pelletization on strength of pellet were investigated and evaluated. Two different calcination processes were followed. One of them is the traditional calcination process and the other one is microwave assisted calcination process which is a new process for siderite ore. The characterization of the calcined and uncalcined siderite ore was done using X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence spectrometry and thermogravimetric analysis. The physical and mechanical properties of pellets which were obtained using the raw siderite and the calcined siderite were compared with each other. As a result of experimental studies, it was found that the calcination process decreased the milling time, causing the significant energy saving and the most suitable calcination process for siderite ore was found as 15 min at 700°C temperature. It was the first time that the calcination process of the siderite ore was achieved by microwave by adding 30 wt% sucrose as a thermal auxiliary. The microwave conditions were determined as 900 W at 3 min. In 3 min, the temperature of the siderite ore increased up to 1100°C and 32.14% weight loss for the sample was achieved.",signatures:"Mehmet Celikdemir, Musa Sarikaya, Tolga Depci, Ramazan\nAydogmus and Aysegul Yucel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58482",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58482",authors:[{id:"212301",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Mehmet",surname:"Çelikdemir",slug:"mehmet-celikdemir",fullName:"Mehmet Çelikdemir"},{id:"213405",title:"Prof.",name:"Musa",surname:"Sarikaya",slug:"musa-sarikaya",fullName:"Musa Sarikaya"},{id:"213412",title:"Prof.",name:"Tolga",surname:"Depci",slug:"tolga-depci",fullName:"Tolga Depci"},{id:"213413",title:"MSc.",name:"Ramazan",surname:"Aydoğmuş",slug:"ramazan-aydogmus",fullName:"Ramazan Aydoğmuş"},{id:"227119",title:"MSc.",name:"Ayşegül",surname:"Yücel",slug:"aysegul-yucel",fullName:"Ayşegül Yücel"}],corrections:null},{id:"55044",title:"Mechanism and Prevention of Agglomeration/Defluidization during Fluidized-Bed Reduction of Iron Ore",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68488",slug:"mechanism-and-prevention-of-agglomeration-defluidization-during-fluidized-bed-reduction-of-iron-ore",totalDownloads:1074,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The mechanisms of agglomeration and defluidization and fluidization characteristic of iron oxide particles were investigated based on the theory of surface diffusion, interface reaction, surface nano/microeffect, and phase transformation. Moreover, a mathematical model was developed to predict the high-temperature defluidization behavior by the force-balance and plastic-viscous flow mechanism, and the fluidization phase diagram was obtained. On these bases, a control method of defluidization and its inhibition mechanism were proposed. As a result, the theoretical system of agglomeration/defluidization in the gas-solid fluidization was developed, and thus afforded theory support and technological bases for the solution of defluidization in industrial fluidized-bed reactors.",signatures:"Yiwei Zhong, Jintao Gao, Zhancheng Guo and Zhi Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55044",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55044",authors:[{id:"195676",title:"Dr.",name:"Yiwei",surname:"Zhong",slug:"yiwei-zhong",fullName:"Yiwei Zhong"},{id:"196894",title:"Dr.",name:"Jintao",surname:"Gao",slug:"jintao-gao",fullName:"Jintao Gao"},{id:"196895",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhancheng",surname:"Guo",slug:"zhancheng-guo",fullName:"Zhancheng Guo"},{id:"196913",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhi",surname:"Wang",slug:"zhi-wang",fullName:"Zhi Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"60279",title:"The eXtended Discrete Element Method (XDEM): An Advanced Approach to Model Blast Furnace",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75436",slug:"the-extended-discrete-element-method-xdem-an-advanced-approach-to-model-blast-furnace",totalDownloads:963,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The blast furnace iron making is the oldest but still the main method to produce liquid iron through sequential reduction processes of iron ore materials. Despite the existence of several discrete and continuous numerical models, there is no global method to provide detailed information about the processes inside the furnaces. The extended discrete element method known as XDEM is an advance numerical tool based on Eulerian–Lagrangian framework which is able to cover more information about the blast furnace process. Within this platform, the continuous phases such as gas and liquid phases are coupled to the discrete entities such as coke and iron ore particles through mass, momentum and energy exchange. This method has been applied to the shaft, cohesive zone, dripping zone and hearth of the blast furnace. In this chapter, the mathematical and numerical methods implemented in the XDEM method are described, and the results are discussed.",signatures:"Bernhard Peters, Maryam Baniasadi and Mehdi Baniasadi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60279",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60279",authors:[{id:"226356",title:"Prof.",name:"Bernhard",surname:"Peters",slug:"bernhard-peters",fullName:"Bernhard Peters"},{id:"226358",title:"MSc.",name:"Maryam",surname:"Baniasadi",slug:"maryam-baniasadi",fullName:"Maryam Baniasadi"},{id:"226361",title:"MSc.",name:"Mehdi",surname:"Baniasadi",slug:"mehdi-baniasadi",fullName:"Mehdi Baniasadi"}],corrections:null},{id:"59113",title:"Photoelectrochemistry of Hematite",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73228",slug:"photoelectrochemistry-of-hematite",totalDownloads:985,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"It was possible to prepare a hematite film by electrochemical deposition of iron oxide in aqueous solution and its heat treatment at 500°C or higher temperature in air. The deposition process of iron oxide film from current and potential pulse methods was mentioned in relation to the equilibrium potential for iron oxide. The hematite in aqueous solution showed a clear photoanodic current due to visible light irradiation. The photo-oxidation response of hematite electrode to organic and inorganic materials in aqueous solution was summarized through the examples of citric acid, Pb2+ and aniline.",signatures:"Yasuhisa Maeda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59113",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59113",authors:[{id:"213447",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasuhisa",surname:"Maeda",slug:"yasuhisa-maeda",fullName:"Yasuhisa Maeda"}],corrections:null},{id:"58309",title:"Iron Oxide-Based Catalyst for Catalytic Cracking of Heavy Oil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72719",slug:"iron-oxide-based-catalyst-for-catalytic-cracking-of-heavy-oil",totalDownloads:1142,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter describes an iron oxide catalyst containing Zr and Al for production of light hydrocarbons by catalytic cracking of petroleum residual oil in a steam atmosphere. The catalyst was hematite structure and useful for decomposition and desulfurization of residual oil. After lattice oxygen of iron oxide reacted with heavy oil fraction of residual oil, oxygen species generated from steam were supplied to iron oxide lattice and reacts with heavy oil fraction, producing light hydrocarbons and carbon dioxide. When the oxygen species were generated from steam, hydrogen species were simultaneously generated from steam. The hydrogen species were transferred to light hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulfide, and residue deposited on the catalyst. Supplies of the hydrogen species to light hydrocarbons suppressed alkene generation. Generation of hydrogen sulfide indicated decomposition of sulfur compounds of residual oil. The sulfur concentration of product oil decreased compared to the concentration of residual oil. Some oxygen species could be transferred to sulfur dioxide. Accordingly, hydrogenation and oxidation by the hydrogen and oxygen species derived from steam provided the decomposition and desulfurization of residual oil with the iron oxide-based catalyst in a steam atmosphere.",signatures:"Eri Fumoto, Shinya Sato and Toshimasa Takanohashi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58309",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58309",authors:[{id:"36763",title:"Dr.",name:"Eri",surname:"Fumoto",slug:"eri-fumoto",fullName:"Eri Fumoto"},{id:"229413",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinya",surname:"Sato",slug:"shinya-sato",fullName:"Shinya Sato"},{id:"229414",title:"Dr.",name:"Toshimasa",surname:"Takanohashi",slug:"toshimasa-takanohashi",fullName:"Toshimasa Takanohashi"}],corrections:null},{id:"58152",title:"Mn-Zn Ferrite as Recycled Material Resource Based on Iron Oxide Suitable to Functional Green Devices",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72418",slug:"mn-zn-ferrite-as-recycled-material-resource-based-on-iron-oxide-suitable-to-functional-green-devices",totalDownloads:1073,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Today manufacturing stages in electronic device industry of wide-scale production can be restricted due to the high costs resulting from energy consumption, the use of organic solvents, production of hazardous intermediates, and formation of waste products leading to environmental pollution and several biological risks which damage society’s ability to sustain the planet for future generations. As recycled material resource based on iron oxide, the Mn-Zn ferrite is an interesting candidate. In the last decades, this material has been manufactured by using ceramic process technologies to design magnetic devices as components useful in switching mode electronic systems. However, these processing technologies have generated negative environmental impact as emission of toxic gases and higher use of energy resources. The Mn-Zn ferrites employed in consumer electronics deteriorate the earth when its final placement as waste in landfills occurs. Then, attitudes in resource recovery should allow the recycling of the materials from electronic waste to converting those to new products; therefore, uncommon physical properties from shredding processes are available when bulk ferrites are converted to foil ferrites. This chapter provides a comprehensive study on recyclability of the Mn-Zn ferrites, exploring both structure and conduction properties in foil ferrites to use their nonlinear behavior in functional green devices.",signatures:"Roberto Baca",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58152",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58152",authors:[{id:"199138",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",surname:"Baca",slug:"roberto-baca",fullName:"Roberto Baca"}],corrections:null},{id:"60610",title:"The Investigation of Removing Direct Blue 15 Dye from Wastewater Using Magnetic Luffa sponge NPs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73216",slug:"the-investigation-of-removing-direct-blue-15-dye-from-wastewater-using-magnetic-luffa-sponge-nps",totalDownloads:1151,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this study, loaded Luffa sponge membrane forms were modified with ZnO, Fe3O4, ZnO/Fe3O4 nanoparticles (NPs) to remove of Direct Blue 15 (DB15), which is a carcinogenic azo dye in aqueous solution. ZnO and Fe3O4 NPs were synthesized using purified peroxidase enzymes from Euphorbia amygdaloides using green synthesis method. Adsorption of DB15 azo dyes was separately studied with membrane forms (LS-pure, LS-ZnO, LS-Fe3O4, and LS-ZnO/Fe3O4). Optimum contact time, optimum pH, optimum temperature, optimum dye concentration, and optimum LS amount were found as 45 min, pH 8.0, 20°C, 200 mg/L, and 0.025 g in line with the optimization studies, respectively. The obtained membrane forms were characterized using SEM, FT-IR, and XRD techniques. According to obtained results, NPs loaded LS membrane forms are promising in removal of DB15 from textile wastewater contaminated water.",signatures:"Hayrunnisa Nadaroglu, Semra Cicek, Hicran Onem and Azize Alayli\nGungor",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60610",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60610",authors:[{id:"221608",title:"Prof.",name:"Hayrunnisa",surname:"Nadaroglu",slug:"hayrunnisa-nadaroglu",fullName:"Hayrunnisa Nadaroglu"},{id:"226435",title:"Prof.",name:"Azize",surname:"Alayli Gungor",slug:"azize-alayli-gungor",fullName:"Azize Alayli Gungor"},{id:"226436",title:"Dr.",name:"Semra",surname:"Cicek",slug:"semra-cicek",fullName:"Semra Cicek"}],corrections:null},{id:"60330",title:"Preclinical Aspects on Magnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles and Their Interventions as Anticancer Agents: Enucleation, Apoptosis and Other Mechanism",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74176",slug:"preclinical-aspects-on-magnetic-iron-oxide-nanoparticles-and-their-interventions-as-anticancer-agent",totalDownloads:1328,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The broad area of magnetic iron oxide nanoparticle (M-IONP) applications and their exclusive physico-chemical characteristics (superparamagnetic properties per se, solubility and stability in aqueous solutions, and high bioavailability in vivo) make these nanoparticles suitable candidates for biomedical uses. The most employed magnetic iron oxides in the biomedical field are magnetite and maghemite. Cancer represents a complex pathology that implies multiple mechanisms and signaling pathways, this complexity being responsible for the increased resistance to therapy and the lack of an effective curative treatment. A potential useful alternative was considered to be the use of magnetic iron nanoparticles. The M-IONPs proved to be effective as contrast agents in magnetic resonance imaging, as drug delivery carriers for different therapeutic agents, in magnetic cell separation assays, and are suitable to be engineered in terms of size, targeted delivery and substance release. Moreover, their in vivo administration was considered safe, and recent studies indicated their efficiency as anticancer agents. 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The photocurrent in the films upon irradiation in the visible region was significantly enhanced after Rh substitution. Moreover, a near-infrared photocurrent was clearly observed for Rh:Fe2O3 photoanodes, whereas no photoresponse could be detected for the α-Fe2O3 films. These improved photoelectrochemical properties are attributed to the increased light absorption due to the hybridization of Rh-4d states and O-2p states at the valence band maximum. Moreover, Rh substitution also strongly influences the photocarrier transport properties of the films. The electrical conductivity of Rh:Fe2O3 is higher than that for α-Fe2O3 by two orders of magnitude, which is possibly due to the extended 4d orbitals of the Rh3+ ions. 