Abstraction drinking water supply and % use from case study Ndola [19].
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83968-460-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-459-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-232-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"babca2dea1c80719111734cc57a21a4c",bookSignature:"Dr. Amin Talei",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10404.jpg",keywords:"Water Budget, Ground Measurement, Satellite Data, Empirical Models, Physical Models, Data-Driven Models, Artificial Neural Network, Neuro-Fuzzy Systems, Genetic Programming, Irrigation Management, Drought, Aquifer Management",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 29th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 26th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 25th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 15th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 14th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in developing hydrological models using adaptive neuro-fuzzy systems, a pioneering researcher in tropical biofiltration systems, appointed head of the Civil Engineering Discipline in Monash University Malaysia.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"335732",title:"Dr.",name:"Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Talei",slug:"amin-talei",fullName:"Amin Talei",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/335732/images/system/335732.jpg",biography:"Associate Professor Amin Talei joined Monash University Malaysia in January 2013 and currently is the head of Civil Engineering discipline. His previous appointment was as researcher in School of Civil & Environmental Engineering of Nanyang Technological University of Singapore where he studied for his PhD during 2008-2011. His research is predominantly focused on hydrological modeling and flood forecasting using artificial intelligence techniques. Most recently, he has been also involved in research projects dealing with sustainable urban water management. To date, he has published over 50 articles in reputable journals and international conference proceedings. He has supervised several PhD and Master students and won the Supervisor of the Year Award in Monash University Malaysia in 2017. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"63707",title:"Drinking Water Treatment and Challenges in Developing Countries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80780",slug:"drinking-water-treatment-and-challenges-in-developing-countries",body:'\nDrinking water remains inaccessible to 1.1 million people globally. Safe and readily available drinking water is important for public health. Drinking water can be used for many purposes including cooking, drinking, washing, personal hygiene, irrigation, recreational and industrial use. Water can be classified aided by the ‘environmental quality objective’ for what it is used for and the \'environmental quality standard’ for what is the quality of water for its purpose. Improved water supply, sanitation and better management of water resources can boost countries’ economic growth and can contribute greatly to poverty reduction. The sources of drinking water in developing countries can range from surface water, groundwater, spring water, saline water, bottled water and harvested rainwater [1]. Access to drinking water is monitored by the World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and the Joint Monitoring Programme for water supply and sanitation (JMP) [2].
\nEfforts to develop efficient, economical and technologically sound methods to produce clean drinking water for developing countries have increased worldwide [3].
\nFigures 1 and 2 highlight the importance of scientists to develop and sustain technologies to improve drinking water quality due to the percentage of society lacking suitable drinking water [4]. Water is a key variable within sustainable development goals in terms of environmental, social and economic initiatives as highlighted by the United Nations in 2014 [5]. The discussion on the role of water for sanitation and hygiene in the ‘water development report 2015’ emphasises cost as one of the key challenges for future water needs [6].
\nProportion of population using an improved drinking water source (WHO 2010) [4].
Global representation of developing countries (WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme [4]).
As well as accounting for the lack of physical water accessibility due to drought, ‘distance from a water supply’ and polluted water can all affect drinking water accessibility. Water quality issues due to anthropogenic and natural pollution can affect the amount of water available for use. Both surface and groundwater can be contaminated by both anthropogenic and natural contaminations. Microbiology and chemical contaminants in drinking water can cause acute and chronic health effects. Contamination can also affect the aesthetic properties of water systems. The contaminants include:
Pathogens—disease-causing organisms that include bacteria, amoebas, viruses and eggs and larvae of parasitic worms [6].
Harmful chemicals from human activities and industrial wastes such as pesticides and fertilisers [7].
Chemicals and minerals from the natural environment, such as arsenic, common salts and fluorides. In Bangladesh, for example, 1.4 million tube wells have high levels of naturally occurring arsenic [8].
Some non-harmful contaminants may influence the taste, smell, colour and turbidity of water and make it unacceptable to the consumer; its examples include zinc, iron, particulate matter and humic material [9].
The physiochemical properties of contaminants of water that can impact its toxicology in water include size, density compared to water, charge, solubility, volatility, polarity, hydrophobic, hydrophilic, boiling point, chemical reactivity and biodegradability [10].
\nWhen deciding on the water supply for drinking water purposes an understanding of the stresses on the water source is important. Seasonal variation of the water source is also important to understand in areas such as water level and water table levels and sanitation contamination trends [11]. Throughout this chapter emphasis on the multi-barrier approach to maintain clean water will be described. All parts of the multi-barrier approach, including source selection, treatment type, transport to consumer and storage if necessary are all important to control, to minimise the risk of contamination. The water safety plans (WSPs) manual published in 2009 by the World Health Organization (WHO) guides the multi-barrier approach for the maintenance of good quality drinking water [12, 13]. When deciding on the drinking water supply and subsequence treatment, the WHO safety plan manual encourages people to think of the best treatment taking into consideration local factors. In the International Water Association (IWA), Bonn Charter emphasises the ‘provision of clean safe drinking water which has the trust of consumers’ as a focal point [14] (Figure 3).
\nThe multi-barrier approach [15].
The multi-barrier approach examines water in detail from source to tap and aids in maintaining the quality of water at each stage. The lesser the number of steps in treatment, the cleaner the water source and the nearer the consumer is to the source are challenges in drinking water management. Other variables to consider include prevention of reentering of contaminants at storage and distribution stages of the process [16]. Indicator parameter studies of facial coliforms have been used in Rangoon Burma of Southeast Asia for storage and distribution control management [16].
\nThe source supply is known as the abstraction point. A large priority of water management in developing countries is to supply water from a source that requires little or no treatment rather than a source that requires treatment. Risk management to ensure that the source is protected from pollution is also a priority [17]. The baseline of the water source physiochemical, organic and inorganic composition and its monitoring is a challenge [18]. Supply provision of water source under different conditions such as seasonal factors is important to understand. The types of water abstraction points consist of boreholes, open wells, surface water river and lakes, saline waters and brackish waters. An example of the range of drinking water abstraction types utilised in developing countries can be seen in Table 1 [19].
\nSource type | \nDrinking water % use | \nDomestic water % use | \nIrrigation % use | \n
---|---|---|---|
Shallow well | \n68.6 | \n75.4 | \n82.3 | \n
Borehole | \n11.0 | \n4.3 | \n6.5 | \n
River | \n0.7 | \n0.7 | \n1.6 | \n
Spring | \n0.7 | \n0.7 | \n1.6 | \n
Wetlands | \n0 | \n0 | \n1.6 | \n
A combinations of above Due to seasonal factors | \n9.7 | \n9.4 | \n1.6 | \n
Abstraction drinking water supply and % use from case study Ndola [19].
