Contingency table to estimate categorical scores. A, number of hits; B, number of false alarms; C, number of misses; D, number of correct negatives; threshold, rainfall threshold (1 mm/day).
\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Milestone",originalUrl:"/media/original/124"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7876",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"New Insight into Brucella Infection and Foodborne Diseases",title:"New Insight into Brucella Infection and Foodborne Diseases",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Brucellosis is an important zoonotic disease. More than half a million new cases from 100 countries are reported annually to the World Health Organization (WHO). The majority of patients are living in developing countries. Brucellosis is a systemic infection with a broad clinical spectrum, ranging from an asymptomatic disease to a severe and fatal illness. Clinical and laboratory features vary widely. The main presentations are acute febrile illness, localized infection, and chronic infection. Laboratory tools for diagnosis of brucellosis include culture, serology, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The goal of brucellosis therapy is to control the illness and prevent complications, relapses, and sequelae. Important principles of brucellosis treatment include use of antibiotics with activity in the acidic intracellular environment, use of combination regimens, and prolonged duration of treatment. This book is the result of several months of outstanding efforts by the authors and the revision of the content by experts in the field of brucellosis. This book is a valid resource and is intended for everyone interested in infectious disease to learn the most important aspects of brucellosis.",isbn:"978-1-78985-098-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-097-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-778-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77695",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"new-insight-into-brucella-infection-and-foodborne-diseases",numberOfPages:156,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"8587739d297f761a46d36f8c6868c96d",bookSignature:"Mitra Ranjbar, Marzieh Nojomi and Maria T. Mascellino",publishedDate:"January 8th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7876.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7333,numberOfWosCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:14,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:25,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 8th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 19th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 20th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 9th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 7th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"79344",title:"Dr.",name:"Mitra",middleName:null,surname:"Ranjbar",slug:"mitra-ranjbar",fullName:"Mitra Ranjbar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/79344/images/system/79344.jpeg",biography:"Professor Mitra Ranjbar, MD, with specialty in Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine as well as a course of MPH. She has worked for about 20 years as a university teacher and investigator. The majority of her work and researche is about brucellosis (clinical trials, complications of brucellosis such as neurobrucellosis, osteoarticular brucellosis, immunology of brucellosis) and endemic infectious diseases in Iran such as typhoid fever, cholera, viral hepatitis, etc. She has written more than 60 papers about infectious diseases. Dr. Ranjbar is the dean of the Department of Infectious Diseases at the University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.",institutionString:"Department of Infectious Diseases. Iran University of Medical Sciences",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Iran University of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"269118",title:"Prof.",name:"Marzieh",middleName:null,surname:"Nojomi",slug:"marzieh-nojomi",fullName:"Marzieh Nojomi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/269118/images/11349_n.jpg",biography:"Professor Marzieh Nojomi, MD, MPH, is specialized in community and preventive medicine as well as flow of clinical epidemiology. She has worked for 20 years as a university teacher and investigator. The majority of her work and research is about public and community health. Dr. Nojomi has written more than two hundred papers about community medicine, women’s health, and epidemiology of disease. Dr. Nojomi is the dean of the Department of Community and Family Medicine and also the head of Preventive Medicine and Public Health Research Center at Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.",institutionString:"Iran University of Medical Sciences",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Iran University of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"156556",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Mascellino",slug:"maria-teresa-mascellino",fullName:"Maria Teresa Mascellino",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/156556/images/system/156556.jpg",biography:"Maria Teresa Mascellino has completed her MD at the age of 25 years in Rome during the period of 1980 and specialization studies in Microbiology and Infectious Diseases from Sapienza University of Rome (Italy). She works as aggregate professor in the Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases. She is responsible for the Simple Operative Unit 'Microbiological analyses in the immunocompromised hosts”. She has published more than 100 papers in reputed journals and has been serving as an editorial board member of repute. She is the editor of the book 'Bacterial and Mycotic infections in immunocompromised hosts: microbiological and clinical aspects” and a reviewer for many important scientific international Journals and Research Projects. She is also a member of scientific societies such as ESCMID, ASM, New York Academy of Science.",institutionString:"Sapienza University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Sapienza University of Rome",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1046",title:"Infectious Diseases",slug:"infectious-diseases"}],chapters:[{id:"67240",title:"Evaluation of Therapeutic Trials in Bovines",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86324",slug:"evaluation-of-therapeutic-trials-in-bovines",totalDownloads:695,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Brucellosis is one of the most common and economically important zoonotic diseases globally. Office International des Epizooties (OIE) listed it as the second most important zoonotic disease. The disease affects almost all animals but importantly buffalo. The disease manifests itself in the form of abortion, still births, weak calves, infertility, and specific lesions on reproductive organs. It is prevalent worldwide but still a neglected disease. As a zoonotic disease its importance is multifarious for animals as well as public health. Taking into account poor health facilities and unawareness, its control becomes very significant. The difficulty to treat this disease and its zoonotic potential compel slaughtering as a best strategy to get rid of this disease. There are not too many therapeutic trials conducted to control bovine brucellosis. Instead many therapeutic trials have been conducted for treating human brucellosis. The therapeutic trial requires long term administration of drugs (almost 6 weeks) without any surety of complete recovery so it is a preferred practice to eradicate the animal or sell it out instead of treating.",signatures:"Aneela Zameer Durrani, Muhammad Usman, Zain Kazmi and Muhammad Husnain",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67240",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67240",authors:[{id:"191797",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneela",surname:"Zameer Durrani",slug:"aneela-zameer-durrani",fullName:"Aneela Zameer Durrani"},{id:"300217",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Usman",slug:"muhammad-usman",fullName:"Muhammad Usman"},{id:"300218",title:"Mr.",name:"Zain",surname:"Kazmi",slug:"zain-kazmi",fullName:"Zain Kazmi"},{id:"305529",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhaamd",surname:"Husnain",slug:"muhaamd-husnain",fullName:"Muhaamd Husnain"}],corrections:null},{id:"69911",title:"Comparative Field Trial Effect of Brucella spp. Vaccines on Seroconversion in Goats and Their Possible Implications to Control Programs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87065",slug:"comparative-field-trial-effect-of-em-brucella-em-spp-vaccines-on-seroconversion-in-goats-and-their-p",totalDownloads:609,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aim of this study was to determine the seroprevalence of Brucella spp. in a goat flock and the seroconversion of three groups of animals vaccinated with Rev-1 (Brucella melitensis), RB51, and RB51-SOD (Brucella abortus) to estimate the level of protection conferred on susceptible females. Seventy-two animals were used by group. Goats were older than 3 months, seronegative to brucellosis, not vaccinated previously, and kept within positive flocks. Vaccinated animals received 2 mL of product subcutaneously in the neck region. The first block was injected with Rev-1; the second received RB51, and the third group was injected with RB51-SOD. Follow-up sampling was performed at 30, 60, 90, and 365 days postvaccination. The general prevalence of brucellosis for the three groups was 1.2% (95%CI:0.5–2.7). The seroconversion rate by day 30 after vaccination was 77.7% (95%CI:61.9–88.2) for goats vaccinated with Rev-1. At 365 days post vaccination, the percentage of seropositive goats declined to 13.8% (95%CI:6.0–28.6). At day 365 after vaccination, 2.7% (95%CI:0.4–14.1) and 5.5% (95%CI:1.5–18.1) of animals vaccinated with RB51 and RB51-SOD, respectively, became positive. Results show that the seroconversion induced by Brucella abortus RB51 and RB51-SOD vaccines is lower than that by Brucella melitensis Rev-1.",signatures:"Baldomero Molina-Sánchez, David I. Martínez-Herrera, Violeta T. Pardío-Sedas, Ricardo Flores-Castro, José F. Morales-Álvarez and José A. Villagómez-Cortés",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69911",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69911",authors:[{id:"251177",title:"Dr.",name:"Violeta",surname:"Pardío",slug:"violeta-pardio",fullName:"Violeta Pardío"},{id:"292347",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Baldomero",surname:"Molina",slug:"baldomero-molina",fullName:"Baldomero Molina"},{id:"292610",title:"Dr.",name:"David I",surname:"Martinez Herrera",slug:"david-i-martinez-herrera",fullName:"David I Martinez Herrera"},{id:"300243",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo",surname:"Flores Castro",slug:"ricardo-flores-castro",fullName:"Ricardo Flores Castro"},{id:"300245",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Francisco",surname:"Morales Alvarez",slug:"jose-francisco-morales-alvarez",fullName:"Jose Francisco Morales Alvarez"},{id:"300246",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Alfredo",surname:"Villagomez Cortes",slug:"jose-alfredo-villagomez-cortes",fullName:"Jose Alfredo Villagomez Cortes"}],corrections:null},{id:"67577",title:"Kidney Disease in Brucellosis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86432",slug:"kidney-disease-in-brucellosis",totalDownloads:767,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Brucellosis, a prevalent zoonosis disease in different countries, can involve the kidney during infection and also present in the complicated form in hemodialysis (HD), peritoneal dialysis (PD), and kidney transplant (Tx) patient. In spite of few reports of kidney involvements in the literature, this infection can imitate a wide range of glomerular disease from minimal change, membranous glomeropathy, focal and diffuse proliferative glomerular disease to rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis. Cryoglobulinemia, thrombotic microangiopathy, and ANCA-associated glomerular disease are vasculitis form of the disease. Tubulointerstitial involvement, electrolyte disorder, renal abscess, and pyelonephritis can present the same as other Gram-negative infections. Moreover, peritonitis in PD patient, spondyloarthropathy in HD, and severe infection in kidney Tx patients have been reported. Infection recurrence and infection from kidney donors are another dilemma in renal recipients. Brucellosis as a multifaced disease can mimic a wide range of presentations in nephrology. Clinicians should keep in mind the diverse pictures of the disease, especially when they practice in the endemic area.",signatures:"Shokoufeh