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Nowadays, LiDAR usage is not only limited to surveying as it was originally developed but also rapidly offers a lot of applications from civil engineering, urban modeling, mapping, automobile, and agriculture. Although a recent development of LiDAR technology allows capturing a large area in a short time with high accuracy, identifying scanning parameters or trajectories is still based on the rule of the thumb. Datapoint clouds from a single scan are highly accurate but combining the point clouds from multiple scans is still an issue. Although a lot of methods based on geometric analysis and machine learning have been developed for the recognition, classification, and extraction of objects from the point clouds, robust and efficient methods are still adopted for various types of laser scanning point clouds and data quality is still questioned. Moreover, converting raw point clouds to 3D geometric models still requires intensive labor work. As such, generating 3D digital models and extracting semantic information from the point clouds is one of the important keys to generating digital twins, but the automatic process is still a high challenge. The cost, time, and quality of the 3D model can be a barrier to this process. This book aims to investigate the state of the art in using LiDAR technologies in a role to create digital twins.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-804-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-803-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-805-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"1a71ec59de076cdb37d854e4bb72fbd0",bookSignature:"Dr. Linh Truong - Hong and Dr. Anh Thu Anh Phan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11949.jpg",keywords:"Terrestrial Laser Scanner, Mobile Laser Scanner, Handheld Scanner, Drone-LiDAR, Machine Learning, Semantic Information, Scan-to-BIM, Geometric Representation, Geometric Modeling, 3D Mesh, Digital Twins, Change Detection",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 29th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 8th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 7th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 26th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 25th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"18 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Linh Truong-Hong is a Marie Curie Fellowship at Optical and Laser Remote Sensing Group. His research interests are to develop integrated frameworks to deploy LiDAR and Photogrammetry in 3D objection reconstruction and change detection for infrastructure inspection and assessment, construction management, and smart city. Dr. Truong-Hong has published more than 60 scientific papers (with a total citation of +1300) and filed 2 patents.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Anh Thu Phan got a Master’s degree in 2014 from the Nagaoka University of Technology where she studied rice growth monitoring using laser scanning techniques and obtained a Ph.D. degree at the same University in 2017. Since then, she has been a full-time lecturer at the Department of Geomatics Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering, the Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology, Vietnam. 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His research interests are to develop integrated frameworks to deploy LiDAR and Photogrammetry in 3D objection reconstruction and change detection for infrastructure inspection and assessment, construction management, and a smart city. Dr. Truong-Hong has published more than 60 scientific papers (with a total citation +1300) and filed 2 patents. His research activity has been recognized through 6 peer-reviewed international awards. 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As of 2018, the number of people with a migration background in the Netherlands is over one-fifth of the total population (22.6%). Ten years ago, it was 16%, and the non-Western group has increased in particular because of higher birth rates and marriages from their country of origin. The five largest migrant groups in the Netherlands today are Turkish, Moroccan, Indonesian, German, and Surinamese. About 26% of those 25 years and younger have a migration background [1]. The participation of women in the labor market has also increased in the recent decades. All these changes have repercussions on the composition of the staff in public organizations. Because of its exemplary role as the largest employer of about 1 million employees, the Dutch public sector has devoted an increasing amount of attention to promoting diversity since the 1980s. At that time, the need arose to eliminate the disadvantages faced by minorities in education and labor market and to prevent unequal treatment, prejudice, and discrimination [2].
The diversity policy of the public sector has long been characterized first and foremost by striving for a workforce composition balanced by gender, ethnic origin, and age [3]. Over the past four decades, numerous diversity interventions have been aimed at the intake, transfer, and retention of employees of non-Dutch origin in public organizations [4, 5]. However, these interventions did not significantly increase the proportion of immigrants working in public organizations. Their share of public administration positions—despite all the various initiatives and policies—increased only slightly over 15 years, from 4% in 1999 to 6.5% in 2014 [2]. Part of the cause is the higher outflow among employees of non-Western origin from public organizations than their colleagues of Dutch descent. One popular argument is that employees with a migrant background do not feel at home in these organizations, while another is the lack of transfer possibilities to higher positions in public organizations [6, 7]. Binding with the organization they work in is, therefore, considered to be an important objective of the diversity policy of the Dutch public sector.
Around the turn of the millennium, thinking about diversity in the Netherlands began to shift from a target group policy focused on eliminating inequities in the labor market to a business case approach [2, 8]. The business case for diversity is defined as the creation of various insights, knowledge, and skills achieved by taking advantage of differences between people. The idea is that this variety can provide more creativity and better results in teams and organizations [9]. Diversity includes visible and nonvisible differences, such as norms, values, convictions, needs, working styles, and personal characteristics [10] and can become commonplace in the workforce.
However, we know little about the effectiveness of the diversity interventions used within the Dutch public sector [11, 12, 13]. This chapter aims to examine how the various interventions influence the binding of employees with an emphasis on the role of the manager and the organizational culture, as both are seen as essential conditions to the identification and binding of employees with an organization [14, 15, 16, 17]. The underlying motives for an organization to increase diversity and implement diversity policies are discussed along with the theories on which they are based. These motives are considered to be decisive in the desired effects being achieved within an organization [13, 18].
Several theories explain the motives of organizations in conducting diversity policy [18, 19, 20]. Ely and Thomas [19] distinguish three diversity perspectives: discrimination and fairness, access and legitimacy, and integration and learning. These perspectives connect diversity with the equality, legitimacy, and productivity, respectively, of the organization.
The discrimination and fairness perspective, also called the justice perspective, takes as a moral starting point the principle that everyone is equal and must be treated equally. Differences within an organization are mentioned and emphasized as little as possible, and the explicit effect of diversity on the functioning of the organization is downplayed. This perspective focuses on providing equal opportunities for recruitment and promotion and on the suppression of prejudice and discrimination toward minority groups [21]. Organizations adopting this perspective do so out of a moral duty to reflect a just society [22] and to obtain legitimacy and public credibility [23]. The “target group” policy was developed from this perspective on diversity; it involves offering equal opportunities in recruitment and promotion to promote the proportional representation of different sociodemographic groups in organizations [24]. A vivid of an example of this kind of intervention is the use of target figures or quotas to improve the influx, promotion, and retention of target groups such as women, immigrants, and the elderly and young people [25]. This kind of intervention has been part of standard Dutch government policy since 1994.
The access and legitimacy perspective is based primarily on the opportunities that diversity offers for the market, such as gathering knowledge about different groups in society and finding links and ties with them. It is about increasing the legitimacy and recognizability of organizations among certain ethnic groups, based on the realization that the market in which organizations are active is becoming increasingly ethnically diverse. Organizations respond to this development by increasing the diversity of their staff in order to gain better access to and gain legitimacy among various groups in the market; in short, they can better meet the needs of customers and clients [19, 26]. The underlying idea is that people with a given background are more likely to understand and communicate effectively with those who share that background. Organizations aim to benefit by creating more connections between their employees and the public. A typical intervention from the access and legitimacy perspective is the diverse composition of selection teams to recognize the qualities of applicants with different backgrounds [27] and make recruitment policy and its execution as value-free as possible [28]. The focus of the “diverse composition of selection teams” intervention involves the use of both men and women and those with both native and migrant backgrounds in the selection process to increase the recognition of the qualities of diverse talent. This approach can help counter the often-observed tendency of organizations and those who work at them to select candidates who are similar to them or their current employees.
The integration and learning perspective relates to organizational processes. Organizations that operate from this perspective strive for diversity in their workforce on the premise that such differences contribute to creativity, innovation, and better products and services and can thus improve organizational performance [29]. Diversity is seen as an internal source of productivity because the knowledge, insights, and skills of employees from different ethnic or cultural groups are better utilized in practice. Organizations that strive for diversity from the integration and learning perspective might employ these insights into reevaluate and possibly adapt their own work processes, culture, and core tasks. Differences in ethnic background and the various visions that arise from them are regarded as learning moments. Within the public sector, there have been limited interventions based on the integration and learning perspective. Some interventions are trajectories aimed at creating an open culture and explicitly appreciating the diversity in organizations [27].
Both the access and legitimacy and the integration and learning perspectives regard diversity as adding value to organizational performance. From the discrimination and fairness perspective, such differences do not matter, and the starting point is that employees must adapt to the organization, with the risk that employees feel unappreciated or disrespected [19]. It is, therefore, to be expected that interventions related to the access and legitimacy and the integration and learning perspectives will have a more favorable effect on the binding of employees with the organization than interventions related to the discrimination and fairness perspective.
An inclusive organizational culture means that all employees feel involved in the organization, regardless of age, gender, or cultural background; they are valued for who they are [30]. The inclusiveness of the organizational culture has been associated with positive work-related outcomes, such as greater well-being in teams, higher employee satisfaction, and more productivity and confidence in the workplace [31]. An organizational culture in which there is no openness and appreciation of differences can lead to a decline in employee involvement in and motivation for work and the organization itself [32].
In addition to the fact that employee ties are connected with the organizational outcomes noted above, there is evidence in the literature about a direct influence of the inclusiveness of an organization’s culture on involvement and retention among its employees. It has been shown that openness and appreciation for diversity in the organization are accompanied by more involvement among employees [33]. Specifically, it appears that affective involvement is related to inclusiveness within the organization [34]. In addition, we know from the research that an inclusive organizational culture can limit the departure and intention to depart of employees [35]; similarly, an open organizational culture has been reported to have a positive influence on the binding of employees with the organization [10, 36]. Thus, the inclusiveness of the organizational culture can have a mediating role in the relationship between the policy interventions and the binding of employees.
In the literature, the role of managers and leaders is receiving increased attention in connection with employee performance in both public and private organizations. In addition to influencing the attitude and behavior of employees, they play a significant role in the implementation of human resources management (HRM) policy in an organization [37]. The precise ways that managers exert influence depend on their leadership style. Several styles of and roles in leadership have been reviewed in the literature [38]; this study focuses on transformational leadership. A transformational leader is charismatic, recognizes differences, puts the individual at the center, and increases employee motivation, trust, and satisfaction by bringing people together and changing their thinking [39]. Transformational leadership fits in well with managing diverse groups [40]. Managers who practice this style of leadership are more willing to take risks to solve problems and exploit opportunities proactively. As a result, they have a more forward-looking vision. Due to the focus that a transformational manager places on motivating, inspiring, and developing employees, this leadership style has been characterized as people-oriented [39].