Abstraction water point in certain areas will change at different times of the year corresponding with the dry season and the wet season. Boreholes where citizens dig down to find water would be popular in dry seasons and river water sampling, and the use would be popular in wet season. This is common in areas such as Francistown, Botswana, in South Africa. The Shashe river is used readily in the wet season as stated by a sister of the Cross and Passion order working in the Francistown area. Another source of water for future investigation would be bottled water; bottled water can be bought in from other countries. Bottled water can be classified as natural mineral water, and water source bottled from an underground aquifer still or aerated protected from pollution has no treatment [20]. Issues with confidence in quality, shelf life, storage including refrigeration and transportation to consumer can be a challenge. The cost of transporting bottled water can be costly.
\nRainwater harvesting can be considered a free source of water. Rainwater precipitation can be very large in certain parts of the globe. Global precipitation climatology, for the period 1979–2017 in millimetres/day, can be visually seen in Figure 4 [21]. This data represents the precipitation estimate from version 2.3 global precipitation climatology project (GPCP) SSAI/NASA GSFC project data [21].
\nGlobal precipitation image provided by David Bolvin (SSAI/NASA GSFA [21]).
Different technologies can be used for rainwater harvesting such as roof water which can be collected through gutters and pipes into storage tanks [22]. Other water harvesting systems that have been developed include farm ponds, community ponds, wells, recharge pits micro-irrigation sprinklers and check dams’ low cost water harvest systems [23]. The advantage of farm ponds and check dams is that water can be stored in the rainy season which can be utilized during the dry season. Recharge pit systems can be used to recharge groundwater aquifers in the rainy season. The Vidarbha region of India has successfully deployed farm pond and pit macro-irrigation systems. Positive outcomes of these technologies include crop irrigation improvements and raised water tables, subsequently increasing the availability of drinking water sources. [23].
\nFrom Figure 4, one can see that the estimated rainfall in Africa, Asia and South America is in the range of 4–10 millimetres/day, which can be utilised for water harvesting for the purpose of drinking water, irrigation and washing and cooking. The data in Figure 4 is based on a combination of passive microwave and active radar sensors.
\nRainwater can be a significant source of water for an individual, a family or a community. Rainwater harvesting is widely practised in Maldives, India and Sri Lanka [24]. It is very beneficial for tsunami-affected regions where piped water infrastructures are severely damaged [25].
\nOther areas where rainwater harvesting has been developed include Bhutan and Bangladesh as an alternative source due to the high levels of naturally occurring arsenic in groundwaters [26]. The advantage of using rainwater as a water source is a great benefit to a community if distance from a water supply in rural areas makes water inaccessible.
\nRainwater harvesting can levitate issues with storm water and minimise diffuse sources of pollution due to storm water. Harvested rainwater is a water source during the drought season if stored correctly. The treatment of the rainwater if needed would involve point-of-use (POU) treatment technologies which will be discussed later in this chapter.
\nGlobally, sub-Saharan Africa has the largest number of water-scarce countries [27]. Unfortunately, these countries also do not have a large availability of clean drinking water due to urbanisation and industrialisation impact on water quality [27]. Most of the African continent relies on rainfall and surface water for their drinking water supply. Experts estimate that between 75 and 250 million people will live in water-stressed areas of Africa by 2030 [28]. Pollution of rainwater can be due to the transboundary pollution and anthropogenic and naturally occurring pollution such as bird droppings [29]. The key benefits of using rainwater include local water security and reduced central treatment infrastructure needs for water supplies.
\nProcesses such as distillation and evaporation can be used as a means of desalination [30]. Other processes include freeze distillation and reverse osmosis. Freezing salt makes crystals of fresh water form and grow leaving a concentrated brine solution behind [31]. Reverse osmosis involves movement of water from a high concentration to a low concentration. Membrane systems can also be used [32]. The major advantage of desalination is that when chlorination is used as a disinfectant, there is a lower risk of forming disinfectant by-products as the water has a lower organic content [32]. Many developing countries have coastal areas which enable sea water and brackish water following desalination to be used as a drinking water source. The largest challenge to the use of desalination technologies is the cost of the technologies used [33]. Research has shown that cost of desalination can be minimised by using solar and wind energy as an energy supply for reverse osmosis [34].
\nThe minimising of pollution must be linked with point and diffuse sources of pollution. Categories of pollution risk include point sources and diffuse sources of pollution. Diffuse source of pollution is harder to control and monitor. Diffuse sources of pollution include dry and wet atmospheric deposition. Storm water infiltration from waste storage and septic tanks is also a major concern [35].
\nWatershed protection refers to the activities preformed on a topographical and hydrological water area in order to protect water quality within a catchment. As an example for drinking water the topography of the watershed basin is studied linking with surface water runoff entering a river or stream. Soil types should be investigated in terms of soil characteristics and water permeability and sand silt and clay composition [36]. Water-permeable soil can impact on the movement of surface water downwards to groundwater causing a transfer of pollution (Figure 5).
\nSoil types globally [37].
Aquifer protection groundwater quality is dependent on the geology of the subsurface material of which water is drawn. Also, understanding the transport and fate of contaminants requires a study of groundwater geology if any aquifer protection zone treatment is in place. Soil horizon characteristics should also be reviewed. Arsenic is a common naturally occurring metal problem in developing countries as can be seen in Figure 6. Hydraulic pump control to prevent intrusion of sea water is an important variable to control in coastal areas in terms of fresh water aquifer use [38].
\nNaturally occurring arsenic in a global perspective [1].
Waste disposal and lack of proper sanitation practices can affect the quality of surface waters and groundwaters. The principle component analysis (PCA) and factor analysis (FA) can be used to minimise the risk of water pollution. The PCA and FA create an inventory of variables that can be an impact on water quality [39]. Figure 7 shows the PCA and FA flow approach in relation to surface water management [40]. Point and diffuse sources and source-receptor mechanisms are also important to understand. Source-receptor mechanisms are important to control and understand, linking to the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the pollutants that may be natural or anthropogenic [41].
\nPoint and diffuse sources and seasonal factors and pollution control linking with PCA and FA [40].
The types of waste issues to monitor relate to the pharmaceutical and agricultural industries, oil refining, textile industry, leather industry, fine chemical manufacture, animal and human solid and liquid waste and sediment issues linked with floods and the construction industry.
\nAny drinking water treatment technology focuses on source supply, treatment type, storage and transportation to customers. Conventional treatment methods in developed countries can be applied to developing countries. The basic drinking water treatment steps can be seen in Figure 8.
\nDrinking water treatment [42].
