Experimental and estimated values of the slopes of the start and finish stresses versus T [24].
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3815",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Cardiac Arrhythmias - Mechanisms, Pathophysiology, and Treatment",title:"Cardiac Arrhythmias",subtitle:"Mechanisms, Pathophysiology, and Treatment",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book is useful for physicians taking care of patients with cardiac arrhythmias and includes six chapters written by experts in their field. 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\r\n\tBecause sodium is abundant in nature compared to lithium and cost-effective, Li-ion batteries are being replaced by Na-ion batteries. However, the ability of battery components to improve battery performance is still the biggest problem. Also, sodium has a larger atomic radius than lithium, it has inevitably limited its practical applications, created problems of low electrochemical reaction kinetics, and reduced cyclic stability for sodium-ion batteries. Although the design of new materials, the porosity, and 3D-printing of electrodes with applying structural engineering/modification and especially the solid-state production of electrolyte provide serious benefits to improve the Na-ion battery performance, it can still be said that it doesn’t give the desired outcome.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to provide the most up-to-date and latest approaches to solving these problems, as well as to provide new solutions that may come across in the coming period. The systematic presentation of the roles and effects of effective strategies will also make the study interesting.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-498-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-497-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-499-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"75c27a6f2739e8af817bace95b0e50d6",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Fatma SARF",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11932.jpg",keywords:"Cathode, Anode, Separator, Electrolyte, Nanofibers, Nanocarbon, Polymers, Solid-State, Rate Capability, Specific Capacity, Stability, Charge-Discharge Time",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 4th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 5th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 4th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 22nd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 21st 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Ph.D. Fatma Sarf has 13 SCI/SCI-Expanded articles, 1 book chapter, 1 international scholarship, and 1 young entrepreneur award. 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Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10198",title:"Response Surface Methodology in Engineering Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1942bec30d40572f519327ca7a6d7aae",slug:"response-surface-methodology-in-engineering-science",bookSignature:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10198.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"321730",title:"Prof.",name:"Palanikumar",surname:"Kayaroganam",slug:"palanikumar-kayaroganam",fullName:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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In this review we will summarize our model [3-8] for the thermal hysteresis loops, =(T) (at constant other driving fields such as uniaxial stress, , magnetic field, B, or pressure, p) in terms of To, and the derivatives S/=s, E/=e and D/=d, where is the martensite transformed (volume) fraction. (In the following quantities given by small letters denote the quantity belonging to unit volume fraction.) Similar relations for example for the strain, (), versus (or e.g. magnetization, m(), versus B) hysteresis loops can be derived, where instead of s, tr (or mtr) appears. Here tr is the transformation strain (and mtr is the change of magnetization) of phase transformation. The results obtained from the application of this model to our experimental data measured in single and polycrystalline CuAlNi alloys will be summarized too.
Our model is in fact a local equilibrium formalism and based on the thermoelastic balance (see e.g. [9,10] and [11]) offering a simple form of the elastic and dissipative energy contributions to the start and finish parameters [3-8]. The total change of the Gibbs free energy versus the transformed martensite fraction (if the hydrostatic pressure and the magnetic field are zero), for the A/M transformation (denoted by ), can be written in the form [3,8]:
where
with ∆s↓=sM-sA(= -∆s↑(<0)), and V is the molar volume. Similar expression holds for the M/A transformation (with upper index ):
The elastic energy accumulates as well as releases during the processes down and up just because the formation of different variants of the martensite phase usually is accompanied by a development of an elastic energy field (due to the transformation strain). It is usually supposed that Eel = - Eel >0. The dissipative energy is always positive in both directions.
In thermoelastic transformations the elastic term plays a determining role. For example at a given under-cooling, when the elastic term will be equal to the chemical one, for the further growth of the martensite an additional under-cooling is required. Thus if the sample is further cooled the M phase will grow further, while if the sample is heated it will become smaller. Indeed in thermoelastic materials it was observed that once a particle formed and reached a certain size its growth was stopped and increased or decreased as the temperature was decreased or raised. This is the thermoelastic behaviour (the thermal and elastic terms are balanced).
In principle, one more additional term, proportional to the entropy production, should be considered, but it can be supposed [12] that for thermoelastic transformations all the energy losses are mechanical works, which are dissipated without entropy production, i.e. the dissipation is mainly energy relaxation in the form of elastic waves. Indeed acoustic waves were detected as acoustic emissions during the transformation. Thus in the following the term proportional to the entropy production will be neglected. Furthermore, usually there is one more additional term in ∆G: this is the nucleation energy related to the formation of the interfaces between the nucleus of the new phase and the parent material. However, since this term, similarly to the dissipative energy, is positive in both directions and thus it is difficult to separate from D, it can be considered to be included in the dissipative term.
According to the definitions of the equilibrium transformation temperature and stress
respectively.
∆gc↓, if the external hydrostatic pressure, p, and magnetic field, B, are also not zero, can have the general form as:
where ∆v↓ is the volume change of the phase transformation.
It is plausible to assume that u, s and ∆v↓ are independent of , i.e. ∆U, ∆V and S linearly depends on the transformed fraction. On the other hand the terms containing tr and mtr in general have tensor character and, as a consequence, even if one considers uniaxial loading condition, leading to scalar terms in (2), the field dependence of these quantities is related to the change of the variant/domain distribution in the martensite phase with increasing field parameters. Thus at zero (or B) values thermally oriented multi-variant martensite structure (or multi-variant magnetic domain structure) forms in thermal hysteresis, while at high enough values of (or B) a well oriented array i.e. a single variant (or single domain structure) develops. For the description of this, the volume fraction of the stress induced (single) variant martensite structure, η, can be introduced [8]: =VM/VM, (VM=VMT+VM and =VM/V, with V=VM+VA, where VM and VA are the volume of the martensite and austenite phases, respectively and VMT and VM denotes the volume of the thermally as well as the stress induced martensite variants, respectively). The concept of introduction of this parameter was based e.g. on works of [11, 13-15]. Accordingly, e.g. tr is maximal for =1, and tr(=1)=trmax in single crystalline sample, while it can be close to zero for =0. In the following only the case of simultaneous action of temperature and uniaxial stress will be treated (extension to more general cases is very plausible).
Thus, in (2) and (3) tr depends on . Since depends on T and , tr can also depend on T or at fixed or T, respectively.
From (1) with (2):
For fixed parameter(s) from (6) and using also (4) for u (for both up and down processes);
Here To() is the same for both directions, since tr/∆s=tr/∆s (tr=-tr, as well as ∆s=-∆s and in our case tr>0 and ∆s<0).
The inverses of (8a) and (8b), i.e. the ( T) and ( T) functions, are the down and up braches of the thermal hysteresis loops at fixed . Furthermore, the temperature at which (8a) is equal to zero at =0 as well as =1 is the martensite start (Ms) and finish (Mf) temperature, respectively. Similar definitions hold for the austenite start and finish temperatures, As and Af, respectively (see eq. (8b)). Figure 1 illustrates the shape of the hysteresis curves for the following schematic cases: a) both d() and e() are zero; b) e()=0 and d()0, but d() is constant; c) d() is constant and e() linearly depends on . It can be seen that in a) the transformation takes place at To, in both directions, in b) there is already a hysteresis, but the (T) and (T) branches are vertical. For the case of c) the hysteresis curve is tilted, reflecting the dependence of e.
Thermal hysteresis loops schematically, see also the text.
Similarly as above but for fixed temperature(s), and now inserting u from (5),
Here again o(T) is the same taking also into account that tr(o)/tr(T)= tr(o)/Vtr(T), because the magnitude of the transformation strain is the same for the up and down branches of the loop at fixed T.
It can be seen from relations (8) and (9) that, in the case of the simultaneous action of temperature and uniaxial stress only, the stress dependence of the equilibrium transformation temperature, as well as the temperature dependence of the equilibrium transformation stress, introducing the notation ∆s=∆s=-∆s(<0), can be given as
respectivelty. It can be seen that (10) and (11) are the well known Clausius-Clapeyron relations and they are linear only if tr() as well as tr(T) are constant. It will be illustrated below that in most of the cases this is not fulfilled.
Now taking the assumptions usual in the treatment of thermoelastic transformations, i.e. assuming that the magnitudes of elastic and dissipative energies and their derivatives are the same in both A/M and M/A transformations; e()=e()=-e() as well as d()=d()=d(), (8a) and (8b) can be rewritten as
Thus
Furthermore, for the branches of the () hysteresis loops
Thus
It can be seen from eqs. (12)-(17) that, as it was mentioned in the introduction, while the dissipative term can be directly calculated from the hysteretic loops, the elastic and chemical terms appear in sums on the right hand sides of (14) and (17). It is worth noting that the integrals of (13) as well as (16), as it is expected, are nothing else that the area of the thermal and mechanical hystersis loops, respectively.