Savaj",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67577",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67577",authors:[{id:"295768",title:"Prof.",name:"Shokoufeh",surname:"Savaj",slug:"shokoufeh-savaj",fullName:"Shokoufeh Savaj"}],corrections:null},{id:"67789",title:"Neonatal Brucellosis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86703",slug:"neonatal-brucellosis",totalDownloads:618,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Brucellosis is a zoonotic infectious disease caused by the Brucella bacteria. Neonatal brucellosis is very rare and preventable and is an example of intrauterine infection, but clinical manifestations as well as transmission route are not well defined but presumed transplacental transmission. The neonate can be either infected transplacentally, or by ingestion of mother’s secretions and blood during delivery, or by ingestion of breast milk. Presentation of the neonatal brucellosis including fever, arthralgia, weakness, malaise, respiratory distress, pneumonia, enlargement of liver and spleen, fever, thrombocytopenia, late neonatal hyperbilirubinemia, and septicoemia. The diagnosis of brucellosis was based on a positive blood culture (isolation Brucella of blood culture from both the mother and the neonate or only neonate) and on a high or rising titer of antibodies to the Brucella organism (positive serology only in the mother or both). The neonates with negative Brucella serology may also have Brucella infection. The mortality rate is very high, and infected neonates need early detection and timely treatment. Early detection and treatment reduce the incidence of complications. The treatment of rifampicin and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole is useful for neonatal brucellosis. More patients with neonatal brucellosis well respond to antibiotic therapy and must monitor by a Brucella titer of <1:40.",signatures:"Fatemeh Eghbalian",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67789",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67789",authors:[{id:"294103",title:"Prof.",name:"Fatemeh",surname:"Eghbalian",slug:"fatemeh-eghbalian",fullName:"Fatemeh Eghbalian"}],corrections:null},{id:"67392",title:"Update of Antibiotic Therapy of Brucellosis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86325",slug:"update-of-antibiotic-therapy-of-brucellosis",totalDownloads:665,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Currently, the only option for treating brucellosis is antibiotics especially to prevent complications. In this chapter, we want to talk about the drug therapy in brucellosis and the update of these therapies in the last years. Also, we will expose the principal antibiotics in brucellosis such as doxycycline, rifampin, streptomycin, cotrimoxazole (TMP/SMX), and gentamicin by talking about each one of their mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics, administration, risk assessment, adverse effects, and principal drug interactions. Furthermore, we will add the evidence of efficacy therapy in monotherapy or combinate therapy based on the evidence.",signatures:"Sara Consuelo Arias Villate and Julio Cesar García Casallas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67392",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67392",authors:[{id:"250404",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio C.",surname:"Garcia",slug:"julio-c.-garcia",fullName:"Julio C. Garcia"},{id:"291778",title:"M.D.",name:"Sara",surname:"Arias",slug:"sara-arias",fullName:"Sara Arias"}],corrections:null},{id:"67327",title:"Immunopathogenesis of Salmonellosis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85371",slug:"immunopathogenesis-of-salmonellosis",totalDownloads:897,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Salmonella is an intracellular pathogenic, gram-negative, facultative anaerobe and non-spore-forming and usually a motile bacillus that leads to salmonellosis in the host. It is a common food-borne disease that ranges from local gastrointestinal inflammation and diarrhoea to life-threatening typhoid fever and presents usually a serious threat to public health due to its socio-economic value. Inadequate sanitation and impure water help in the propagation of this disease. Despite advancement in the sanitation standards, Salmonella enters the food chain and affects communities globally. There is an immediate need to develop improved vaccines to minimise Salmonella-related illnesses. Some Salmonella serovars infect a wide range of hosts, while others are known to be host restricted. Many different factors determine the adaptability and host specificity of Salmonella. The host-pathogen interactions play a unique role in Salmonella invasion and progression which needs to be studied in detail. This chapter shall focus on our current understanding of Salmonella invasion, pathogenesis and interactions with the host, host specificity and adaptability.",signatures:"Mashooq Ahmad Dar, Peerzada Tajamul Mumtaz, Shakil Ahmad Bhat, Qamar Taban, Shabir Ahmad Khan, Tufail Banday and Syed Mudasir Ahmad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67327",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67327",authors:[{id:"228050",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed",surname:"Mudasir Ahmad",slug:"syed-mudasir-ahmad",fullName:"Syed Mudasir Ahmad"},{id:"230747",title:"Dr.",name:"Mashooq",surname:"Dar",slug:"mashooq-dar",fullName:"Mashooq Dar"},{id:"237791",title:"Dr.",name:"Shakil",surname:"Ahmad Bhat",slug:"shakil-ahmad-bhat",fullName:"Shakil Ahmad Bhat"},{id:"292851",title:"Mr.",name:"Peerzada Tajamul",surname:"Mumtaz",slug:"peerzada-tajamul-mumtaz",fullName:"Peerzada Tajamul Mumtaz"},{id:"292852",title:"Ms.",name:"Qamar",surname:"Taban",slug:"qamar-taban",fullName:"Qamar Taban"}],corrections:null},{id:"66921",title:"Application of Artificial Barrier as Mitigation of E. coli Which Pass through Riverbank Filtration",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86079",slug:"application-of-artificial-barrier-as-mitigation-of-em-e-coli-em-which-pass-through-riverbank-filtrat",totalDownloads:594,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Water security in the water treatment plant has been doubted, and the treatment process may have given unreliable and unsafe water to the public. A newspaper reported on November 19, 2011, that laboratory tests on water samples in Kelantan for each year by the Ministry of Health have found harmful bacteria including Escherichia coli (E. coli) in the water samples. More worryingly, it was stated in a study that chlorine in water treated with high chlorine can be harmful to human health. In 2010, Malaysia has begun to approach a natural treatment technique, namely, riverbank filtration (RBF), and firstly used it at the Water Treatment Plant in Jeli, Kelantan, and Kuala Kangsar, Perak. RBF limitation is the invisible groundwater flow that makes it difficult to predict the transport of contaminants. Managing groundwater is important to ensure that water is aligned in compliance with government legislation and environmental protection. Due to that, this study suggests an implementation of an artificial barrier for microorganism in RBF to sustain the good water quality abstracted from the abstraction well. This pretreatment or purifying method is to improve the effectiveness of RBF in removing pollutants during shock loads and reduce the load placed in the water treatment process.",signatures:"Nur Aziemah Abd Rashid and Ismail Abustan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66921",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66921",authors:[{id:"287174",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Aziemah",surname:"Abd Rashid",slug:"nur-aziemah-abd-rashid",fullName:"Nur Aziemah Abd Rashid"},{id:"288163",title:"Prof.",name:"Ismail",surname:"Abustan",slug:"ismail-abustan",fullName:"Ismail Abustan"}],corrections:null},{id:"69578",title:"Prologue: Escherichia coli, Listeria, and Salmonella",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89654",slug:"prologue-em-escherichia-coli-em-em-listeria-em-and-em-salmonella-em-",totalDownloads:564,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Maria Teresa Mascellino",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69578",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69578",authors:[{id:"156556",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Teresa",surname:"Mascellino",slug:"maria-teresa-mascellino",fullName:"Maria Teresa Mascellino"}],corrections:null},{id:"68811",title:"Lateral Flow Assay for Salmonella Detection and Potential Reagents",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88827",slug:"lateral-flow-assay-for-em-salmonella-em-detection-and-potential-reagents",totalDownloads:935,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Salmonella is among the very important pathogens threating human and animal health. It is a common food pathogen transmitted from animals to humans via contaminated food, drinking water, and air. It invades the intestinal tract of hosts and causes salmonellosis leading to death. S. enteritidis was the most common species accounted for all salmonellosis cases. S. typhimurium is also another significant species causing the serious cases worldwide. To ensure public health, early detection of pathogens is crucial. Lateral flow assay (LFA), immunochromatographic assay, is a simple and rapid diagnostic test kits used in various fields and can be developed by, aptamers, antibodies (Abs), and nucleic acids. They are also being continued to develop different capture reagents coming from the recombinant technology. It has many advantages such as having mature technology, market presence, low cost, easy to use for end users without education, and stable shelf life. Gold nanoparticles (GNPs) are the most commonly used labels in the LFAs for the naked-eye analysis. Therefore, Salmonella detection by LFA based on GNPs in a rapid and simple way is always open to be developed by new reagents and methods.",signatures:"Dilek ÇAM",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68811",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68811",authors:[{id:"287837",title:"Dr.",name:"Dilek",surname:"Çam",slug:"dilek-cam",fullName:"Dilek Çam"}],corrections:null},{id:"66875",title:"Applications of Genomics in Regulatory Food Safety Testing in Canada",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86063",slug:"applications-of-genomics-in-regulatory-food-safety-testing-in-canada",totalDownloads:989,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recent developments in the field of pathogen genomics herald a new paradigm for analytical food microbiology in which pathogenic bacteria will be characterized on the basis of their genetic profile rather than traditional approaches relying on phenotypic properties. The ability to identify gene markers associated with virulence, antimicrobial resistance, and other properties relevant to the identification, risk profiling, and typing of foodborne bacterial isolates will play a critical role in informing regulatory decisions and tracing sources of food contamination. Here we present several scenarios illustrating current and prospective roles for pathogen genomics in food inspection.",signatures:"Catherine D. Carrillo, Adam Koziol, Neil Vary and Burton W. Blais",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66875",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66875",authors:[{id:"290726",title:"Dr.",name:"Burton",surname:"Blais",slug:"burton-blais",fullName:"Burton Blais"},{id:"296947",title:"Dr.",name:"Catherine",surname:"Carrillo",slug:"catherine-carrillo",fullName:"Catherine Carrillo"},{id:"296948",title:"Dr.",name:"Adam",surname:"Koziol",slug:"adam-koziol",fullName:"Adam Koziol"},{id:"296949",title:"Mr.",name:"Neil",surname:"Vary",slug:"neil-vary",fullName:"Neil Vary"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"825",title:"Current Topics in Tropical Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef65e8eb7a2ada65f2bc939aa73009e3",slug:"current-topics-in-tropical-medicine",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. 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\r\n\r\n\tThis volume attempts to explore the practical aspects of econometrics to economics, and other social sciences that use econometric methods. This volume is expected to cover a broad range of topics that include but are not limited to spatial econometrics, time series, forecasting, and machine learning, This volume hopes to attract dynamic stochastic general equilibrium (DSGE) models which are gaining prominence in applied macroeconomics. This proposed volume could serve as a reference for academicians, researchers, policy-makers, graduate students, and very abled undergraduate students who are seeking current research on the various applications of econometrics as used in research and to answer specific policy questions.