The first stage of treatment to produce drinking water involves screening the abstraction point water and passing through coarse filters. The water can then be kept in a storage tank where natural sedimentation occurs and natural ultraviolet light can break down pathogens. The next stage is the pre-chemical stage which can involve aeration, use of activated carbon and use of aluminium salts or iron salts. Aluminium salts are the more commonly used. The simplest coagulant is aluminium sulphate Al2(SO4)3.14H2O known as alum. Aluminium sulphate salt is converted to an aluminium hydroxide complex in the water which is known as a polynuclear species Al13O4(OH)247+ and in the presence of polyelectrolytes aids in the coagulation process [43]. The traditional view of coagulation is that it facilitates agglomeration of small colloidal particles into large particles of a size that can be physically removed. Dirt, chemicals and pathogens in the water attach to the aluminium hydroxide during the coagulation process. Dual coagulants, a hydrolysed metal salt and a low concentration of polyelectrolyte, can be used. The most common polyelectrolytes in water treatment consist of polydiallydimethyl ammonium chloride (polyDADMAC) and epichlorohydrin dimethylamine (epiDMA) [43]. Coagulation/flocculation technologies can also remove total organic carbon (TOC). High-charge-density cationic polymers bridge particles of the primary coagulations to form a floc to initiate the flocculation process. Sedimentation and decanting of the water occur at this stage, and the floc can fall out of the water phase. The gravity sedimentation removal of particles from water follows the coagulation/flocculation process. High-rate gravity sedimentation involves blasting flocculation using polymers. This process is commercially known as ACTIFLO process, microsand 70–100 μm is dosed together with the polymer forming a lamella [44]. The lamella settles out of the water clarifying the water [45]. In the dissolved air flotation (DAF) technique, part of the treated water is recycled under pressure to dissolve air in the water as part of the aeration process. The floc attaches to the air bubbles, moves to the top of the water and can be removed [45].
\nThe next stage of the treatment is sand filtration; enhanced filtration systems such as granular media filtration and disinfectant membranes are also readily used. The filtration process can remove excess pathogens and chemicals from the water [46].
\nThe post-chemical stage involves disinfection of the water; disinfectants used include hypochlorous acid, ozone and chloride dioxide [47]. Many water utilities have moved to the use of multiple disinfectant rather than just chlorination. Advanced technology with the use of ultraviolet light to create free radicals which can break down pathogens can also be used.
\nThe most common disinfectant used is chlorine (Cl2) which reacts with water forming.
\nHypochlorous acid which is a weak acid can dissociate into hydrogen ion, H+ and hypochlorite ion OCl−:
\nBoth HOCl and OCl− can act as disinfectants [47].
\nChlorine dosing is the best disinfectant as it can leave a residual in the water to aid disinfection. Ozone and ultraviolet light do not give a residual disinfectant in the water. Post-chemical treatment can also involve pH control. Fluorination can also be used as a post-chemical treatment in certain countries such as Ireland [47].
\nThe water is then stored in reservoirs before being used. Residual disinfection in the storage facility is important to prevent contamination of the storage space. The network management is also very important, and residual disinfection is important to maintain water safety. Microbial slimes in the distribution system pipes can cause the development of waterborne viruses and bacteria and invertebrate grazing in the pipe systems [48]. Lead piping is also an issue in the European countries [49]. Breaks in pipe systems are concerns in terms of society’s water footprint and overall sustainability. Infiltration and leakages in pipe systems are other issues. Excessive particulate matter in pipe systems can also give rise to microorganism build-up [48]. Stagnation in the pipes can also give rise to microbial slimes [48].
\nCertain privately owned ground water supplies and group schemes incorporate treatments such as aeration and disinfectant using chlorination and ultraviolet light disinfectant [47].
\nFor conventional drinking water treatment, sufficient time for each step of the process, maintenance and energy use is important to management in terms of moving in the direction of an eco-label for water treatment.
\nIn developing countries, the priority is to obtain biologically safe water. Waterborne diseases is a large issue globally especially in tropical countries with poor water supplies [17]. The chemical and physical characteristics of water should not be overlooked, but emphases on the biological quality treatment should be salient.
\nThe treatment that is utilised in developing countries shall now be discussed.
\nThe two treatment systems include:
Central source treatment systems
Point-of-use (POU) treatment
Central source systems involve water treatment in a central location followed by distribution to the consumer. This is known as medium- or large-scale treatment. The treatment is similar to conventional treatment used in developed countries. This type of treatment can be suitable for urban areas in developing countries. Challenges of network contamination and maintenance of the infrastructure are a large concern [48]. The treated water can be transported by tanker to rural areas, if piped networks are not present in a particular area.
\nPoint-of-use (POU) treatment involves ‘informal sources’ treated at source which are also known as small-scale treatment. Risk management in terms of pollution of informal sources such as rainwater, shallow boreholes and small streams treated per household is a large concern [50]. When deciding on which type of POU treatment variables to consider, it should include ease of use, price, time for treatment and volume of water treated.
\nA selection of point-of-use (POU) treatment commercial systems and small-scale technologies that can be utilised can be seen in Table 2.
\nCommercial name | \nInformation reference | \n
---|---|
Biosand filter and ceramic water purifier | \n[51] | \n
Kanchan™ Arsenic filter (KAF) | \n[52] | \n
AquaEst RainPC® | \n[53] | \n
Solar disinfection (SODIS) | \n[54] | \n
LifeStraw® | \n[55] | \n
PUR Purifier of Water™ | \n[56] | \n
Selection of point-of-use (POU) treatments and small-scale treatment.
Some interesting point-of-use (POU) treatments will be discussed below.
\nChlorination was initially used to disinfect public water supplies since the early 1900s, in cities in Europe and the United States of America. In developing countries, a common method for treating water at source involves using a sodium hypochlorite solution placed in a bottle with directions for use. The user adds one full bottle cap volume of the solution to clear water (or two cups volumes for turbid water) to a standard-sized storage container. The user shakes the container and then waits 30 minutes before drinking. The reason that chlorination is so popular is because it leaves a residual in the water matrix [57].
\nOne of the large challenges of chlorination is the presence of high organic composition that can give rise to the formation of disinfectant-by-products which are considered carcinogenic.
\nHybrid water treatment technologies are commonly used such as a combination of chlorination and flocculation. An example of the combined technologies involves a small sachet containing both a powdered ferrous sulphate (a flocculant) and calcium hypochlorite (a disinfectant). A commercial design of this approach is known as Pu-R. To use Pu-R, users open the sachet and then add the contents to an open bucket containing 10 litres of water maximum. The bucket contents are stirred for 5 minutes, and the solids in the water will then settle to the bottom of the bucket [56, 57].