Nevertheless, relations (10)-(17) allow the determination of the dissipative and elastic energy contributions as the function of at different fixed values of as well as T from the thermal and stress induced hystersis loops, respectively. Thus even the and T dependence of E and D can be calculated by integrating the e() and d() functions between =0 and =1. It should be noted that the elastic energy contribution can be determined only exclusive the term To(0) if its value is not known. The values of ∆s can be obtained from DSC measurements (see also below) and the tr(T) and tr() values can be read out from the () and (T) hystersis loops, respectively. Thus e.g. the stress or temperature dependence of the elastic energy contribution can be determined, since To(0) appears only in the intercept of the e() and e(T) or E() and E(T) functions.
From relations (12) and (15) expressions for the start and finish temperatures as well as stresses can be simply obtained at =0 and at =1:
Here in principle the do,d1,eo and e1 can also be or T-dependent: in this case e.g. the stress dependence of the start and finish temperatures can be different from the stress dependence of To. It can be seen from relations (18) that the simple expression proposed by Tong and Waynman [2] for To as To=(Ms+Af)/2 can be valid only if eo is zero. Indeed Salzbrenner and Cohen [1] illustrated that To can be calculated only in those cases when the elastic energy contributions to Ms and Af can be neglected. In their paper the phase transformation was driven by a slowly moving temperature gradient in a single crystalline sample, which resulted in slow motion of only one interface across the specimen (single-interface transformation). This way the elastic energy could easily relax by the formation of the surface relief at the moving (single) phase-boundary. In general experiments for the determination of hystersis loops, where typically many interfaces move simultaneously and the elastic fields of the different nuclei overlap, this separation is not possible. However, as we have shown in [5], and as it will be illustrated below, in single crystalline samples under relatively slow heating (cooling) rates, from the analysis of the different shapes of the hystersis curves at low and high stress levels To can be determined experimentally as the function of .
Finally it is worth summarizing what kind of information can be obtained from the analysis of results obtained by differential scanning calorimeter, DSC. The heats of transformation measurable during both transitions are given by
It is worth noting that the heat measured is negative if the system evolves it: thus e.g. the first term in (20) has a correct sign, because it is negative (uc<0). Similarly the dissipative and elastic tems should be positive for cooling (the system absorbs these energies): indeed e(), d()>0, while for heating e()=-e()=e() and d()=d()=d().
Now, using the notations uc=Uc(<0), d()d= D(>0), e()d= E (>0)
(In obtaining (22) and (23) it was used that uc is independent of .) Consequently
It is important to keep in mind that the last equations are strictly valid only if after a cycle the system has come back to the same thermodynamic state, i.e. it does not evolve from cycle to cycle. Furthermore, it can be shown [12] that these are only valid if the heat capacities of the two phases are equal to each other: cAcM, which was the case in our samples (see also below).The DSC curves also offer the determination of s. Indeed from the Q versus T curves, taking the integrals of the 1/T curves by Q or Q between Ms and Mf, as well as between As and Af, respectively, one gets the s as well as s values. If, again, the cAcM condition fulfils, then s- s [12].
Finally, it is possible, by using the DSC curve [I6], to obtain the volume fraction of the martensite, ξ, as a function of temperature (both for cooling and heating) as the ratio of the partial and full area of the corresponding curve (AMs-T and AMs-Mf, respectively: see also Figure 2 ):
Similar relation holds for the ξ (T) curve (obviously in this case the above integrals run between As and T as well as As and Af, respectively). The denominator is just the entropy of this transformation.
DSC curve measured at zero stress (a) and the ξ (T) hystersis curve (b): the dashed area (on the cooling down curve in a)) can be transformed to the nominator of
As it was mentioned in the previous section it is generally expected that the transformation strain depends on the martensite variant structure developed. Since for thermal hystersis loops this structure can vary from the randomly oriented structure to a well oriented single variant structure with increasing uniaxial stress, tr should increase with . Figure 3b shows this function for single crystalline CuAl(11.5wt%)Ni(5.0wt%) alloy (the applied stress was parallel to the [110] direction), as determined from the saturation values of the T loops shown in Figure 3a [18]. In this alloy (i.e. at this composition) the (austenite) to ’(18R, martensite) transformation takes place. Figure 4a shows the temperature dependence of tr, in the same alloy, as determined form the loops shown in Figure 4b [18]. It can be seen that tr increases with increasing temperature and saturates at the same maximal value which is obtained from the tr versus plot and is approximately equal to the maximal possible transformation strain, trmax, corresponding to the estimated value for the case when a single crystal fully transforms to the most preferably oriented martensite [19].
a) Thermal hystersis loops ( versus T curves) at four different uniaxial stress levels, b) Transformation strain as function of stress (tr is the maximal of value of in a) for /’ transformation in single crystalline CuAl(11.5wt%)Ni(5.0wt%) alloy [
a) versus curves at four different temperatures, b) transformation strain as the function of the temperature (read out from curves like shown in a) in single crystalline CuAl(11.5wt%)Ni(5.0wt%) alloy for /’ transformation [
Figure 5 shows the stress dependence of the transformation strain for the to orthorhombic (2H) phase transformation obtained in CuAl(17.9w%)Ni(2.6 w%) single crystalline alloy in [5]. It can be seen that it has S shape dependence with a saturation value of 0.075. It is interesting that in this case tr has a finite (remanent) value even at =0.
Stress dependence of tr in CuAl(17.9w%)Ni(2.6 w%) single crystalline alloy for / transformation [
As it was analyzed in detail in [19], from the above curves the dependence of tr can be constructed using the relation introduced in [8]:
where T and are the transformation strains when fully thermally induced multi variant structure forms (=0), as well as when the martensite consists of a fully ordered array of stress preferred variants (single variant state, =1), respectively. Thus tr can be very small or even close to zero for the formation of the thermally induced (randomly oriented) martensite variants (usually there is a small resultant (remanent) strain in single crystalline samples). On the other hand during the formation of stress induced martensite a single variant structure can form (=1) i.e. tr=trmax=. On the basis of the experimental curves shown in Figure 3b, 4b and 5 as was well as of relation (27) it can be concluded that a fully ordered single variant martensite structure develops above 140 MPa for the / phase transformation, while for the /’ transformation is about 80% already for 28 MPa and then gradually increases up to 100% in the 40 - 178 MPa interval. As regards the temperature dependence of, it can be seen from Figure 4a that (according to eq. (27)\n\t\t\t\t\tT0 and =0.061) monotonously increases from about 10% up to 100% between 350 and 430 K.
Thus it can be concluded that the transformation strain depends both on the uniaxial stress and on the temperature and this dependence is related to the change of the martensite variant distribution with increasing field parameters. Then it is plausible to expect that the Clausius-Clapeyron type relations (see eqs. (10) and (11)) should also be non linear. Furthermore, the elastic and dissipative energy contributions should also be influenced by the martensite variant distribution. These points will be discussed in detail in the following sections.
In reference [5] we have investigated the thermal hysteresis loops in CuAl(17.9w%)Ni(2.6 w%) single crystalline alloy at different uniaxial stresses (applied along the [110]A axis). Very interesting shapes were obtained (see Figure 6): the T loops had vertical parts, indicating that at these parts there were no elastic energy contributions (see also Figure 1c), allowing the determination of To from the start and finish temperatures (see also eqs. (18)) either using the Tong-Waymann formula, To=(Ms+Af)/2, (see the curve at 171.5 MPa in Figure 6) or To= (Ms+As)/2 (see e.g. the curve at 42.4 MPa in Figure 6). Thus it was possible (using also relation (10) and the value of the entropy, s=-1.169 105JKm-3, determined also in [5] and the stress dependence of tr shown in Figure 5) to determine the stress dependence of To as it is shown in Figure 7. It can be seen that this is indeed not a linear function.
Thermal hystersis loops at different stress levels in CuAl(17.9w%)Ni(2.6 w%) single crystalline alloy [
Stress dependence of To in in CuAl(17.9w%)Ni(2.6w%) single crystalline alloy [
Stress dependence of To in single crystalline CuAl(11.5wt%)Ni(5.0wt%) alloy [
Figure 8 shows the stress dependence of To for the /’ transformation. In this case the determination of absolute values of To was not possible, but the To() – To(0) difference could be calculated using the measured s value and the tr() curve (Figure 3b). It can be seen that this function can be approximated by a straight line in the entire stress interval. But, as it is illustrated in the insert of this figure, if we plot this function only at low stresses then an S-shape dependence appears. Thus it can be concluded, in contrast to the very frequently used approximation in the literature [9,20,21] about linear Calusius-Clapeyron relations, that the dependent tr usually leads to nonlinear dependence [18,19]. Of course in special cases, i.e. when the dependence of tr in the investigated range is week, or the stress interval wide enough to have many points belonging to the saturation value of tr a linear fit with an effective slope can be made, like in Figure 8. The slope of this straight line is 0.90 K/MPa, which corresponds to an effective constant tr value in equation (10) equal to 0.065 (s=-7.2x104J/Km-3 [18]), which is a bit larger that trsat=0.061 [18,19].