Leadership style can also have a direct influence on the binding of employees. Managers with a transformational leadership style have a sharper eye for individual characteristics and will use those traits to encourage and motivate employees [38, 40]. Moreover, the emphasis is on finding new ways of working and using different perspectives to find solutions to problems [41]. Because managers implement the day-to-day practice of diversity policy and share the vision behind it, it is reasonable to expect that the relationship between policy choices and outcomes is stronger in the context of a transformational leadership style. The expectation is that the presence of a transformational leadership style will lead to more employee engagement with the organization. It is also supposed that a transformational leadership style will strengthen the relationship between diversity interventions and employee engagement with the organization.
The research reported was carried out using a “flash panel” of government employees that is maintained under the authority of the Dutch Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations. Employees who participate in the flash panel are invited once every 2 months by E-mail to participate in a web survey lasting a maximum of 10 minutes. The employees in the flash panel cohort are representative of the workforce of the entire public sector. The flash panel contains respondents’ E-mail addresses, sector of employment, position, job grade, gender, year of birth, and education level. The participants in a given survey are selected once every 2 months for research using a regional test from the overall flash panel of 35,000 employees. As a check, each study asks whether the panel member is still working in the sector, which helps keep the panel file up to date. This large-scale survey was conducted from 12 to 26 April 2011; 27,167 employees were invited. Responses were received from 11,557 employees, a response rate of 42.5%. Only respondents who had no missing scores on the variables were used in the research reported here. After removing those respondents, 4310 respondents remained, which is a final response rate of 16%. The relatively high proportion of missing scores was due to the unfamiliarity of the respondents with the diversity interventions presented. How the concepts central to this research were operationalized is detailed below.
Different perspectives on diversity can favor varied interventions. For this reason, the three most used interventions in the various diversity perspectives were presented to the respondents (see Table 1).
Diversity interventions | Diversity perspectives | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
D&F | A&L | I&L | ||
1 | Target figures regarding the inflow and throughflow of specific groups (such as men or women, elderly or young people, or immigrants or autochthonous people) in the organization. | x | ||
2 | The diverse composition of selection teams to recognize qualities in applicants with different backgrounds. | x | ||
3 | Trajectories aimed at creating an open culture and the appreciation of diversity. | x |
Diversity interventions and perspectives.
The first intervention can be placed under the discrimination and fairness (D&F) perspective because they aim to increase members of minority groups in the organization. The second intervention arises from the access and legitimacy (A&L) perspective and is designed to help the organization better reach specific target groups. The last intervention refers to the integration and learning (I&L) perspective, where learning about diversity is central.
Respondents were asked to indicate whether an intervention was present in their organization by using one of three answer options: (1) “Yes,” (2) “No,” and (3) “Do not know.” Answers of “Do not know” are not included in the analysis below. They are classified as missing because no conclusions can be drawn about a group that does not know which interventions are used by their organization. Subsequently, dummies were created for each of the interventions: 0 = not present and 1 = present.
To measure the binding of employees within an organization, questions were asked to respondents about
The
To measure the inclusiveness of an organization’s culture, an existing set of six previously unvalidated questions was used by the national government in employee satisfaction surveys to gain an insight into the degree of perceived inclusiveness and social safety among employees. These six questions were derived from five key questions posed by the oil company Shell to determine the degree of inclusiveness their employees felt [45]. Because these issues relate to the extent to which employees feel valued and secure within their organization, we speak here of inclusive organizational culture, which, after all, involves the combination of safety [46, 47] and appreciation [48].
The six statements in Table 2 about inclusive organizational culture (IC) were presented to the respondents.
IC1 | Where I work, I am treated with respect |
IC2 | I can openly express my opinion without fear of negative consequences |
IC3 | My organization has a working environment, where different ideas and perspectives are valued |
IC4 | My organization is free of discrimination |
IC5 | My organization is free of intimidation |
IC6 | The decisions made by managers about employees are fair |
Statements for inclusive organizational culture (IC).
In the original questionnaire, a five-point Likert scale was used for responses ranging from (1) “Strongly agree” to (5) “Strongly disagree.” In order to better interpret the output of the analyses, the scores have been recoded to (1) “Fully disagree” and (5) “Fully agree.” The higher the scores, the more the organizational culture was perceived as inclusive. The Cronbach’s α of this scale was 0.90.
Respondents were asked about the direct supervisor’s leadership style. The items on transformational leadership (TL) are derived from the operationalization of Bass et al. [41]. Respondents indicated on a five-point Likert scale the extent to which they agreed with each statement, with being (1) “Strongly agree” and (5) “Strongly disagree.” The propositions are provided in Table 3.
TL1 | My leader considers my needs over his or her own needs |
TL2 | I trust my leader |
TL3 | My leader is consistent in conduct with underlying ethics, principles, and values |
TL4 | My leader emphasizes the importance of having a collective sense of mission |
TL5 | My leader behaves in ways that stimulate individual and team spirit |
TL6 | My leader behaves in ways that motivate by providing meaning and challenge to employees’ work |
TL7 | My leader stimulates being innovative and creative by questioning assumptions, reframing problems, and approaching old situations in new ways |
TL8 | My leader seeks different points of view when solving problems |
TL9 | My leader suggests new ways of working and different perspectives |
TL10 | My leader recognizes individual differences in terms of needs and desires |
TL11 | My leader helps employees to develop their strengths |
TL12 | My leader pays attention to each individual’s need for achievement and growth by acting as a coach or a mentor |
Propositions for transformational leadership (TL).
The Cronbach’s α of this scale was 0.96. Finally, two control variables were included in the study: the ethnic origin and gender of the respondent.
The SPSS and AMOS programs were used for the statistical analyses. The Cronbach’s αs, averages, standard deviations, and correlations of the research variables are presented in Table 4. The “trajectories for an open culture” intervention was the most frequently observed by the respondents. The “diverse composition of selection teams” and “projects for an open culture” diversity interventions correlated positively with organizational culture. Organizational culture correlated positively with the commitment of employees. From the correlations, it can also be argued that transformational leadership is related to the two policy interventions (diverse selection teams, routes for open culture), the organizational culture, and the binding of employees (retention, affective commitment). The scales of transformational leadership and organizational culture appear to correlate highly (0.66), which can partly be attributed to the items of transformational leadership that relates to diversity (TL7, TL8, and TL10).
Using AMOS, structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis was applied to the data. SEM analysis is a quantitative statistical method that combines two statistical analyses, path analysis and factor analysis. The scales constructed for organizational culture, affective commitment, or transformational leadership were not used directly; instead, the variables were re-estimated in measurement models with the help of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA).
The first model with affective commitment as an outcome measure showed the following goodness-of-fit statistics: χ2 = 7909.50,
The CFA conducted for the organizational culture, transformational leadership, and affective engagement variables showed that all those variables contributed significantly (
α | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Target figures | — | 0.32 | 0.47 | 1 | ||||||||
2. Diverse selection teams | — | 0.22 | 0.41 | 0.34** | 1 | |||||||
3. Routes for open culture | — | 0.37 | 0.48 | 0.33** | 0.36** | 1 | ||||||
4. Inclusive culture | 0.90 | 3.58 | 0.92 | 0.02 | 0.15** | 0.22** | 1 | |||||
5. Affective commitment | 0.91 | 3.98 | 0.98 | 0.08** | 0.15** | 0.21** | 0.49** | 1 | ||||
6. Retention | — | 3.8 | 1.37 | 0.13 | 0.05** | 0.11** | 0.23** | 0.29** | 1 | |||
7. Transformational leadership | 0.96 | 3.41 | 0.95 | 0.09** | 0.19** | 0.23** | 0.26** | 0.47** | 0.25** | 1 | ||
8. Ethnicity | — | 0.08 | 0.27 | 0.01 | −0.01 | −0.01 | −0.03** | −0.02* | −0.03** | −0.02 | 1 | |
9. Gender | — | 0.41 | 0.49 | −0.08** | −0.03* | −0.06** | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.02 | 0.00 | 0.03** | 1 |
Cronbach’s αs, averages (M), standard deviations (SDs), and Pearson correlations.
Correlations are significant at the .01 level (2-tailed).
Correlations are significant at the .05 level (2-tailed).
Standardized regression effects | |||
---|---|---|---|
IC1 | ← | Inclusive culture | 0.81NA |
IC2 | ← | Inclusive culture | 0.87*** |
IC3 | ← | Inclusive culture | 0.85*** |
IC4 | ← | Inclusive culture | 0.55*** |
IC5 | ← | Inclusive culture | 0.73*** |
IC6 | ← | Inclusive culture | 0.81*** |
TL1 | ← | Transformational leadership | 0.68*** |
TL2 | ← | Transformational leadership | 0.88*** |
TL3 | ← | Transformational leadership | 0.85*** |
TL4 | ← | Transformational leadership | 0.72*** |
TL5 | ← | Transformational leadership | 0.88*** |
TL6 | ← | Transformational leadership | 0.84*** |
TL7 | ← | Transformational leadership | 0.79*** |
TL8 | ← | Transformational leadership | 0.82*** |
TL9 | ← | Transformational leadership | 0.72*** |
TL10 | ← | Transformational leadership | 0.84*** |
TL11 | ← | Transformational leadership | 0.82*** |
TL12 | ← | Transformational leadership | 0.83NA |
B1 | ← | Affective commitment | 0.81NA |
B2 | ← | Affective commitment | 0.90*** |
B3 | ← | Affective commitment | 0.93*** |
Inclusive culture | ← | Target figures | −0.03** |
Inclusive culture | ← | Routes for open culture | 0.08*** |
Inclusive culture | ← | Diverse selection teams | 0.02 |
Affective commitment | ← | Target figures | 0.03* |
Affective commitment | ← | Routes for open culture | 0.05*** |
Affective commitment | ← | Diverse selection teams | 0.03 |
Affective commitment | ← | Inclusive culture | 0.39*** |
Affective commitment | ← | Gender (female) | 0.01 |
Affective commitment | ← | Ethnic origin (minorities) | −0.01 |
Affective commitment | ← | Transformational leadership | 0.21*** |
Inclusive culture | ← | Transformational leadership | 0.72*** |
Inclusive culture | ← | Gender (female) | −0.02 |
Inclusive culture | ← | Ethnic origin (minorities) | −0.02 |
Affective commitment | ← | Inclusive culture←Target figures | −0.01** |
Affective commitment | ← | Inclusive culture←Routes for open culture | 0.03*** |
Affective commitment | ← | Inclusive culture←Diverse selection teams | 0.01 |
Affective commitment | ← | Inclusive culture←Transformational leadership | 0.28*** |
Inclusive culture | 0.52 | ||
Affective commitment | 0.32 |
Results of SEM analyses of affective commitment.
Note:
NA = not applicable (set parameter).
Standardized regression effect | |||
---|---|---|---|
IC1 | ← | Inclusive culture | 0.81NA |
IC2 | ← | Inclusive culture | 0.87*** |
IC3 | ← | Inclusive culture | 0.85*** |
IC4 | ← | Inclusive culture | 0.55*** |
IC5 | ← | Inclusive culture | 0.73*** |
IC6 | ← | Inclusive culture | 0.81*** |
TL1 | ← | Transformational leadership | 0.68*** |
TL2 | ← | Transformational leadership | 0.88*** |
TL3 | ← | Transformational leadership | 0.85*** |
TL4 | ← | Transformational leadership | 0.72*** |
TL5 | ← | Transformational leadership | 0.88*** |
TL6 | ← | Transformational leadership | 0.84*** |
TL7 | ← | Transformational leadership | 0.79*** |
TL8 | ← | Transformational leadership | 0.82*** |
TL9 | ← | Transformational leadership | 0.72*** |
TL10 | ← | Transformational leadership | 0.84*** |
TL11 | ← | Transformational leadership | 0.82*** |
TL12 | ← | Transformational leadership | 0.83NA |
Inclusive culture | ← | Target figures | −0.03** |
Inclusive culture | ← | Routes for open culture | 0.08*** |
Inclusive culture | ← | Diverse selection team | 0.02 |
Retention | ← | Target figures | 0.0 |
Retention | ← | Routes for open culture | 0.01 |
Retention | ← | Diverse selection teams | −0.0 |
Retention | ← | Inclusive culture | 0.18*** |
Retention | ← | Gender (female) | −0.05*** |
Retention | ← | Ethnic origin (minorities) | −0.05*** |
Retention | ← | Transformational leadership | 0.21*** |
Inclusive culture | ← | Transformational leadership | 0.72*** |
Inclusive culture | ← | Gender (female) | −0.02 |
Inclusive culture | ← | Ethnic origin (minorities) | −0.02 |
Retention | ← | Inclusive culture← Target figures | −0.01** |
Retention | ← | Inclusive culture←Routes for open culture | 0.01*** |
Retention | ← | Inclusive culture←Diverse selection teams | 0.0 |
Retention | ← | Inclusive culture←Transformational leadership | 0.13*** |
Inclusive culture | 0.52 | ||
Retention | 0.14 |
Result SEM analyses of retention.