\nThe water is then strained through a cotton cloth into a second container; the user then waits 20 minutes for the hypochlorite to inactivate the microorganisms. This technique has been shown to remove bacteria, viruses and protozoa, even in highly turbid waters [58].
\nChlorination and flocculation can eliminate the formation of disinfectant by-products as the flocculation process can remove organics from the water.
\nFiltration and innovations in filtration are a growing interest in the water industry. Basic filtration involved the use of porous stones, and a variety of other natural materials have been used to filter visible contaminants from the water for hundreds of years. Filters are an attractive option for household treatment [59]. A number of interrelated removal mechanisms within the filter media are relied upon to achieve high removal efficiencies. These removal mechanisms include the following processes: (1) sedimentation on media (sieve effect), (2) adsorption, (3) absorption, (4) biological action, and (5) straining [60].
\nThere are many porous materials which are locally available and inexpensive options for filtering water. They are simple and easy to use, and the filtering material has a long lifetime. However, filtration has its drawbacks due to maintenance issues such as back flushing of filters and lack of residual effects with regard to disinfection. Again, hybrid water treatment technologies involving basic filtration have been investigated. An interesting membrane hybrid system combining trickling filtration filter and a thin layer of biomass biosand to reduce organic matter can be seen in the literature [61]. Other membrane designs that can be utilised include disc and tubular design, microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration and reverse osmosis. The scope for the removal of contaminants by filtration processes can be seen in Figure 9.
\nFilter/membrane particle sizes and what contamination can be removed [62].
More advanced filtration methods using biosolids have been developed. The biosand filter (BSF) is a slow sand filter which can be adapted for use at home. When the water pours over the filter, a shallow water layer is formed which allows a bioactive layer to grow on top of the sand, which breaks down pathogens in the water. A plate protector prevents the water layer from being disturbed when more water is passed through the filter. In the literature it can be shown that the BSF has high efficiency to remove bacteria and protozoa from the water [63, 64].
\nAn interesting study to remove arsenic from the water in the presence of iron can be seen in the literature in Nigeria using a sand filter. The filter immobilises arsenic (As) via co-oxidation with Fe(11) and sorption to or co-precipitation with the formed Fe(111) to the filter surface [65].
\nOne of the problems with the prolonged use of filters is the potential build-up of biofouling on the surface of the filter [66].
\nA combination of filtration and chlorination systems is also regularly used [67]. Ceramic and slow sand filtration lack a residual disinfectant protection of water, to compensate for this filtration followed by chlorination can be used [68, 69].
\nTo remove arsenic (As) metal and its metalloids from drinking water, metal absorption phases have been utilised including iron oxide-coated sand, ferrihydrite red mud, activated alumina, TiO2, FePO4 (amorphous), MnO2, MnO2-loaded resin, natural zeolites (such as clinoptilolite), iron oxide and iron-loaded chelating resin [70]. The use of the biosand iron oxide-coated sand filters to remove viruses from water can be seen in literature. The method consists of electrostatic adsorption of negatively charged virion to sand particles with positively charged iron oxides [71].
\nThe role of natural sunlight to disinfect water has much potential in developing countries. A common method in use is known as the solar disinfection (SODIS) method. Solar disinfection (SODIS) method was initially developed to inexpensively disinfect water used for oral rehydration solutions [72]. The SODIS method involves filling 0.3–2.0 litres of plastic soda bottles with low-turbidity water, followed by shaking to oxygenate the water. The bottles are left for 6 hours in sunny conditions and 2 days if weather is cloudy [73]. Studies have shown that the SODIS method inactivates bacteria and viruses; the protozoa cryptosporidium and giardia are also sensitive to solar irradiation [74]. Other innovations using ultraviolet light can be seen in the literature [75, 76, 77, 78]. One of the major advantages of ultraviolet light technology is its cheapness. One of the challenges is designing the technology for max trapping of the ultraviolet light. Seasonal factors can affect the intensity of the ultraviolet light. Small volumes and length of time to treat the water can be a concern. If water has high turbidity, it is recommended to pretreat with flocculation or filtration before ultraviolet light treatment. Presently, the container type is plastic.
\nPhotocatalysts based on nanocatalysts such as the TiO2 catalyst harness ultraviolet radiation from the sunlight and use the energy to break down substances such as microbes, pesticides, dyes, crude oils and organic acids [79]. Pilot projects for drinking water purification in developing countries have only begun involving TiO2 immobilised on plastic which is activated by ultraviolet light to disinfect the water [80]. Other nanotechnologies are at developing stage [81, 82].
\nChallenges to the drinking water supply in developing countries include the natural scarcity of water source in certain areas. Floods can create more siltation problems in river systems as well as the contamination of rivers and large dams giving rise to source-receptor issues. Climate change and water scarcity are also some of the concerns [83, 84]. Stratification problems in lake abstraction points and aeration of abstraction point to break down the thermocline layer are needed which requires much energy.
\nPoor access to water and poor water resource management must be addressed. Poor water productivity in the agricultural sector can impact on water quality [85]. Water affordability issues and the challenges of investing in water infrastructure need to be addressed [86, 87]. Storage and confidence in storage facility container to prevent contamination entail education and awareness of cross-contamination [67]. To maintain clean drinking water, an integrated approach is needed in developing countries. Proper management of solid waste and waste water can enhance the quality of our drinking waters [88, 89].
\nPrivate companies’ management of water treatment systems is an interesting debate in developing countries [90]. Water conservation and future issues of water recycling have been discussed in developed countries and can also be applied to developing countries.
\nLarge-scale and small-scale technologies are important to review in terms of maintenance and monitoring [91]. Energy and water treatment needs are a concern [92]. Most developing countries are located in regions of the world which have the most droughts and seasonal changes in precipitation and evaporation which challenges the source of the water at different times of the year [93] (Figure 10).
\nVariables to consider in integrated water management [88].
Natural disasters such as storms and earthquakes can affect infrastructure of large-scale system and small-scale systems; point-of-use (POU) treatments are needed to compensate for these issues. Education on the use of point-of-use (POU) treatment in local communities must be encouraged [76]. At different times of the year, the water source availability varies for examples rivers are used during the wet season and bore well water sources are used during the dry season.
\nAccess to safe drinking water is also considered to be a human right, not a privilege, for every man, woman and child (World Bank, 2018).
\nThe World Health Organization emphasizes that ‘the introduction of water treatment technology without consideration of the socio-cultural aspects of the community and without behavioural, motivational, educational and participatory activities within the community, is unlikely to be successful or sustainable’ [94]. Research, development and deployment (R&D&D) of clean water technologies for developing countries are important to nurture. All these initiatives can help move in the direction of the challenge by the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) to halve the proportion of the people without access to safe water by 2015 [95]. Clean water is only as clean as waste water management and treatment linking with global waters and the practically closed loop [96]. Performance management framework surrounding drinking water must be nurtured [97]. Private companies organising treatment systems must be properly introduced [98].
