Compositions in monolignols in plant
\r\n\tThere will be a chapter on secondary causes of sexual dysfunction disorders related to diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and obesity. A chapter on remedial measures to enhance sexual activity and maintain human relationships will be discussed. As there is a growing number of cancer survivors a chapter on cancer-related sexual dysfunction will be welcomed for including it.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"b988fda30a4e2364ee9d47e417bd0ba9",bookSignature:"Dr. Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11889.jpg",keywords:"Sex, Sexual Response Cycle, Erection, Premature Ejaculation, Libido, Orgasm, Painful Intercourse, Psychological, Female, Lack of Desire, Erectile Disorders, Pain Disorders",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 8th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 5th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 23rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 22nd 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff is a life member of the European Society for Human Reproduction and Early Human Development, Association of Physiologists and Pharmacologists of India, member of the National Academy of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, and resource person for UNESCO for Medical and Bioethics. Dr. Sheriff has authored five books including a textbook on medical biochemistry with additional interest in human sexology. He has done extensive research in andrology, sex education, and counseling.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"167875",title:"Dr.",name:"Dhastagir Sultan",middleName:null,surname:"Sheriff",slug:"dhastagir-sultan-sheriff",fullName:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/167875/images/system/167875.jpg",biography:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff is a life member of the European Society for Human Reproduction and Early Human Development, Association of Physiologists and Pharmacologists of India, member of the National Academy of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, and resource person for UNESCO for Medical and Bioethics. Dr. Sheriff has authored five books including a textbook on medical biochemistry with additional interest in human sexology. He had editorials written in the British Journal of Sexology, Journal of Royal Society of Medicine, Postgraduate Medicine, and Scientist. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"37912",title:"Applications of Ionic Liquids in Lignin Chemistry",doi:"10.5772/51161",slug:"applications-of-ionic-liquids-in-lignin-chemistry",body:'\n\t\tLignin is a naturally occurring aromatic cross-linked polymer with molecular weight of more than 10,000 Daltons (Da). It is estimated that about 30% of the organic carbon in the earth’s biosphere are from lignin [1,2]. It is made up of about 20-40% of wood and annual plants, depending on the species [1-3]. Together with cellulose and hemicellulose, they formed the lignocellulose, which is an important source of biomass. Lignocellulose is found largely in the cell walls with lignin acting as a linker between sets of cellulose and hemicellulose as shown in Figure 1. It is covalently bonded to hemicellulose, thus increasing the mechanical strength of the cell walls [1,2,4]. Due to its hydrophobicity, lignin prevents water from entering the cells; thus it provides an efficient way to transport water and nutrients by repelling them away from the cells. Hence, transportation cells such as tracheid, sclereid and xylem cells have more lignin in them [2].
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tAs a natural polymer, lignin is made up of three main, but not limited to, basic monomers. These monomers are a variation of phenylpropane species collectively known as ‘monolignols’ which primarily includes
Lignocellulose network
Lignin monomers: (a)
Additionally, the composition of each lignin monomer differs significantly with the type of plant material, shown in Table 1. Softwood lignin, found in coniferous trees such as pine tree, composes of mainly of coniferyl alcohol and only a trace amount of sinapyl alcohol as their repeating units. On the other hand, hardwood lignin, found in tropical and subtropical trees such as oak and teak, contains both coniferyl and sinapyl alcohols in considerable amounts. It should also be noted that neither hardwood nor softwood lignin contains significant proportion of
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tConiferyl alcohol | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSinapyl alcohol | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Softwood | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<95 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTrace amount | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Hardwood | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0-8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t25-50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t46-75 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Grasses | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5-33 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t33-80 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t20-54 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Compositions in monolignols in plant
From the monolignols, discussed above, it is apparent that lignin can be formed through phenylpropanoid,
The first step of the polymerization process involves oxidation of the monolignols forming a radical to initiate the reaction. Figure 3 shows the reaction and the various resonance structures of coniferyl alcohol radical formed [6]. Due to the various resonance structures, there is a randomness of bonding when radical coupling takes place. Table 2 shows the various common types of linkages that can be possibly formed. Out of the all linkages, the
Oxidation of coniferyl alcohol
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Phenylcoumaran | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Resinol | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Biphenyl | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5-5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Biphenyl ether | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4-O-5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Benzodioxane | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Common types of linkages
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
It can be observed from Table 2 that the common types of linkages utilize most of the radicals formed in Figure 3 except for C3-radical. Radical coupling at the C3 site is just as likely to occur, but no stable product could be obtained (see Figure 5). Since the methoxyl group at the C3 site is a poor leaving group, the aromatic ring could not be regenerated. Thus, the coupling reaction will move backwards and the initial radicals can be obtained to form more stable linkages [6].
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tDue to the randomness in the bonding nature, the overall structure of the macromolecular lignin has not been accurately predicted. The overall 3D structure of lignin is also unknown as isolating them without modifications are still difficult even though better isolating methods are found [6].
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tIonic Liquids (ILs) are salts that are in liquid state. For example, sodium chloride (NaCl) is an IL when it melts at 801°C, forming sodium cations (Na+) and chloride anions (Cl‾). However, ILs of such high temperature cannot be used.Hence, in literature [7,8], ILs are usually referred to salts that are in liquid state at ambient temperatures (<100 °C). They possess unique characteristics that distinguish them from molecular solvents. Many ILs are excellent prerequisities for efficient IL recycling as they have negligible vapour pressure and good thermal stability. Some of the ILs are very good solvents for large biomolecules, such as cellulose and lignin [9].
\n\t\t\t\tPossible but disallowed C3-C\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Ionic liquids can be classified into many categories. Figure 6 shows one of the methods in which they are being classified.
\n\t\t\t\t\tVarious classes of ionic liquids
In the past decades, a vast amount of research has been performed to incorporate additional functional groups into functional ILs. This incorporation can introduce certain properties to ILs including enhancing capacity of catalyst reusability. In addition, when specific functionalities are added, the resulting IL will be task-specific, hence they are sometimes also referred as task-specific ILs (TSILs). Many of these TSILs are produced by introducing functional groups into a branch appended to the cation, especially imidazoliumcation (Figure 7). The imidazolium salts are only defined as TSILs when functional group is covalently bonded to the cation/anion of the salt, which behaves as a reaction medium and reagent/catalyst [10].
\n\t\t\t\t\tFunctionalized imidazolium salts for task-specific ILs
Chiral ILs (CILs) are a special class of TSILs [11]. They have a chiral center either on the cation, anion or both. Due to their ease to synthesis, they had gained its popularity as a chiral solvent in asymmetric synthesis [12]. Figure 8 shows some examples of CILs.
\n\t\t\t\t\tExamples of CILs.
The major difference between Protic ILs (PILs) and other ILs is the presence of exchangeable proton. There is a resurrection of interest in these PILs recently due to their great capabilities for proton transfer in fuel cell chemistry. Some examples of PILs are shown in Figure 9. Many of these PILs are very strong acid, thus, the equilibrium is shifted heavily to the right. This, in terms, results in fully ionized ILs.
\n\t\t\t\t\tSwitchable polarity solvents (SPS) equilibrate between a higher polarity and a lower polarity when trigger is applied. These solvents are particularly useful when two different polarities of the solvent are needed for two different steps. Recently, secondary amines have been used as SPS, with carbon dioxide as the trigger, forming carbamatesalts [13] (Figure 10).
\n\t\t\t\t\tSome examples of PILs.
New generation of SPS.
Many metal salts ILs have been developed [15]. Chloroaluminates associating with imidazolium or pyridiumcations were part of a focused investigation, but was recently extended to include other chlorometalate salts (e.g. [CuX3]-, [NiCl4]2-, [Co(CO)4]-). The recently developed chlorometalate salts are not water sensitive, unlike the chloroaluminates, but are generally more viscous. The introduction of the metal ions inside the ILs is able to immobilize catalysts while it is being the integral part of the potentially ordered structure of ILs.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThere are 4 main synthetic routes to prepare ILs. [7]. Figure 11 shows the overview of the synthetic methods.
\n\t\t\t\t\tSynthetic routes of preparations of ILs
Many ILs are prepared through a metathesis reaction from a halide or similar salt of the desired cation. This process can be subdivided into two classes depending on the water solubility of the targeted ILs. Figure 12 shows the overall reaction scheme of the metathesis reaction.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tOverall metathesis routes to ILs
There are two main methods to prepare the water-immiscible ILs. The more commonly used approach is the metathesis reaction of the corresponding halide salt, using either the free anions of an acid or its salt. The use of free anions of an acid is favored as the hydrogen halide produced can be easily removed though washing with water. Alternatively, the metathesis reaction can also be conducted in organic solvents such as dichloromethane or acetone. However, the starting materials are not completely soluble and the reaction is carried out as a suspension. The organic layer must be washed several times with water to remove the unwanted halides.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tThe preparation of water-miscible ILs is proven to be more difficult as it requires purification steps before the desired ILs are obtained. This can be done easily by a metathesis reaction of the corresponding halide with a silver salt of the anion such as AgBF4. Unfortunately, this approach is not cost effective as large amount of silver halide is produced as a by-product. The ILs might also be silver-contaminated as complete precipitation of silver halides from organic solvents tends to be slow.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tIon exchange materials are also used to obtain ILs via the metathesis method although little information is available openly.