Note:
The policy “target figures” intervention (discrimination and fairness perspective) had a very weak negative relationship with the entrenched inclusive culture (
An inclusive culture appears to play an important role in increasing employees’ binding with the organization; it has a direct positive influence on the affective commitment (
The “target figures” intervention had a direct but a very weak positive effect on the affective commitment of employees (
In addition, the “diverse composition of selection teams” policy intervention (access and legitimacy perspective) had no direct or indirect effect on the affective commitment of employees. An inclusive culture, therefore, appears to have a mediating role in the relationship between policy interventions and employee engagement. This only applies to the “target figures” and “creating an open culture” interventions and the affective commitment of employees.
The results of the SEM analysis (see Table 6) show that none of the interventions have a significant direct effect on the retention of employees. The effect of these interventions on retention is likely explained entirely by their contribution to the inclusiveness of the organizational culture. The “target figures” intervention appears to have a very weak negative indirect effect through the inclusiveness of the organizational culture on the retention of employees (
Transformational leadership appears to be important for the binding of employees. The results showed that transformational leadership is strongly and positively connected with the affective commitment of employees (
To focus more directly on the influence of transformational leadership, multivariate analyses were performed in SPSS, with affective commitment and retention as dependent variables. Tables 7 and 8 present the results of the multivariate analysis of affective commitment and retention, respectively. In both tables, transformational leadership in the second model has been added to the analysis. To measure the interaction effect between diversity interventions and transformational leadership, interaction variables were created in the third model.
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Std. Error | Beta | Std. Error | Beta | Std. Error | Beta | ||||
Ethnic origin | −0.034* | 0.015 | −0.034 | −0.023 | 0.013 | −0.023 | −0.022 | 0.013 | −0.022 |
Gender | 0.008 | 0.015 | 0.008 | 0.005 | 0.013 | 0.005 | 0.006 | 0.013 | 0.006 |
Preferential policy | 0.028 | 0.021 | 0.024 | 0.030 | 0.019 | 0.026 | 0.029 | 0.019 | 0.025 |
Target figures | −0.006 | 0.022 | −0.005 | 0.001 | 0.019 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.019 | 0.001 |
Specific groups | 0.013 | 0.021 | 0.012 | −0.018 | 0.018 | −0.015 | −0.016 | 0.018 | −0.014 |
Diverse selection teams | 0.081*** | 0.018 | 0.074 | 0.033* | 0.016 | 0.030 | 0.038* | 0.018 | 0.035 |
Networks | −0.021 | 0.020 | −0.018 | −0.004 | 0.017 | −0.004 | −0.001 | 0.018 | 0.001 |
Trajectories | 0.178*** | 0.019 | 0.163 | 0.081*** | 0.017 | 0.074 | 0.090*** | 0.018 | 0.082 |
Training courses | 0.026 | 0.019 | 0.023 | 0.010 | 0.017 | 0.009 | 0.009 | 0.017 | 0.008 |
Transformational leadership | 0.457*** | 0.013 | 0.479 | 0.442*** | 0.014 | 0.463 | |||
Interaction between TL and diverse selection teams | −0.007 | 0.015 | −0.007 | ||||||
Interaction between TL and trajectories | −0.039* | 0.016 | −0.037 | ||||||
Constant | 4.067*** | 0.015 | 4.070*** | 0.014 | 4.083*** | 0.015 | |||
0.219 | 0.512 | 0.513 | |||||||
4.310 | 4.310 | 4.310 |
Influence of interventions and transformational leadership on affective commitment (linear regression).
Note: (
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Wald | Exp (B) | Wald | Exp (B) | Wald | Exp ( | ||||
Ethnic origin | −0.121*** | 12.949 | 0.886 | −0.113** | 10.446 | 0.893 | −0.113** | 10.297 | 0.894 |
Gender | −0.084* | 5.036 | 0.919 | −0.092* | 5.537 | 0.912 | −0.092* | 5.559 | 0.912 |
Preferential policy | −0.001 | 0.001 | 0.999 | 0.001 | 0.000 | 1.001 | −0.002 | 0.001 | 0.998 |
Target figures | −0.057 | 1.068 | 0.945 | −0.052 | 0.798 | 0.950 | −0.052 | 0.824 | 0.949 |
Specific groups | 0.002 | 0.001 | 1.002 | −0.044 | 0.645 | 0.957 | −0.052 | 0.958 | 0.949 |
Diverse selection teams | 0.100* | 4.849 | 1.113 | 0.047 | 0.849 | 1.048 | 0.043 | 0.731 | 1.044 |
Networks | −0.016 | 0.092 | 0.985 | 0.008 | 0.023 | 1.008 | 0.005 | 0.010 | 1.005 |
Trajectories | 0.211*** | 17.038 | 1.234 | 0.081 | 2.286 | 1.084 | 0.083 | 2.399 | 1.087 |
Training courses | 0.026 | 0.263 | 1.026 | 0.004 | 0.005 | 1.004 | 0.003 | 0.004 | 1.003 |
Transformational leadership | 0.599*** | 261.250 | 1.820 | 0.587*** | 207.811 | 1.799 | |||
Interaction between TL and diverse selection teams | −0.052 | 1.301 | 0.949 | ||||||
Interaction between TL and trajectories | −0.005 | 0.013 | 0.995 | ||||||
Constant | 1.376*** | 1099 | 3.901 | 1.480*** | 1110 | 4.374 | 1.487*** | 1093 | 4.425 |
0.02 | 0.11 | 0.12 | |||||||
4.310 | 4.310 | 4.310 |
Influence of interventions and transformational leadership on departure intent (logistic regression).
Note: (
Table 7 confirms that transformational leadership has a strong positive effect on commitment (
Table 8 confirms that as transformational leadership increases, employees will be less inclined to leave the organization. As with commitment, the manager plays a crucial role in employee departure intention. Model 2 also shows that the influence of the “diverse selection teams” and “trajectories for the creation of an open culture” interventions disappears through the inclusion of transformational leadership.
There are several conclusions we can distill from this research.
First, diversity interventions based on the legitimacy and creativity perspective promote an inclusive organizational culture and are therefore more effective for the binding of employees to the organization than interventions based on a target group policy. The “creating an open culture” intervention appears to strengthen the binding of employees with the organization. This intervention focuses on differences between employees and seeks to influence the behavior of employees and, as a result, the culture within the organization. Inclusive organizational culture is thus an important condition for the commitment of employees to the organization. This confirms previous research showing that a culture with room for employee uniqueness positively influences binding [6, 10, 33, 36].
Second, a transformational leadership style influences the binding of employees within the organization. The role of the manager is of great importance and has a strong influence on employees’ commitment and their willingness to leave the organization. The more a manager uses a transformational leadership style, the higher the affective commitment and the less employees intend to leave. This is explained by the fact that the transformational manager, directly and indirectly, influences the employee and is the interpreter of the organization’s policies, including but not limited to its HRM policies. A transformational leadership style also ensures that attention is paid to individual differences. A manager with a transformational leadership style focuses on building trusting relationships with employees to motivate and inspire them. The manager takes a proactive approach to the organization’s employees and tries to get the very best out of them. One requirement revealed by this research is that diversity policies must be structured so as to support managers. This is also necessary to reinforce a transformational leadership style in the organization.
Third, the effect of interventions on the binding of employees is reduced when the manager uses a transformational leadership style [14]. This indirectly affirms the previous conclusion. This research shows that managers have a key position in organizational effectiveness. The more a transformational leadership style is used, the stronger the commitment of employees to the organization, regardless of their ethnic or cultural background. Employees are already more involved in the organization and less inclined to leave it. Transformational leaders have an eye for differences in individuals that can benefit the organization. This result offers insights into the most desirable public service management qualities and contributes to the discussion about which style of management will best help the Dutch public sector manage and benefit from diversity.
Finally, this research concludes that a transformational leadership style can weaken the effect of interventions to promote the binding of employees with the organization, such as programs designed to create an open culture. This may occur because different characteristics of a transformational leader, such as responding to individual needs and promoting a better organizational climate, overlap with the theory and practice of a given diversity intervention.
In any case, the research emphasizes the importance of interventions aimed at the role of managers and their leadership style in the binding of employees within the public sector.
Diversity is a reality, but inclusion is still a choice in organizations and societies. The essence of diversity is that differences are there! No one and no organization can ignore the differences among individuals. That is why diversity should be accepted as a matter of course. Diversity delivers new insights and innovations and brings quality and strength to organizations. But there is also a downside: diversity sometimes leads to problems and conflicts between people, even in organizations. It is not always and everywhere rosy. There is still much work to do to make diversity a standard feature of the workforce and daily life. In this chapter, some points of view are presented, along with paths and patterns that foster inclusion in organizations where everyone may be different.
One way to make diversity the most ordinary thing in organizations is to approach it from a system of values, meaning that everyone acts from deeper values such as freedom, equality, and mutual trust—the common values that are deeply rooted in society [8]. A focus on shared values can contribute to one’s connection with one another, increase inclusion in organizations, and maximize talent utilization by embracing differences. More importantly, those values form the basis of organizational perspectives such as creativity, binding, and equality to stimulate diversity. When interventions are logically driven from these perspectives and underlying values, their effectiveness is bound to improve.
In summary, this study shows that an inclusive organizational culture and a transformational leadership style play a more important role in the binding of employees than the diversity interventions themselves.
These results also offer opportunities for further research into the interconnections among the effectiveness of interventions, a transformational leadership style, and an inclusive organizational culture. From the perspective of change management, the anchoring of diversity in the behavior and culture of people and organizations needs more attention. Diversity is not merely an issue of human resources management; it is a leadership issue and a part of the overall organizational development. Diversity is not an end in itself; the organization’s ambitions are at the center, and the differences between people can contribute to realizing those ambitions. One necessary condition is a corporate culture where differences are recognized and embraced. This needs more in-depth research. In the public sector—not only in the Dutch example but also in the wider European context—diversity is not seen. If differences are seen, recognized, and given room, individuals can develop themselves more fully and can contribute more to the organization [8]. However, reality is stubborn. Think of the downside of diversity, such as conflicts that arise through differences between individuals and in the organizational context. Leadership is essential to allowing differences to flourish and increasing their added value contribution.
The data used in the chapter based on the dissertation research [2] carried out by the author Saniye Çelik.