\nCertain water sources used for different applications challenge our water resources such as industrialisation needs of developing countries. Transport costs and informal sources are important to develop [99]. The human carrying capacity and population increase and water use are important to monitor [100].
\nLegislation and risk management audits and awareness in terms of water conservation issues and human behaviour towards water are important to address [101, 102].
\nInformal water supply involving point-of-use (POU) treatment will need to be continuously integrated with central supply systems (CSS) as CSS will not facilitate all water demands [50, 103, 104, 105]. Cost issues for integration need to be addressed [106].
\nTwo key indicators highlighted by the World Bank are ‘annual freshwater withdrawals’ and ‘improved water source’ [107, 108]. Linked with these two key indicators are performance management, public awareness and conservation issues of central treatment systems and point-of-use (POU) treatment [109, 110].
\nWaterborne diseases will always be researched in the future [111]. Industrial regulation and waste management especially when industrialisation is occurring at a rapid rate in developing countries are important issues in the future. Good waste management practice will always be embedded in achieving clean drinking water supplies [112] (Figure 11).
\nDrinking water sustainability [113].
The full multi-barrier approach from the source to the tap linking with policy should be a future strategy [113]. Network maintenance and provisions for same are salient within the strategy [114, 115]. A harmonisation approach to water sustainability should be embedded in future water planning [116, 117]. The harmonisation approach would involve common arrangements, simple procedures and sharing of information and standards [118]. Developing countries should nurture the opportunity to learn from developed countries about their successes and failures. Sustainability and water security will also be embedded in the future of water management. Informed education, information sharing and simplified production are important to ensure good water quality [119]. Health and water are fundamentally interlinked and need to be constantly researched in terms of global development [120, 121, 122, 123].
\nI wish to acknowledge the Limerick Institute of Technology for facilitating easy access to journals and ordering of interlibrary loans. I wish to thank David Bowlin, of ‘Laboratory of Atmospheres, NASA/GSFC. Greenbelt M.D. USA.; Science Systems and Application, Inc Lanham M.D. USA’, for producing the map of global precipitation. I also wish to acknowledge a sister of the Cross and Passion order who ministered in Francistown South Africa for her insight into the drinking water source during the wet and dry season. I also wish to thank the EPA Ireland for giving me an Image from their Drinking water report Public supplies 2017.
\nNone.
Today, information has become the main component of what we produce, do, buy, and consume. Having an economic value in almost all products and services that meet the needs of today’s societies, it has been now obligatory for individuals and organizations to obtain information technologies and to actively use them in both work and social life domains. Hence, in the current information age, where information is seen as power, this situation has made it imperative for organizations to become increasingly information-based and to benefit from information technologies in many processes and activities.
The intensive use of information technologies in many functions and processes has also required some changes in organizations [1]. This is due to the fact that information technologies, unlike traditional technologies, do not only change the technical fields but also affect the communication channels, decision-making functions and mechanisms, control, etc. [2]. Consequently, one of the most striking developments is on organizational structures that are becoming increasingly flattened and horizontal. Relatedly, information technologies have begun to take over the role of middle management, which supports decision-making processes of senior management and has reduced the importance of this level [3, 4, 5]. Similarly, while information technologies enable managers to obtain faster, more accurate, and more information [6, 7, 8], it also provides lower-level managers with more information about the general situation of the organization, the nature of current problems, and important organizational matters [9, 10, 11, 12].
Moreover, information technologies also have an important potential in determining whether organizations have a mechanical or an organic structure [13]. Within the mechanical organizational structures, people do not have much autonomy, and behaviors expected from employees are being careful and obedience to upper authority and respect for traditions. In such organizations, predictability, consistency, and stability are desirable phenomena. In contrast, people in organic structures have more freedom in shaping and controlling their activities, and being enthusiastic, creative, and taking risks have important places among the desired behaviors [14].
Accordingly, information technologies begin to influence the cultural values of the organization over time, through these transformations they create on organizational structures, processes, and operations. In other words, the fact that organizational structures are mechanical or organic causes the formation of diverse cultural values in organizations [15]. Therefore, the desired cultural values in mechanical organizations are quite different from those in organic structures [1, 16, 17]. In this context, this chapter deals with the influences of information technologies on cultural characteristics of organizations along with the reflections of the use of these technologies on organizational structures and their functioning.
When we look at studies on the relations between organizational culture and information technologies, we generally see the studies on the effects of culture on technology adaptation or use [18, 19, 20, 21], as well as on the effects of certain specific information technologies and applications (e.g., e-mail use, group support practices, etc.) on some aspects of any organizational culture [22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31]. However, the number of studies that consider the use of information technologies as a “whole” and that address “why” and “how” its effects on organizational culture occurred is still limited. And so, this chapter aims to examine and discuss the overall effects of the usage and intensity of information technologies established in organizations on the cultural life within.
In this context, the chapter plan is as follows: Firstly, the basic concepts related to information and information technologies are included. Emphasis is placed on the meaning differences between knowledge and information, and their connections to information technologies are tried to be explained briefly. Secondly, the effects of information technologies on organizational structure are given particular attention. The reason for this is that as a system of values, beliefs, assumptions, and practices [32], organizational culture encompasses many features closely related to structures of organizations. Thirdly, possible links between organizational structure and organizational culture are included. Fourthly, important theoretical approaches and studies on the relationships between information technologies and organizational culture are provided. Finally, by deepening a bit more and by emphasizing key points, some important arguments are discussed.
In the literature, the concepts of information and knowledge are sometimes expressed by a single term, “information.” However, although the concepts of knowledge and information are intertwined, they are two different concepts that have different meanings and describe different phenomena. The reason for this is that knowledge is also included in the concept of information as it is transformed into a commodity when it begins to be processed, stored, and shared by information technologies.