\n\t\t\t\t\tProduction of high purity ILs via the metathesis method can be problematic due to contamination of the residual halide. The physical properties of the ILs can be drastically changed with the presence of the halides and may even result in catalyst poisoning and deactivation; hence, halide free synthetic methods had been devised.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tImidazoles can be produced by using N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) as its intermediate. Carbenes have a lone pair of electrons on a carbon atom which makes them very reactive. The synthesis of ILs via carbenes can be achieved by reacting with acids using either NHC adducts (Figure 13) or NHC-organometallic intermediates (Figure 14).
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tSynthetic methods of various ILs via NHC adducts
Reaction of NHC-organometallic intermediates with acids
Halogen-free phosphorus and sulfur based ILs can be produced by using the synthetic routes shown in Figure 15 and Figure 16 respectively.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tPILs can be synthesized by proton transfer between an equimolar mixture of a Brønsted acid and Brønsted base. This presents the advantage of being cost-effective and easily prepared as synthesis does not form residual products. PILs can produce hydrogen bonding between the acid and base or even hydrogen-bonded extended network.
\n\t\t\t\t\tMetal Based ILs
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tTransition metal complexes containing anions ILs were among the earliest developed room temperature ILs (RTILs). These RTILs can be synthesized by reaction of phosphonium/imidazolium halides with metal halides or metathesis reaction with alkali salts of metal based anions. These metal based salts can be subdivided into three groups: transition metal, p-block and f-block metal salts.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFunctionalized ILs
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tTill recently, functionalized ILs are prepared by displacement of halide from the organic halide containing the functional group by a parent imidazole, phosphine, etc., shown in Figure 17.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tHalogen free synthetic routes for phosphonium ILs: (1) phosphines with sulphates; (2) 3°phosphines or imidazoles with alkylating agents; (3) phosphines with acid.
Halogen free synthetic routes for (a) sulphate and (b) sulphonate ILs.
Classical method for functionalized ILs
Recently, novel functionalized ILs have been designed, synthesized and characterized. Some of the examples are:
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tILs with two Brønsted acid sites with COOH, HSO4 or H2PO4 groups are synthesized by using methylimidazole with Brønsted acid moieties.
ILs with amino acids as anions are synthesized by neutralizing between [Emin][OH] and amino acid
ILs with ether or alcohol functional groups are synthesized though alkylation of methylimidazole with alkyl halide, followed by halogen exchange with slight excess of KPF6 to reduce the remaining halogen content.
Microwave-Assisted
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tUsing classical heating methods in reflux solvent, several hours of reaction time is needed to obtain reasonable yields. It also uses in large excess of alkylhalides and organic solvents. By using the microwave-assisted method, reaction time can be shortened with a cleaner work-up procedure. However, ILs may decompose under such conditions.
\n\t\t\t\t\tAs seen above, ILs are beneficial to a wide range of applications. These applications include, but not limited to, solvation, catalysis and as a reagent. In order to obtain lignin from plant, the ideal IL should possess properties as followed: (1) high dissolution capacity for lignin; (2) low melting point; (3) good thermal stability; (4) non-volatile; (5) non-toxic; (6) chemically stable; (7) no lignin decomposition; (8) easy lignin regeneration and (9) low cost and simple process [8]. For surface modifications and conversion of lignin to better materials, ILs can be used as a catalyst or solvent. In the next few sections, we will fully discuss in details of extracting lignin (Section 2), surface modification of lignin (Section 3) and conversion of lignin to value-added chemicals (Section 4) using ILs.
\n\t\t\tOne of the most traditional methods to lignin extraction used in the industry is by the kraft process. Even though most of the lignin is extracted, it has several major disadvantages: (1) high temperature and pressure; (2) pollution; (3) odour problem (due to the use of sulphite); (4) high water usage and (5) large plant size [14].
\n\t\t\tSeveral other methods to extract lignin from lignocellulose have been designed and developed in the past. These include physical (limited pyrolysis and mechanical disruption/comminution [15]), physiochemical (steam explosion, ammonia fiber explosion [16,17]), chemical (acid hydrolysis, alkaline hydrolysis, high temperature organic solvent pretreatment, oxidative delignification [18-20]) methods.These extraction methods have one main disadvantage: the lignin starts to degrade after a certain amount of lignin is extracted. This often leads to loss of fermentable sugars in the cellulose and hemicellulose, which can be used to produce other value-added products like the levulinic acid [21] and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural [22].
\n\t\t\tIn the past decade, ILs have been used as solvents for natural polymers, including cellulose and starch [23-28]. This leads to an interest in designing and developing ILs that are able to dissolve lignin and thus, extracting them from the lignocellulosic biomass.
\n\t\t\tPu and co-workers [29] used the imidazoilum-based ILs for the studies of dissolution of residual softwood lignin isolated from a southern pine kraft pulp. Table 3 shows the solubility of the residual softwood lignin that they have obtained.
\n\t\t\t\tIonic Liquid | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTemperature (°C) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSolubility (g L-1) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
[Mmim][MeSO4] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t344 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | 25 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t74.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
[Hmim][CF3SO4] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t70 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t275 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | 50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
[Bmim][MeSO4] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t312 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | 25 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t61.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
[Bmim][Cl] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t75 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t13.9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
[Bmim][Br] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t75 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t17.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
[Bmim][PF6] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t70-120 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tInsoluble | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
[Bm2im][BF4] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t70-100 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t14.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
[Bmpy][PF6] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t70-120 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tInsoluble | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Solubility of residual softwood kraft pulp lignin in ionic liquids
They show that the lignin solubility can be influenced by the nature of anion as the solubility of the lignin differs when different [Bmim]+-containing ILs are used. They also concluded that ILs containing large, non-coordinating anions like [PF6]- and [BF4]- are not suitable for dissolving lignin; and that methylsulfateimidazolium-based ILs are effective for dissolution of residual softwood lignin isolated from a southern pine kraft pulp.
\n\t\t\tLee and co-workers [30] had done lignin extraction from maple wood. They had also used Indulin AT (kraft lignin) as standards for solubility test. The results they had obtained are shown as Table 4. Using Indulin AT, the solubility of lignin shows similar results as Pu and co-workers as discuss earlier. However, when maple wood flour is used, there are difficulties dissolving and extracting lignin using the same ILs. Instead, Cl--containing ILs, [Amim][Cl] and [Bmim][Cl], show better capabilities of extracting lignin from maple wood flour. This might be as a result of high solubility of the wood flour as a whole. Cl- ions are good hydrogen acceptors and are able to interact with the hydroxyl groups of the sugars, causing dissolution of cellulose too. They had also found an IL, [Emim][Ac], that provides a balance between good lignin extraction and low wood flour solubility. Hence, lignin extraction can be done using [Emim][Ac] without much disruption of the cellulose and hemicellulose structures.
\n\t\t\t\tILs | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLignin Solubility (g/kg)a\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWood Flour Solubility (g/kg)b\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tExtracted Lignin Content (g/kg)c\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
[Mmin][MeSO4] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<500 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tND | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
[Bmim][CF3SO3] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<500 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tND | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
[Emim][Ac] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<300 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
[Amim][Cl] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<300 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<30 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
[Bmim][Cl] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<100 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<30 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
[Bzmim][Cl] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<100 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
[Bmim][BF4] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tND | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tND | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
[Bmim][PF6] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t~1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tND | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tND | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Solubility and extraction efficiency of lignin in various ILs.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\taSolubility of Indulin AT (kraft lignin) at 90 °C after 24 hours incubationbSolubility of maple wood flour after 24 hours incubation at 80 °C under N2, ND indicates <1 g/kgc0.5 g maple wood flour was incubated in 10 g ILs for 24 hours at 80 °C under N2. Lignin content was determined with Indulin AT standard. ND indicates <0.1 g/kg
Another group, Tan, S. S. Y. et. al. [31], had reported of using the ethyl-methylimidazoliumalkylbenzenesulfonate IL, [Emim][ABS],for extraction of lignin from sugarcane bagasse. [Emim][ABS] was used for the study as sodium xylenesulfonate was used in a lesser known pulping process,
Fu, Mazza and Tamaki [32] also reported that [Emim][Ac] is an effective solvent for lignin extraction from triticale straw, flax shives and wheat straw. Five other ILs ([Bmim][Cl], DMEAF, DMEAA, DMEAG, DMEAS) had been examined but the extraction yields are much lower than that of [Emim][Ac]. They had also investigated the extraction capabilities at a range of temperature (70-150 °C) and time taken (0.5-24 h). Results show that within this range, higher temperature and longer extraction time produces higher extraction yield.