Closing this section Figure 9 shows the stress dependence of the transformation strain in polycrystalline Cu-20at%Al-2.2at%Ni-0.5%B alloy [6,22] for /’ transformation. It can be seen that here T is zero. Indeed, quite frequently in polycrystalline samples (see also [14,15]) T is zero or close to zero and it can also happen that the saturation can not be reached in the σ interval investigated (as it is the case here as well).
tr() function for /’ transformation in polycrystalline samples [
As it was pointed out in Section 2 equations (13), (14) and (16), (17) offer the possibility to calculate the dependence of d and the 2To() -2e()/(-∆s) terms (or the e term directly if To is known) on the transformed martensite volume fraction. In the case of CuAl(17.9w%)Ni(2.6w%) single crystalline alloy we could determine both the equilibrium transformation temperature and the entropy thus Figure 10 shows the d() as well as the e() function, respectively for 171.5 MPa (high stress limit). It can be seen that indeed the elastic energy contributions is zero up to about c=0.37 and then significantly increases with increasing (see also Figure 6) indicating that there is an elastic energy accumulation in this stage. Furthermore, since we have different shapes of the hysteresis loops at low and high stress limits (see also Figures 6), Figure 11 shows the e() function at 42.4 MPa for the cooling down process. It is worth mentioning that a detailed analysis (see [5]) shows that the unusual shape of the loop at this stress level indicated (see Figure 12 which shows the inverse of the T() loop obtained at 42.4 MPa: the sums and differences of the cooling and heating branches give the dependence of the elastic and dissipative terms, respectively) that the elastic energy accumulation was practically zero up to about =0.63 during cooling and again zero for heating but, surprisingly now from =1 down to =0.37.
Derivative of the dissipative (left) and elastic energy (right) contributions versus transformed fraction in CuAl(17.9w%)Ni(2.6w%) single crystalline alloy for / transformation at 171.5 MPa (high stress limit) [
Derivative of the elastic energy versus the transformed fraction in CuAl(17.9w%)Ni(2.6w%) single crystalline alloy for / transformation at 42.4 MPa (low stress limit) for cooling down (left) and heating up (right; in obtaining this curve a mirror transformation was made i.e. -e(=0)=e ((=1) and -e(=0.37)=e ((=0.63)) [
Inverse of the thermal loop shown on
The above behaviour can be understood as follows [5]: under high stress levels the stress will prefer the nucleation of special variant(s), which can freely grow without the accumulation of elastic energy at the beginning and during cooling the relaxation of the stress starts from =1 and after a certain value the elastic contribution will be zero. This is what was usually observed in martensitic transformations and can be described as ‘‘the first plate of martensite to form during cooling is usually the last plate of martensite to revert on heating’’ [1]. Thus in this case obviously after >c the elastic fields of the growing martensite variants will overlap (or in addition to the single growing variant, new nuclei can also form) and accumulation of the elastic energy takes place. On heating the reverse phenomenon (i.e. first the last martensite plates start to revert and the relaxation of the stored elastic energy between =1 and =c takes place) can be observed. On the other hand curves at low stress levels showed different features. Indeed the multiple interface transformation takes place in the form as described above only in bulk samples and as stated in [1] “for other shapes of the same crystal (say, thin discs) the reverse transformation may nucleate competitively at separate places’’. Indeed in [5] the samples had a form of rod with a relatively small cross-section. In this case there are no preferred martensite variants (if the stress level is too low and is in the order of magnitude of the internal random stress field) and the first martensite nuclei can appear at easy nucleation places (e.g. tips, edges). Nevertheless, at the beginning (around Ms) of cooling down, there is no change in the elastic energy (i.e. e is approximately zero) up to a certain value of c (either because the transformation takes place in a single interface mode, or because the elastic fields of the formed nuclei does not overlap yet). Obviously, for >c the elastic fields of the martensites formed start to overlap and accumulation of the elastic energy takes place. Thus this forward part of the transformation is very similar to that observed at high tensile stresses. In the reverse process the heating up branch of the hysteresis curve indicates that the first austenite particles may nucleate competitively at easy nucleation places (where the first martensite nuclei were formed during cooling) and thus at As the change in the elastic energy can be negligible. Indeed, as optical microscopic observations confirmed [5], the formation of surface relief at low stress level (at about=0) in the backward transformation usually started at places where the formation of the first martensite plates occurred (and not at places where their formation finished). Thus Figure 11 (on the right) shows the e() for the heating up branch, but by using a mirror transformation (for the details see [5]).
Figure 13 shows the d(ξ)=d↓(ξ)=d↑(ξ) as well as the e(ξ)=e↓(ξ)=-e↑(ξ) functions in single crystalline samples for /’ transformations [18], respectively. Since in this case we were not able to determine To the elastic energy derivative contains also the constant term 2To()Δs (see eq.(14)).
In Figure 14 the d(ξ)=d↓(ξ)=d↑(ξ) as well as the e(ξ)=e↓(ξ)=-e↑(ξ) functions are shown for polycrystalline Cu-20at%Al-2.2at%Ni-0.5%B alloy (/’ transformation) [22]. Here again the elastic energy derivative contains the constant 2To()Δs term.
Dissipative (left) and elastic (right) energy terms versus the transformed martensite fraction for /’ transformation in single crystalline samples [
Elastic (left) and dissipative (right) energy terms versus at different stress levels in polycrystalline Cu-20at%Al-2.2at%Ni-0.5%B alloy for/’ transformation [
We have seen that the relations presented in Section 2 allow calculating the stress as well as temperature dependence of the derivatives of the elastic or dissipative energies, at a fixed value, or their integrals, i.e. the E and D quantities, from the T, as well as from the loops, respectively. Let us see these functions for the there alloys investigated.
In the single crystalline CuAl(17.9w%)Ni(2.6w%) samples (/ transformation) the dissipative energy contributions were calculated from the parallel parts of the loops (see Figure 6), using that d is independent of here. These values can be seen in Figure 15 as the function of the applied stress [5, 22]. It shows a slight maximum at around 90 MPa, i.e. there are increasing and decreasing tendencies in the low and the high stress range, respectively. Figure 16 shows the full dissipated energy and stored elastic energy in martensitic state as the function of applied stress. It can be seen that the dissipative energy slightly decreases while the elastic one increases with increasing stress. This is similar to the behaviour observed in NiTi single crystals in [23].
Stress dependence of the derivative of the dissipative energy calculated form the intervals of the thermals loops where the two branches were parallel to each other [
Stress dependence of the integral values of the dissipative and elastic energies [
In single crystalline CuAl(11.5wt%)Ni(5.0wt%) alloys (/’ transformation) the stress dependence of e and d quantities at fixed values of (at =1 and =0, denoted by indexes 1 and 0, respectively) is shown in Figure 17, while Figure 18 illustrates the temperature dependence of them. Furthermore in Figure 19 and 20 the total dissipative and elastic energies are shown as the function of as well as T. It can be seen from Figure 17 that, although the scatter of points is rather high, the di (i=1, 0) terms can have a maximum at around 60 MPa, while their average value at the low and high stress values is 7 J/mol [18]. On the other hand the elastic energy term has definite stress dependence with the slopes -0.25 and -014 J/molMPa for eo and e1, respectively. Furthermore, both the elastic and dissipative terms have linear temperature dependence (Figure 18) with the following slopes: eo/T=-0.50J/molK, e1/T=-0.18J/molK, and do/Td1/T=-0.028J/molK [18, 24]. Thus it is not surprising that in Figure 19 the dissipative energy D has a maximum at about 60 MPa and the elastic energy, E, has linear stress dependence (decreases with increasing stress), while in Figure 20 the D versus T function is almost constant and E has a negative slope too.
Stress dependence of the of the derivatives of the dissipative (left) and elastic (right) energies at =1 and =0 in single crystalline CuAl(11.5wt%)Ni(5.0wt%) alloys (/’ transformation) [
Temperature dependence of the of the derivatives of the dissipative (left) and elastic (right) energies at =1 and =0 in single crystalline CuAl(11.5wt%)Ni(5.0wt%) alloys (/’ transformation) [
Total dissipative (left) and elastic (right) energies as the function of stress in single crystalline CuAl(11.5wt%)Ni(5.0wt%) alloys (/’ transformation) [
Total dissipative (left) and elastic (right) energies as the function of temperature in single crystalline CuAl(11.5wt%)Ni(5.0wt%) alloys (/’ transformation) [
The values obtained for the do and d1 (and D) quantities are almost the same values in both sets, but their value is lower for the loops by a factor of 3. Nevertheless, the average value on the di versus plots at low and high stresses (7J/mol) is close to 4 J/mol obtained from the di(T) functions. Furthermore, since at higher temperatures higher stress is necessary to start the transformation, it is also plausible that the negative slope of the second part on Figure 17 should correspond to a negative slope on the di(T) functions. Indeed there is a slight decreasing tendency with increasing T on Figure 18. Unfortunately, the accuracy of our present results does not allow a deeper and proper analysis of the field dependence of the dissipative terms. In addition, the details of the transformation (and thus the magnitude of di) can be different for stress and temperature induced transformations as well as can also depend on the prehistory of the samples (not investigated here).