Becoming the basic elements of today’s economic, social, and cultural systems, information is obtained in a certain hierarchy. The images are at the beginning of the process, and the process is completed with a hierarchical staging in the form of data, information, and knowledge, respectively [33]. Image is located in the first step of the process. Humans copy the picture of any object and event they previously perceived by sensory organs. When faced with a similar phenomenon in the later stages of life, these pictures in the mind are redesigned. We call these pictures of realities occurring in the human mind as images [33]. The next stage, the data, contains symbols that represent events and their properties. For this reason, data are expressed as figures and/or facts without content and interpretation [34]. Information that constitutes the next stage of the process and is mixed with knowledge and used interchangeably is expressed as a reporting of one system’s own status to another system [33]. In information, associated data are combined for a specific purpose. Therefore, we can explain information as meaningful data [35]. Knowledge, on the other hand, is defined as personalized information that allows people to fully and accurately grasp what is happening around them and manifests itself in the form of thoughts, insights, intuition, ideas, lessons learned, practices, and experiences [36]. According to Kautz and Thaysen [37] who stated that knowledge is found only in the people’s minds, knowledge is, therefore, a subjective formation. In other words, knowledge is the form of information enriched with interpretation, analysis, and context [38]. However, here, it should be emphasized again by highlighting a very important issue that knowledge is also accepted as information when this knowledge begins to be processed, stored, shared, and used over information technologies. Therefore, after this, when talking about information, one should consider not only the information created by the data brought together in a meaningful way but also the knowledge shared and used over information technologies.
On the other hand, information technologies, used as the most important tool of generating value today, are defined as the technologies that enable processes such as recording and storing data, producing information through certain operational processes, and accessing, storing, and transmitting this produced information effectively and efficiently [39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46]. The term information technologies is used to cover computer and electronic communication technologies, as they are now inseparably intertwined in literature and everyday use and are generally used in this way [47]. In this context, data processing systems, management information systems (MIS), office automation systems, executive support systems, expert systems, intranet and extranet, electronic mail (e-mail), group applications (groupware), database management systems, decision support systems, artificial intelligence, and telecommunication systems can be given as examples of information technologies [33, 48, 49].
Towards the end of the twentieth century, the rapid changes with the impact of developments in information technologies led to the emergence of customer satisfaction-based, learning, knowledge-based, and constantly changing organizations [50]. The fact that organizations have become considerably information-based and benefit from information technologies intensively in their activities and processes has made also the changes in their organizational structures mandatory [1]. Accordingly, the effects of information technologies on organizational structure will be summarized under the subtitles of differentiation, centralization, and standardization/formalization, which are the three main components of organizational structure [15].
Differentiation within an organization occurs in three ways: Specialization/division of labor, horizontal and vertical differentiation, and hierarchy and size [15]. Specialization refers to the amount of different expertise or types of work [51, 52]. Specialization generally increases the number of subunits and makes it harder to understand the larger structure that people contribute to with their skills and expertise [53]. Information technologies have the potential to reduce this tendency by providing more access to information and experts at this point. In this way, access to information resources provides synergy [54].
Vertical and horizontal differentiation refers to the amount of hierarchical levels in an organization [55]. Information technologies, with the support of problem solving and decision-making, lead to the emergence of more flattened organizational structures as they require fewer levels within the hierarchy [56]. Since information technologies give employees in lower positions more autonomy to harmonize their activities, this can allow them to find and try better methods while performing their work. In this context, we can increasingly see that organizational structures have become horizontal and strengthened and that virtual organizations have begun to emerge as the most cost-effective structure [17].
In terms of hierarchy and size, Heinze and Stuart [4] argue that the mid-level management staff is unnecessary, increases bureaucracy, reduces efficiency, and has no function in organizations any more. Since most of the tasks performed by mid-level executives can be fulfilled by computers, both less costly and faster, information technology has begun to take over the role of mid-level management, which supports the decision-making process of senior management [5]. Sharing the same opinion, Fulk and DeSanctis [57] also stated that the largely witnessed situation in modern organizational designs is the reduction of intermediate-level managers and administrative support.
Centralization points to the extent to which decision-making power within an organization is scattered or centered [58]. Due to increasing local and global competition, many companies have started to leave their strategic decision-making task further down the organization to benefit from the expert people with more precise and timely local knowledge [10]. Information technologies affect these efforts directly in two ways. Firstly, information technologies increase local knowledge by contributing to obtaining closer information about market trends, opportunities, and customers. Secondly, information technologies can create synergies for organizations because, thanks to information technologies, communication and coordination between distributed decision makers, central planners, and senior managers can be realized more effectively and efficiently [59].
However, whether information technologies will lead to centralization or decentralization is a very controversial question. Regarding centralization, it enables managers to acquire faster, more accurate, and more information, reduces uncertainty, and allows them to make decisions that they cannot make before [6, 7, 8]. Conversely, by the use of other forms of information technologies (e.g., electronic bulletin boards), decentralization provides more information to lower- and mid-level managers about the general situation of the organization and the nature of current matters and problems [9, 10, 11, 12]. Raymond et al. [60] argued that because information technologies facilitate the use and transmission of information by all levels and units in the organization, it enables top management, which is the decision authority, to be disabled in certain areas and the decentralization of control. Thach and Woodman [61] maintained that this is due to the fact that as a result of sharing information at lower levels with the help of information technologies, this power of senior management has decreased to a certain extent, and the knowledge and participation of the staff in organizational matters have increased.
The literature shows that information technologies allow both centralization and decentralization. Researchers are in the agreement that information technologies make it possible for organizational managers to leave their decision-making power to a large part of the hierarchical levels without compromising the quality and timeliness of the decision [62, 63]. Keen [64] combined the concepts of centralization and decentralization and used the term “federated organization” in which organizations do not have to choose either because information technologies simultaneously allow centralization-decentralization [64, 65].
Formalization is the process of detailing how activities are coordinated for organizational purposes in order for employees and organizational units to respond routinely to recurring situations [51, 66]. Formalization involves rules, instructions, shared values, and norms [67]. In fact, formalization is based on the objective of more efficiency and less uncertainty [13].
Information technologies provide the ability to reduce the negative effects of formalization by facilitating the documenting and retrieving of information on organizational occurrences and endeavors that make behaviors and processes more consistent through formalization [63]. The more information technologies assist in reducing search times and preventing downtime, the more the administrative cost of formalization decreases and the productivity increases, which ultimately benefits the path to innovation [68].
Different organizational structures lead to the development of different cultural values [15]. The fact that the structure which an organization has established to control its activities and is defined as a formal system consisting of duties and authority relations is mechanical or organic causes the emergence of completely different cultural values, rules, and norms [69]. While mechanical structures are vertical, highly centralized, and almost everything in them are standardized, organic structures are horizontal, decentralized, and based on mutual adaptation [14]. People feel relatively less autonomous in vertical and centralized organizations, and being careful, obeying the upper authority, and respecting traditions are among the desired behaviors. Therefore, in a mechanical organizational structure, there are cultural values where predictability and stability are important [69]. In contrast, in horizontal and decentralized organizations, people can freely choose their own activities and control them. Creativity, courage, and risk-taking are given importance as desired behaviors. Therefore, organic structures contribute to the formation of cultures that value innovation and flexibility [15].