\n\t\t\t\tEntry No. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tConditions | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMass of Recovered Lignina (% ±2) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t170 °C, 120 min | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t67 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t180 °C, 120 min | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t78 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t190 °C, 120 min | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t118 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t190 °C, 90 min | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t97 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t190 °C, 60 min | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t96 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t190 °C, 30 min | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t67 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Mass of recovered lignin
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\taAs percentage of original lignin content, corrected for ash content
Last year, Pinket and co-worker [33] published a paper that uses food additive-derived ILs, imidazoliumacesulfamate ILs, for lignin extraction from
In their paper, they had also examined various extraction conditions: (1) Extraction temperature and time; (2) Water content; (3) Wood load, particle size and species; (4) Types of IL cation; (5) Effect of IL recycling; (6) Multi-step treatment and; (7) Use of co-solvents. Interestingly, the use of DMSO as a co-solvent (
The extraction efficiency for extracting wood lignin with either pure [Bmim][Ace] or a mixture of [Bmim][Ace] and DMSO (
Kim, J. et. al. [34] compared the structural features of poplar wood lignin extracted using IL, [Emim][Ac], and dioxane-water (classical method). Table 6 shows the summarized data obtained by them. It can be seen that a higher yield is obtained through IL extraction. Even though the lignins obtained from both extractions have relatively similar methoxy and phenolic hydroxyl contents, the molecular weight of that obtained from classical method is higher. However, the polydispersity index (PDI) of IL extraction is lower and thus, indicating that lignin from IL extraction is of rather uniform size. This suggests that some form of depolymerisation had occurred (will discuss further in Section 4.1) On top of that, thermal behaviour of the lignins were also analysed. Lignin obtained from classical method has a higher maximum decomposition rate and temperature, indicating that it is thermally more stable.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | [Emim][Ac] Extraction | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDioxane-water Extraction | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Yield (%) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5.8±0.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.4±0.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Amount of OMe group (%) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t15.5±1.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t14.4±0.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Amount of phenolic OH group (%) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6.7±0.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6.3±0.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Molecular Weight (Da) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6347 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t10,002 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Polydispersity Index (PDI) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.62 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.46 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Max. decomposition rate (%/°C) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.25 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.30 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Max. decomposition temperature (°C) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t308.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t381.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Summarized data obtained by Kim, J. et. al. [34]
Lignin extraction can also be done after complete dissolution of the whole cellulosic biomass. Lateef’s group [35] demonstrated that cellulose-lignin mixture system can be separated and recovered from ILs, [Pmim][Br] and [Bmim][Cl]. Cellulose precipitates when water is added to the solution (cellulose-lignin mixture in IL). Lignin is then recovered from the precipitate formed when the filtrate is treated with ethanol. The IL can be regenerated by evaporating the ethanol from the second filtrate with more than 95% yield. On the other hand, lignin yields of 69% and 49% were isolated from [Pmim][Br] and [Bmim][Cl], respectively.
\n\t\t\t\tMuhammad and co-workers [36] used amino acid-based IL, [Emim][Gly], to dissolve bamboo biomass at 120 °C in 8 hours. Other than [Emim][Gly], [Emim][TFA] and choline propionate were also investigated. [Emim][Gly] and choline propionate were used as it is reported that they have high hydrogen bond basicity. On the other hand, [Emim][TFA] was chosen as it contains an acetate-based anion which was proven for its dissolution of lignocelluloses. However, both [Emim][TFA] and choline propionate could not dissolve the bamboo biomass after 24 hours. Hence, only [Emim][Gly] was effective towards dissolution of bamboo biomass.
\n\t\t\t\tThe lignin was then extracted from the solution using acetone/water mixture (7:3 ratio), obtaining about 85.3% of the total lignin content of the bamboo biomass. Acetone/water mixture acts as an anti-solvent of cellulosic materials and thus, precipitates cellulose and cellulose-rich materials. The acetone/water mixture ratio was determined using a plot of dissolved lignin (wt %) against acetone/water ratio (v/v). It is shown that the amount of dissolved lignin is at the maximum when the acetone/water mixture ratio is 7:3.
\n\t\t\t\tLan, Liu and Sun [37] performed a fractionation of bagasse to obtain cellulose (47.17%), hemicellulose (33.85%) and lignin (54.62%), shown in Figure 19. They dissolved ball milled bagasse in [Bmim][Cl] at 110°C under inert environment with agitation to obtain a clear solution. Residue 1 is regenerated using acetone/water (9:1, v/v) added to the clear solution. Filtrate 1 was then acidified to obtain Residue 2 (acetone soluble lignin). Residue 3 (cellulose) was extracted with 3% sodium hydroxide aqueous solution from Residue 1. Filtrate 3 was then treated with 4 M hydrochloric acid and precipitated using 95% ethanol to attain Residue 4 (hemicellulose). Filtrate 4 was acidified to obtain Residue 5 (Alkaline lignin).
\n\t\t\t\tSchematic process of bagasse fractionation based on complete dissolution in [Bmim][Cl] followed by precipitation in acetone/water (9:1,v/v) and extraction with 3% NaOH.
Sievers, C. et. al. [38] had recovered lignin fraction as a solid residue when IL phase hydrolysis of pine wood was done. They first dissolved pine wood in [Bmim][Cl]. Acid catalyst, trifluoroacetic acid, was subsequently added to convert the carbohydrate fraction to water-soluble products. These water-soluble products, which include furfural and 5-HMF, were then extracted using aqueous phase, leaving lignin as a solid. However, this method does not extract pure lignin and the lignin may be susceptible to modifications due to the acidic condition used.
\n\t\t\t\tSun’s group [39] dissolved both softwood and hardwood in [Emim][OAc] and lignin was extracted using acetone/water (1:1 v/v). Figure 20 shows the ideal process flow of the dissolution and regeneration of wood in IL. However, recycling of IL was not investigated and evaluated in the published report. Although variable processes for lignin, similar to Pinket’s [33], have been evaluated, but no report on dissolution of softwood and hardwood can be found. Sun’s group evaluated the effects of (1) IL, (2) particle size, (3) wood species, (4) initial wood concentration and, (5) pretreatment. Using the same method as Muhammad’s [36], they extracted lignin from the solution using acetone/water anti-solvent.
\n\t\t\t\tFlowchart for the process of dissolution and regeneration of wood in IL proposed by Sun’s group
Carbon fibres, activated carbon, polymer alloys, polyelectrolites, substituted lignins, thermosets, composites, wood preservatives, neutraceuticals/drugs, adhesives and resins are some macromolecules that can be obtained from lignin [40]. Some of them can be obtained from the extracted lignin directly, but most of them needed modifications. Surface modification of lignin allows a change in functional groups on the side-chains while maintaining the aromatic backbone of a lignin structure. Chemical modification of lignins (and also other lignocellulosic materials) leads to different structural characteristics [41]. In this section, we will discuss three types of surface modifications: oxidation, esterification and others.
\n\t\t\tOxidation plays an important role in surface modification of lignin as hydroxyl groups are abundant. When these hydroxyl groups are oxidized, carbonyl groups are formed, which are more susceptible to reactions as compared to hydroxyl groups. In addition, it increases the hydrophilicty of lignin as well.
\n\t\t\t\tZakzeski and co-workers [42] effectively performed oxidation of lignin using [Emim][DEP], cobalt catalyst and molecular oxygen. Although they had hypothesized that there will be an oxidative cleavage of
Proposed structure of lignin after oxidation
This Co/[Emim][DEP] catalyst system is able to increase the functionality and hydrophilicity of lignin, thus, Zakzeski had further investigated on the catalyst system [43]. Figure 22 shows the catalytic system proposed by them. As it can be seen, the hydroxyl group being oxidized will be coordinated to the cobalt catalyst forming a complex before oxidation takes place. Hence, the oxidation site must be acidic enough for the coordination to occur. This, in tern, explains why phenolic hydroxyl groups and the linkages were left untouched.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tSimilar oxidation reaction is done by Kumar, Jain and Chauhan [44] using water soluble iron (III) porphyrins and horseradish peroxidase (HRP) as catalyst, with hydrogen peroxide in IL. Figure 23 shows the reaction scheme that they had reported in their paper. Veratraldehydes are obtained as a major product for both catalysts with more than 70% yields when optimized. The non-coordinating nature and weak nucleophilicity of IL significantly enhances the activity of water soluble iron(III) porphyrins as compared to aqueous solutions. The stability of HRP is also improved when IL is used. Additionally, both catalysts can be recycled with appreciable activity for up to five runs.