In polycrystalline Cu-20at%Al-2.2at%Ni-0.5%B samples (/’ transformation) [3,22] Figures 21 and 22 show the stress dependence of the di, ei as well as D and E quantities, respectively.
Stress dependence of the of the derivatives of the dissipative (left) and elastic (right) energies at =1 and =0 in polycrystalline Cu-20at%Al-2.2at%Ni-0.5%B samples (/’ transformation) [
Stress dependence of the dissipative (left) and elastic (right) energies at =1 and =0 in polycrystalline Cu-20at%Al-2.2at%Ni-0.5%B samples (/’ transformation) [
Closing this subsection it is worth mentioning two more aspects. One is the self-consistency of our analysis. The dots at =0 in Figures 19 and 22 show the values calculated from the DSC curves, according to the relations (24) and (25). Thus e.g. Q+Q =2D=25J/mol (Q=- 331.6 J/mol, Q= 357.6 J/mol [18]) in Figure 19. It can be seen that these dots fit self-consistently within the experimental errors to the other dots calculated from the independent (hysteresis loops) measurement. The another point is related to the connection between the stress and temperature dependence of tr(i.e. the change of the martensite variant structure) and the stress and temperature dependence of the characteristic parameters of the hysteresis loops in single crystalline samples. Although this point will be analyzed in detail in the next subsection too, it is worth summarizing some qualitative correlations: i) as it can be seen from Figure 5 as well as Figures 15 and 16 the E and D quantities change in the same stress interval where tr for the / transformation, ii) a very similar relation can be observed between tr (Figure 3b) and d as well as D for /’ transformation (Figures 17 and 19).
It is worth investigating whether the commonly used assumption in the literature (see e.g. [9, 25, 26]) that the slopes of the start and finish temperatures and the slope of the To() are approximately the same or not. From the relations, presented in Section 2, it is clear that i) strictly even the linear dependence of To is not fulfilled in general (see e.g. Figure 3b which illustrates that tr is not constant), ii) the dependence of the elastic and dissipative terms (ei, di, i= 0,1) as compared to the To() function, can also give a contribution to the stress dependence of the start and finish temperatures (see relations (18)). Such an analysis was carried out for the results obtained in single crystalline CuAl(11.5wt%)Ni(5.0wt%) alloys (/’ transformation) in [18] and will be summarized here. As we have already seen in Figure 8 the To()-To(0) function can be approximated by a straight line, neglecting the small deviations in the interval between 0 and 50 MPa. In fact this slight S-shape part up to 50 MPa is the consequence of the stress dependence of tr(see the insert in Figure 8). The straight, line fitted in the whole stress range, gives the slope 0.39 0.05 K/MPa. At the same time the slopes of Ms and Af as well as Mf, and As (as shown in Figure 23, on the left) are almost the same: 0.59 as well as 0.50 K/MPa, respectively. Thus these differ from the one obtained for the slope of To(). It should be decided whether this difference comes from the stress dependence of di or ei parameters or from both. As it can be seen in Figure 17, although the di function indicates a maximum at around 60 MPa, from the point of view of the slope of this function in the whole stress interval, one can assume that within the scatter of the measured points they are independent of the stress. On the other hand the eo and e1 parameters have a linear stress dependence with the slopes (see also above) -0.25 and -014 J/molMPa for eo and e1, respectively. Dividing these by the value of s (=1.26 J/Kmol [18]) the elastic energy contribution to the slope of the start and finish temperatures (see relations (18)) will be - 0.20 and - 0.11K/MPa, respectively. Thus the differences in the slopes of the start and finish temperatures and the equilibrium transformation temperature are caused by the stress dependence of the derivative of the elastic energy contribution.
Finally it is worth mentioning that since both the stress dependence of To() and the elastic terms can be relatively well fited by straight lines, it is not surprising that in the literature frequently a linear relation is found for the stress dependence of the start and finish temperatures.
Stress dependence of the start and finish temperatures (left) and temperature dependence of the start and finish stresses (right) in single crystalline CuAl(11.5wt%)Ni(5.0wt%) alloys (/’ transformation) [
In many papers about the relations between the start/finish stresses and the test temperature, T, in martensitic transformations of shape memory alloys it is assumed that e.g. the temperature dependence is the same as that of the o(T) function (o is the equilibrium transformation stain). As we have seen the linearity of this (or the To() relation) Clausius-Clapeyron-type relation would be fulfilled only if the transformation strain, tr, would be constant. Furthermore, it was illustrated in the previous section that relations between the start and finish temperatures versus stresses can contain stress dependent elastic and dissipative energy contributions. Thus even if these relations are approximately linear their slopes can be different from each other and from the slope of the To() function. The situation is very similar when one considers the o(T) as well as temperature dependence of the start and finish stresses.
In practice Ms and As are the most important parameters in thermomechanical treatments. Let us consider isothermal uniaxial loading tests carried out at temperatures T>Af. In this case Ms means the critical stress for the formation of stress induced martensite variants. In order to get expression for Ms(T) let us take the first relations of (18) (at =0) and (19) and make the use of (11) [24]:
Note that in the relations used in obtaining (28) the transformation strain and the transformed fraction derivatives of the dissipative and elastic terms were considered stress dependent. It can be seen that relation (28) will have the form usually found in the literature (see e.g. [10,27]) only if the sum of the last two second terms is zero and, even in this case, it will have a linear temperature dependence only if tr(o(T)) is constant. Similar relations can be obtained for the other start and finish stresses. In the case of Mf the sum of d1 and e1 appears and in the second term they should be taken at Mf, while for Af and As the eo-do as well as e1-d1 differences will be present. For example;
One can recognize from (28) or (29) that interestingly if the contributions from the elastic and dissipative contributions are neglected the slopes of all start and finish stresses versus temperature have the same value (or have the same curvature).
Now the analysis of the experimental data obtained in single crystalline CuAl(11.5wt%)Ni(5.0wt%) alloys (/’ transformation) resulted in the following results [24]. First it is interesting to recognize a correlation between the stress and temperature dependence of tr: it can be seen from Figure 4a that e.g. at 373 K the martensite start stress is about 30 MPa and on the curve shown in Figure 3b this leads to about 4% tr value, which is approximately the same as was observed at this temperature ((see Figure 4b). Thus the transformation strain has indirect temperature dependence and it is the result of its -dependence. It is easy to understand the above indirect temperature dependence: since in expression (2) the elastic and thermal terms play equivalent roles with opposite sings in the thermoelastic balance [8,9] at higher temperatures higher stress is necessary to start the transformation and the martensite structure formed will be more oriented at this higher temperature: and thus tr will be larger.
Next, let us see whether the slopes of the start and finish stresses versus temperature are the same or not. It can be seen in Figure 23 (on the right) that the functions can be approximated by straight lines and Table 1 contains their slopes. However, while the slopes of Ms(T) and Af(T) as well as Mf(T) and As(T) are the same the slopes of these two groups differ from each other more than the estimated error (about 0.05 MPa/K [18]).
In (28) and (29) both do and d1 terms has a very moderate temperature dependence with the same slopes of (Figure 18) -0.028J/molK (leading to a small contribution to the slope of the temperature dependence of the start/finish temperatures as -0.064MPa/K) while eo(Ms(T)) depends on temperature (see Figure 23: eo/T=-0.50 J/molK, e1/T=-0.18 J/molK [18, 24]). Furthermore the tr(o(T)) and tr(Ms(T)) functions should be considered in the temperature interval 373-425K (Figures 23 and 4b) i.e., as an average value, one can take tr(o(T))tr(Ms(T))0.055. Thus the terms containing 1/Vtr will be approximately constant 1/Vtr 2.3x106 mol/m3 (a bit larger than the value belonging to trmax: 2.1x106 mol/m3, V=7.9x10-6m3/mol [18]).
Thus, one can estimate the contributions of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd terms in (28) and (29) to the slope of Ms and As vs. T functions (Table 1). The slope of the third term is 0 (tr(o(T))tr(Ms(T))const.) and from the second term the elastic term gives determining contribution to the slope. This also explains why the slopes of Ms and Af as well as Mf and As are similar, because they contain the different temperature derivatives of eo and e1, respectively.
Experimental and estimated values of the slopes of the start and finish stresses versus T [24].
It can be seen from Table 1 that taking all the contributions into account the agreement between the estimated and experimental values is very good.
Finally a comment, similar to that given at the end of Section 2.5.1., can be made here too: since both the o(T) and the temperature dependence of the elastic terms (giving the determining contribution to the T dependence) can be well approximated by straight lines, the linear relations between the start and finish stresses and the test temperature can be frequently linear.