Canine parvovirus (CPV-2) is a member of the
CPV-2 causes 100 percent morbidity and mortality rate of 10 percent and 91 percent in adult and young dogs respectively [9]. However, a mortality of 91 percent was reported in experimentally infected dogs that were not treated [10]. CPV-2 affects predominately the younger dogs between 6 weeks and 6 months [8] with an increased susceptibility to puppies less than 6 months. In dogs over the age of 6 months, sexually intact males are more likely (twice) to develop canine parvovirus enteritis (CPVE) in comparison to intact females [11]. The CPV-2 antibody titer transmitted to the newborn via absorbed colostral antibody is 50–60% of the mother’s titer. The half-life of paroviral maternal antibodies is around 10 days [12]. Therefore, puppies are highly susceptible to the CPV-2 infection as the maternal antibody titres start declining. CPVE affects dogs of all ages, although it is more severe in puppies. Puppies can succumb to shock and die within two days after being sick. The most striking symptom of CPV-2 myocarditis is the abrupt mortality in young puppies, generally around the age of 4 weeks [13].
In recent years, CPVE outbreaks caused by multiple CPV-2 variants have been recorded in diverse geographical locations throughout the world. Previously, CPV-2, which could not infect cats, has been replaced by CPV-2 variants that can now infect cats, suggesting that CPV-2 may be capable of spreading between species [14]. Since CPV-2 infects a wide range of wild animals in the order Carnivora, subclinical infection appears to be prevalent. As a result, significant CPV-2 reservoirs in wildlife appear to exist, and transmission of virus between domestic dogs and wildlife appears to be common and bidirectional [15]. Despite the availability of a wide range of immunoprophylactic and antiviral agents to control CPV-2 infections in dogs, many outbreaks have been reported throughout the world, and the disease has remained a major veterinary and economic concern due to the presence of unvaccinated dogs, intervention of active immunization by maternally derived antibodies, and the emergence of a different antigenic variants of CPV-2.
Canine parvovirus infection is caused by
Schematic representation of
The virus is nonenveloped having icosahedral symmetry and is 25 nm in diameter. The CPV virus is made up of the sixty protein subunits containing VP1 (5–6 units) and VP2 (54–55 units). The protein structure is made up of antiparallel β-barrel (8-stranded) capsid. The viral replication occurs inside the nucleus of multiplying cells and therefore the intranuclear inclusion bodies are formed during the infection. The viral capsid structure is made up of spike at the three-fold axes of the icosahedral unit, a 15-Å depression around the five-fold axes and two-fold axes is formed. Antigenic determinant regions have been plotted to the three-fold protrusion and the two-fold depression are related to the host cell features [17]. The surface of the capsid is composed of four loops inserted between the strands, resulting in spike-like protrusions around threefold axes of approximately 22 Å. The antigen neutralization site, also known as epitope A, is composed of loops 1 and 2 of one VP2 and loop 4 of a threefold related molecule [21]. The molecular weight (MW) is around 5.5 to 6.2 × 106 Da. There is an equal ratio of protein to nucleic acid.
NS1 is the largest non structural protein in CPV-2, and it is primarily involved in viral replication and pathogenicity [22]. NS1 is a key mediator of cytotoxicity of CPV and can selectively cause tumor cell lysis by inducing an antitumor immune response in different tumor models [23]. A recent study demonstrated the amino acid residues of T598 and T601 in the C-terminal phosphorylation sites of NS1 protein, involved in replication and pathogenicity of CPV-2 [24].
In the 1970s, CPV-2 emerged as a novel pathogen in dogs. Since then, CPVE has been reported across all the continents [25, 26]. Other related viruses such as Feline panleukopenia virus (FPV), Mink enteritis virus (MEV), Raccoon parvovirus (RPV) are closely related to the CPV-2 [27]. Mutations in the canine transferrin receptor (TfR) type-1 lead to adaptation of CPV-2 in different species 2 [28, 29]. There is more than 98% genome homology reported in the CPV and FPV nonetheless infect different species and have typical antigenic capsid and haemagglutination (HA) properties [28, 30]. The mutations in different amino acid positions have led to the effective adaptation in the new hosts [30]. There are over five to six mutations in the VP2 residue of the CPV-2 and FPV and also 375 and 323 amino acid position regulates the pH functionality of HA [31, 32]. CPV-2a (Asn CPV-2a) replaced CPV 2 in 1980s in the USA and various European countries. CPV 2a can infect the cats which was not a feature of CPV 2. CPV 2a has been displaced by the CPV-2b (426Asp) which was first reported in USA in 1982 and CPV-2c (426Glu) variant in Italy [31, 33]. Although two variants, CPV-2a and 2b had been identified much earlier, however, the third variant CPV-2c had been recognized in early 2000 [33]. Thereafter it has been reported frequently from many different countries. In addition, new CPV-2a and new CPV-2b have also been documented due to non-synonymous substitution at 297 residues (Ser to Ala) of VP2 protein [34]. In India, CPV-2a has recently become the most prevailing antigenic type among all variants. Recent emergence of new antigenic variants that differ significantly from the current vaccine strains is a matter of concern for efficacy of vaccine [35].
The CPV is of two types: CPV-1, commonly known as minute virus of canine and accountable for gastrointestinal and respiratory infection of dogs whereas, CPV-2, most pathogenic type and is responsible for severe gastroenteritis/hemorrhagic gastroenteritis, in young puppies as well as adult dogs.
It is quite difficult to distinguish the clinical diseases caused by CPV-2 variants owing to its overlapping nature of signs and symptoms. These variants are believed to produce similar pathogenicity however; some studies showed that severity of clinical manifestations is influenced by variants of CPV-2 based on clinical, hematological, serological and histopathological examinations [36, 37].
Although puppies under 6 months of age are highly susceptible, adult dogs with insufficient immunity are also considered as high risk to the CPVE. CPV-2 can persist in the environment for more than a year, enabling susceptible dogs to pick up infection from CVP-2 contaminated feces, vomitus, or fomites. Although the feco-oral route is considered as primary path of disease transmission, infection through the oro-nasal route is also common in naive or under-immunized dogs due to ingestion of viruses shed in the vomitus or feces of CPV-2-infected animals [38]. However, direct contact or environmental contamination may also play a role [39]. Breed predisposition and seasonal prevalence of the disease are subject to considerable variations in wide geographical areas [40, 41].
Doberman, Rottweiler, and German shepherd (GS) dogs have been reported to be more susceptible to CPVE than other breeds [42]. Due to inherited immunodeficiency, the exotic breeds, German Sphered and Doberman, are more susceptible than the other breeds [43]. German shepherd has the highest CPV infection rate (70%) followed by the Doberman (55%) [44]. A cytokine bioassay revealed that the magnitude of TNF-α production by peripheral blood monocytes was greatest in dogs with a breed-related risk for CPVE. When compared to mixed breeds, highly susceptible breeds such as Rottweiler and Doberman Pinscher produce more TNF-α in response to LPS stimulation [45]. Increased TNF activity is predictive of mortality in naturally occurring CPVE infection in veterinary medicine [46]. Therefore, it has been hypothesized that dogs with a breed-related risk of developing CPVE, a disease associated with sepsis, would have a greater pro-inflammatory cytokine response to endotoxin [45].
The incubation period of CPV-2 infection ranges from 4 to 14 days. The infected dogs start to shed virus few days prior to the visible clinical signs and shedding of virus gradually declines 3–4 weeks postexposure [47]. Following entry into the body, the CPV-2 rapidly multiply in oropharyngeal lymph node, thymus and mesenteric lymph node, resulting in viremia within one week of exposure. After that, the virus attacks rapidly multiplying cells of crypts of intestine, epithelium of the tongue, oral cavity, bone marrow, and cardiac myocytes, besides lung, spleen, liver, and kidneys [48]. The key pathogenic event in CPV-2 infection is the virus-induced destruction of enterocyte, leading to mucosal barrier disruption, and villous atrophy. This causes profuse vomiting and hemorrhagic diarrhea, nutrient malabsorption, dehydration/hypovolemia, metabolic acidosis and/or alkalosis. The disruption of mucosal barrier allows bacterial translocation from intestinal compartment to systemic circulation, resulting in septicemia, endotoxemia, systemic inflammatory response syndrome as well as hypercoagulability [49]. The CPV-2 infection in the thymus and bone marrow precursor cells results in loss of thymic cortex and profound leucopenia, respectively [48]. Death may occur due to multi-organ failure when the affected dogs remain unattended [40, 49]. Previously, myocarditis was thought to be the acute cause of death in young puppies however, this form nowadays occurs rarely because of widespread CPV vaccination of dogs. The concurrent infections with parasitic, virus, or bacterial intestinal pathogens or stressors may aggravate the disease [50, 51, 52].
The degree of clinical manifestations may vary with age, breed, and immune status, duration of illness and virulence of virus. The clinical signs of dogs with CPV infection are nonspecific in nature and resembles to gastritis and enteritis. The most notable clinical signs of CPVE are lethargy, depression, weakness, lack of appetence, bouts of vomiting, and diarrhea. The diarrhea is characterized by foul-smell and mucoid to purely hemorrhagic because slugging of intestinal mucosa and bleeding. The excessive loss of fluid during vomiting and diarrhea causes marked dehydration that results in development of hypovolemic shock. Occasionally, intussusception occurs due to intestinal dysmotility. Neurologic signs in puppies with CPVE may result from hypoxia secondary to myocarditis, hypoglycemia, or intracranial thrombosis or hemorrhages [52]. The bacterial translocation from intestine to systemic circulation can cause fever, systemic inflammatory response syndrome and septic shock with hypotension and organ failure [40, 48]. Apart from diarrhea, respiratory distress, pulmonary congestion and edema, alveolar and bronchiolar hemorrhage and convulsions are also occasionally manifested due to hypovolemia, endotoxic and septicemic shock [8, 53]. The malabsorbtion of nutrients and inadequate storage of glycogen in muscle and liver result in hypoglycemic encephalopathy which leads to seizures. On hospital admission, the prognosis is poor in CPVE dogs with intussusception, systemic inflammatory response syndrome and severe leucopenia.
Virus isolation is considered as a gold standard for any viral disease diagnosis. In case of CPV-2 different cell lines like CRFK (Crandell Rees feline kidney), MDCK (Madin-Darby canine kidney) and A-72 are used for the isolation and propagation of the virus. The adapted virus causes distinct cytopathic effect in infected cell lines as cell rounding, aggregation, and necrosis of the affected cells. This requires the presence of special laboratory and is laborious [54].
It is an expensive technique for the detection of the virions by negative staining in the stool samples or culture isolated virus. Immunoelectron microscopy can also be done by using CPV-specific antibodies. The need of expensive electron microscope makes it out of reach for regular usage [55].
The property of the CPV to cause agglutination of the pig, cat or rhesus monkey red blood cells at 4°C is used for detection of the CPV. The reciprocal of the maximum dilution of virus exhibiting ample agglutination of erythrocytes (mat formation) is designated as HA titer. The HA titer of more than 1:32 is usually considered as specific for CPV-2 [56].
The use of electric current allows the rapid movement of antigen and antibody towards each other resulting into the formation of precipitation line quicker than simple diffusion reaction. This technique is not commonly used but have been utilized for the prevalence of CPV infection in clinically suspected dogs [57].
In this test, an antibody tagged with fluorescent dye is employed for detection of specific CPV antigen. Mostly it is used as direct FAT for the diagnosis of CPVE but is not used routinely for diagnostic purpose [58].
This is a commonly used test utilizing antigen–antibody interactions employing specific antigen or antibody and is mostly useful under the field conditions. Here, the property of agglutination of polystyrene beads coated with either specific antigen or antibody on their surface is used with anti-CPV monoclonal and polyclonal antibody to detect CPV-2 in the stool samples. Earlier it has been used for both qualitative and quantitative evaluation of CPV in suspected dog feces. Also, a recombinant VP2 protein-based LAT for determination of immune status in dogs against CPV-2. Besides LAT, a slide agglutination inhibition test has been used to detect the presence of CPV-specific antibodies by utilizing the agglutination property of CPV-2 [59].