Organizational structure is also important for the development of cultural values that support integration and coordination. In a structure with stable task and role relations, sharing of rules and norms is more since there will be no communication problems and the information flow will be fast [70]. In organizations where the sharing of cultural values, norms, and rules is at a high level, the level of performance also increases [15]. Particularly in team or matrix structures where face-to-face communication is intense, the sharing of these cultural values and common reactions to the problems develop more rapidly [9].
Whether an organization is centralized or not causes different cultural values to emerge. In decentralized structures, authority is divided into subordinate levels, and an environment is created for the formation of cultural values in which creativity and innovation are rewarded [13]. Employees are allowed to use the organization’s resources and work in projects that they want, by spending some of their time in these projects, thus contributing to the production of innovative and creative products and services [15]. The structures of such organizations constitute the cultural values that give their employees the message “as long as it is in the interest of the organization, it is okay to do things in an innovative and the way you want.”
Conversely, in some organizations, it may be more important for employees not to decide on their own and all activities to be followed and controlled by their superiors. In such cases, a centralized structure is preferred to create cultural values that will ensure accountability and obedience [71]. Through norms and rules, all employees are expected to behave honestly and consistently and inform their superiors about wrongs or mistakes, because this is the only acceptable form of behavior within these structures [72].
Since working on the factors that determine the consequences of the adoption and use of information technologies, researchers have focused on people’s beliefs, values, assumptions, and codes of conduct. As a result, they have given names to this research field such as “socio-technical systems,” “social system,” “social structure,” and most recently “culture” [73]. For example, Markus and Robey [23] using “social elements” and Barley [26] using “social system” or “social structure” tried to explain this phenomenon. When examined more closely, it is seen that the details that these authors emphasize while depicting the case are the assumptions, beliefs, and values that exist in common among the group members, and this corresponds to the definition of organizational culture.
Research examining the relationships between information technologies and values, beliefs, and norms belonging to a particular group has gone through certain stages and used rich and complex research models to explain the relationships in each of these stages [74]. In the first studies on information technology applications, it has been suggested that information technologies cause changes in various organizational phenomena including structural features and thus have certain effects on organizations [74]. For instance, in some studies on adoption of groupware software, several researchers have used this deterministic approach to describe how groupware use affects communication and collaboration among employees and their productivity [27, 28]. These studies assume that certain results will certainly emerge after the adoption of information technologies, without considering the motives or activities that shape the use of information technologies by managers and employees. Like much more deterministic studies, these authors often assumed that information technologies would have predetermined influences on the adoption of information technologies, regardless of the environment in which information technologies were applied, how they were applied, and the users’ specific behaviors and particular purposes.
The second group of views concerning the relationships between organizational culture and information technologies includes the fact that information technologies are seen as a tool that can be used for any change that managers desire to make in organizational practices [22]. In studies in this approach, researchers believe that there is a wide range of possibilities to identify changes in organizational culture, structure, processes, and performance [22, 75]. Researchers from this tradition presume that with the right choice of information technologies and appropriate system design, managers can achieve whatever goals they desire.
These works were mostly adopted in the 1980s and reflect a perspective that managers think can manipulate organizational culture in the way they want. Often called “management and control,” “a functional or instrumental approach” to organizational culture, this methodology has caused serious debate in the literature [76]. This approach attributes great powers to the management level in this regard, which conflicts with anthropologists’ views that culture cannot be consciously controlled and goes much deeper to understand it [76]. Robey and Azevido [77] also do not accept the rational thought on the assumption that culture can be manipulated directly in this way.
Studies with this rational perspective in the information technology literature assume that managers can use information technologies as a leverage to make changes in the norms of behavior, strategy, structure, and performance among members within the organization. For example, in studies on group support systems (GSS), we find managers’ beliefs that they can use collaborative technologies to create a more cooperative organizational culture. This perspective was not accepted by Karsten [78] and some experimental research on GSS [30, 79]. Organizational necessity is no longer accepted, as it is viewed by information technology researchers as an overly simple approach [23, 80].
Researchers who take another approach suggest that information technologies and organizational culture can interact with each other to produce various results [22, 23]. These results can be in the form of adoption and effective use of information technologies (if there is a harmony between organizational culture and information technologies) or user reluctance, refusal, or sabotage (if no fit). Researchers who have been working on information systems since the 1980s have focused on understanding information technology features and functionality that cause effective or problematic information technology applications and the interaction between users’ values, assumptions, and other elements of organizational culture. In this regard, Romm et al. [81] argued that many forms of information technologies comprise cultural assumptions embedded within themselves and these assumptions may conflict with existing values of a particular organization. The authors argued that these embedded assumptions present information technologies as a “cultural boundary” and that a cultural analysis should be made to predict compliance or incompatibility. The authors in this approach warn managers to think of organizational culture as a binding limitation in information technology applications. In a warning by Pliskin et al. [76], managers are advised not to try to change the culture of the organization. Regarding this issue, Orlikowski [30] cites Lotus Notes (a group software) application at Alpha Corporation, a consultancy company. In this example, this system, which was established by the CEO of the company only with the benefits to be obtained, did not create the expected effects, became unsuccessful, and disappointed due to reasons such as no cultural analysis and inadequate training. Employees responded to the use of Notes with resistance and refrained from using it. The reason for this was that the employees in this organization, which had a competitive culture where information was seen as a power, avoided sharing information with others. As a result, this incompatibility between the collaborative culture that Notes had in itself and the competitive culture of the organization in question had failed this application of information technologies.
In a different approach, it is stated that information technologies and culture are not fixed and they are more flexible in terms of change [23, 75]. Managers in this approach may set specific goals for the use of information technologies, but actual results of the use of information technologies are not deterministic, and results cannot be predicted or controlled even under the best conditions [23]. The effects of information technologies are not deterministic because technology has interpretable flexibility considering that it can have different meanings for different employees. Similar technology can be interpreted in a different way by distinct people, based on certain assumptions, beliefs, and values. Robey and coauthors [24, 25], for instance, showed that it would be an empty attempt for organizational managers to try to intentionally manipulate the effects of these technologies, since there are many ways that diverse employees can configure a particular technology in different social environments.
Gopal and Prasad [31] also achieved similar results in their work on group support system (GSS), claiming that for researchers seeking fixed laws or regulations on how information technologies affect user behaviors, this would be an impossible goal to pursue. Conversely, the results of using information technologies depend on the symbolic meanings that information technologies have for a particular user. This work of Gopal and Prasad [31] expresses similar results with the work of Barley [26] and Robey and Sahay [25]. The authors stated that the symbolic meanings of certain technologies for users affect their perceptions of information technologies and their specific behaviors.