\n\t\t\tProposed catalytic system using veratryl alcohol (lignin model compound) as substrate.
Reaction scheme reported by Kumar, Jain and Chauhan [
A stereospecific dehydration reaction was achieved by Kubo’s group [45] by heat treatment in IL. A glycerol type enol-ether (EE), 3-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-2-(2-methoxyphenoxy)-2-propenol, was produced from guaiacylglycerol-
Stereospecific dehydration reaction achieved by Kubo’s group [
Esterified wood displays admirable plastic properties such as highly substituted degree and excellent hydrophobicity. Hence, it is important to investigate possible esterification methods on wood.
\n\t\t\t\tWen, J. et. al. [41] successfully carried out homogeneous lauroylation of ball-milled bamboo in IL. The ball-milled bamboo was first dissolved in IL, [Bmim][Cl], to enable separation of cellulose, lignin and hemicellulose. After complete dissolution, triethylamine and lauroyl chloride were added. Triethylamine was used to neutralize the hydrochloric acid generated during the esterification process. The bamboo ester was then regenerated. The whole reaction process is shown in Figure 25. Yuan and co-workers [46] had also achieved homogeneous lauroylation and butyrylation of poplar wood with a similar process. Xie’s group [47] had also done a similar process, using pyridine instead of triethylamine as neutralizer, to attain homogeneous acetylation, benzoylation and carbanilation on thermomechanical pulp fibers.
\n\t\t\t\tSchematic diagram of the dissolution and esterification process proposed by Wen, J. et. al. [
Cerrutti and co-workers [48] synthesized carboxymethyl lignin from organosolv lignin using monochloroacetic acid. An alkalinization of lignin, using sodium hydroxide, is performed before the carboxymethylation reaction to generate stronger nucleophiles for the reaction. The overall reaction is shown in Figure 26. One of the uses for this carboxymethyl lignin produced is as a stabilizing agent in aqueous ceramic suspension.
\n\t\t\t\tOverall reaction of carboxymethylation reaction
Using organosolv lignin as macro-initiator, Zhu, et al. successfully prepared polylactide-lignin hybrids with tin complex-based catalyst as detailed in Figure 27 [49]. High molecular weight copolymers with an Mw of ca. 5.3x104 (DPI 2.56) were produced in 77% yield. Results obtained from tensile strength testing showed that the tensile strength (σM, MPa) was approximately doubled upon blending lignin with PLLA (PLLA:Lignin = 5:1; σM = 11.3 MPa) and the ratio of 10:1 (σM = 22.8 MPa). There was also a significant increase in tensile modulus (Et) from 289 to 340 MPa for blending ratios of 5:1 and 10:1, respectively. Tensile strength is the maximum stress that a material can withstand while being stretched before necking. Therefore, a increase in tensile strength indicates a tougher material.
\n\t\t\t\tSynthesis of lignin-PLLA hybrid.
The lignin obtained from the biomass had be used mainly as a low value fuel in the past. [50-54] There are two main reasons for this main application. Firstly, harsh reaction conditions are required for depolymerization as the polyphenolic structure is chemically very stable. Adding on, the depolymerized products cannot be used as a substitute or additive for conventional liquid fuels due to its high oxygen content [50]. Secondly, biomass-derived feedstock are less readily available as compared to petroleum-derived feedstock. [50,51] However, due to rising fossil fuel prices and energy demand worldwide, research had turned towards obtaining value-added products from biomass-derived feedstock [51].
\n\t\t\tAs mentioned in the introduction, lignin accounts for approximately 30% of organic carbon in the biosphere. Hence, it provides a promising platform for generation of value-added products from lignin [40], which is illustrated in Table 7.
\n\t\t\tLignin | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tSyngas | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t |
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | Syngas Products | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tMethanol/Dimethyl ether, Ethanol, Mixed liquid fuels \n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | Hydrocarbons | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tCyclohexanes, higher alkylates \n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | Phenols | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tCresols, Eugenol, Coniferols, Syringols \n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | Oxidized Products | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tVanillin, vanillic acid, DMSO, aldehydes, Quinones, aromatic and aliphatic acids \n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Value-added chemicals potentially derived from lignin.
Current strategies to produce these value-added chemicals from lignin are typically based on a two-step process. Firstly, lignin is depolymerized into simpler aromatic compounds. After depolymerization, some of the value-added chemicals can be obtained, e.g. phenols and oxidized products. Other value-added products are obtainable by transforming the resultant aromatic compounds. [55]
\n\t\t\tThe macromolecular lignin contains various types of linkages, with
At the earlier stages of the research, Binder J. B. et. al. [57] shows that ILs provide a suitable medium for reactions of lignin model compounds. Through their various reactions done with several lignin model compounds, they suggested that not all model lignins are able to be used for depolymerization studies. Alkene-substituted aromatics and simple ethers are not suitable, being more reactive than natural lignin. While models like eugenol and 2-phenylethyl phenyl ether could be used, having similar reactivity trends as lignin, although they react under milder conditions than lignin.
\n\t\t\t\tReichert and co-workers [58] successfully depolymerized lignin through electro-catalytic oxidative cleavage. They performed the depolymerization in the PIL, triethylammoniummethanesulfonate, using ruthenium-vanadium-titanium mixed oxide coated electrodes. The PIL offers a suitable medium for lignin dissolution, ensures higher potential electrolysis as well as promotes the oxidative cleavage mechanism as shown in Figure 28. They have also demonstrated that smaller molecular weight molecules are obtained when a higher applied potential is used.
\n\t\t\t\tMechanism of Oxidative cleavage of lignin at Cα-Cβ bond
George, A. et. al. [59] observed that depolymerization occurs when various ILs are used to treat three types of technical lignins, organosolv, alkali and ALS lignins. They noted that the cation of ILs does not significantly affect the process. On the other hand, the size of the depolymerized lignin is decreased when sulfates>lactate>acetate>chlorides>phosphates are used as the anionic counterpart of ILs. Although no mechanistic studies have been done, there are indications that different anions cause cleavage at different linkages. Organosolv lignin, which is deemed closest to natural lignin, breaks down to smallest molecules, followed by ALS lignin and lastly alkali lignin. Organosolv lignin became more conjugated after treatment and thus, indicates a deconstruction mechanism consistent with that of an attack on strong nucleophile.
\n\t\t\t\tJia’s group [56] had demonstrated a method for the
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Another group, Cox and co-workers [52], studied the Hammett acidity and anion effects of catalytic depolymerization of GG and VG in acidic imidazolium based IL. They had successfully used acidic ILs to hydrolyze the
After depolymerization, the products obtained can either be used directly or further processed to other value-added chemicals. Further processing in ILs have proven difficult even though they still serve as good solvents. For example, the colloidal catalyst, used by Bonilla [60], was inactivated for hydrogenation when IL, [Bmim][BF4], was used. It was postulated that the IL itself caused the inactivation or the trace amount of chloride ions from the preparation of the IL is responsible.
\n\t\t\t\tYan and co-workers [55] achieved the transformation of lignin-derived phenolic compounds to alkanes in ILs. The reaction system consists of metal (ruthenium, rhodium or platinum) nanoparticles and a SO3-functionalised Brønsted acid IL, which forms a catalytic cycle, in a non-functionalized IL, [Bmim][BF4] or [Bmim][TF2N], as solvent. This system allows hydrogenation and dehydration processes to occur in tadem, shown in Figure 32. Metal nanoparticles and the SO3-functionalised Brønsted acid IL were investigated while all others are kept constant. Rhodium, being the most active metal in benzene hydrogenation, is able to attain high alkane yields, even for branched phenols. It is also notable that methanol is produced when substrates with methoxy group are used. Various SO3-functionalized Brønstedacid ILs were examined. It was noticed that, in general, the stronger the acidity of the IL, the higher the obtainable yields. The exception being 1-(4-sulfobutyl)-3-methylimidazolium hydrogen sulphate, that has a Hammett acidity of around 1.75, resulting in a yield of over 80%. It was predicted that the result is due to the dehydration power and poor nucleophilicity of the hydrogen sulphate anion.
\n\t\t\t\tMechanistic pathways of GG and VG degradation in acidic ILs.
Reaction Scheme of cyclohexane from phenol
On the other hand, transition metal nanoparticle-based catalysts have been found to exhibit attractive catalytic activities relative to their corresponding bulk materials [61]. In our lab, ionic liquid stabilized metal nanoparticles have been found to be robust and recyclable catalyst composites for organic transformations [62].. Supported nano-Pd catalysts have been used as recyclable catalysts for alcohol oxidations [63-65]. Recently, the use of ionic liquid stabilized metal nanoparticles as catalysts have been employed in our group to conduct the oxidation conversion of lignin to value-added chemicals such as aromatic aldehydes (Figure 33) [66]. With a co-catalyst of pyridinium salt of iron bis(dicarbollide) (Figure 33), ionic liquid stabilized nano-Pd was found to be efficient for the oxidation of benzyl alcohol and lignin to produce aromatic aldehydes. The new Pd(0) catalytic system was found to be efficient, robust and recyclable with high product selectivity [66].