After the illustration of the usefulness of the above model in the calculation of the elastic and dissipative energy contributions from hysteresis loops of thermal and mechanical cycling in this section the results on the effect of number of the above cycles on the energy contributions will be summarized.
In [17] the effect of thermal and mechanical cycling on /’ phase transformation in CuAl(11.5W%)Ni(5.0W%) single crystalline shape memory alloy was studied. The σ and ξ-T hysteresis loops were investigated after different numbers of thermal and mechanical cycles. The σ loops were determined at fixed temperature (373 K) and the ξ-T loop under zero stress was calculated from the DSC curves measured.
Figure 24 (left) shows the ξ -T loops, calculated from the DSC curves, after different numbers of cycles, N, and the N dependence of the start and finish temperatures (right). Figure 25 illustrates the N dependence of the start and finish stresses, while in Figures 26 and 27 the N dependence of the calculated dissipative and elastic energies are shown as calculated form the thermal and mechanical cycling.
ξ -T loops (left), calculated from the DSC curves, after different numbers of cycles, N, in CuAl(11.5W%)Ni(5.0W%) single crystalline alloy and the N dependence of the start and finish temperatures (right) [
loops (left) after different numbers of cycles, N, and the N dependence of the start and finish stresses in CuAl(11.5W%)Ni(5.0W%) single crystalline alloy (right) [
Cycle number dependence of the total elastic energy (left) and the total dissipative energy (right) for thermal cycles ( obtained from the -T loops, ■ obtained from the heats of transformation) in CuAl(11.5W%)Ni(5.0W%) single crystalline alloy (right) [
Cycle number dependence of the total elastic energy (left) and the total dissipative energy (right) for mechanical cycles in CuAl(11.5W%)Ni(5.0W%) single crystalline alloy (right) [
From the results presented in Figures 24-27 the following conclusions can be drawn [17]:
Both the thermal and mechanical cycling causes some changes in the hysteresis loops: after a fast shift in the first few cycles the stress-strain and strain-temperature response stabilize.
In thermal cycling the elastic energy, E, as well as the dissipative energy, D (per one cycle), increases as well as decreases, respectively with increasing number of cycles, while in mechanical cycling there is an opposite tendency. These changes are inevitably related to the change in the martensite variant structure during cycling.
In thermal cycling, where self-accommodated martensite variant structure develops, with increasing numbers of N, due to some “learning process in nucleation of similar variants” at different places, the marensite variant structure stabilizes and interestingly in this process E increases (by about 2.5%) and D decreases (by about 50 %).
In mechanical cycling it is expected that the learning process can lead to an increased number of nucleation of preferentially oriented (according to the direction of the applied uniaxial stress) martensite variants. This decreased E and increased D by about 1 % and 6% respectively.
In general there are two energy dissipative processes [23]: the first is related to the frictional interfacial motion, while the second is due to the dissipation of the stored elastic energy when the coherency strains at the martensite/austenite interface relax. Assuming the first contribution independent of N, the increase/decrease of E can be accompanied by a decrease/increase in D, but for a deeper understanding detailed microscopic investigation of the variant structure and the interfaces, similarly as e.g. was done in [23], is necessary.
The analysis of extended experimental data obtained in poly- and single crystalline Cu based alloys provided the following main conclusions:
It has been illustrated that the transformation strain, tr, depends on both the uniaxial stress and temperature in measurements carried out in single crystalline samples at different constant stress and temperature values, respectively. In both functions the saturation values were the same corresponding to the maximal possible transformation strain, trmax, estimated for the case when a single crystal fully transforms to the most preferably oriented martensite. This behaviour was interpreted by the change of the martensite variant structure as the function of the parameter, , the volume fraction of the stress induced (single) variant martensite structure. In the tr = T + (\n\t\t\t\t\t\tT) relation T and are the transformation strains when fully thermally induced multi variant structure forms (=0), as well as when the martensite consists of a fully ordered array of stress preferred variants (single variant state, =1), respectively. It has been illustrated that T can be either zero or can have a finite value (remanent strain) depending on the details of the variant structure (and thus on the prehistory of the sample).
The stress and temperature dependence of tr(or ) is reflected in deviations from the Clausius-Clapeyron-type relations. Indeed it was demonstrated that the equilibrium transformation temperature, To, was not a linear function of the stress in single crystalline alloys.
Using relations for the T and () loops ( is the transformed martensite volume fraction) the dependence of the derivatives of the elastic and dissipative energies, (e() and d()) could be determined. The integrals of these functions gave the elastic, E, and dissipative, D, energies per on cycle. Thus it was also possible to determine their dependence on the stress and temperature. Note that the or T dependence of the elastic energy can be calculated only exclusive of a constant term containing the product of the entropy and T(=0) (see eqs. (10), (13) and (16)). In the CuAl(17.9w%)Ni(2.6w%) single crystalline alloy, by the analysis of the peculiar shapes of the T loops even the determination of the equilibrium transformation temperature and its dependence was possible. It was also demonstrated that our procedure is self-consistent since e.g. at zero stress the D and E quantities were also calculated from independent measurements (DSC curves) and the results were in very good agreement with those values obtained form the integrals of the e() and d() functions.
It was shown that the stress and temperature dependence of tr(or ) is also reflected in the shape of the D(), D(T), E() and E(T) functions, since these terms should be plausibly dependent on the martensite variant structure developed.
It was illustrated that both the stress dependence of the start and finish temperatures as well as the temperature dependence of the start and finish stresses in general can be approximated by straight lines. This is due to the facts that the To(), o(T) functions, in a wider interval of their variables, can be linear as well as the elastic energy contributions (giving dominating contributions to the or T dependence) can also be fitted by a linear functions. On the other hand, the slopes of the start and finish parameters as well as the slopes of the To() or o(T) can be definitely different from each other.
It was shown that the number of thermal and mechanical cycling, N, has effected the values of E and D: in thermal cycling E increased, while D decreased with N. During mechanical cycling an opposite effect was observed.
This work has been supported by the Hungarian Scientific Research Found (OTKA) project No. K 84065 as well as by the TÁMOP-4.2.2/B-10/1-2010-0024 project which is co-financed by the European Union and the European Social Fund.
Water is essential for sustaining life, yet it is also the source of many diseases for living things [1]. With the increase in population and the development of industrial activities, surface water resources and groundwater have become increasingly polluted. Thus, humans are exposed to many chemicals found in drinking water.
Several chemicals (organic and inorganic) have been identified in drinking water, and the sources of pollution of the drinking water system are multiple [2]. Among these pollutants, the literature reports particularly chlorine disinfection by-products [3, 4, 5], fluorine [6, 7, 8], lead [9, 10] chromium [11, 12, 13], cadmium [14, 15], nitrates [16, 17], pesticides [18, 19], hardness [20, 21], arsenic [22, 23], etc. The presence of chemical substances in the municipal drinking water is a major health concern. Indeed, some substances detected in drinking water have been the subject of epidemiological studies [1]. The health effects reported in the literature are different cases of cancer, reproductive problems (malformations) cardiovascular and neurological diseases. Drinking water is therefore an important route of exposure to chemicals.
Pollutants, particularly heavy metals are released into the environment from a wide spectrum of natural and anthropogenic sources [24]. Heavy metals are omnipresent in the environment, occurring in varying concentrations in air, bedrock, soil, water, and all biological matter [25, 26]. The principal anthropogenic sources are industrial and urban effluents, runoff water, drinking water production and distribution equipment and drinking water treatment processes [1]. The presence of heavy metals in the environment constitutes a potential source of both soil and groundwater pollution.
In Haiti, the work carried out in the field of the physicochemical quality of water intended for pollutants such as: lead, chromium [27], fluorine [28]. Excessive concentrations of hardness have also been observed in water resources [29]. These concentrations of natural origin are added to those generated by anthropogenic actions, such as poor management of solid waste, the absence of urban sanitation networks and water treatment plants only increase the rate of human exposures to these pollutants. These exposures to chemical substances continue to put Haitians at risk, and several examples shed light on the realities of risk management with respect to toxic chemicals in developing Countries [30]. The fact that the hydrographic basin of Port-au-Prince consists mainly of karst aquifers [31], rainwater, polluted by atmospheric particles of substances originating from industrial activities, and urban wastewater feeds, through the dominant geology, groundwater, thus leading to suppose that the water resources of this region are subject to significant chemical pollution.
The impact on human health of natural materials such as water, rocks and minerals has been known for thousands of years, but there have been few systematic and multidisciplinary studies on the relationship between geologic materials and processes and human health (the field of study commonly referred to as medical geology) [32]. In order to achieve a better understanding in urban and rural areas of Haiti of the different routes of exposure and the causes of a number of environmental health problems generated by exposure to high concentrations of essential and non-essential chemicals for the organism that are detected in drinking water, it seems relevant that geoscientists, environmental and health science researchers; as well as public health specialists combine their skills to approach the problem of pollution of water intended for human consumption by taking into account the two main sources of the qualitative degradation of water: “geological contributions and anthropogenic actions”. The aim of this study is: (i) to analyze the contribution of geology and anthropogenic actions in the alteration of water quality, (ii) to review the toxicology of chemicals detected in water distributed in Port-au-Prince.