In the light of the above-mentioned approaches, arguments, and important studies in the literature, it will be useful to discuss some important points by deepening a little more and by emphasizing the key features related to the concepts of information, information technologies, and organizational culture.
First, organizational culture is a complex phenomenon that develops and changes in a historical process [32, 82, 83]. Thus, although it might seem like a plain and simple concept, organizational culture includes many subdimensions and processes. When considered as a complex pattern of these interactions of many factors with each other, it is also a difficult process to identify the direct and indirect effects of information technologies on organizational culture within this cluster of relationships and interactions. Moreover, culture is not a phenomenon that changes and develops in a short time and is therefore open to manipulations of managers. On the contrary, from this point of view, it is not possible to easily achieve control over cultural changes, and it is necessary to go much deeper [76]. So, it is not rational to expect that the rapid developments and changes in information technologies will cause changes in cultural characteristics at the same speed. In this sense, it could be inaccurate to seek direct relationships between two phenomena in question, whose rates of change are quite different.
Second, for cultural changes, there must also be changes in the basic assumptions, beliefs, and values on which the culture is built [84]. It would be misleading to expect little or intensive use of information technologies to cause changes in these rooted assumptions. For the desired changes in these basic assumptions, beliefs, and values, it is necessary to design the structure accordingly, to recruit employees who are qualified for the targeted culture, and to set ethical values and property rights to employees in accordance with this culture [15]. In this sense, information technologies may only catalyze the contribution of organizational structure to organizational culture.
Third, there are many and different types of hardware and software that fall under the scope of information technologies. It is not logical to accept all of them as homogeneous technologies in all aspects (with the same functions and features, similar usage areas, standard conditions they are applied, similar intentions, and behaviors of all users), and it can be, therefore, misleading to carry out research under a single “IT” concept from this perspective. The reason for this is that, as stated in the sections above, cultural features of each information technology application or product embedded in it might be different. The interactions between the cultural characteristics of the environment in which information technologies are applied and the unique cultural contents of information technologies may cause different results on the culture of the organization.
Fourth, contrary to what is believed, some of cultural features that we anticipate to support information technology applications and products may be interpreted otherwise by diverse people contingent on different assumptions, beliefs, and values. In fact, Robey et al. [24, 25] showed that managers cannot control the effects of these technologies, since different users can configure a particular technology in numerous ways in different social environments. Also, Gopal and Prasad [31] argued that this would be an impossible achievement for researchers looking for fixed laws or regulations on how information technologies affect user behaviors.
Fifth, information technologies were defined above as technologies that enable processing, storage, and sharing of information. The key concept in this definition is “knowledge-based” information and not the technology itself. Therefore, what makes information technologies essential and important is the information itself. According to the definition of knowledge, the most significant characteristic that differentiates it from information is its being a product of the human mind [37]. Because knowledge is the interpretation of information and expresses the value produced from it, qualifying information technologies as good-bad, useful-useless, and necessary-unnecessary can be a meaningless evaluation. So, the basic thing that creates value-added for organizations is not the technology used but the information itself, which is processed, stored, and shared on this technology. In this context, even if it is the latest, most advanced, and most expensive technology in the world, if the organization does not have a qualified human resource capable of producing knowledge that will create value-added, an appropriate organizational structure and culture that will activate this creative potential, and a management approach, all investments in these technologies will also be wasted.
This chapter has aimed to examine the impacts of information technologies on organizations’ cultures, and for this purpose, a special emphasis is given to the concept of “organizational structure” within the theoretical framework presented above. The most important reason for this is that relevant literature shows that organizational culture and organizational structure are in a very close relationship. Indeed, when the question items in the Denison organizational culture scale [85], which is the most frequently used in the literature, are examined, it is possible to see that most of these items point to many features of organizational structure concerning centralization, formalization, and differentiation dimensions. Therefore, it is a very rational approach to expect that information technologies can have direct and indirect effects on organizational cultures based on the influences of information technologies on structures of organizations. However, it should be underlined that different and controversial approaches and findings in the literature mentioned above on the relations between information technologies and organizational culture generate question marks in the minds as well.
In this regard, it is already quite difficult to draw a clear picture of the impacts of information technologies on cultural characteristics of organizations. The number of studies on the subject in the literature is still very limited. Accordingly, it is necessary to underline the great need for interdisciplinary studies in this field. But still, this study argues that the main factor that determines the actual impact and value of information technologies, which have become an integral part of human life in today’s world, is the information itself rather than technology, and it should be kept in mind that information technologies can only function as a means or tool in this knowledge-based social, economic, and cultural life. In other words, the determinant of the benefits, meaning, and importance of information technologies might be the conditions created by organizational factors such as cultural environment and organizational structure where knowledge is created, developed, and used and human resources have become the most important capital element and source of wealth.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. We uphold a flexible Copyright Policy, guaranteeing that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their Work.
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\\n\\nCORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\\n\\nSubject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
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\\n\\nThe Author, on his or her own behalf and on behalf of any of the Co-Authors, reserves the following rights in the Work but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Work as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\\n\\nThe Author, and any Co-Author, confirms that they are, and will remain, a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, the Author and Co-Authors retain patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Work.
\\n\\nAll rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the specific approval of the Author or Co-Authors.
\\n\\nThe Author, on his/her own behalf and on behalf of the Co-Authors, will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Work as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Work arising from the translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits as determined by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nAUTHOR'S DUTIES
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\\n\\nThe Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\\n\\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\\n\\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
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\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\\n\\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\\n\\nTERMINATION
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\\n\\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\\n\\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\\n\\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\\n\\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nMISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\nFurther Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\\n\\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
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\\n\\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\\n\\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
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\n\nCORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\nSubject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
\n\nThe foregoing licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Publication Agreement for any reason.
\n\nThe Author, on his or her own behalf and on behalf of any of the Co-Authors, reserves the following rights in the Work but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Work as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Author, and any Co-Author, confirms that they are, and will remain, a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Author and Co-Authors retain patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Work.
\n\nAll rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the specific approval of the Author or Co-Authors.
\n\nThe Author, on his/her own behalf and on behalf of the Co-Authors, will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Work as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Work arising from the translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits as determined by IntechOpen.
\n\nAUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\nWhen distributing or re-publishing the Work, the Author agrees to credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Author guarantees that Co-Authors will also credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Work.
\n\nThe Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Author will be held responsible for the payment of the agreed Open Access Publishing Fee before the completion of the project (Monograph/Compacts publication).
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\n\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\nAUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\n\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\nTERMINATION
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\n\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\n\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\n\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\nMISCELLANEOUS
\n\nFurther Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\n\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\nVariation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\n\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\n\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2018-09-11
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