\n\t\t\t\tApplication of IL stabilized nano-Pd in lignin oxidation reaction.
Also using rhodium nanoparticles, Denicourt-Nowicki and partners [67] successfully did hydrogenation on oxygen-containing arenes. Their rhodium nanoparticles are stabilized using polynitrogen ligands, like bipyridines. IL plays an interesting role in the reaction as it acts as both a solvent and a stabilizing agent. Hence, it has the ability to further stabilize the nanoparticles. One particularly interesting product obtained from the hydrogenation is the cyclohexanone from anisole (Figure 34). Cyclohexanone is used for synthesizing caprolactam and adipic acid, both of which are utilized in polyamides manufacturing. As shown in Figure 26, there are two plausible reaction pathways. The first pathway shows 1-methoxycyclohexene formed through the partial hydrogenation of anisole, then a hydrogenolysis into cyclohexen-1-ol, which results in the thermodynamically stable cyclohexanone. The second pathway demethylates anisole to phenol, followed by partial hydrogenation to obtain cyclohexen-1-ol, transforming to the thermodynamically stable cyclohexanone.
\n\t\t\t\tPotential pathways of anisole hydrogenation
Hydrogenation of acetophenone leads to several products and byproducts. This is primarily due to the competitive and consecutive hydrogenation of the carbonyl and aryl groups. Interesting selectivities were achieved when different ligand is used. Usage of 2,2’-bipyridine as a ligand produces an additional product, phenylethanol, which is not present when TPTZ (2,4,6-tris(2-pyridyl)-s-triazine) was used as the ligand. Hydrogenation of
Lignin, which is estimated to be around 30% of the biosphere carbon, is a naturally occurring aromatic cross-linked polymer. It is one of the three components of the lignocellulose. As lignin is able to dissolve in selective ionic liquids (ILs), it can be easily extracted from lignocellulose. There are mainly two methods of extraction and the main difference of the two methods is whether the whole lignocellulose is dissolved. The extracted lignin can then be chemically modified to form value-added chemicals. A surface modification of lignin is sufficient when macromolecular lignins are desired. Three types of surface modifications are discussed in this chapter which includes oxidation, dehydration and esterification. When smaller value-added molecules are desired, a depolymerization process should take place. Further transformation of the depolymerized lignin can also take place when the depolymerization step could not yield the desired product. As lignins, in any form, are able to dissolve in ILs, ILs become very good candidates as solvents. On top of having superior dissolution capabilities, ILs are considered as green solvents due to their non-volatility and low flammability. ILs are not only used as solvents but also play an important part in the catalytic cycles in some reactions discussed above. Hence, there is a surge in research in this area in the past five years.
\n\t\t\tAs described above, the research on the applications of ILs in lignin chemistry is still at its budding stage, keen interest in developing this area will increase. As seen in this chapter, ILs are currently used in a small area of lignin chemistry. Since ILs are proven to be good solvents in lignin chemistry, they should be applied and used in other areas of lignin chemistry to create a greener and environmentally-friendly chemistry. However, ILs have a major shortcoming as they are much more expensive when compared to common and traditional solvents. Hence, recoverability of ILs should be explored and emphasized. Due to the π-π interaction between ILs and lignin, removal of lignin from ILs are proven a complex process and, therefore, requires multiple steps [54]. This makes the recycling and regeneration of ILs, particularly in extremely large volumes, as cost inefficient. Therefore, this must also be addressed in future investigations in this area [68].
\n\t\tSpecial thanks are expressed to all researchers whose works have contributed in one way or the other to this chapter. Special gratitude is also given to the editor of the book, Dr Jun-ichi Kadokawa, for giving us the opportunity to contribute to the book. We thank ICES in Singapore for support of this work. NSH thanks the support by grants from the National Science Foundation (CHE-0906179 and CHE-0840504), Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, and the NIU Inaugural Board of Trustees Professorship Award.
\n\t\tInstitutions and citizens have been paying more attention to issues of sustainable development in the last few years [1, 2]. The international agendas have also specified a set of short-term measures and goals for reducing the impact of human activities on natural systems. Public bodies, on the other hand, do not always have the resources to formulate policies and plans capable of reacting to the increasing strains that the territories are subjected to [3].
Sustainable development is defined as “dissemination that meets current demands without jeopardizing future generations’ ability to meet their own needs” [4]. This concept reflects the fact that sustainable development refers to a condition in which an input provides the best possible result without depleting natural resources. In accordance with the definition of sustainable development, there is a blueprint known as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) that directs people toward sustainable development [1].
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a set of objectives that aim to create a more sustainable future by increasing wealth while also conserving the planet. These objectives place a premium on the long-term Outline Perspective Plan (OPP). The United Nations General Assembly launched the Sustainable Development Goals in 2015, and they are now implemented in all nations [1, 4].
As a result, achieving a balance between the economic, social, and environmental components is one of the most pressing concerns of our time. This equilibrium is particularly important in this setting because it directly affects both the acquisition and processing of natural resources. In the 1990s, the concept of sustainable development was first applied to mining planning and management [2, 5]. Over the last two decades, a lot of effort has gone into developing a sustainable approach to mining [2, 5].
Because of its potential to provide data that is accessible to a large audience, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is an attractive tool for social workers. Administrators in the field of social work, for example, could utilize this technology to document the prerequisites for a new agency location. Furthermore, policymakers can offer the findings of a needs assessment or evaluative study, and academics can present the findings of a needs assessment or evaluative study [1, 6, 7, 8]. GIS can be traced back to a variety of technologies, processes, and procedures used in science, technology, and business, such as geodesy, mapping, geology, and seafaring; coordinate-time referencing of objects; processing and aggregation of photographic images from space for scientific and military purposes; and processing of geophysics and geodynamics data [1, 7]. GIS is defined by Burrough (1986) [8] as a set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving, modifying, and displaying spatial data from the real world for a specific purpose.
As a result, rather than just presenting the results in tables, this study article uses maps to geo-visualize the data. GIS is not a new technology in today’s world; it has been around for decades. It is also well-known for its capacity to provide a spatial-based solution [1].
GIS analyses based on the Corine Land Cover (CLC) database developed by the Copernicus program of the European Spatial Agency [3, 9] have been developed to determine a cognitive reference framework that shows the spread of land consumption at a national level and allows comparing the spread of this phenomenon among the various European countries.
Information on the Environment Coordination CORINE Land Cover (CLC) is a European effort that supports the collection and interpretation of geospatial data. It was initiated in 1985 in all nations of the European Community (EC). It was created with the following goals in mind: (a) obtain and synchronize interdisciplinary data on the state of the environment; (b) focus on priority areas in each EU country; (c) coordinate and coordinate data organization and management at the local and international levels; and (d) ensure data compatibility [10].
The CLC database is a tool for carrying out complicated geographical analyses based on various land use categories. As a result, the hierarchical structure of CLC classes has three levels. The first level of land use and land cover (artificial areas, agricultural areas, forest and semi-natural areas, wetlands, and water bodies) encompasses the five primary types of land use and land cover. There are fifteen departments on the second floor. Finally, the third level has 44 components that state that individual-level three classes’ methodological scope is strictly defined [10, 11].
In context, the Geographic Information System (GIS) provides access to extensive land data sources and monitors land changes through high-resolution land cover assessments and change evaluations, particularly in urbanization regions [10, 12, 13]. Changes in human activities and urban ecological land cover can also be observed using these systems [13]. Furthermore, Urban Atlas (UA) has a wealth of other information, such as the classification of high-resolution satellite pictures (SPOT 2.5 m, ALOS 2.5 m, RapidEye 5 m), allowing for the separation of significant coverage classes. The lowest mapping unit is 0.25 hectares, which permits the development of land cover maps for only 305 large European cities with populations of more than 100,000 people and an estimated accuracy of 5 meters. Despite this, the UA only has 20 land cover classes, many fewer than the CLC [10].
Nowadays, Land-Use Changes studies are reliable tools to evaluate the human activities and footprint of proposed strategies and policies in a territory. The land is an important natural resource and a spatial carrier of human economic and social activities, and ecology. Land-use change reflects the impact of human activities on the natural environment, causing changes in surface structure (i.e., water bodies, climate, and ecology) and affecting the ecosystem service value [14]. The land is a non-renewable resource and while demand is constantly increasing, it is imperative to maintain a balance between demand and supply, needs and interests, or between contradictory uses, through Land-Use policies that achieve sustainable development and improve the quality of the environment [15, 16]. Very often, a poorly developed urban planning process leads to the changing of more natural land surfaces into artificial ones planned for human activities, therefore increasing social vulnerability. Therefore, the evaluation of the Land-Use Change process is important to the sustainable development of urban areas and to increase the resilience of territories and communities [10, 16]. On the other hand, Land-Use planning may also positively impact the environment by preserving natural resources, enhancing open space opportunities, or providing a significant reduction in traffic pollution [15].