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Working knowledge of MATHLAB and Dynare.\n\nResearch Fellow, Global Labor Organization (GLO), Oct.2017 to present\nAcademic and Professional Profiles \nResearch gate Profile:https: // www. researchgate. net/ profile/ Brian_ Sloboda\nORCID:https: // orcid. org/ 0000-0003-0007-1725\nGoogle Scholar Profile https: // scholar. google. com/ citations? user= RSLTrCsAAAAJ&hl= en\nEducation: Ph.D. Economics, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale,1997.\nThesis: The Economic Impact of Southern Illinois University on the State of Illinois: The Human Capital Approach\nM.S. 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From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Nanodevice units made from those one-dimensional nanostructures (single nanostructures as well as bunch of nanostructures) have attracted substantial research interests because they provide a unique platform for fundamental investigations. In addition, they can also serve as the building blocks for more complicated nano-systems and micro-systems, for example, sensors, diodes, solar cells, LEDs, nano-generators and transistors (Lee et al., 2010; Zhou et al., 2008). Recently, many successful attempts to develop nano-devices by using different nanostructures have already been described in scientific literatures.
\n\t\t\tThere has been steady progress in demonstrating electrical components made of nanowires, such as field effect transistors, electron field emitters, switches, sensors, etc. The surface of the nanostructures has crucial role in determining the electrical and optoelectronic properties of nano-devices. As the surface-to-volume ratio is very high, the surface states also play a key role on optical absorption, gas sensing, luminescence and other properties. Thus, nanoscale electronic devices have the potential to achieve higher sensitivity and faster response than bulk material. Most of these applications require metal contact to receive and/or transmit electrical signals or to be powered by an external source. So, the devices with nanowires, nanorods or nanobelts, the electrical contacts should be scaled accordingly. Thus, the understanding of transport processes at the nanometer scale is essential for an overall improvement of the device characteristics.
\n\t\t\tDepending on the Fermi surface alignment and the nature of the interface between the metal and the semiconducting nanowires, the contacts can either be an Ohmic contact or a Schottky contact. Whether a contact is a Schottky or ohmic, depends on the work-function (Ф) of the metal and the semiconducting nanowire and also on the type of majority carriers (electrons or holes). For n-type semiconductor, if the work function of the metal (ФM) used for contact is higher than that of the semiconductor (ФS), a Schottky barrier will be formed. According to the Schottky-Mott theory, the barrier height (ФB) follows the rule (ФB = ФM- χS), where χS is electron affinity of semiconductor. But, in case of low dimensional system, the Schottky barrier height depends not only on the work functions of the metal and the semiconductor nanowire, but also on the pinning of the Fermi level by surface states, image force lowering, field penetration and the existence of an interfacial insulating layer. To a good approximation, all of these effects change only the absolute current value at very low bias regime via lowering the Schottky barrier. Thus, detailed study on Schottky nanocontacts are important because not only a great number of nanodevices are based on a metal/semiconductor Schottky contact with nanometer dimensions, but also standard electrical spectroscopies, such as deep level transient spectroscopy or photocurrent measurements, need the formation of Schottky contact. Metal/semiconductor Schottky device is also one of the most fundamental one that can be used to evaluate various semiconductor parameters including carrier density and Schottky barrier height as well as carrier density profile and bandgap discontinuity.
\n\t\t\tIn this context, several semiconducting materials, such as GaN, ZnO, and AlGaN, have wide direct bandgaps which make them useful for electronic and optoelectronic applications. Among these materials, growth of vertically aligned single crystalline ZnO nanowires is easier. It is a direct wide bandgap (3.37 eV) piezoelectric material with hexagonal wurtzite structure, and has larger exciton binding energy (60 meV) than other wide bandgap semiconductor (GaN, 25 meV). Moreover, single crystalline nanowires have attracted a lot of interest for the fabrication of nanoelectronic and nanophotonic devices due to their extraordinary properties originated from their high crystallinity and large aspect ratio.
\n\t\t\tIn this chapter, we have described the junction properties of ZnO nanowire based Schottky diodes with different contact metal. Also we have described the UV detection and gas sensing mechanism of single nanowire based Schottky diode which will further promote an understanding of the device physics and practical applications.
\n\t\tVertically aligned ZnO nanowires with controlled shape and ordered surface morphology have attracted considerable attentions due to their low dimensional structures and the exciting prospects for utilizing these materials in nanotechnology enabled electronic and photonic crystal device applications (Zhang et al., 2001; Chang et al. 2009). As a wide bandgap (~3.4 eV) semiconductor, ZnO has drawn a great interest for low-voltage and short wavelength optoelectronic devices (Norton et al., 2004). It is expected that in ZnO nanowires, one may eliminate some unwanted properties of bulk ZnO, such as weak exciton emission in comparison with the defect related (deep-level) visible emission, while keeping or enhancing the desirable properties such as large exciton binding energy (60 meV) (Fonoberov et al., 2006).
\n\t\t\tIn order to control shape, aspect ratio (length/width), growth site and growth direction of the nanowires, many efforts have been directed towards the synthesis of ZnO nanostructures by aqueous, vapor–liquid–solid (VLS), metal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) and many other techniques (Kar et al.,2008; 2009; Hsu et al., 2005). However, MOCVD method is of particular interest since it has some advantages such as the ability to fabricate nanostructures of better quality, well controllable configurations and good reproducibility. As the growth of ZnO nanowires by MOCVD is a bottom-up technique, the nature of substrates has a vital role for the dimension and alignment of the nanowires. According to lattice misfit, the most suitable substrate for ZnO growth is ScAlMgO4, which is expensive and technologically inconvenient (Ievtushenko et al., 2008). On the other hand, it is difficult to obtain well-aligned ZnO nanowires on silicon substrates, because the formation of an interfacial layer (SiO2) and large lattice misfit (Liou et al., 2005). Interestingly, C-plane sapphire overcomes some of the limitations arising from the above substrates. The ZnO nanowires, used in the experiments, were grown on
\n\t\t\t\t\tFig. 1(a) shows a typical FESEM image of vertically aligned ZnO nanowires (diameter~100 nm) grown on c-plane sapphire substrate. The appearance of a prominent (002) peak in XRD pattern (not shown here) confirms the crystalline natures of ZnO nanowires. Fig. 1(b) shows the bright field TEM image of a ZnO nanowire. The diameter of the nanowire is around 100 nm and uniform through out its length. In order to further investigate the structural characteristics of ZnO nanowire, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) experiment was carried out and the magnified image is shown in the inset of Fig. 1(b). HRTEM images at different part of nanowire indicate that the nanowire is structurally uniform and do not exhibit any noticeable defects. Furthermore, the HRTEM image confirmed that the single crystalline ZnO nanowire is preferentially oriented along the c-axis direction with lattice spacing of 0.52 nm. The selective area electron diffraction (SAED) pattern (inset of Fig. 1(b)) also shows that the nanowire exhibits a single crystalline nature. These results are almost consistent with the FESEM observation.
\n\t\t\t\ta) FESEM images and (b) TEM images of ZnO NR arrays. Inset shows the corresponding HRTEM images and diffraction pattern.
Information such as surface oxygen vacancies and other defects as well as the separation and recombination of photoinduced charge carriers can be obtained from photoluminescence (PL) measurements. Fig. 2 presents the low temperature (10 K) PL spectrum of dispersed ZnO NWs measured with 325 nm He-Cd laser. In our NWs, two strong PL peaks at 382 and 388 nm were found without any visible band emission.