During the 1950s, forms of anxiety gradually manifested themselves regarding the state of environmental degradation and its harmful consequences for the survival of ecosystems and for development [33]. Indeed, since the said decade, the environment-human health relationship has become a major concern in the field of public health. The questions of contaminated soil, emanations from landfills, destruction of the ozone layer, global warming, food contamination, radiation emitted by household appliances, new biological hazards … are among the subjects of intervention by government authorities [34].
Abenhaim [35] argues “Environmental health issues are among the most complex for scientists to study and the most difficult for policy makers to resolve. First, because it is rare that the exhibitions are pure, thus leaving room for many confounding factors. Then, because the contaminations are generally in relatively small quantity, at the limits of the observable effects. Finally, because the consequences of exposure often occur over the long term” [35]. Exposure to chemical mixtures is a reality that would seem to dictate the need to pay much attention to hazard identification, exposure assessment and risk characterization [36], of mixtures in water intended for human consumption. Contrary to this environmental reality, the toxicological reality is that until recently most of the research carried out in this field has been devoted to studies on the effects of substances acting independently, without considering the interactions or combined effects between pollutants at the inside the human organism [37].
In Haiti, all the work carried out on the health risk linked to the pollution of drinking water by chemical substances, the risk characterization was made based on the independent effects of the pollutants studied. This approach provides information on the level of exposure of the population to a substance but does not make it possible to assess the interactions of the various pollutants detected in the distributed water. It is now widely recognized that studying the combined effects of chemical mixtures in drinking water is an integral part of public health [37]. Characterizing the combined actions of chemical mixtures involves the challenge of how to define the antagonistic, additive, or synergistic effect. It is therefore important to understand the terminology that describes the combined effect of the agents in terms of the mechanism of action. Seventy years ago, three basic concepts of common action or the interaction of the combination of chemicals were defined by biomathematicians [38, 39, 40] and they are still valid today.
Indeed, Bliss [38] identified three modes of action of constituents within a mixture vis-à-vis living organisms:
“
“
“
All three basic principles of common action of pollutants are theoretical. However, these concepts will most likely need to be addressed at the same time, especially when the mixtures consist of more than two compounds and when the targets (individuals rather than cells) are more complex.
Fox et al. [41] considers the risk assessment of chemical mixtures or the cumulative risk assessment (CRA) as the most recent step in the evolution of assessment. USEPA [42, 43] defines this approach as an analysis, characterization, and possible quantification of the combined risks to human health or the environment due to multiple substances or stressors. This definition suggests that additivity is the initially accepted mode of action for the implementation of ERC.
U.S. EPA [44] developed for the implementation of cumulative risk assessment, the Hazard Index (HI) method. This approach first assesses the effects of a substance acting independently of the others. HI is calculated by dividing the measured or estimated exposure concentration by the reference concentration (RfC):
For HI < 1, the exposure concentration is below the cutoff value, so no health effect can be expected. On the other hand, for HI ≥ 1, the exposure concentration exceeds the threshold value, further research on the health effects of the pollutant is recommended, by calculating the Hazard metric HM.
Based on the additive action of pollutants, the application of the HI or HM model to assess the concentration of exposure due to chemical mixtures can be also expressed:
LCE: Limit of exposure concentration
C1, C2 and Cn: observed concentrations.
M: Maximum acceptable concentration (threshold value)
In the distribution units where chlorination is applied to raw water rich in organic matter, a quite common situation or process in Haiti, the populations served are exposed to a certain number of chemical substances (by example Disinfection by-products (DBPs)), very known for their adverse effects on human health, especially the occurrence of cancers [45, 46]. In the absence of national standards for the quality of drinking water, Haiti applies the guidelines of the World Health Organization. The application of the HI or HM model in the evaluation of the combined effects of by-products could be, in a simplified manner, carried out from:
THMs: Trihalomethanes
EC: Exposure concentration
CHBr3: Bromoform
CHBr2Cl: Chlodibromomethane
CHBrCl2: Bromodichlomethane
CHCl3: Chloroform
TSWHO: WHO threshold value Different types of complex mixtures require different approaches, and the usefulness of a certain approach depends on the context in which one is confronted with a mixture, and on the amount, type and quality of the available data on the chemistry and the toxicity of the mixture [47]. Scientific literature reports the occurrence of several detected in drinking water in Haiti [26, 27, 28, 29]. Moreover, MSPP and WHO [48] note “the quality of water intended for human consumption is not subject to any control. In such a context, the study of the combined effects of several chemical substances in drinking water and the assessment of the risks generated for human health constitute an important topic of transdisciplinary public health research.
Located between 18° and 20°6’ Northern latitude and between 71°20′ and 74°30’ Western longitude, Haiti divides with Dominican Republic “the island of Hispaniola” which is the second biggest island of the Caribbean. Its capital, Port-au-Prince, is settled at the bottom of the Gulf of “La Gonâve”, in the south border of Plain of Cul-de-sac and in the north catchment area of the “Massif de la Selle” piedmont (Figure 1). The main municipalities which constitute urban community of Port-au-Prince are Port-au-Prince, Delmas, Pétion-ville, Croix-des-bouquets, Gressier and Carrefour.
Map of the west department of Haiti and metropolitan area of Port-au-Prince [
Haiti is exposed to a considerable ecological imbalance, characterized by catastrophic flooding associated to torrential rains and hurricanes, devastating earthquakes, and deforestation [50]. Other problems, resulting from this imbalance include land use forming the immediate perimeter of headwaters and wells, wetlands draining, arable soils erosion, the decrease of the headwaters flow and groundwater, seawater intrusion, sewers obstruction and fecal pollution [51]. In addition, Haiti is one of the most vulnerable countries to climate change [52]. In general, Haiti’s geophysical environment is characterized by rugged relief. Most of the territory is occupied by mountains formed of limestone and karst aquifers [31, 53, 54, 55]. The existence of karst aquifers conditions in rainy weather the contamination of groundwater by surface pollution. Indeed, the main characteristics of karst aquifers are the existence of irregular networks of pores, cracks, fractures and pipes of various shapes and sizes. Such a structure, of significant physical and geometric heterogeneity, causes complex hydraulic conditions and the spatial and temporal variability of hydraulic parameters. After a downpour, rapid and turbulent groundwater recharge occurs through drainage in large conduits with high volume of unfiltered water [56].
Groundwater resources at Port-au-Prince are vulnerable to contamination related to polluted water infiltration such as leachates, cesspools and septic tanks, stormwater runoff, waste oil discharging, over-irrigation and industrial discharging [50]. These sources of groundwater recharge may contain organic and inorganic compounds which can be in dissolved and colloidal forms or associated to particles. Microbiological and physicochemical characterization of groundwater resources in the metropolitan area of Port-au-Prince, among other things, highlight the presence of heavy metals [57], fecal coliforms [27] and Cryptosporidium oocysts [58]. In addition to bacterial and metal contaminations, it was found that aquifers in Haiti are also exposed to seawater pollution [50]. According to Gonfiantini and Simonot [59], the salt water is slightly enriched with heavy isotopes with respect to fresh groundwater, not showing any deviation from the straight line of meteoric waters. In the area of Port-au-Prince, the salinity of the groundwater is the result of seawater intrusion because of intensive exploitation [59].
The geophysical environment of Port-au-Prince, the inefficiency of the sanitation system (collection and treatment of solid waste, drainage, and treatment of wastewater, etc.), which contribute to the microbiological and physicochemical quality of the water distributed by public networks to the population gives rise to a particular epidemiological environment where the water generates several dangers for the health of consumers. In such a context, the assessment and management of health risks associated with water intended for human consumption require a multidisciplinary approach and call on researchers, technicians, and specialists in several fields of life and earth sciences as well as the humanities and social sciences.
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development of the United Nations (UN) establishes goals and targets in areas of critical importance for humanity [60, 61], Ramirez-Mendoza et al., 2020 [62]. Indeed, the SDGs are linked to one another, the success of one often depending on the resolution of problems generally associated with another objective [60]. They thus constitute a universal and transversal approach concerning all countries, in the North as in the South. Regarding the issue of water, objective 6 - access to safe water and sanitation - aims to meet the challenges of drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene for populations, as well as issues concerning aquatic ecosystems. In the absence of quality and sustainable water resources and sanitation, progress in several other areas of the Sustainable Development Goals, including health, education and reduce of poverty, will also be delayed [60]. This objective, taken in the prism of the situation of the urban and hydrological context, as well as the geophysical environment of Haiti, raises concerns. However, the launching by public authorities and funding agencies of large research programs with the objective of generating and applying knowledge, promoting innovations in the life and earth sciences, as well as in human and social sciences, in a context of transdisciplinary would be of great use, even essential for the development to achieve the various objectives [63]. Indeed, Medical geology, the science that deals with the relationship between natural geological factors and human and animal health problems [32], and the One Health approach, an approach that attempts to bringing together medical/public health researchers, veterinary researchers, and environmental scientists to tackle health problems, provides an adequate theoretical framework to address environmental health problems resulting from the degradation of natural environment in Port-au- Prince.
The interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health is at the heart of One Health, an increasingly important prism through which governments, NGOs (nongovernmental organizations), and practitioners view human health) [64]. Mazet et al., [65] note “An important implication of the One Health approach is that integrated policy interventions that simultaneously and holistically address multiple and interacting causes of poor human health—unsafe and scarce water, lack of sanitation, food insecurity, and proximity between animals and humans—will yield significantly larger health benefits than policies that target each of these factors individually and in isolation. By its very nature, the One Health approach is transdisciplinary, since it is predicated on agricultural scientists, anthropologists, economists, educators, engineers, entomologists, epidemiologists, hydrologists, microbiologists, nutritionists, physicians, public health professionals, sociologists, and veterinarians working collaboratively to improve and promote both human and animal health” [65].
Fluoride, the 13th most abundant element in the earth’s crust, is essential to human life [66]. Elemental fluorine almost never occurs in nature, but fluoride is widely distributed in the Earth’s crust, mainly as the mineral’s fluorspar, cryolite, apatite, mica, hornblende, and fluorite [67, 68]. Table 1 shows certain physical and chemical properties of fluoride.
Fluoride | |
---|---|
Molecular formula | F2 |
CAS# | 7782-41-4 |
Molecular Weight | 37.996 g/mol |
Melting point | −219°C |
Boiling Point | −188.13°C |
Solubility | Water |
Density | 1.517 at −188.13°C |
Vapor pressure | 760 mm Hg at 85 K |
Source | https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/24524 |
Physical and chemical properties of fluoride.
Fluoride participates in the formation of bones and teeth and contributes to their solidification. It enters the body in the form of fluorides through drinking water, food, air, drugs, and cosmetics. It is known to have beneficial and harmful effects on humans [69]. Indeed, its deficiency has long been linked to the incidence of dental caries [70], while prolonged excessive intake has been associated with fluorosis [71]. Large populations throughout parts of the developing world suffer the effects of chronic endemic fluorosis [70].
The most important source of fluoride intake in the human body is drinking water [72]. According to WHO [73], the guideline value for fluoride in drinking-water is 1.5 mg/L, based on increasing risk of dental fluorosis at higher concentrations and that progressively higher levels lead to increasing risks of skeletal fluorosis. This value is higher than that recommended for artificial fluoridation of water supplies for prevention of dental caries, which is usually 0.5–1.0 mg/L. WHO [74] recommends that, in setting a standard, Member States should consider drinking-water consumption and the intake of fluoride from other sources. Nevertheless, a content of 1 mg/l of fluoride ions is approximately the desirable concentration in the water supplied to the population to ensure optimal dental health [75]. However, several factors, including temperature, can influence this optimum value, which varies from one climatic region to another. It is therefore important to determine this optimal dose for each region depending on whether it is in a temperate zone or in a tropical zone [76]. Dean [77] has shown that the optimum concentration of fluorine as a function of the ambient temperature is 1.0–1.2 mg/l.
The optimal dose of fluoride in drinking water is defined as the amount of fluoride which decreases the prevalence of dental caries with the absence of significant fluorosis [78, 79, 80]. Fluorosis is the demineralization of tooth enamel by excessive fluoride ingestion during the years of tooth calcification [81]. This phenomenon, observed in children, can range from mild fluorosis to a severe manifestation Indeed, Dean [78] observed that 10% of children consuming water containing 1.0 mg/l of fluoride could develop benign fluorosis. It is reported in the literature that children living in the southwestern United States develop severe fluorosis, much more so than those living in the midwestern, while both groups are exposed to the supply systems. Water containing the same concentration of fluorine [82]. Other studies have suggested that the extremely high temperature of the southwest is a major factor contributing to the increase in demand for drinking water and the increase in severe and endemic dental fluorosis [80, 81, 82].
In Haiti, studies carried out on the water resources of the Center-Sud hydrographic region of Haiti (Figure 2), revealed fluorine concentrations between 0 and 2 mg/l [28, 83]. The various localities of this region are exposed to an average daily temperature ranging from 17 to 36° C.
Map of the “Centre-Sud” hydrographic region of Haiti.
These observations lead on the one hand to questioning the problems of dental caries and fluorosis from which the populations of the areas studied may suffer and, on the other hand, to determine the optimal dose of fluoride in water intended for human consumption. of the Center-South hydrographic region of the Republic of Haiti. Fluoride’s exposure is a major public health problem particularly for children. Indeed, intake of high-water fluoride concentration during child’s growth and development stages has been associated with mental and physical problems [84, 85, 86].
Hardness is the traditional measure of the capacity of water to react with soap and describes the ability of water to bind soap to form lather, which is a chemical reaction detrimental to the washing process [87]. Water hardness results from the contact of groundwater with rock formations. It is the sum of the concentrations of dissolved polyvalent metal ions which Ca2+ and Mg2+ are predominant. The sources of the metallic ions are typically sedimentary rocks, and the most common are limestone (CaCO3) and dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) [66].
Ca and Mg are present as simple ions Ca2+ and Mg2+ with the Ca levels varying from tens to hundreds of mg/L and the Mg concentrations varying from units of tens of mg/L [88]. Magnesium is significantly less abundant than calcium in rocks and in most natural waters. In addition, magnesium concentrations are much lower in the water than calcium. They are generally less than 50 mg/L, although values higher or equal to 100 mg/L are stored particularly in cold climates [87]. The physical and chemical properties of Ca2+ and Mg2+ are presented in Table 2.
Calcium | Magnesium | |
---|---|---|
Molecular formula | Ca2+ | Mg |
CAS# | 7440-70-2 | 7439-95-4 |
Molecular Weight | 40.08 g/mol | 24.305 g/mol |
Melting point | 842°C | 1100°C |
Boiling Point | 1484°C | 651°C |
Solubility | Water | Water |
Density | 1.54g/cm3 | 1.738 at 20°C |
Vapor pressure | 10 mm Hg at 983°C | 1 Pa at 428°C |
Source | https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/5460341 | https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/5462224 |
Physical and chemical properties of Ca2+ and Mg2+.
Hardness (in mg equivalent CaCO3/L) can be determined by substituting the concentration of calcium and magnesium, expressed in mg/L, in the following equation [89]:
Each concentration is multiplied by the ratio of the formula weight of CaCO3 to the atomic weight of the ion; hence, the factors 2.497 and 4.118 are included in the hardness relation [89].
Hardness is most expressed as milligrams of calcium carbonate equivalent per liter [90]. Water containing calcium carbonate at concentrations below 60 mg/l is generally considered as soft; 60–120 mg/l, moderately hard; 120–180 mg/l, hard; and more than 180 mg/l, extremely hard [91]. Although hardness is caused by cations, it may also be discussed in terms of carbonate (temporary) and non-carbonate (permanent) hardness [90].
Calcium and magnesium are essential for the human body [90]. They contribute to the formation and solidification of bones and teeth and play a role in the decrease of neuromuscular excitability, myocardial system, heart, and muscle contractility, intracellular information, transmission, and blood contractility [87, 88, 92]. They also play a major role in the metabolism of almost all cells of the body and interacts with many nutrients [93]. However, inadequate, or excess intake of either nutrient can result in adverse health consequences [90].
According to WHO [90] “
Magnesium is the fourth most abundant cation in the body and the second most abundant cation in intracellular fluid [90]. In the cardiovascular system, magnesium is the candidate element. It plays an important role as a cofactor and activator of more than 300 enzymatic reactions including glycolysis, ATP metabolism, transport of elements such as Na, K and Ca through membranes, synthesis of proteins and nucleic acids, neuromuscular excitability and muscle contraction [94]. That can have hand in various mechanism where the main is the calcium antagonist effect which can be direct or indirect [95].
Low magnesium levels are associated with endothelial dysfunction, increased vascular reactions, elevated circulating levels of C-reactive protein (a proinflammatory marker that is a risk factor for coronary heart disease) and decreased insulin sensitivity. Low magnesium status has been implicated in hypertension, coronary heart disease, type 2 diabetes mellitus and metabolic syndrome. Magnesium deficiency has been implicated in the pathogenesis of hypertension, with some epidemiological and experimental studies demonstrating a negative correlation between blood pressure and serum magnesium levels. However, data from clinical studies have been less convincing [90].