Land-Use depends on numerous factors, including population, economic status, infrastructure, industrial activities, geographic conditions, land development policies, etc. [15, 17] and impacts numerous parameters, including flood risk, landslide probability, biodiversity, urban climate, hydrological processes, and pollution [15, 17, 18, 19, 20].
Given the increasing number of disasters over recent years, one of the most efficient and accessible methods for reducing the pressure posed by natural or technological risks is reducing the vulnerability level of communities exposed to a particular hazard [21, 22, 23, 24].
At all levels of government, there is a demand for instruments to enhance policy-making aimed at long-term planning. In this context, the Ecosystem Services (ES) approach [25, 26] provides a structured framework for developing more useful instruments for assessing environmental performance.
However, in the spatial planning process, the application of an ecosystem services approach to landscape analysis, sustainable planning, and decision making is largely inadequate [27, 28]. Many spatial landscape frameworks and environmental planning tools that incorporate the concept of ecosystem services have been created over the last decade [26, 29].
As a result, territorial planning and management strategy is a fundamental instrument for attributing wealth preconditions to the inhabitants, thereby fostering prosperity for future generations living on that territory, fostering the reduction of social imbalances and spatial inequalities, and serving as a stimulus for sustainable development [16, 30].
In the context of this study, the CLC data will be used to examine and evaluate the Land-Use Changes connected to vegetation in the Galicia Region between 1990 and 2018.
In this regard, we emphasize that the current study will contribute to science by enabling the collection of big data connected to Land-Use Changes associated to vegetation, as well as an overview of how they have evolved in the Galicia Region over the last three decades.
As a result of this research, we are able to give some principles and recommendations for future regional planning and management strategies and policies to be developed and implemented throughout the Galicia Region.
The Autonomous Community of Galicia (NUTS 2) is a Spanish region (NUTS 2) in the northwestern part of the country (Figure 1), with a total area of 29.574 km2 and administratively divided into four provinces with a total of 313 municipalities and 3793 parishes, with an average population density of 91.35 hab/km2 spread over more than 30,000 population centers, although the majority of its population is concentrated along the coast [31].
Delimitation of the study area - Galicia region (Source: Authors by ESRI ArcGIS, 2020).
The altitude in Galicia ranges from sea level to nearly 2000 m and the topography includes plains as well as mountain areas with steep valleys [31, 32]. Galicia has two types of climate according to the Köppen–Geiger classification, the Csb (Mediterranean-Oceanica climate) and the Csa (Mediterranean climate) [33]. According to the Spanish official cartography, 69% of Galicia is covered by forestland (the forest terrain, according to the Galician forestry sector authorities, includes woodlands and shrublands) [31, 32]. The dominant tree species are three species of pine (Pinus pinaster, Pinus radiata, Pinus sylvestris), and two Eucalyptus species (Eucalyptus globulus and Eucalyptus nitens) and broadleaves (riparian species, Quercus robur, Quercus pyrenaica and Castanea sativa, among others). The 2015 analysis of the forestry sector indicates that 30% of the forestland was shrublands and rocky areas [32]. The forestry sector represents 3.5% of the Galician GDP and 50% of the timber cuts are Eucalyptus spp. followed by conifers [32]. Galician land forest is highly fragmented. According to official cadastral information, it is estimated that 162,188 ha are in cadastral parcels that are smaller than 0.5 ha [31, 32]; this accounts for approximately 40% of the land covered by the main productive tree species in Galicia.
Therefore, the study area is a region of extensive agroforestry tradition and high potential productivity [34], being approximately 61% (1.8 million ha) of its forest area territory [34]. With more than 1.4 million wooded hectares, and average growth of 12.3 million m3 per year of wood, Galicia contributed just over 9.7 million m3 in wood shorts in 2019 (almost half of the annual timber cuts in Spain), an annual rate of use increasable, under sustainability criteria, according to official statistics [31].
The Galicia Region has followed a path of dual productive specialization in forest and dairy production over the last half-century. It currently produces nearly half of the country’s timber and 40% of its dairy. As a result of artificial plantations and spontaneous vegetation invasion [35], the area covered by trees and other woody vegetation rose dramatically, resulting in a major increase in the amount and continuity of biomass present on the terrain. As a result, the region is distinguished by a large percentage of forest area, accounting for about 60% of the territory’s total area and 11% of Spain’s total forest area [36].
Severe wildfires occur every few years due to sporadic, short but possibly strong periods of drought during the summer. In 2017, almost 62,000 ha were burned, the majority of which (approximately 42,000 ha) occurred in just a few days in early October [37]. From 1968 to 2012, there were 249,387 wildfires in the region [38], resulting in the burning of almost 8000 km2 (about a fourth of the total regional area) in the last 25 years (29.574 km2). Different writers have identified a number of structural factors of fire igniting activity [39]. Traditional rural lifestyles are vanishing, as are tensions over land management and ownership, conflicts at the wildland-urban boundary, and socioeconomic conditions.
Property fragmentation is widely seen in the region as a significant impediment to the sustainable and economic management of forests and rangelands. According to current estimates, the region has almost 1.7 million proprietors (out of a total population of about 2.7 million) and over 11 million plots with an average size of 0.25 hectares [40]. Private owners own the majority of the land—they own more than two-thirds of the forest area—but the average size of a private holding is 1.5–2 ha per person [36]. Private properties, on the other hand, include common lands, which are legally recognized as a non-divisible kind of collective (albeit private) property. Community membership is limited by law, and it is open to everyone who lives in the same region as the community. As a result, communities are fluid entities: those who move in become owners, while those who leave lose their ownership rights. At 656,000 ha, common lands make up the final third (public property in the region is essentially non-existent), and are maintained by about 3000 local communities, with an average area of 200 ha per community [40].
Climatologically, Galicia Region has large differences between its coastal and inland areas. Average annual rainfall varies between 800 and 1000 mm in inland areas, and 1600 and 1900 in coastal areas. The annual mean temperature is 13°C, with remarkable differences between the coastal and continental temperatures; at the same elevation, in summer (winter), temperatures are on the order of 2°C higher (5°C lower) in the continental part. Thus, the lowest temperatures can be observed in the interior, where the highest mountains are located, with average minimum temperatures around 5°C. Summers are warm, particularly in the southeast of the area, with maximum temperatures exceeding 30°C [31, 41].
Galicia’s territory is heterogeneous, having densely populated sections mixed in with more sparsely populated areas. Within them, there are some cities and headwaters of the region that act as focal points of activity [42]. Demographically and economically dynamic areas coexist with those characterized by a lack of vitality, but even within them, there are some cities and headwaters of the region that act as focal points of activity.
Rural depopulation is a serious issue in Spain, particularly in Galicia, where it is regarded as a demographic and territorial phenomenon. Indeed, since 2008, the population of the region has decreased by 9.2 percent. In terms of the foreign population, prior to the economic slump, the rise in immigrants helped to alleviate rural depopulation [42].
Other important factors contributing to rural depopulation include an aging population or low population density that prevents economic development. Age and gender disparities, on the other hand, may be to blame [43]. Rural masculinization happens at a young age as a result of largely female migration and a lack of equal productive and reproductive work, leading to a search for a higher educational level and career prospects in metropolitan regions [42]. Aging, geographical isolation, a lack of spatial integration with other surrounding places, bad connections and transportation difficulties, a lack of adequate social services, and lower levels of human capital and employment prospects are all disadvantages associated with low density. All of this unavoidably leads to a drop in the economy [42, 44].
Loss of human resources, lack of territorial growth, and incapacity to maintain commercial operations have not only economic, but also patrimonial and environmental consequences [45]. The loss of livestock and conventional agricultural uses, in terms of environmental effects, is a danger factor for natural environment protection. This is due to the fact that landscape changes are uncontrollable, and forest land management in rural regions is largely confined to individual plots [42].
In the Galician mountains, extensive livestock used to have an impact on the forest ecosystem, favoring mosaics and lowering fuel [46]. As a result, the fall in extensive animal husbandry in Spain (approximately 30% between 2004 and 2015) is seen as a contributing cause to forest fires [42].
The environmental implications of progressive abandonment of rural regions, such as soil loss and exposure to erosive phenomena over wide areas, can be deemed unfavorable in the medium term [43]. Furthermore, there is a lack of forest land management, which increases the risk of fire. Traditional burning activities and the use of fire in mountain management in Galicia have been linked to an increase in fire occurrence [42, 47].