This method is developed for the detection of CPV-2. SIT is an antibody typing system based on the ability of viral antibodies to bind with the virus and prevents the virus from binding to RBC. SAT is used for antigen detection by serially diluting the clinical sample and then incubating it with a fixed amount of RBC containing virus surface receptors. The virus particles in the sample bind to the RBC and form a lattice that can be seen visually [60].
It is an enzyme-based immunoassay involving antigen–antibody interactions to screen a large number of samples at a time. Recombinant VP2 protein-based indirect ELISAs has been developed to detect and quantify antibodies against CPV-2. Novel polyclonal antibody-based antigen capture ELISA using rabbit anti-CPV hyperimmune sera as capture antibody and guinea pig anti-CPV hyperimmune sera as detector antibody has been also developed. IgY-based ELISA comprising of the chicken egg yolk-derived has been developed for the detection of both antigen and antibodies. Different commercial ELISA kits are currently available for CPV-2 antigen and antibody detection [61].
IC assays or Lateral flow assays are strip-based devices utilized for the detection of a target analyte in test samples. Colloidal gold nanoparticles are commonly used in synthesis of the probe (conjugate) in majority of these strip-based points of care assays. Different components used are the sample pad, conjugate pad, nitrocellulose membrane, absorbent pad and a plastic cassette. These tests are now used routinely for the parvovirus diagnosis in affected dogs. A number of lateral flow assay-based commercial kits are available for rapid detection of both CPV-2 antigen in feces and antibodies in serum, which are also available in the market. These are helpful in the field and gives rapid results within 10–15 mins. Recombinant VP2 protein based immunochromatography tests has also been developed based on the rapid detection of CPV-2 [62].
It is an immunological test which uses charging of test antigen on to a nitrocellulose or PVDF membrane followed by detection using specific antibody against the antigen and an enzyme labeled secondary antibody which forms a color on addition of an insoluble substrate. It is helpful as on the spot assay for CPV diagnoses. It has been developed for detection of CPV-2 using hyperimmune sera raised against the whole virus/recombinant VP2 protein. Commercial dot ELISA kits are also available for evaluating IgM response against CPV-2 after vaccination or infection [63].
PCR is a molecular diagnostic assay which is used for the detection of viral nucleic acid and is relatively more sensitive than other conventional tests. Diverse antigenic types of the CPV can be distinguished by employing strain-specific primer or nested PCR or restriction enzyme analysis of the PCR. Also strain differentiation may be carried out with the help of oligonucleotide sequencing of the amplified gene [64].
This has also been reported for the detection of CPV nucleic acid. Here hybridization with CPV-specific biotin or radiolabelled probe is carried out onto the CPV nucleic acid charged nitrocellulose paper or nylon membrane from suspected samples and then formation of color and band in the radiograph indicates the presence of the virus [65].
It uses an isotopic-labeled probe for both the detection and tracking of CPV nucleic acid in affected morbid tissue specimens thus,using more incubation time for development of the positive reaction [66].
This technique can be employed to quantitate CPV-2 in samples using either TaqMan probe technology or SYBR Green method. It is used for strain differentiation of concurrent infection using Multiplex Real-time PCR; and also, to differentiate vaccine strain from wild CPV strains. Different multiplex assays real-time PCR has been validated for the presence of CPV, FPV and PPV [67].
It is used for the detection and typing of the known point mutations/single nucleotide polymorphism based on variable size of PCR-amplified products specific to a particular allele. In this PCR basically 2 pairs of primers are used (2 inner and 2 outer specific primers matching to individual allele type) in a single PCR tube and there are no post-PCR protocols used as restriction enzyme digestion (PCR-RFLP) and sequencing therefore they provide an economical confirmation. ARMS-PCR is a well-known technique frequently employed for phenotypic association and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) studies. This has been used for CPV detection and its antigenic typing [54].
It contains a stable electrically neutral peptide backbone and the PNA-DNA hybridization assay are relatively more sensitive and specific than TaqMan-based real-time PCR for CPV differentiation [68].
The assay is a sensitive and rapid technique used for amplification of DNA and thereby pathogen detection in an hour by using the DNA polymerase by autocycling strand displacement action by boiling at persistent temperature (60–65°C) in water bath. Usually, 2 sets of primers bind to 4 to 6 different regions of target viral DNA. LAMP has field application as there is no need for any thermocycler to carry out the target gene amplification. The amplification of VP2 gene of CPV-2 by LAMP assay has been developed. LAMP assay along with lateral flow dipstick (LFD) and LAMP-ELISA are also used for CPV DNA detection [69].
It is a convection-based method using a hydrolysis probe for detection of CPV-2 and its antigenic variants. The reaction mixture is sequentially allowed to pass in an automatic manner through variable temperature zones in a capillary tube which undergoes thermocyclic phase to amplify the DNA and the probe hydrolysis produces optical output providing the result within an hour [70].
This technique makes use of both conventional PCR and isothermal amplification as in LAMP and is completed within one and a half hour. Here mostly an exogenous sequence from an unrelated species or of botanical origin is incorporated at the 5′ end into the primer sequences used in PSR if a human or veterinary pathogen is targeted. PSR has been successfully used to detect all CPV antigenic variants with ten-fold higher sensitivity than traditional PCR [71].
It is a probe-based assay that uses melting curve analysis to detect and differentiate between CPV-2 variants. This assay consists of 2 TaqMan probes namely FAM labeled and HEX labeled. The FAM-labeled probe sequence is perfectly complementary to CPV-2a, with a 1 bp mismatch to CPV-2b and a 2 bp mismatch to CPV-2c. The HEX-labeled probe has complete complementarity with the original CPV-2 and a 1-bp mismatch with the other variants. This method is also capable of detecting samples containing more than one variant without sequencing [72].
Aptamers emerged as a good alternative to antibodies as affinity reagents. Recently, ssDNA aptamers that specifically bind with the recombinant VP2 (rVP2) protein of CPV-2 with affinity in the nanomolar range have been reported. The ssDNA aptamers specific to CPV-2 (rVP-2) were selected by the Systematic evolution of ligands through exponential enrichment (SELEX) method and their target binding was assessed by dot blot and enzyme-linked oligonucleotide assay (ELONA). Aptamers with high binding affinity and specificity against rVP-2 could be employed in diagnostics for rapid detection of CPV-2 [73].
It is primarily used for most viral genome identification and confirmation. Thus, considered as a gold standard for the antigenic typing of CPV variants. The amplified PCR product is either directly sequenced or cloned which is sequenced in a sequencer utilizing apt primers. The sequence data is analyzed using the appropriate bioinformatics database. Either nucleotide or amino acid sequence data or even both could be employed to recognize the evolutionary analysis of CPV-2 isolates from different geographical sites [74].
It is an analytical device which detects the DNA/RNA/protein/enzymes and alters it to the detectable electrical signals. A biosensor for CPV detection has been established by means of quartz crystal microbalance biosensor and ProLinker B [75]. Summary of different types of diagnostic assays are listed in the Table 1.
Diagnosis | Specimen | Diagnostic assay used | Feature | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|---|
CPV antigen | Feces or rectal swab | ELISA | High specificity Low sensitivity | Feces or rectal swab |
Haemagglutination assay | Low-cost and rapid. | Sensitivity and specificity vary | ||
Tissues or morbid samples | Necropsy specimens | Histopathology | Different histopathological techniques and IHC may be used. | Differential diagnosis with other enteric infections |
Viral DNA | Feces or rectal swab or any tissue | Polymerase chain reaction (PCR);qPCR | Efficient in diagnosing even minute amount of viral genome, can be quantified; Antigenic typing | Sensitivity and specificity vary. Vaccine virus shedding occurs upto weeks after immunization leading to false positives results. Inhibitory components may lead to false negative results. |
Virus | Feces or rectal swab or any tissue | Virus isolation | Confirmatory diagnosis | Requires special facility |
Virus particles | Feces or rectal swab or any tissue | Electron microscopy | Confirmatory diagnosis | Requires special facility, expensive |
Summary of the different types of diagnostic assays for CPVE diagnosis.
Commercially available kits are mostly based on antigen–antibody reactions, such as ELISA, dot ELISA, and immunochromatographic strip-based assays (Table 2).
Sl. No. | Test | Company | Principle | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | SNAP parvo antigen test | IDEXX, United States | ELISA | [76] |
2. | Rapid Immunochromatographic (IC) strip test | ADDBIO, Korea | Immunochromatography test | [43, 77, 78] |
3. | Witness Parvo Test Kit | Zoetis, United states | Rapid Immuno Migration (RIM™) technology. | [79] |
4. | Fassisi® Parvo | Fassisi, Gottingen, Germany | Lateral flow immunoassays | [80] |
5. | FASTest parvo card | Vet lab, UK | Lateral flow immunoassays | [55] |
6. | 4 CPV Antigen Rapid Test Kit | Ubio Biotechnology systems Pvt. Ltd., India | Lateral flow immunoassays | [79] |
7. | Anigen Rapid CPV Ag Test Kit® | Bionote, Dongtan, South Korea | Lateral flow immunoassays | [80] |
8. | ImmunoRun CPV antigen detection kit | Biogal- Galed labs, Israel | Immunochromatographic assay | [79] |
9. | Primagnost® Parvo H + K | Dechra, Aulendorf, Germany | Lateral flow immunoassays | [80] |
10. | Canine Parvovirus & Distemper IgMAntibody Test Kit | Biogal Galed Laboratories Acs Ltd., Israel | Immunocomb | [79] |
11. | Vetexpert Rapid Test CPV Ag® | Vetexpert, Vienna, Austria | Lateral flow immunoassays | [80] |
List of commericially available kits for CPV-2 detection.
In absence of effective and appropriate antiviral drugs, the most universal therapeutic regimen for CPVE is supportive and symptomatic care until vomiting and diarrhea have resolved. Because of long-term illness of CPVE infected dogs, the challenges faced by the pet owners are cost of treatment and hospitalization. In private practice settings, the treatment cost may be huge, indicating that financial constraints may be a factor in disease-related euthanasia [81]. Therefore, fatality of CPVE is documented more in socioeconomically underprivileged areas, where level of education and financial opportunity for care and vaccination are not adequate [82]. Although the survival rate of CPVE in hospitalized and outpatient dogs is debatable, a recent prospective, randomized trial found no significant differences in survival (90% vs. 80%, P = 0.66) or duration of hospitalization (4.6d vs. 3.8d, P = 0.20) between inpatient and outpatient dogs [83]. However, given the possible risks of long-term hypoglycemia and leukopenia, aspiration pneumonia, edema, and intussusception in CPVE dogs, hospitalization appears to be the better option over outpatient treatment [84].
The principal components of supportive and symptomatic therapy include 1) fluid therapy and oncotic support, 2) antibiotics, 3) antiemetics, and 4) nutritional support. A wide range of other treatment measures including, though not limited to, antiviral treatments and pain management have been assessed in the past or are currently under investigation regarding their potential utility in CPVE.
The development of severe hypovolemia is the first impact of pathophysiology in dogs with CPVE, hence re-establishment of the circulating volume is the utmost need [85]. The hypokalemia, hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis, hypoglycemia, hypoproteinemia and loss of oncotic pressure in circulation are the major fluid and electrolyte abnormalities during episode of diarrhea and vomition in acute CPVE [86]. The most aggressive therapies consisting of administration of intravenous (IV) fluids to restore intravascular fluid volume status, replenish interstitial fluid losses, maintenance of hydration and oncotic support. A balanced isotonic crystalloid solution (eg, Lactated Ringers) should be used for initial restoration of intravascular volume and rehydration, with a rate titrated to improve perfusion parameters such as capillary refill time, mucosal color, pulse character, and mean arterial pressure or lactate concentrations. Apart from fluid administration, potassium need to be supplemented in hypokalemic patients whereas, 25% dextrose at the dose rate of 1-2 mL/Kg body weight followed by addition of 2.5–5% dextrose in the crystalloid fluids will be required for hypoglycemic patients with blood glucose level < 60 mg/dL. Initially, the fluid is administered at the dose rate of 80–90 mL/kg with a boluses of 15–20 mL/kg over 15–20 minutes to counter the hypovolemic shock and, to improve the fluid perfusion. After that, the maintenance dose for daily fluid depends on the body weight (kg) and percent of dehydration. The volume (L) required to correct the daily fluid loss is calculated as body weight (Kg) × % dehydration. Generally, 40–60 mL fluid for each kg body weight is considered as ideal maintenance dose. Since fluid absorption through subcutaneous route is impaired in hypovolemic patients, intravenous access is considered as choice of fluid treatment. However, intraosseous or jugular catheter are considered as appropriate option in severe hypovolemic or interstitially dehydrated patients [87].