\n\t\t\t\tPhotoluminescence spectra (10 K) of ZnO nanowire arrays.
Electrical contacts to individual nanowires were fabricated using a procedure of lithography, metallization and lift-off technique. The nanowires were first removed from the substrate and then dispersed by sonication in isopropanol. A droplet of dispersed solution containing nanowires was then dropped on photo-lithographically pre-assigned metallic micro-pads on the substrate. Thermally oxidized (500 nm) Si wafers were used as substrates for the fabrication of Schottky diodes. The coordinates of several nanowires with respect to the pre-assigned metallic pads were then estimated by using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). Finally, the path of electrical connections between the pre-assigned micro-pads and the nanowires were made by e-beam lithography and lift-off techniques. All metals were deposited by Ar plasma assisted DC sputtering at a pressure of 3 mTorr. The contacts were patterned by lift-off of lithographically defined photo-resist.
\n\t\t\t\tTo form Ohmic contact 100 nm of Ti and 200 nm of Au were successively deposited on one side of the nanowire followed by rapid thermal annealing at 550 ºC for 1 min in N2 atmosphere. In addition, to form Schottky contact metal with higher work function (Au, Pt or Ni) was deposited (300 nm) on the other side of the nanowire. The devices were also fabricated with homogeneous ZnO nanowire and Ti/Au contacts on both sides by using the same experimental procedures and they have shown linear current voltage (
a)The schematic diagram and (b) FESEM image of single ZnO NW based device.
In case of low dimensional systems, the Schottky barrier height depends not only on the work functions of the metal and the semiconductor nanowire, but also on the pinning of the Fermi level by surface states, image force lowering, field penetration and the existence of an interfacial insulating layer. To a good approximation, all of these effects change only the absolute current value via lowering the Schottky barrier. The temperature dependent
where, ФB is the effective barrier height,
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
The barrier height could be seen to increase with temperature (Fig. 5(a)) almost linearly. Pt offered larger barrier height than that offered by Au and Ni while Au and Ni contacts indicated nearly similar barrier heights. The increase in barrier heights with the increase in temperature from 300 K to 523 K may be associated with the increase in available charge carriers to be transported across the barrier for Fermi level equalization. It is also observed that the values of barrier heights obtained from the
Variation of (a) barrier height (
Ideality factor for the different Schottky diodes studied here varied between 1.1 and 2.0. Schottky diodes with Au Schottky contact indicated lower ideality factor (~1.5) at room temperature than that for Ni and Pt. It may be observed that the ideality factor decreased with increasing temperature. Current transport across the metal semiconductor interface is temperature dependent. Thus, the electrons at low temperature would be able to cross only the lower barriers and therefore current transport will be dominated by current passing through the lower Schottky barrier only contributing to a large ideality factor. With increasing temperature, more and more electrons would acquire significant energy to cross higher barrier. As a result, the effective barrier height will increase with the temperature and bias voltage culminating in lower ideality factor at higher temperature. This increment can be explained by taking into account of the interface state density distribution, quantum mechanical tunneling and image force lowering across the barrier of Schottky diodes.
\n\t\t\tIn order to further confirm the barrier-height value of nanowire Schottky diodes, XPS is used to study the surface Fermi level position within the band gap for metallic overlayer on ZnO nanowire. Each element has a characteristic binding energy for its core electrons, and thus each element has a characteristic spectrum. Comparison of the spectrums of a bare specimen, such as ZnO, and a specimen with a thin film coating, such as ZnO/Au, can yield the barrier height of the surface. The barrier height was determined from the XPS data using the following relation (Lin, 2005)
\n\t\t\t\twhere \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
a) Zn 3d core level peak of ZnO nanowire without Au over-layer. The low energy region represents the spectrum of valance band region. A linear fit is used to determine the the energy of the valance band edge. (b) Zn 3d core level at the Au/ZnO nanowire interface.
The deviations of diode ideality factor from unity signify the inhomogeneous nature of the Schottky diodes. Assuming the Gaussian distribution for Schottky barrier height (ФB0), the apparent barrier height (Фap) can be written as (Werner et al., 1991; Bengi et al., 2007).
\n\t\t\t\twhere, σ0 is the measure of the barrier homogeneity. The lower value of σ0 corresponds to more homogeneous barrier height. The value of σ0 obtained for temperatures for Au/
Plot of
In order to understand the lowering in Schottky barrier height, we also have to know the electronic transport mechanism, which can be deduced from temperature dependent
where the saturation current (
In equation (5) ξ, [= (EC-EF)/q = (0.2 V)] obtained from ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS) measurement (not shown here), is the difference between the conduction band minimum and the position of the Fermi level, E0 = E00 coth(E00/kBT) is the characteristic energy related to the tunneling probability and E00 is the tunneling parameter. In our case, E00 is 50 and 60 meV at 300 and 523 K, respectively, which is about 2 times higher than the thermal energy (25 and 43 meV at 300 and 523 K, respectively). As the temperature increases, the thermionic emission increases but the tunneling process is temperature insensitive. This result clearly supports that tunneling has a significant role at the forward current and thermionic-field emission (TFE) process is the main mechanism in Au/ZnO nanowire Schottky diode.
\n\t\t\t\tAlthough the image force lowering (ΔФB), ascribed for enhanced electric field at the depletion region due to small size of the nano-Schottky junction, contributes to the barrier height reduction, the tunneling effect is also significant for nanocontact. But, only the image force lowering (ΔФB=0.06 V, considering εs =2ε0 and electric field at nanocontact =104 V/cm), inhomogeneity in barrier height (ΔФB=0.11 V) and tunneling are not enough to explain the difference between the theoretically predicted value and obtained experimental result. The surface states play a key role on luminescence and optical absorption properties when the surface-to-volume ratio is high. The states, inside the bandgap, are formed on the ZnO surface due to Zn or O termination, dangling bonds, surface reconstruction or relaxation, structural and point defects, etc. When the diameter of nanowires becomes more than 30 nm, surface states also remain active. However, their relative contribution to the emission spectrum is small in comparison to the contribution originating from the grain volume. To explain this discrepancy, one may consider the effect of defect states at ZnO nanowire surface. But in that case, high density of defect states are required which is inconsistent with the small reverse leakage current in the device and observed photoluminescence property of our as deposited nanowire arrays (Das et al., 2009).
\n\t\t\t\tGenerally, the band level alignment can be organized in two regimes: Fermi level pinning and vacuum level alignment (i.e, the Schottky-Mott limit). For nanowires, in absence of the metal, there is vacuum level alignment at the nanowire and air interface. But, the band alignment and Fermi level pinning at the metal/nanowire interface is markedly different when the metal over-layer is present. In presence of metal over-layer, due to pinning, the significant value of ΔФB must be caused by some charge transfer. Bearing in mind the large charge transfer distance, the absolute magnitude of the transferred charge could be comparably small to yield the necessary shift of the levels. Thus, we propose that the interface states can be ionized by injected hot electrons which result in the emptying the interface. This ionization of interface states changes the Fermi level so that it effectively behaves like a small forward bias and hence the band bending as well as Schottky barrier height decreases. Fig. 8 shows the schematic band diagram of Au/ZnO nanowire Schottky diode under zero bias and a forward bias voltage. The experimental identification of tunneling, thermionic emission and other components for barrier height lowering predicts that the Fermi level deepening at Au-ZnO nanowire interface may originate from the ionization of interface states by injected hot electrons.
\n\t\t\t\tSchematic band diagram of Au/ZnO NW Schottky diode (a) under zero bias and (b) with a forward bias.
A nanodevice unit made from single one-dimensional (1D) nanostructure, such as nanowire or nanobelt, attracts substantial research interests because it can provide a unique platform for fundamental investigations and also can serve as the building block for more complicated device systems in nano- and microscale, for example, sensors, diodes and transistors (Lee et al., 2010; Zhou et al., 2008). Surface plays a crucial role to determine the electrical and optoelectronic properties of materials with a dimension of nanometer scale. There are several wide bandgap semiconducting materials for UV detection like GaN, ZnO, AlGaN (Munoz et al., 2001; Soci et al., 2007; Li et al., 2009). Because of their wide bandgap and high surface-to-volume ratio, nanoscale electronic devices have the potential to achieve high sensitivity and faster response for the UV detection. For a good UV detector, the growth of single crystalline ZnO nanowire is important. ZnO nanowires obtained from MOCVD technique shows a very good crystalline and optical property. As shown in Fig. (2), nanowires grown by MOCVD technique have two strong PL peaks at 382 and 388 nm, without any visible band emission. The sharp peaks presumably resulted from the excitons. Strong UV luminescence of free exciton recombination without any visible band emission is suitable for the UV laser device and visible blind UV detectors.