The data used was two layers of information. These are public and open and can be used to replicate this work in another work area. The analyzed area is the Galicia region, in Spain.
Firstly, land-use related to vegetation data were obtained. The European Space Agency (EEA) offers through the CORINE Land Cover (Coordination of Information-CLC) project a geodatabase using polygonal graphic features that evoke land uses throughout the European Union, for the years 1990, 2000, 2006, 2012 and 2018 [48].
The scale used is 1:100,000 in the Geodesic Reference System corresponding to the European Terrestrial Reference System 1989 (ETRS89) and the Mapping System is Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM), with the minimum cartographic unit (MCU) being equal to 25 hectares. The accuracy obtained has been increasing over the years, since in 1990 it was less than 50 meters, in 2000, 2006 and 2012 it was less than 25 meters, and finally, in 2018 it is less than 10 meters. Also, the information contained in these polygons is hierarchical in three levels of information (Table 1).
Level 1 | Level 2 | Level 3 |
---|---|---|
1. Artificial surfaces | 1.1. Urban fabric | 1.1.1. Continous urban fabric |
1.1.2. Discontinuous urban fabric | ||
1.2. Industrial, commercial and transport | 1.2.1.Industrial or commercial units | |
1.2.2.Road and rail networks and associated land | ||
1.2.3.Port areas | ||
1.2.4.Airports | ||
1.3. Mine, dump and construction sites | 1.3.1.Mineral extraction sites | |
1.3.2.Dump sites | ||
1.3.3.Construction sites | ||
1.4. Artificial, non-agricultural vegetated areas | 1.4.1.Green urban areas | |
1.4.2.Sport and leisure facilities | ||
2. Agricultural areas | 2.1. Arable land | 2.1.1. Non-irrigated arable land |
2.1.2. Permanently irrigated land | ||
2.1.3. Rice fields | ||
2.2. Permanent crops | 2.2.1.Vineyards | |
2.2.2.Fruit trees and berry plantations | ||
2.2.3.Olive groves | ||
2.3. Pastures | 2.3.1.Pastures | |
2.4. Heterogeneous agricultural areas | 2.4.1.Annual crops associated with permanent crops | |
2.4.2.Complex cultivation | ||
2.4.3.Land occupied by agriculture | ||
3. Forests and semi-natural areas | 3.1. Forests | 3.1.1. Broad-leaved forest |
3.1.2.Coniferous forest | ||
3.1.3.Mixed forest | ||
3.2.Shrub and/or herbaceous vegetation association | 3.2.1. Natural grassland | |
3.2.2.Moors and heathland | ||
3.2.3.Scierophyllous vegetation | ||
3.2.4.Transitional woodland shrub | ||
3.3. Open spaces with little or no vegetation | 3.3.1.Beaches, dunes, and plains | |
3.3.2.Bare rock | ||
3.3.3.Sparsely vegetated areas | ||
3.3.4.Burnt areas | ||
3.3.5.Glaciers and perpetual snow | ||
4. Wetlands | 4.1. Inland wetlands | 4.1.1.Inland marshes |
4.1.2.Peatbogs | ||
4.2. Coastal wetlands | 4.2.1.Salt marshes | |
4.2.2.Salines | ||
4.2.3.Intertidal flats | ||
5. Water bodies | 5.1. Inland waters | 5.1.1.Water courses |
5.1.2.Water bodies | ||
5.2. Marine waters | 5.2.1.Coastal lagoons | |
5.2.2.Estuaries | ||
5.2.3.Sea and ocean |
For detailed information about the CLC Codes, the authors recommend the following source: www.eea.europa. eu/publications/COR0-landcover, accessed on 30 November 2021.
The second layer of information corresponds to the administrative delimitation of the Autonomous Community of Galicia. From the National Geographic Information Center in Spain (CNIG), as shown in Figure 2.
Delimitation of the study area - Galicia region (Source: Authors by ESRI ArcGIS, 2020).
Subsequently, both layers of information were treated using ArcGIS 10.5 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) management software. Initially, all layers of information were transformed to the ETRS89-Azimuth Equiarea Coordinate Reference System of Lambert-2001, as this was adopted as official (ETRS-LAEA) [49]. Because ETRS-LAEA is based on the projection of equivalent areas in the territory. In this way, it serves as a reference for homogeneous units for all European countries. As a result, this coordinate system is used for the representation of analytical and statistical data.
Subsequently, the layer relating to the administrative divisions of the country, Spain has carried out a selection query through alphanumeric information and the Galicia region was selected. Subsequently, this single region was kept in a single layer of information. This layer of information was the limit of the scope of action of this work. The clip tool was then used, with Galicia’s boundary as the reference layer. This procedure was used for each of the years studied (1990, 2000, 2006, 2012 and 2018). In this way, land uses were obtained, but only those that were included in the region. Subsequently, geometric measurement of the area of each of the polygons was performed in hectares. This resulted in the number of hectares of each polygon representative of land uses according to the CLC nomenclature.
Once this information was obtained, the alphanumeric information recorded in each of the tables for the years analyzed was exported to a database that was managed by the Microsoft Access database management program belonging to Microsoft Office 365 software.
Selection queries were made to the database using Structured Query Language (SQL) to select according to the CLC nomenclature, and then another grouping query was added to the previous query, also using SQL. Finally, the hectares for each land use were obtained for the years 1990, 2000, 2006, 2012 and 2018.
However, to take into account not only numerical but also geographical results, thematic maps were also obtained for each of the years. In this way, it was possible to identify where the greatest variation in land uses related to vegetation occurred and where there was predominant land uses related to vegetation.
To an easy understanding of the used methodology and case study selection criteria, a scheme has been developed (Figure 3).
Summary scheme of the used methodology and case study selection criteria (Source: Authors).
The results come from the analysis of the land-use related to vegetation changes for the Galicia region in the years 1990, 2000, 2006, 2012 and 2018. The results will be exposed through the tables, and thematic cartography. This typology of results exposed allows for extracting the most relevant information and characterizing the evolution of land use based on the 15 land uses determined by CLC in level 2. The information is organized as presented in Table 2, in percentage.
Level 2 | 1990 | 2000 | 2006 | 2012 | 2018 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1.1. | 1.21% | 1.25% | 1.50% | 1.52% | 1.68% |
1.2. | 0.16% | 0.22% | 0.34% | 0.37% | 0.45% |
1.3. | 0.22% | 0.32% | 0.29% | 0.32% | 0.30% |
1.4. | 0.01% | 0.02% | 0.05% | 0.05% | 0.06% |
4.1. | 0.00% | 0.00% | 0.01% | 0.01% | 0.00% |
4.2. | 0.10% | 0.10% | 0.09% | 0.09% | 0.09% |
5.1. | 0.51% | 0.55% | 0.50% | 0.53% | 0.52% |
5.2. | 0.19% | 0.18% | 0.14% | 0.14% | 0.14% |
Percentage of land uses according to level 2 of CLC nomenclature in the Galicia region (Source: authors).
Values in bold corresponding to Land-Use Changes related to vegetation.
In order to know what are the differences in area extension for every land use, the differences in percentage areas between years are calculated.
From the information in Table 3, it can be seen that the two greatest differences occur for land uses 2.4. and 3.1. between 2000 and 2006. Indeed, −12.88% for 2.4. corresponding to Heterogeneous agricultural areas and 3.1. corresponding to forests. For this reason, it was determined the percentage area for land uses, but in this case at the Level 3.
Level 2 | 2000-1990 | 2006-2000 | 2012-2006 | 2018-2012 |
---|---|---|---|---|
1.1. | 0.04% | 0.25% | 0.02% | 0.17% |
1.2. | 0.06% | 0.12% | 0.03% | 0.08% |
1.3. | 0.10% | −0.03% | 0.02% | −0.02% |
1.4. | 0.01% | 0.03% | 0.00% | 0.01% |
2.1. | 0.00% | 1.60% | 0.01% | 0.88% |
2.2. | 0.01% | 0.02% | 0.01% | −0.08% |
2.3. | 0.00% | 0.16% | 0.01% | 0.10% |
2.4. | −0.05% | 0.00% | −0.61% | |
3.1. | −0.12% | −0.68% | −0.80% | |
3.2. | −0.02% | 1.81% | 0.77% | 0.30% |
3.3. | −0.07% | 0.34% | −0.23% | 0.00% |
4.1. | 0.00% | 0.01% | 0.00% | −0.01% |
4.2. | 0.00% | −0.01% | 0.00% | 0.00% |
5.1. | 0.04% | −0.06% | 0.03% | −0.01% |
5.2. | 0.00% | −0.04% | 0.00% | 0.00% |
Percentage difference of land uses according to level 2 of CLC nomenclature in the Galicia region (Source: authors).
Values in bold corresponding to Land-Use Changes related to vegetation - significant changes.