In CPVE, protein loosing enteropathy attributes to pronounced hypoalbuminemia (<2 g/dL) and/or hypoproteinemia (<4 g/dL) resulting in peripheral edema, pleural or abdominal effusions [88]. In that case, provision of oncotic support in the form of either natural or synthetic colloids are very important to minimize the morbidity and mortality of patients [89]. For correction of hypoalbuminemia, fresh plasma (20 mL/kg) or fresh-frozen plasma (6.6–11 mL/kg IV or 3 doses administered intraperitoneally 12 hours apart) and canine-specific albumin concentrate are used [90]. The concentrated human albumin products can also be used but the risk of immune reaction is the major limitation. If further oncotic support is required, hydroxyethyl starch (20–30 mL/kg/d) can be given, depending on clinician choice [6]. Sometimes, administrations of whole blood (20 mL/kg, within 4 hours) or packed RBCs are needed in severe anemic dogs with CPVE.
Apart from fluid and electrolyte imbalance, emesis is another clinical manifestation in CPVE. So, antiemetic treatment is warranted in CPVE otherwise persistent vomition may enhance the duration of hospital stay and further aggravates the condition of patient. The clinical efficacy of number of antiemetics in CPVE had been investigated with varying degree of results. The earlier studies showed that metoclopramide, a dopaminergic antagonist, was found to be effective in reducing episode of vomition by exerting a prokinetic effect in the upper intestinal tract and blocking the chemoreceptor trigger zone when administered as a bolus or as a constant-rate infusion in dogs. The ondasetron or dolasetron, the serotonin receptor antagonists, are also found effective in reducing the number of vomiting events [85]. Recently, a substantial antiemetic effect of maropitant, an antagonist of neurokinin1 receptors, by stimulation of either central or peripheral emetic pathways has been reported in dogs however, the efficacy of maropitant in CPVE has yet to be thoroughly investigated [91]. The administration of maropitant once daily, singly or in combination with metoclopramide, is very effective in reducing vomition in CPVE [5].
Translocation of bacteria from intestinal compartment to systemic circulation is very common in CPVE because of villous collapse and disruption of the mucosal barrier. The translocation with concurrent marked neutropenia leads to a high risk of septicemia and endotoxemia. Additionally, hypotension from fluid loss and sepsis make dogs with CPVE at high risk of developing acute kidney injury. Therefore, parenteral administration of broad-spectrum bactericidal antibiotics is necessary in dogs with CPVE. Ampicillin and cefoxitin as single-agent treatments or in combination with enrofloxacin are the choice antimicrobials against Gram-positive and negative bacteria [85]. Aminoglycosides may also be considered in well-hydrated animals otherwise it may be avoided due to its inherent risk of nephrotoxicity. Puppies with CPVE often have comorbidities, including gastrointestinal parasitism. Hence, antiparasite therapy should be initiated once the puppy can tolerate oral therapies [6].
Restoration of early mucosal integrity and prevention of bacterial translocation from gut compartment to systemic circulation are very important for faster recovery of dogs with CPVE. Enteral feeding is reported to improve the mucosal integrity and faster repair, resulting in lower possibilities for bacterial translocation [8]. In earlier study, it was demonstrated that early enteral nutrition via nasoesophageal catheter starting 12 hours post-admission led to clinical improvement, significant weight gain, and improved gut barrier function was more early as compared to withholding of the traditional food until cessation of vomiting for 12 hours [92].
Severe vomition, enteritis, and or concurrent intussusception in CPVE are the possible reasons for abdominal pain. Hence, analgesic treatment to reduce visceral pain is one the important aspect in therapeutic management in CPVE. Partial mu-agonists such as buprenorphine (0.01–0.02 mg/kg IV every 8 hours) or an agonist–antagonist such as butorphanol (0.1–0.2 mg/kg/h) are the preferred analgesics over the pure mu agonists as opioid analgesics can promote ileus and vomiting. The α-2 agonists that promote extreme vasoconstriction and limit gastrointestinal perfusion, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs that impair gastrointestinal and renal perfusion, both are not indicated [93].
Like other viral infections, prophylaxis is the cornerstone for prevention of CPV in dogs. Although, an adequate number of killed and live CPV vaccines are marketed by pharmaceuticals but vaccines sometimes fail to protect completely due to poorly responding breeds (Rottweilers and Doberman pinschers), variation in genetic makeup of field and vaccine viruses, interference by presence of maternal antibodies and adjunct factors [94]. Therefore, development of some suitable antiviral drugs is utmost important for effective management of the CPVE in its acute illness stage. Till now, only few antiviral drugs have been evaluated for its clinical efficacy against CPVE. In an earlier placebo-control study, the therapeutic efficacy of Oseltamivir, a neuraminidase inhibitor, in CPVE had been evaluated and noted that Oseltamivir did not produce any additional benefit in terms of reduction of mortality or duration of hospitalization except some improvements in body weight and hemogram in dogs with CPV-illness [95]. In another study on naturally infected dogs, a promising anti-CPV activity of recombinant feline interferon-ω (rFeIFN-ω) has been recorded as compared to placebo-group. The intravenous administration of rFeIFN-ω at the dose rate of 2.5 mU/kg daily for consecutive three days remarkably reduced the clinical symptoms and mortality [96, 97]. Although the drug is currently available for use in Europe and Australia, the high price and frequent non-availability are major limitations. Recently, another antivital drug, Acyclovir, guanine analogue commonly used to treat herpes simplex virus infection, have been shown to improve the disease conditions [98]. Further, an
Passive immunization with specific antibodies against enteric viral infections in animals confers significant protection, reduces diarrhea and virus shedding and increase survival rates [101]. Thus, the of immunotherapeutics in viral infections is promising treatment approach because of lower adverse effects as well as no chance of any resistance as in antiviral drugs. The passive immunization by means of oral or intravenous administration of IgY specific for CPV-2 shows the protective effect in dogs challenged with the virus [102]. The reduction of clinical scores, duration of symptoms and mortality and improvement of body weight gain has been reported by anti-CPV-2 IgY therapy in experimentally produced CPVE [103]. Recent study reported that chicken IgY- single chain fragment variables (scFv) generated against the virus capsid protein could be a promising therapeutic target against CPV [104, 105]. Aside from IgY, the neutralization of CPV by anti-feline panleukopenia virus antibodies is also reported from an
The key physiopathological alterations of CPVE are destruction of intestinal crypts, neutropenia, secondary bacterial translocation, immunosuppression due to thymus atrophy, sepsis and systemic inflammatory response syndrome in puppies [6, 109]. Therefore, immunomodulators could be an option to enhance therapeutic efficacy of supportive treatment. A recent study demonstrated that subcutaneous administration of human dialyzable leukocyte extract-h (hDLE) along with supportive therapy in puppies with CPVE significantly increased the leukogram and reduced the clinical score, duration of hospitalization, mortality as compared to supportive therapy alone [110].
Leukopenia is one of the most important prognostic indicators of mortality in dogs with CPVE. Hence, stimulation of bone marrow and improvement of leukogram in peripheral circulation are considered as strategic approaches to reduce the CPVE associated mortality. Enhancement of endogenous canine G-CSF (cG-CSF) concentrations by exogenous administration of human G-CSF (hGCSF) and cG-CSF is reported to stimulate bone marrow, resulting in improvement of neutrophil counts in puppies with CPV infection [111]. However, the use of hG-CSF and cG-CSF may not necessarily improve survival [112, 113].
The interferon (IFN)-ω, a type I IFN (similar to IFN-α), is known for its antiviral, anti-proliferation, and antitumor activities. A notable therapeutic effect of rIFN-ω on CPV-infected dogs is reported [114]. Additionally, the promising therapeutic potential of other type I (IFN-α, IFN-β, IFN-ε, and IFN-κ) and III (IFN-λ) IFNs in CPVE has also been reported [115].
Recently, anti-CPV activity of the serum derived transfer factors (TFs), low molecular weight (<5000 daltons) biological response modifiers has been documented. It imparts therapeutic benefit in CPVE by altering the cytokine response of the host [116].
Probiotics, primarily comprised of live microorganisms in fermented foods, protect gut from acute diarrhea through adherence and colonization on gut mucosa [117]. Therapeutic efficacy of probiotics has been verified in dogs with CPV associated illnesses [118]. In an earlier study, oral administration of probiotic preparations as an adjunct therapy to young dogs with CPVE has shown faster resolution of clinical signs, improved leukogram and decreased mortality as compared to supportive treatment alone [119]; whereas, no benefit with respect to length of hospital stay or case fatality was recorded in other study [120].
The disturbance in oxidant/antioxidant equilibrium is evident in CPV-gastroenteritis and oxidative stress is believed to link with pathogenesis of CPVE [121]. Hence, addition of antioxidants in supportive therapy has emerged as a promising therapeutic option to improve the response of treatment in viral diseases. Treatment with
An interest in natural products including herbs, plants and their extracts/metabolites as antiviral drug candidates has increased in the last few decades especially due to rising emergence of antimicrobial resistance globally and potential side-effects of many antimicrobials [123]. Very recently, anti-parvoviral activity of propolis, a traditional Chinese medicine, prepared from honeybee hives has been documented [124]. The
Alteration in the gut microbiome is reported in enteric viral diseases including CPVE and other gastrointestinal diseases in dogs [125]. The disruption of gut microbiota leads to impediment in the enterocyte nutrition, immune regulation, protective barrier function, and gastrointestinal motility [126]. Therefore, restoration or re-establishment of the microbiota could have a good interest therapeutically. Recently, a randomized clinical trial showed that administration of fecal microbiota (10 g feces diluted in 10 mL of sterile 0.9% saline) obtained from healthy donor rectally at 6–12 hours post-admission caused faster resolution of diarrhea, shortened the duration of hospitalization and reduced the mortality in young dogs with CPVE when compared with standard therapy alone [126].
A modified live virus (MLV) and an inactivated vaccine are the two types of CPV-2 vaccines currently available [94]. Administration of the vaccine should start at 6 to 8 weeks of age and then every 2–4 weeks until 16 weeks of age or older. For dogs that are 16 weeks or older, 2 doses of vaccination are recommended with an interval of 2–4 weeks [127]. A recombinant vaccine based on virus-like particles (VLPs) is being developed, which has the advantage of becoming highly immunogenic and safe [128]. Peptide vaccines containing major antigen neutralizing region N terminal of VP2 are also under developmental stage [129]. A single-dose vaccination of Vaccinia virus encoding CPV2-VP2 elicited substantial antibody responses and provided comparable protection for dogs with attenuated CPV2 vaccine. This vaccine could be used as a promising vaccine candidate to prevent CPV-2 infection in dogs [130].