\n\t\t\t\tIn past few years, enormous studies on UV detection have been conducted using ZnO nanowires, which were either fabricated with ohmic or Schottky contacts. However, most of these works are focused on the array of ZnO nanowires with few studies directed at the single nanowire (Li et al., 2009; Heo et al., 2004; Xu et al., 2006). In literature, it has been reported that single nanowires devices with both ohmic and Schottky contact have similar UV response characteristics even though the sensing mechanisms are different. The UV detection characteristics of Au/ZnO nanowire Schottky diode and the device with both side ohmic contacts were studied by measuring current-voltage (
a)
To test the reversibility of the sensor, the device was alternatively exposed to UV light and the corresponding current at a particular voltage (0.7 V and 0.3 V for the devices with both side ohmic contact and one side Schottky contact, respectively) was measured. For high-power UV illumination (25 mW/cm2), we have observed similar characteristics (sharp rise and sharp fall) for the devices with both sides ohmic and one side Schottky contact (not shown here). But for low-power UV illumination (1.5 mW/cm2), Figs. 10 (a) and (b) show the effect of NW surface and schottky barrier, respectively. Figure 10 (b) shows the photoresponse of the Schottky diode under the UV excitation at a forward bias of 0.3 V. The dark current was about 120 nA and the saturated photocurrent was about 9
UV response behaviors of the device with (a) both side ohmic contacts, (b) Schottky contact.
The interface density of states and surface states across the ZnO nanowire and Schottky contact may play a role in UV detection. To calculate the density of states at the interface of the Schottky diode, capacitance due to the depletion region was measured as a function of voltage and shown in Fig 9(b). The capacitance of a Schottky contact is related to the voltage by (Sze S. M., 1979)
\n\t\t\t\twhere
The
where,
with
\n\t\t\t\tDensity of interface states as a function of interface state energy (
The experimental observations on the two types of device structures are explicitly explained using schematics of the energy band diagrams of the nanowire surface and Schottky junction in the dark and under the UV illumination (Fig. 11). In ZnO, it is well known that in the dark oxygen molecules are adsorbed at the surface and capture free electrons and a low-conductive depletion layer is formed near the surface (Soci et al., 2007). Upon UV illumination with photon energy larger than the semiconductor bandgap, electron-hole pairs are generated; holes migrate to the surface and discharge the negatively charged adsorbed oxygen ions and leaving behind unpaired electrons. Thus, band bending occurs and conductivity of the nanowire increases (Fig. 11 (a)). This hole-trapping mechanism through oxygen adsorption and desorption in ZnO nanowires augments the high density of trap states usually found in nanowires due to the dangling bonds at the surface and thus enhances the photoresponse. In case of single nanowire device, because of the higher exposed surface compared to array of nanowires, trapping at surface states drastically affects the transport and photoconduction property. Soci et al. reported that the oxygen adsorption and desorption at the nanowire surface occur in very short time (ns), suggesting that the desorbed oxygen molecules in air remain in close proximity to the surface and can be promptly re-adsorbed (Soci et al., 2007). This indicates that the oxygen re-adsorption to the surface and consequently the lowering of the photocurrent happen quickly after switching off the UV light; however, full recovery requires longer time, due to the time required for the diffusion of oxygen molecules.
\n\t\t\t\tEnergy-level Diagram of (a) ZnO NW surface and (b) Au/ZnO NW interface.
\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 11(b) shows the UV detection mechanism at the Schottky barrier. In Schottky device, both the forward and reverse current increase with UV exposure. It means that the photoexcited electron-hole pairs can greatly increase the concentration of majority carriers. We can therefore conclude that the barrier height is strongly modulated by the UV exposure. In forward bias, a large number of photogenerated electron-hole pair increases the majority carrier and ionizes the interface states. The ionization of interface states tends to increase the barrier height but, the large number of electron, generated due to the UV illumination, effectively reduces the barrier height under forward bias. As a result, band bending changes and current increases. Interface density of states play an important role in reverse current. In reverse bias, holes are efficiently trapped by the interface states which shrink the depletion region and allow tunneling of electrons.
\n\t\t\tHydrogen is a potential source of energy, which may replace the present fossil-based transportation fuels. It is also used as an important reagent in chemical industries. However, it is highly explosive above 4 vol % due to its low flash point (-253 C) (Christofides et al., 1989). Accordingly, hydrogen leakage detection at early stage is not only necessary but also essential for safety. Solid-state hydrogen sensors based on pure Pt, Pd or Pd-containing alloys have been thoroughly explored as the interaction with hydrogen decreases the work function and increases resistance compared to pure material (Ibanez et al., 2006). Several other materials (SnO2, InO3, WO3 and CNT) are currently being investigated for the active materials of sensors (Wang et al., 2006; Li et al., 2007). However, a high operation temperature is generally required for the better performance of the above mentioned sensors. Recently, there have been an increasing number of investigations on the exploration of selective materials to make the sensor more sensitive and reliable. In this concern, tremendous attentions have been focused on ZnO as a gas sensing material due to its high mobility of conduction electrons, good chemical and thermal stability under the operating conditions of sensors (Li et al., 2007; \n\t\t\t\t\t\tWan et al., 2004\n\t\t\t\t\t). In addition, single crystalline nature, high mechanical strength, high temperature stability in oxygen ambient and ease of fabrication on several substrates by various techniques (Liao et al., 2008; \n\t\t\t\t\t\tWan et al., 2004\n\t\t\t\t\t) are other advantage of ZnO nanostructures.
\n\t\t\t\tSingle nanowire-based sensors are of particular interest as they can be fabricated by using conventional lithography technique. In addition to low cost and great miniaturization potential, the large surface to volume ratio and nanoscale dimension allow quick diffusion of gases into and from the nanostructure. Thus the rate of reaction increases, which leads to achieve higher sensitivity with faster response and recovery time. Nanoscale sensors also often provide a lower limit of detection due to a larger change in their electronic properties upon surface adsorption.
\n\t\t\t\tIn case of ZnO nanostructure-based hydrogen sensor, the surface of the nanostructures plays a vital role. In that case, the contacts at the two ends are mostly chosen to be ohmic in order to enhance the change in conductance due to surface effect of the nanostructures. The surface-adsorbed gas molecules modify the electronic surface states and vary the electron concentration which is responsible for the change in conductivity of nanosensors (Liao et al., 2007). At room temperature, electrons released due to gas exposure are very less compared to the electron concentration in nanowire. Therefore, the relative change of conductance before and after gas exposure is small. Since the interaction energy of chemisorbed oxygen atom is large (1-10 eV), metal oxide gas sensors generally require high operating temperature (above 100 C) to overcome the energy limits and achieve high sensitivity (Fan et al., 2009). However, the high operating temperature adversely affects sensor’s reliability, durability and makes the sensors expensive with many complicated heating elements.
\n\t\t\t\tIn order to improve the sensitivity at room temperature, we deliberately introduce a nonsymmetrical Schottky contact at one end of a ZnO single nanowire based nanodevice. Here, the surface depletion layer controls the density and mobility of electrons in the nanowire, but the contact barrier controls the transport of electrons between the nanowire and electrode. As the width of the surface depletion is significantly smaller than the diameter of the nanowire, the surface depletion has little influence on the density and mobility of the electrons in the nanowire. However, the change in potential barrier at the Schottky contact greatly modifies the current conduction. The presence of impurities, inconsistencies and asymmetry in structure may alter the effective potential barrier and inhibit the flow of charge carriers, which may change the device characteristics. To solve this problem, defect free nanowires are required. In this communication, we have studied hydrogen-sensing properties of Pt/ZnO nanowire Schottky diodes by measuring current-voltage (
The sensitivity tests were carried out in a test chamber, where the change in current was measured at a fixed forward voltage (4 V) due to gas exposure. A known amount of highly purified hydrogen was injected from an ampoule along with argon gas acting as a diluting agent to get the required percentage (in ppm) of hydrogen in the measuring chamber. The sensing characteristics were then recorded at different temperatures with various hydrogen concentrations.
\n\t\t\t\tThe sensitivity is defined as
\n\t\t\t\twhere IG and IAr are the currents in hydrogen and argon ambient, respectively. The above expression can be used for both the forward and reverse current modes at a fixed voltage. Fig. 12(a) shows the variation of sensitivity with hydrogen concentration at room temperature in the forward bias mode (4 V) for a representative device. One can observe that the sensitivity increases linearly with hydrogen concentration till 2000 ppm, beyond which it increases slowly and tends to saturate.
\n\t\t\t\tIt seems that due to the increase in hydrogen concentration, more gas molecules are available to be in contact with the device. Thus, one would expect the response to increase up to a certain limit with increase in H2 concentration as observed here. Afterwards, with the increase in concentration sensitivity tends to saturate. This may be due to a saturation of adsorption of hydrogen atoms at Pt/ZnO nanowire interface and lack of adsorbed oxygen ions at the nanowire surface to react with gas molecules. Consequently, time resolved sensitivity measurement has also been done. Fig. 12 (b) represents the variation of sensitivity with time, measured at room temperature (300 K), when the test gas (hydrogen at 2500 ppm) is introduced in the chamber. It is observed that the maximum sensitivity is obtained within 75 sec. After removal of the test gas, the sensor tends to come back to its initial state and this change is exponential. Sensitivity decreases fast for first 50 seconds and then slowly to its original state. Response time is defined as the time taken for the sensor to reach 90% of the saturation value after gas exposure. The above observation suggests that the response time in these devices is ~55 second. The response time for Pd/nano-GaN Schottky diode reported by Das et al (Das et al., 2007) was ~12 min. On the other hand, Rout
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
The contribution of ZnO nanowire surface and Pt/ZnO nanowire Schottky junction to the sensing mechanism was varied with gas concentration and temperature. In order to investigate the detail sensing mechanism, we have measured the sensitivity at different temperatures with different gas concentrations and plotted in Fig. 12(c). The measurements, reported here, are taken at different temperatures after same interval (60 sec) of gas exposure after the equilibrium has been established. The sensitivity versus operating temperature curve shows a maximum at room temperature for 2500 ppm and decreases very slowly with increasing temperature, whereas it increases slowly but linearly with temperature for hydrogen concentration of 1000 ppm. On the other hand, for lower hydrogen concentration (500 ppm) sensitivity increases slowly up to 323 K. Beyond that appreciable change in sensitivity is observed. This can be explained by the temperature dependent adsorption and desorption process on both the nanowire surface and Schottky junction. Although individual contribution to the sensing mechanism is not distinguishable, but qualitatively one can explain the whole mechanism by considering change in band diagram in two different parts, namely ZnO nanowire surface and ZnO/Pt Schottky junction.