Table 4 shows that the highest percentage corresponds to 3.1.1. in 2006 whose value is 23.83% 2006, that is to say, about a quarter of Galicia is occupied by broad-leaved forest. Nonetheless, it is important to take into account that the percentage of this land use was very lower years before, 7.75% in 2000 and 7.63% in 1990. Consequently, a huge increase in the area occupied by broad-leaved forests occurred between 2000 and 2006. Although in a lower intensity and also between the same years, has occurred an increase of the land use 3.1.2. coniferous forest, from 2.78% in 2000 to 10.47% in 2006. On the contrary, a reduction of the area occupied occurred in the same years for the land uses 2.43. the land occupied by agriculture and 3.1.3. mixed forest.
Level 3 | 1990 | 2000 | 2006 | 2012 | 2018 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
2.4.1. | 0.00% | 0.00% | 0.00% | 0.00% | 0.00% |
2.4.2. | 23.51% | 23.57% | 22.10% | 22.10% | 21.28% |
2.4.3. | 13.25% | 5.76% | 5.95% | ||
3.1.1. | 7.63% | 23.68% | 23.42% | ||
3.1.2. | 2.84% | 10.02% | 9.60% | ||
3.1.3. | 17.52% | 17.38% | 5.12% | 5.06% | 4.90% |
Percentage of land uses according to level 3 for 2.4. and 3.1. land uses according to CLC nomenclature in the Galicia region (Source: authors).
Values in bold corresponding to Land-Use Changes related to vegetation - significant changes.
In this regard, to know the highest differences in the percentage area of the land uses, again it was calculated the difference between the years analyzed, but at the level 3 and specifically for the land uses classified into 2.4. and 3.1.
According to Table 5, it seems that the increase in certain kinds of land uses such as 3.1.1. broad-leaved forest and 3.1.2. coniferous forest is compensated by the decrease of other land uses like 2.4.2. complex cultivation, 2.4.3. the land occupied by agriculture and 3.1.3. mixed forest. Nonetheless, it is advisable to execute more exhaustive study research to know it.
Level 3 | 2000-1990 | 2006-2000 | 2012-2006 | 2018-2012 |
---|---|---|---|---|
2.4.1. | 0.00% | 0.00% | 0.00% | 0.00% |
2.4.2. | 0.06% | 0.00% | −0.82% | |
2.4.3. | −0.08% | 0.00% | 0.18% | |
3.1.1. | 0.11% | −0.16% | −0.26% | |
3.1.2. | −0.06% | −0.45% | −0.42% | |
3.1.3. | −0.14% | −0.07% | −0.16% |
Percentage difference of land uses according to level 3 for 2.4. and 3.1. land uses according to CLC nomenclature in the Galicia region (Source: authors).
Values in bold corresponding to Land-Use Changes related to vegetation - significant changes.
In addition, using ArcGIS 10.5 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) management software, it was possible to more accurately represent the location of each area (thematic cartography) – i.e., according to their respective CLC nomenclature and temporal variance, Figures 4–10.
Land uses according to level 2 of CLC nomenclature in the Galicia region in 1990 (Source: Authors by ESRI ArcGIS, 2020).
Land uses according to level 2 of CLC nomenclature in the Galicia region in 2000 (Source: Authors by ESRI ArcGIS, 2020).
Land uses according to level 2 of CLC nomenclature in the Galicia region in 2006 (Source: Authors by ESRI ArcGIS, 2020).
Land uses according to level 2 of CLC nomenclature in the Galicia region in 2012 (Source: Authors by ESRI ArcGIS, 2020).
Land uses according to level 2 of CLC nomenclature in the Galicia region in 2018 (Source: Authors by ESRI ArcGIS, 2020).
Land uses according to level 3 for 2.4. and 3.1. land uses of CLC nomenclature in the Galicia region in 2006 (Source: Authors by ESRI ArcGIS, 2020).
Land uses according to level 3 for 2.4. and 3.1. land uses of CLC nomenclature in the Galicia region in 2012 (Source: Authors by ESRI ArcGIS, 2020).
Because between 2006 and 2000 has occurred the highest difference for land uses was classified into the groups 2.4. and 3.1. thematic cartography was made for this land use at level 3 and in these years.
Although Figures 9 and 10 show the land uses for both years, it is really difficult to know where these changes have been produced. Because these land uses occupy most of the Galicia territory and they are very spread. However, it is possible to realize that in the north area 3.1.2. land uses disappear between the analyzed years. Besides, in the west area disappear land uses classified in 2.4. and 3.1., in favor of other land uses since more white areas appear. This effect is also observed in the southeast area.
In this section, we will address the results that come from the analysis of the land-use related to vegetation changes for the Galicia region in the years 1990, 2000, 2006, 2012 and 2018.
Therefore, the results presented through the tables and thematic cartography, in the previous section are related to the characterization of the evolution of land use based on the 44 uses of the soil determined by CLC. So, as we are analyzing the Land-Use Changes related to vegetation, we will give more importance to the CORINE Land Cover nomenclature associates, not neglecting the rest.
According to Table 5, it seems that the increase in certain kinds of land uses such as 3.1.1. broad-leaved forest and 3.1.2. coniferous forest is compensated by the decrease of other land uses like 2.4.2. complex cultivation, 2.4.3. the land occupied by agriculture and 3.1.3. mixed forest. Nonetheless, it is advisable to execute more exhaustive study research to know it.
The previously portrayed can be validated by the observation of the thematic cartography (Figures 4–6, 9 and 10).
Corroborating what has already been portrayed concerning the Galicia Region, namely climatology, the rural depopulation, are factors that contribute to the increase of the Land-Use Changes related to vegetation, namely those related to the forest [31, 41, 42].
This temporal evolution – not only at the parish level but also at the municipality level – has been influenced by the land tenure regime and, as expected, by the land management carried out. Thus, forest ownership characterized by either solely private or solely public management showed a higher incidence of more productive forest types than mixed management [34].
In addition, the demographic aspects linked to these territorial units have contributed, directly or indirectly, to these forestry changes. So, densely populated areas have increased their forestland toward woodlands for timber production, although the environmental component of sustainable forest management requires a special weight given the strong urban and population pressure. On the other hand, the area of productive forestry did not increase in highly depopulated areas (unlike other forestry regions) because the economic incentives were insufficient to promote a future owner’s interest [34].
The research of vegetation-related Land-Use Changes is critical for understanding regional trends and developments [50, 51]. It was feasible to discern changes in all CLC levels in the Galicia Region from 1990 to 2018 throughout this examination.
Thus, it was credible to establish that these Land-Use Changes related to vegetation suffered some changes, characterized by increasing and decreasing periods. Some of those decreasing values are disturbing and should have special attention by the government authorities to provide preservation and conservation of these unique Galician landscapes and environments.
The changes in the Land-Use related to vegetation could be understood as a direct manifestation of human activity over natural environments [52, 53]. Therefore, the natural factors and features—i.e., geomorphology, slope, relief, soil, and vegetation, among many others— are critical for the proper organization and distribution of the territory and their consequent land uses [52]. The lack of knowledge aligned with the existence of planning conducts to the destruction of the natural resources causing a relevant (negative) impact on the local communities [54].
Therefore, the study of the Land-Use Changes related to vegetation is seen as pivotal to understanding the dynamics and tendencies of these territories as well as to provide clues for the main actors to where the efforts toward sustainable development and growth should be placed.
In the final remarks, the Land-Use Changes related to vegetation could be understood as another tool for the knowledge of the territory—assessing the past and envisioning the future.
Although this chapter provides some insight into the dynamics, trends, and specificities of Land-Use Changes associated to vegetation in the Galicia Region, more research is needed to uncover new variables and significant findings.
In these territories, regional policies and societal behaviors change frequently, necessitating close monitoring and new analyses of the directions and dynamics of Land-Use Changes associated to vegetation, as well as the management of sustainable development methods.
Furthermore, due to the employed CLC’s minimum cartographic unit (25 hectares), some Land-Use in the Galicia Region could not be reflected in this study if these aspects were not identified. This problem would most likely be solved if newer versions of the CLC program were used, specifically the most recent one with a better resolution.
Future research on these regions may also combine cartography with protected natural spaces, their various figures, and Land-Use Changes related to vegetation through time.
This publication has been possible thanks to funding granted by the “Consejería de Economía, Ciencia y Agenda Digital” (Ministry of Economy, Science and Digital Agenda) of Extremadura govern, and by the European Regional Development Fund of the European Union through the reference grants GR21135, Research Group on Environment and Spatial Planning.
“The authors declare no conflict of interest.”
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Theriogenology",editors:[{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Nutrition",value:20,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",value:28,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Science",value:19,count:5}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:1},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:148,paginationItems:[{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",biography:"Vahid Asadpour, MS, Ph.D., is currently with the Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California. He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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