Indeed, water hardness has become an important public excess health issue [96]. Kobayaski [97] showed a relationship between water hardness and the incidence of vascular diseases. The scientific literature reported the existence of a relationship between cardiovascular disease mortality and water hardness [98, 99, 100]. Miyake and Iki [101] observed a lack of association between water hardness and coronary heart diseases mortality in Japan. Nonetheless, many studies covering many countries suggest such a correlation and geochemically it is worthy of serious study [88]. Based on available information in the literature on the association of water hardness and the incidence of cardiovascular diseases (CVD), Eisenberg [102] considered that Mg seems to be the basic element. Indeed, extremely hard natural water with CaCO3 concentration higher than 200 mg/l with a magnesium concentration lower than 7 mg/l may affect various organs including the cardiovascular physiology [87].
In Haiti, studies on the spring waters used to supply a part of the population of the Metropolitan Area of Port-au-Prince (MAPP), the most important urban area of the country, showed a total hardness greater than 200 mg/l, with magnesium concentration less than 7 mg/l [29]. In addition, magnesium concentrations ranging from 5.58 to 6.9 mg/l have been measured in groundwater in the metropolitan area of Port-au-Prince [103]. Drinking water low in Mg significantly increases the likelihood of cardiovascular mortality [104]. Catling et al., [105] found significant evidence of an inverse association between magnesium levels in drinking water and cardiovascular mortality following a meta-analysis of case control studies. In Haiti, cardiovascular disease (CVD) is now the leading cause of adult mortality in Haiti [106, 107].
Metals are natural constituents of the Earth’s crust. The distribution and fate of metals in the environment is governed by their properties and the influence of environmental factors [108]. In environmental compartments, heavy metals constitute an ecological and human health concern since heavy metals are not degraded biologically like certain organic pollutants [109]. Metals exert biological effects that can be beneficial or harmful. Many metals such as Fe, Cu, Co, Mn, Zn, and Cr are essential for humans, and deficiency states with clinical abnormalities have been identified [27, 108, 110]. Other metals such as Hg, Pb, Cd, and As are not known to be essential for any animals [110]. Essential elements can also cause toxic effects at high doses.
In Haiti, heavy metals (lead, chromium, and nickel) have been measured in groundwater [27]. The physical and chemical properties of these heavy metals are presented in Table 3.
Chromium | Lead | Nickel | |
---|---|---|---|
Molecular formula | Cr | Pb | Ni |
CAS# | 7440-47-3 | 7439-92-1 | 7440-02-0 |
Molecular Weight | 51.996 g/mol | 207 g/mol | 58.693 g/mol |
Melting point | 1907°C | 327.4°C | 1455°C |
Boiling Point | 2642°C | 1740°C | 2730°C |
Solubility | Water | - | Water |
Density | 7.14 | 11.34 g/cm3 | 8.9 g/cm3 |
Vapor pressure | 1 mmHg at 2941° F | 1.77 mm Hg at 1000°C | 1 mm Hg at 1810°C |
Source | https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/23976 | https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/5352425 | https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/935 |
Physical and chemical properties of chromium, lead and nickel.
Chromium is one of the heavy metals considered a major pollutant. It has been widely used in industrial processes for leather tanning, dyes and paint preparation, textile manufacturing, paper mills, wood preservation, stainless steel production, and photography [111]. Chromium exists in several oxidation states. The most stable and common forms are trivalent chromium, Cr(III), and hexavalent chromium, Cr(VI), which exhibit contrasting biochemical properties and toxicokinetics [112, 113]. Cr(III) compounds occur naturally in the form of oxides, hydroxides or sulfates, and they are nutritionally necessary to humans for glucose, fat and protein metabolism [114]. In contrast, Cr(VI) compounds are mainly anthropogenic and highly toxic; its mutagenic and carcinogenic nature and high oxidation state enhances its ability to move into living cells [114]. Cr(III) and Cr(VI) interchangeability depends on their concentration in solution, pH, the redox potential (Eh) of the medium, and the presence or absence of a strong oxidant or reductant [111, 115].
The toxicity of chromium is directly dependent on the valence state, with hexavalent chromate Cr(VI) and trivalent chromate Cr(III) being of the greatest interest [112]. Oral bioavailability varies with valence state, with Cr(VI) being more readily absorbed. Cr(VI) can be broken down into Cr(III) within the acidic environment of the stomach [111]. Acute exposure to chromium is indicated by immediate irritation of the eye, nose, throat, and respiratory tract, which results in burning, congestion, epistaxis, and cough. Ulceration, bleeding, and erosion of the nasal septum mark chronic exposure. Cough, chest pain, dyspnea, and chromium-induced asthma indicate exposure to soluble chromium products [113]. If chronic exposure is suspected, in conjunction with weight loss, cough, and hemoptysis, this suggests the development of bronchogenic carcinoma. Dermatological manifestations include painless, slow-healing ulceration of the fingers, knuckles, and forearms. Ingestion is marked by nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, prostration, and death associated with uremia [114].
Drinking water is one of the major sources of human exposure to lead [115]. Lead particularly targets the nervous system, blood, and kidney [116]. Many studies found associations between low level environmental Pb exposure and chronic kidney disease, a general term for heterogeneous disorders affecting the structure and function of the kidney (CKD) [117, 118]. Long-term lead exposure may generate irreversible functional and morphological renal changes [119], distal motor neuropathy and possibly seizures and coma [120]. Infants and small children are more sensitive to the effects of lead, which moreover is transported through the placenta to the foetus [121]. Lead accumulation in fetuses and small children might cause developmental disruption in terms of neurological impairment characterized by a decrease of cognitive faculties, which can be reversible or not, evaluated by psychomotor tests such as the verbal IQ (Intellectual Quotient) test [27, 109]. The period when IQ is most affected is from birth to about 4 years of age [122].
Scientific literature on lead water pollution reports “Lead remains a problem in drinking water in many parts of the world, with millions of properties served by distribution systems containing lead components. Strong links have been established between human exposure to lead and health effects in both adults and children. As a result, the allowable levels of lead indrinking water have generally become lower. Implementation of these regulations is difficult with the controls available. Future recommendations for aspiring to zero lead in drinking water are: (i) improving sampling, monitoring and modeling; (ii) Wider application of short-term pointof- use devices; (iii) replacement of all lead pipes and plumbing through applicable regulations and increased awareness public” [123, 124, 125, 126].
Nickel is insoluble in water. However, when it is in the form of exceptionally fine particles, it ionizes as Ni (II) in water and in body fluids such as blood. During oral exposure, the major effects observed are the death of a child after ingestion of 570 mg of nickel/kg [127] and intestinal disorders such as nausea, abdominal cramps, and diarrhea [128]. Immunological, hematological, hepatic, renal, genotoxic effects on embryonic development and reproduction have been reported depending on the route of entry into the body [129].
The aim of this study is: (i) to analyze the contribution of geological factors and anthropogenic actions in the alteration of water quality in Port-au-Prince. The toxicology of chemicals of three heavy metal (chromium, lead, and nickel) and fluoride, substances detected in groundwater and tap water, has been reviewed. The information available on the effects of the selected heavy metals highlights major chemical risks, particularly for children, relating to Pb (II), Cr (III), Cr (VI) and Ni (II) contained in the groundwater were also characterized [27]. The level of pollution of underground water resources in the metropolitan area of Port-au-Prince does not only require the application of an approach based on water treatment processes. It also reflects the need to approach the issue of the quality of water intended for human consumption in this urban space based on a transdisciplinary approach based on the theories of medical geology and the approach. One Health. Indeed, the level of organic and mineral pollution of these resources can compromise the rare efforts made to achieve the SDGs, more particularly the 3, 6, 11, 13. The results available in the literature and used in the context of this work clearly indicate the existence of chronic toxicities of trace heavy metals (Cr, Pb, Ni), fluoride and hardness of drinking water on the human organism and on kidney tissues. In the future, it will be necessary to initiate research work on the combined effects of these substances from observations on laboratory animals and then proceed to modeling to finally arrive at an understanding of certain interactions that may exist between these pollutants.
The authors are thankful to the “One Health” University Space of Quisqueya University, FOKAL-Open Society Foundation Haiti, the Agence universitaire de la Francophonie (AUF), the Representation of the Institute for Research for Development (IRD) in Mexico, Cuba, and Haiti, the SCAC (Service for Cooperation and Cultural Action) of the French Embassy in Haiti, and the AOG (Association communautaire paysanne des Originaires de Grande Plaine) for their support in carrying out this work.
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He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. 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Currently, he is a professor of Orthodontics. He holds a Certificate of Advanced Study type A in Technology of Biomaterials used in Dentistry (1995); Certificate of Advanced Study type B in Dento-Facial Orthopaedics (1997) from the Faculty of Dental Surgery, University Denis Diderot-Paris VII, France; Diploma of Advanced Study (DESA) in Biocompatibility of Biomaterials from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2002); Certificate of Clinical Occlusodontics from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2004); University Diploma of Biostatistics and Perceptual Health Measurement from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2011); and a University Diploma of Pedagogy of Odontological Sciences from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2013). 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). 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Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. 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