\n\t\t\t\tThe hydrogen sensing mechanism, investigated in this study, is schematically shown in Fig. 13. Due to the geometry of the devices, the electric field near the junction between the ZnO nanowire and metal is much higher. As a result, the gases around the contact easily dissociate and ionized gases get adsorbed at ZnO/Pt Schottky junction even at room temperature. The change in Schottky barrier height is likely to be the most important for H2 sensing but ZnO nanowire surface has also a contribution. However, this mechanism would be expected to exhibit a large dependence on the temperature and the concentration of gas around the devices. The sensing mechanism at nanowire surface can be explained in terms of the oxidizing/reducing gas effect. It is well known that the ZnO surface adsorbs oxygen species (O2\n\t\t\t\t\t-, O2-, O-) from air by trapping conductive electrons and makes the nanowire more resistive. Moreover, for a ZnO nanowire, high surface to volume ratio provides large number of surface atoms, which can lead to the insufficiency of surface atomic coordination and high surface energy (Liao et al., 2008). Therefore, the surface is highly active, which promotes further adsorption of oxygen from the atmosphere. On the other hand, when the nanowire is exposed to hydrogen environment, the reductive gas decreases the concentration of oxygen species on the nanowire surface, which in fact increases the electron concentration in the nanowire. It should be noted that the chemisorbed oxygen species depend strongly on temperature. Upon exposure to H2, it is the chemisorbed surface oxygen ions that participate in the redox reaction preferably at higher temperature (Hudson J.B., 1998). The electrons, released from this process, are responsible for the change in electrical properties of ZnO nanowire through band bending. Thus, at higher temperatures, the nanowire surface will become more active for hydrogen sensing. On the other hand, the characteristic of the nanosensor is largely determined by the behavior at the Schottky junction. The electrical response comes from the variation of the Schottky barrier height and barrier width as a result of adsorption of gaseous species at the Schottky contact. The response due to adsorption can be explained from the band diagram at the metal/ nanowire contact. After the exposure to hydrogen, Pt adsorbs hydrogen by catalytic chemical adsorption. Some of the hydrogen atoms diffuse through the thin metal layer and form a dipole layer at the interface of metal-semiconductor contact, which reduces the Schottky barrier height (Schalwig et al., 2002). Although that may change the barrier width, it is the height of the barrier that matters significantly for charge transport at room temperature. As a result, both the forward and reverse current increases with the increase of the hydrogen concentration. However, the Pt surface gradually saturates with the increase in hydrogen concentration, so the rate of change of current decreases. When the gas ambient switched from hydrogen to air, the oxygen reacted with hydrogen and the resistance of the nanowires changed back to the original value. This is an attractive process for long term application of hydrogen sensor.
\n\t\t\t\ta) Schematic diagram of the Pt/ZnO single nanowire hydrogen sensing mechanism. Schematic energy level diagram of (b) Pt/ZnO nanowire interface and (c) ZnO nanowire surface.
The sensitivity depends on the combine effect of operating temperature and the hydrogen concentration. The Schottky barrier height increases with temperature, while it decreases with increase in hydrogen concentration. For higher hydrogen concentration (2500 ppm) the interface becomes saturated even at room temperature. This results a small change (decrease) in barrier height due to further adsorption of hydrogen atom with temperature, but the barrier height of the junction increases. As a result, the sensitivity decreases slowly with increase in temperature. But, for low hydrogen concentration (500 ppm), the interface does not saturate and more hydrogen can be adsorbed with increase in temperature. Thus, the sensitivity increases with increase in temperature for lower hydrogen concentration. Quick response and stability are also important characteristics of sensors. For quick response, the electron-exchange must take place rapidly so that equilibrium is established during measurement. As the Pt/nanowire interface is very small, a thin adsorbed hydrogen layer is formed quickly at the interface, which may block further electron exchange and thus equilibrium occurs. Hence, further increase in hydrogen concentration may eventually saturate the Pt/nanowire interface, which limits further electron-exchange. Thus, the interface of the Pt/ZnO nanowire Schottky device plays a significant role in quick response at room temperature hydrogen sensing.
\n\t\t\tIn conclusion, Schottky dioded of single nanowire with different metal (Au, Ni and Pt) have been fabricated by e-beam lithography. Detailed I-V characteristics of the Schottky diodes have been investigated at different temperature. The barrier hight value and ideality factor at different temperature for different Schottky diodes were obtained from I-V measurements. The calculated barrier height value using generalized Norde method is in good agreement with the value obtained from XPS measurements. However, the calculated barrier height values are lower than theoretical value obtained from Schottky-Mott theory. The effect of tunneling, Fermi level pinning and image force lowering have contribution, but not enough to explain the barrier height lowering. The ionization of interface states by the injected hot electrons result in the emptying the interface states and consequent Fermi-level deepening at metal/semiconductor interface may be the possible reason for low barrier height. The single nanowire Schottky diodes were used for UV detector (Au/ZnO nanowire) and room temperature hydrogen sensor (Pt/ZnO nanowire). The schottky contact and ZnO surface yield unambiguous information on the UV detection mechanism, particularly in cases where the intensity of UV light is low. In case of Schottky diode, low power UV detection is significant. Hydrogen-sensing behavior of Pt/ZnO nanowire Schottky diode has suggested that it has good sensing characteristic (S ≈ 90%) at room temperature with a response time of ~55 s. The sensitivity shows a maximum at room temperature for H2 concentration of 2500 ppm and decreases very slowly with an increase in temperature, whereas it increases slowly with temperature for H2 concentration of 500 ppm.
\n\t\tRainfall is a key component of the global water cycle and is essential for a wide range of applications such as crop modeling, hydrometeorology, water resource management, flood and drought monitoring, and climatological applications [1, 2, 3]. Accurate and consistent rainfall estimates are also of remarkable importance for the drought-prone regions, such as the semiarid region of Northeast Brazil (NEB), which is at high risk of food insecurity due to the occurrence of prolonged droughts whose impacts affect adversely their water resources and crop production [4, 5, 6].
\nNowadays, the measurement of precipitation is based on rain gauge stations, meteorological radars, and satellite retrievals [7, 8]. Rainfall data from ground stations provide high accuracy [9], but they are limited in spatial coverage [10]. Meteorological radars suffer from reduced data quality owing to signal blockage or distortion [11]. Satellites can be used for sensing large regions with a high temporal and spatial resolution, though satellite retrieval approaches are prone to biases and systematic errors [12]. Consequently, satellite-based rainfall estimates must be validated against rain gauge data in order to assess their uncertainties before being used [13, 14].
\nIn NEB, despite the efforts of the state climate agencies (e.g., National Center for Monitoring and Early Warning of Natural Disasters, CEMADEN; National Institute of Meteorology, INMET; Meteorology and Hydrologic Resources Foundation of Ceara, FUNCEME; Superintendence for the Development of the Northeast, SUDENE; and National Water Agency, ANA), most of the rain gauge networks currently available are inadequate to produce reliable rainfall analysis, because of their scarce spatial coverage, high proportion of missing data, and short-length records [15]. To overcome these limitations, there is a wide variety of satellite-based rainfall products, such as the Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Stations (CHIRPS).
\nCHIRPS is a quasi-global rainfall data set with relatively high spatial resolution (°0.05 × °0.05) and long-term temporal coverage (from 1981 to near real time), whose processing chain blends satellite and gauge rainfall estimates [16]. Since early 2014, CHIRPS rainfall estimations are disseminated with different temporal scales (monthly, 10-day, 5-day, and daily time steps) by the University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB). It has been subjected to various assessments worldwide by comparing to gauge measurements. According to these studies, the CHIRPS rainfall data set performs relatively well at both a regional and global scale, mainly in terms of bias and the Pearson’s correlation coefficient when compared to other state-of-the-art satellite rainfall products [1, 8, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21].
\nUnlike other natural regions, very few studies have been carried out to validate CHIRPS rainfall estimates in NEB. Overall, CHIRPS achieves better results during the rainy season (i.e., March to May), but its ability for the rain detection is poor [22]. Moreover, CHIRPS displays a rainfall pattern similar to the rain gauge data in the south-southeast subregion of the NEB, even though some performance scores are lower than the ones derived from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) Multi-satellite Precipitation Analysis (TMPA) 3B42V7 product, particularly from 2012 to 2014 [23]. Interestingly, CHIRPS provides performance better in terms of rain amount than the Multi-Source Weighted-Ensemble Precipitation (MSWEP), SM2RAIN-CCI (Climate Change Initiative), and Climate Prediction Center Morphing Technique (CMORPH) rainfall products over the Cerrado biome of NEB [24]. These findings are promising for operational applications in NEB (e.g., remote drought monitoring). Nevertheless, to our knowledge, a study investigating the performance of the CHIRPS rainfall data set by using new available ground-based observations is still absent.