CPV-2 is one of the most significant viral enteropathogens of canines causing high morbidity and mortality and manifested by vomition and severe acute haemorhagic gastroenteritis. Prompt symptomatic therapy will increase survivability of infected puppies but vaccination is best way to prevent the disease in dogs. Despite the pups are protected through vaccination from the pregnant bitch, it is more vulunerable to CPV-2 infection as maternal antibody titers started declining. Despite the availability of high sensitive and specific diagnostic approaches and the effective prophylactics such as modified live virus and inactivated vaccines, a large number of outbreaks are still reported in wide geographical areas across the globe in both vaccinated and unvaccinated dogs. The future studies should be taken up towards vaccination failures, occurrence of CPV-2 in different canine species and the emergence of antigenic variants of the CPV-2 involved in the outbreaks.
All the authors acknowledge and thank to their Institute.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
This compilation is a book chapter written by its authors and required no substantial funding to be stated.
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This chapter also attempts to differentiate the short-run and the long-run relationship between exchange rates and stock market indices namely BIST All shares, BIST National 100 index, and BIST National 30 index. Our motivating question is whether the relationship between exchange rates and three major stock market indices are symmetric or asymmetric in Turkey? To answer this, we first use the linear bivariate and multivariate models assuming the effects are symmetric. We then use the non-linear bivariate and multivariate models to examine whether exchange rate have symmetric or asymmetric effects on selected stock stock market indices in Turkey. The findings show that exchange rates have asymmetric effects on all three major stock market indices both in the short and long run. When we look at the long-run, the currency appreciation has positive and significant impact on selected stock markets but currency depreciation does not have an effect. This finding is in line with the understanding that Turkish sectors heavily depends on the import of raw and intermediate goods. The results also show that the economic activity has positive and significant effects on all stock markets implying that it is the main determinant in the long-run. Moreover, interest rates and volatility index were negative and significant in all markets. Thus, it has important implications for policy makers to provide stable prices and diverse investors.",book:{id:"10098",slug:"linear-and-non-linear-financial-econometrics-theory-and-practice",title:"Linear and Non-Linear Financial Econometrics",fullTitle:"Linear and Non-Linear Financial Econometrics -Theory and Practice"},signatures:"Mustafa Çakır",authors:[{id:"335964",title:"Dr.",name:"Mustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Çakir",slug:"mustafa-cakir",fullName:"Mustafa Çakir"}]},{id:"73239",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93655",title:"Efficiency of the City Councils Using Cross-Sectional Model: Challenges in Times of Change and Political Tension",slug:"efficiency-of-the-city-councils-using-cross-sectional-model-challenges-in-times-of-change-and-politi",totalDownloads:326,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The efficiency of city councils is a matter of concern in public discussion in Chile, due to the growing political relevance that citizens demand of them for social and economic management, in the face of the effects of the pandemic and recent social unrest. Despite the marked historical centralization of power in the capital city, the efficiency of the Chilean municipalities will be key to improving the quality of life of the communities, especially in times of political tension, greater social needs and discredit toward national institutions, not well the local ones. A cross-sectional econometric regression model was developed to explain the determinants of the efficiency of the municipalities and identify the variables that have the greatest impact on said efficiency. City councils that are regional capitals with more than 50,000 inhabitants were selected for this study.",book:{id:"10098",slug:"linear-and-non-linear-financial-econometrics-theory-and-practice",title:"Linear and Non-Linear Financial Econometrics",fullTitle:"Linear and Non-Linear Financial Econometrics -Theory and Practice"},signatures:"Claudio Elórtegui-Gómez, Hanns de la Fuente-Mella, Mauricio Alvarado and Matías Guajardo",authors:[{id:"320374",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Claudio",middleName:null,surname:"Elórtegui-Gómez",slug:"claudio-elortegui-gomez",fullName:"Claudio Elórtegui-Gómez"},{id:"320375",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanns",middleName:null,surname:"De La Fuente-Mella",slug:"hanns-de-la-fuente-mella",fullName:"Hanns De La Fuente-Mella"},{id:"320376",title:"Mr.",name:"Mauricio",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarado Martínez",slug:"mauricio-alvarado-martinez",fullName:"Mauricio Alvarado Martínez"},{id:"320377",title:"Mr.",name:"Matías",middleName:null,surname:"Guajardo Calderón",slug:"matias-guajardo-calderon",fullName:"Matías Guajardo Calderón"}]},{id:"17701",doi:"10.5772/24043",title:"Recent Developments in Seasonal Volatility Models",slug:"recent-developments-in-seasonal-volatility-models1",totalDownloads:3355,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:null,book:{id:"305",slug:"advances-in-econometrics-theory-and-applications",title:"Advances in Econometrics",fullTitle:"Advances in Econometrics - Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Julieta Frank, Melody Ghahramani and Aera Thavaneswaran",authors:[{id:"55155",title:"Prof.",name:"Aera",middleName:null,surname:"Thavaneswaran",slug:"aera-thavaneswaran",fullName:"Aera Thavaneswaran"},{id:"59352",title:"Dr.",name:"Julieta",middleName:null,surname:"Frank",slug:"julieta-frank",fullName:"Julieta Frank"},{id:"59353",title:"Dr.",name:"Melody",middleName:null,surname:"Ghahramani",slug:"melody-ghahramani",fullName:"Melody Ghahramani"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"73251",title:"Relationship between Economic Growth, Unemployment, Inflation and Current Account Balance: Theory and Case of Turkey",slug:"relationship-between-economic-growth-unemployment-inflation-and-current-account-balance-theory-and-c",totalDownloads:1092,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The relations between economic growth, unemployment, inflation and current account balance are analyzed theoretically and different comments on theoretical approaches are discussed in the study. Accordingly, while the unemployment-inflation relationship is considered with Phillips analysis and the scope of the growth-unemployment with Okun Law, the interaction between the current account balance and growth is shown with the equality of national income accounting. After the theoretical approaches described in detail with shared data and interpreted for Turkey. This study also examines the relation between the unemployment, inflation, economic growth, current account deficit with symmetric and asymmetric reserved causality tests were examined for the 2000Q1 − 2020Q4 period. The asymmetric hidden causality relationships between the series were researched with Hatemi-J (2012) method based on Toda-Yamamoto (1995) test in this study. When the relationship between the growth rate and the unemployment rate are examined between these years in Turkey it is observed that there is an inverse relationship between growth and unemployment, especially during crisis periods. After that to find this relationship we used symmetric and asymmetric causality. As a result of the estimates growth also has a one-way symmetrical causality relationship from negative shocks to negative inflation shocks. When the relationship between them is viewed only with one-way or two-way causality, there may be no relationship so the causality must be checked asymmetrically even to catch the assumption of the Okun’s law correctly for Turkey.",book:{id:"10098",slug:"linear-and-non-linear-financial-econometrics-theory-and-practice",title:"Linear and Non-Linear Financial Econometrics",fullTitle:"Linear and Non-Linear Financial Econometrics -Theory and Practice"},signatures:"Tuğba Dayıoğlu and Yılmaz Aydın",authors:[{id:"320657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tuğba",middleName:null,surname:"Dayıoğlu",slug:"tugba-dayioglu",fullName:"Tuğba Dayıoğlu"},{id:"326107",title:"Dr.",name:"Yılmaz",middleName:null,surname:"Aydın",slug:"yilmaz-aydin",fullName:"Yılmaz Aydın"}]},{id:"75250",title:"The Impact of Exchange Rates on Stock Markets in Turkey: Evidence from Linear and Non-Linear ARDL Models",slug:"the-impact-of-exchange-rates-on-stock-markets-in-turkey-evidence-from-linear-and-non-linear-ardl-mod",totalDownloads:370,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In this chapter we investigate the asymmetric impact of exchange rates on three major stock market indices in Turkey using four different ARDL models between 2003M1 and 2018M12. This chapter also attempts to differentiate the short-run and the long-run relationship between exchange rates and stock market indices namely BIST All shares, BIST National 100 index, and BIST National 30 index. Our motivating question is whether the relationship between exchange rates and three major stock market indices are symmetric or asymmetric in Turkey? To answer this, we first use the linear bivariate and multivariate models assuming the effects are symmetric. We then use the non-linear bivariate and multivariate models to examine whether exchange rate have symmetric or asymmetric effects on selected stock stock market indices in Turkey. The findings show that exchange rates have asymmetric effects on all three major stock market indices both in the short and long run. When we look at the long-run, the currency appreciation has positive and significant impact on selected stock markets but currency depreciation does not have an effect. This finding is in line with the understanding that Turkish sectors heavily depends on the import of raw and intermediate goods. The results also show that the economic activity has positive and significant effects on all stock markets implying that it is the main determinant in the long-run. Moreover, interest rates and volatility index were negative and significant in all markets. Thus, it has important implications for policy makers to provide stable prices and diverse investors.",book:{id:"10098",slug:"linear-and-non-linear-financial-econometrics-theory-and-practice",title:"Linear and Non-Linear Financial Econometrics",fullTitle:"Linear and Non-Linear Financial Econometrics -Theory and Practice"},signatures:"Mustafa Çakır",authors:[{id:"335964",title:"Dr.",name:"Mustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Çakir",slug:"mustafa-cakir",fullName:"Mustafa Çakir"}]},{id:"71382",title:"Governance and Growth in the Western Balkans: A SVAR Approach",slug:"governance-and-growth-in-the-western-balkans-a-svar-approach",totalDownloads:589,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The quality of economic governance is one of the prerequisites for sustainable and faster economic development of the Western Balkan countries, having in mind their historical background, dissolution of the ex-Yugoslavia, specific economic circumstances during the transition recession of the 1990s, slow economic recovery at the beginning of the twenty-first century, strong impact of the global financial and economic crisis, and long and complexed path towards the European Union (EU). The main research problem in this paper is examining the dynamic relationships among government effectiveness, inflation, and GDP across Albania, Bosnia and Hercegovina, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, and Serbia. We employ the Worldwide Governance Indicators of the World Bank, namely, the Governance Effectiveness Indicator, as one of the six broad dimensions of governance. Using a structural VAR approach, we examine the time-varying effects of economic governance shocks on inflation and economic growth dynamics for each of the Western Balkan (WB) countries in the period of January 2006 to December 2018. Our findings allow the WB policymakers to understand the impact of institutional strength involved in identifying the onset of sustainable development dynamics and the EU integration process in WB better and develop more effective government regulations that can be employed nationally.",book:{id:"10098",slug:"linear-and-non-linear-financial-econometrics-theory-and-practice",title:"Linear and Non-Linear Financial Econometrics",fullTitle:"Linear and Non-Linear Financial Econometrics -Theory and Practice"},signatures:"Gordana Djurovic and Martin M. Bojaj",authors:[{id:"235637",title:"Prof.",name:"Gordana",middleName:null,surname:"Djurovic",slug:"gordana-djurovic",fullName:"Gordana Djurovic"},{id:"315045",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin M.",middleName:null,surname:"Bojaj",slug:"martin-m.-bojaj",fullName:"Martin M. Bojaj"}]},{id:"17699",title:"The Limits of Econometrics: Nonparametric Estimation in Hilbert Spaces",slug:"the-limits-of-econometrics-nonparametric-estimation-in-hilbert-spaces1",totalDownloads:2421,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"305",slug:"advances-in-econometrics-theory-and-applications",title:"Advances in Econometrics",fullTitle:"Advances in Econometrics - Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Graciela Chichilnisky",authors:[{id:"55948",title:"Prof.",name:"Graciela",middleName:null,surname:"Chichilnisky",slug:"graciela-chichilnisky",fullName:"Graciela Chichilnisky"}]},{id:"17703",title:"Are Education and Experience Equally Remunerated across Employment Statuses? 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Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 19th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. 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His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",value:9,count:1},{group:"subseries",caption:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",value:8,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",value:7,count:9}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:5},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:3}],authors:{paginationCount:302,paginationItems:[{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198499/images/system/198499.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Daniel Glossman-Mitnik is currently a Titular Researcher at the Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV), Chihuahua, Mexico, as well as a National Researcher of Level III at the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, Mexico. His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. 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