\nThe purpose of this study is to evaluate the quality of the CHIRPS rainfall estimates in NEB by considering the newest in situ data from the INMET meteorological stations, which is used as a benchmark rainfall data set over a 39-year period (1981–2019).
\nThe study was carried out in NEB (∼8,515,759 km2), which is located between 5.2° N–33.7° S and 34.7°–48.7° W [25]. In this region, the annual precipitation decreases from the east and northeast coast (>1500 mm/year) to inland dry regions (<500 mm/year) [22], due to the impact of the orography [26] and the influence of different meteorological systems, such as the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ), squall lines (SL), easterly wave disturbances (EWD), upper tropospheric cyclonic vortices (UTCV), frontal systems (FS), mesoscale convective complexes (MCC), and the South Atlantic convergence zone (SACZ) [27]. The rainy season occurs at different times of the year: April to June in the eastern coast of the NEB; November to January in the southern part of the NEB; and March to May in the semiarid northwestern part of the NEB [27]. This region includes two main river basins, namely, the basins of the São Francisco River (where the Sobradinho reservoir is located) and the Parnaíba River. It also contains the Amazonia, Cerrado, Atlantic Forest, and Caatinga biomes, which are strongly related to the spatial distribution of rainfall regimes [6, 15].
\nDaily rain gauge observations from rain gauge stations were provided by the INMET (www.inmet.gov.br). The higher values than daily mean ± 3.5 standard deviations (method for detection of outliers) were coded as missing data [20]. The daily rainfall time series with more than 25% missing data per month were omitted [22]. A number of 27 stations were selected with these criterions (temporal coverage: January 1981 to June 2019). It is worth mentioning that 77%, 62%, and 42% of these stations were used in the blending process of CHIRPS during 1981–1998, 1999–2013, and 2014–2019, respectively (see https://bit.ly/2ZZFAvA); therefore, this sample is not a completely independent data set [13]. As depicted in Figure 1, most stations are located in the northwest NEB or near the coast.
\nGeographical location of the study area showing (a) selected stations. The numbers indicate the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) serial of each station; (b) annual mean precipitation for selected stations from 1 January 1981 to 30 June 2019.
CHIRPS rainfall estimates were obtained from the UCSB-Climate Hazards Group (CHG) webpage (https://www.chc.ucsb.edu/data; version 2 released in February 2015) at a daily time scale and spatial resolution of 0.05°, starting 1 January 1981 to 30 June 2019. This rainfall product uses a three-step development process. First, infrared precipitation (IRP) pentad (5-day) rainfall estimates are created from satellite data using cold cloud durations (CCD) lower than 235 K as a threshold value and calibrated in relation to the TRMM 3B42-based precipitation pentads by local regression. Then, the IRP pentads are divided by its long-term IRP mean values to present a percent of normal. Second, the percent of normal IRP pentad is multiplied by the corresponding Climate Hazards Precipitation Climatology (CHPclim) pentad to generate an unbiased rainfall estimate, with units of millimeters per pentad, called the CHG IR Precipitation (CHIRP). Third, pentadal CHIRP values are disaggregated to daily precipitation estimates based on daily NOAA Climate Forecast System (CFS) fields rescaled to 0.05° resolution. Finally, CHIRPS is produced through blending stations with the CHIRP data sets via a modified inverse distance-weighted algorithm [8]. For more details about the CHIRPS data set, the reader is referred to Funk et al. [16].
\nThe land cover, annual rainfall, elevation, and type of climate were used as auxiliary information. The land cover was derived from the Land Cover-Climate Change Initiative (LC-CCI) product [28] (available online at http://maps.elie.ucl.ac.be). The average annual rainfall was estimated from the selected stations. The gauge elevation was obtained from the metadata information at each station. The slope and aspect of the terrain were derived from the Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission (SRTM) (available online at https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov). The type of climate was extracted from the Köppen-Geiger climate classification developed by Beck et al. [29] (available online at https://bit.ly/2Zt90Bu).
\nThe methodology applied in this study is summarized in Figure 2. The CHIRPS rainfall data set was chosen because of its low latency (about 3 weeks), high spatial resolution (0.05° × 0.05°), daily temporal resolution, and long-term temporal coverage (1981 to near real time), respectively, so it is potentially suitable for operational purposes in NEB. Firstly, the CHIRPS product was clipped using a shapefile of NEB as a mask. Then, CHIRPS rainfall estimates were extracted using the nearest neighbor (NN) method to generate a paired rainfall data from 1 January 1981 to 30 June 2019 (i.e., the common temporal coverage). The rationale behind the choice of the NN method instead of gridded ground-based rainfall data (e.g., via spatial interpolation) is related to the fact that the latter would involve large uncertainties given the lack of a high-density rain gauge network to reproduce adequately the rainfall gradients in NEB [22]. Secondly, an intercomparison of both rainfall data sets was carried out in order to explore the performance of the CHIRPS product at the monthly, seasonal, and annual time scales during the common temporal coverage. Consequently, several metrics on a pixel-to-station basis were computed. The Pearson’s correlation coefficient (R), unbiased root mean square error (ubRMSE), and percentage bias (PBIAS) were used as continuous scores. R measures the linear relationship strength between estimations and observations, while ubRMSE and B scores measure how the value of estimates differs from the observed values [20]. To examine the rain detection capability of the CHIRPS product, the probability of detection (POD), false alarm ratio (FAR), and threat score (TS) were used as categorical scores. POD and FAR indicate the fraction of the observed events that were correctly forecasted and the fraction of the predicted events did not occur, respectively. TS is the fraction between hits to all CHIRPS-based events. The categorical scores were derived from a contingency table using a rainfall threshold of 1 mm/day to discriminate between rain and no-rain event [29] (see Table 1). This rainfall threshold was chosen due to its previous use in semiarid regions [22, 23, 30]. Finally, in order to investigate the influence of the rainfall station spatial distribution on the performance scores, a cluster analysis based on the k-medoid algorithm was applied using the score values of all stations as cases. This unsupervised classification technique was implemented because it is not sensitive to outliers and reduces noise [31]. The equations, ranges, and optimal values of the performance scores are outlined in Table 2.
\nSimplified flowchart of the methodology used in this study.
\n | Gauge ≥ threshold | \nGauge < threshold | \n
---|---|---|
CHIRPS ≥ threshold | \nA | \nB | \n
CHIRPS < threshold | \nC | \nD | \n
Contingency table to estimate categorical scores. A, number of hits; B, number of false alarms; C, number of misses; D, number of correct negatives; threshold, rainfall threshold (1 mm/day).
Name | \nFormula | \nRange | \nPerfect score | \n
---|---|---|---|
Pearson’s correlation coefficient | \n\n\n | \n[−1, 1] | \n1 | \n
Root mean square error | \n\n\n | \n[0, ∞) | \n0 | \n
Percentage bias | \n\n\n | \n(−∞, ∞) | \n0 | \n
Unbiased root mean square error | \n\n\n | \n[0, ∞) | \n0 | \n
Probability of detection | \n\n\n | \n[0, 1] | \n1 | \n
False alarm ratio | \n\n\n | \n[0, 1] | \n0 | \n
Threat score | \n\n\n | \n[0, 1] | \n1 | \n
Formulas of continuous and categorical scores. G, gauge-based rainfall measurement (mm/day); S, CHIRPS-based rainfall estimate (mm/day); \n
For clarity, this section is split into three parts: (1) evaluation on annual and seasonal scales; (2) monthly variation of scores; and (3) clustering-based spatial performance.
\n\nFigure 3 shows the spatial distribution of the continuous scores obtained after the pixel-to-station comparison of the CHIRPS rainfall estimates against the gauge-based data set during the study period. The seasons were defined as summer (Dec-Jan-Feb), autumn (Mar-Apr-May), winter (Jun-Jul-Aug), and spring (Sep-Oct-Nov) because the NEB is located in the southern hemisphere. The R, ubRMSE, and PBIAS median values listed in each subpanel were obtained by averaging these values from all stations via median to minimize the effects of extreme values. The CHIRPS product showed relatively good agreement with observations in terms of R, ubRMSE, and PBIAS at annual time scale (R median: 0.49; ubRMSE median: 9.73 mm/day; PBIAS, −4.10%), particularly in the northwest NEB (R > 0.50, ubRMSE and PBIAS near zero). Interestingly, the R median value begins to decrease from above 0.46 in summer to 0.32 in winter, but it rebounds and increases to values above 0.39 in spring. The ubRMSE values showed a similar pattern, with the higher ubRMSE values in summer and autumn (ubRMSE > 10 mm/day) and lower values in winter and spring (ubRMSE < 6 mm/day). The comparison revealed also that CHIRPS tends to underestimate the amount of rainfall in the course of a year (PBIAS annual median: −4.10%), especially during the transition from summer to winter (PBIAS median from −0.20% to −15.00%).
\nSpatial distribution of R, ubRMSE, and PBIAS derived from the CHIRPS rainfall estimates against ground observations for (a–c) annual; (d–f) summer; (g–i) autumn; (j–l) winter; and (m–o) spring. The median value of each score is reported.
For the annual time scale, the POD, FAR, and TS mean values were 0.56, 0.44, and 0.37, respectively (Figure 4), indicating an acceptable rain detection ability in terms of POD, even though with a medium probability of false alarms in the central NEB. Similar to R and ubRMSE (Figure 2), the higher POD and TS values occurred in summer and autumn (POD median > 0.50; TS median > 0.30), while lower values were observed in winter and spring. As expected, the FAR exhibited an inverse response to POD throughout the year (i.e., FAR median > 0.55 in winter and spring with lower values in summer and autumn).
\nSpatial distribution of POD, FAR, and TS derived from the CHIRPS rainfall estimates against ground observations for (a–c) annual; (d–f) summer; (g–i) autumn; (j–l) winter; and (m–o) spring. The median value of each score is reported.
\nFigure 5 shows the median of the scores for all stations, months, and years. The median values of R, ubRMSE, and PBIAS ranged between −0.06 and 0.66, 1.48 mm/day and 19.54 mm/day, and −44.50% and 147.80%, respectively. The lowest R values were observed in August (R median: 0.16) and the highest R values in March (R median: 0.41). According to the PBIAS time series, CHIRPS tends to underestimate (overestimate) the amount of rainfall between May and August (September and April), which is consistent with the findings from Figure 3. A moderate linear relationship between the monthly averaged values of PBIAS and ubRMSE was also found (R = −0.35, p-value <0.05), suggesting that PBIAS tends to increase when ubRMSE decreases. Furthermore, R, ubRMSE, and PBIAS did not exhibit a long-term trend (not shown for brevity), even though they showed high values for the coefficient of variation (i.e., 51.86%, 41.82%, and 675.49%, respectively).
\nMonthly time series for (a) R (dimensionless); (b) POD (dimensionless); (c) ubRMSE (mm/day); (d) FAR (dimensionless); (e) PBIAS (%); and (f) TS (dimensionless) derived from the CHIRPS rainfall estimates against ground observations (black line) for all NEB during the period 1981–2019. The red line depicts a 12-month moving average.
The temporal variation of POD, FAR, and TR is shown in Figure 5. They varied from 0.00 to 0.86, from 0.00 to 1.00, and from 0.00 to 0.68, respectively. The highest POD and TR values were observed in February and March and the lowest in July and August. This means that CHIRPS shows better performance during the rainy season in terms of detection of rain events, which is in line with those inferences obtained from Figure 4. Moreover, the lowest FAR values were observed in July and August, indicating a minimum rate of false alarms during the driest months. Similar to the continuous scores, these scores did not exhibit a long-term trend but a high temporal variation (i.e., 64.69%, 42.13%, and 63.97% for POD, FAR, and TR, respectively).
\nThe previous statistical approaches provide a limited interpretation of the performance of CHIRPS, because they do not offer information about the degree of similarity among the selected stations in terms of their performance scores. Therefore, to identify the similar stations according to their scores, a medoid-based cluster analysis was applied. In order to adequately capture the spatiotemporal variability of the performance scores, an annual time scale was considered (i.e., Figures 3a–c and 4a–c). The spatial distribution of the clustered stations is shown in Figure 6 (N1, 18 stations; N2, 9 stations), while Figure 7 displays the performance scores grouped by cluster.
\nClustered stations according to their continuous and categorical scores at annual time scale. A 250-m digital elevation model derived from SRTM images is shown.
Boxplots for (a) R (dimensionless); (b) POD (dimensionless); (c) ubRMSE (mm/day); (d) FAR (dimensionless); (e) PBIAS (%); and (f) TS (dimensionless) at annual time scale grouped by cluster, where the thick line depicts the median, while the other horizontal lines of the box depict the maximum, upper quartile, lower quartile, and minimum. For clarity the outliers were omitted.
Visual inspection of Figure 7 reveals that the C1 stations showed the best performance in terms of R, ubRMSE, PBIAS, POD, and TS. The FAR values were similar in both clusters, indicating that CHIRPS tends to forecast false alarms in the entire NEB (i.e., CHIRPS estimates to occur a rainfall event, but did not occur), which is also evident in Figure 4. It is interesting to note that the C2 stations were mostly concentrated near the coast.
\nA more detailed comparison, considering the auxiliary data sets (see Section 2.3), showed that there were no significant differences between both clusters in terms of average annual precipitation and terrain elevation (test based on Wilcoxon’s t-statistic at the 5% level was used). This means that these local factors did not affect the performance scores. However, regardless of the land cover, most of the C1 stations are located in open flatlands (i.e., terrain slope < 7%) with tropical savanna climate (i.e., Aw), which seem to be favorable surface conditions for better performance of CHIRPS.
\nSeveral performance scores were used to evaluate the CHIRPS rainfall product against gauge observations in Northeast Brazil during the period from January 1981 to June 2019. This region is characterized by large interannual rainfall variations and severe droughts [6, 15]. In line with previous studies [22, 23, 24], the CHIRPS data set captured relatively well the spatiotemporal pattern of rainfall across NEB, showing acceptable accuracies (see Figures 3 and 4), thanks to the blending process to merge the CHIRP data set derived from IR brightness temperature and TRMM, with ground-based observations [16].
\nCHIRPS exhibited poorer performance at daily time scale in terms of R (R median: 0.49) than that obtained with monthly time scale (R median: 0.94, reported by Paredes et al. [22]), indicating that increasing temporal aggregation leads to better agreement between CHIRPS and ground-based observations in NEB. This was expected because errors at daily scale time showed closely symmetric characteristics (see Figure 5); therefore, they tend to cancel each other during the temporal aggregation [32]. By contrast, this procedure did not provide a significant improvement on the performance in terms of PBIAS (PBIAS median: −4.10% and −3.58% [22] for daily and monthly time scales, respectively), likely due to its high variability at daily time scale (about 700%).
\nThese first results are consistent with the previous findings in other regions with similar climatic features such as South Sudan [33], where CHIRPS became more accurate in terms of R and RMSE as the duration of the integration time increased from months to years. It is important to note, however, that this characteristic is not unique to CHIRPS. Most of the satellite-based rainfall products tend to improve their general performance as the aggregation period increases owing to the effect of cancelation of errors [34, 35].
\nOverall, CHIRPS showed the best (worst) performance with the (lowest) highest of R and POD and the (highest) lowest bias and FAR during the (driest) wettest months of the year (see Figures 3 and 4). This result is consistent with the findings of Paredes-Trejo et al. [24] and Nogueira et al. [23], who found that CHIRPS tends to overestimate low and underestimate high rainfall values in NEB. Likewise, it should be mentioned that the PBIAS and R values were highly sensitive to drought conditions, such as those observed from 2012 to 2015, where CHIRPS showed lower R values (about 0.20) and higher overestimation of the rainfall amount (see Figure 5a and e). The degradation of the performance under extreme droughts may be attributed to the evaporation processes of raindrops in the dry atmosphere before reaching the surface [20]. In this context, CHIRPS forecasts a rainfall event, but does not occur. According to the equations listed in Table 2, this phenomenon leads to higher PBIAS values and near-zero values for R, POD, and TS.
\nThe sub-cloud evaporation plays an important role in the overestimation of rainfall occurrence over different semiarid and arid regions in the world [19, 32, 36]. Therefore, it can help to explain the poor performance of CHIRPS over the driest region of NEB (i.e., the Sertão region), especially in autumn and winter (see Figures 3 and 4) and during drought years induced by climate anomalies from the tropical Pacific Ocean (i.e., El Niño-Southern Oscillation) [37]. When this occurs, the air in the lower atmosphere is drier and hotter than usual conditions over the Sertão region [4]. Then, an intensification of the sub-cloud evaporation processes might be expected.
\nOn a seasonal time scale, the reliability of the CHIRPS product was evident in reproducing the seasonal rainfall pattern with results comparable with the ones previously published by Melo et al. [30] for the TRMM 3B42V7 rainfall product, which is its parent rainfall product [16] (see Section 2.2). Similar to TRMM, it was found that CHIRPS exhibits poorer performance over those stations near the coast than the ones located in inland regions of NEB (see Figures 6 and 7), particularly in winter (see Figures 3 and 4). The reason behind this can be attributed to the prevalence of warm-top stratiform cloud systems along the coastal region [38, 39]. Under these conditions, CHIRPS may not detect rainfall because the cloud tops tend to have a value warmer than the IRP CCD threshold value (i.e., 235 K) [19], leading to a large underestimation in the daily precipitation and poor detection of rainfall events.
\nAs can be seen from Figure 6, the landscape at most of the stations is characterized by high topographic complexity, where warm-rain processes induced by orographic lifting are dominant [40, 41]. Similar to the warm-top stratiform cloud systems in the coastal areas mentioned above, CHIRPS has limitations in reproducing the orographic rainfall due to the adoption of a fixed IRP CCD threshold value (i.e., 235 K), leading to classify warm orographic clouds as nonprecipitating [19]. Even though orographic clouds are relatively warm, they can produce substantial amounts of rain [15].
\nInterestingly, although the number of stations used in the CHIRPS blending process as anchor stations showed a gradual temporal decrease in NEB during the period January 1981 until June 2019 (see https://bit.ly/2ZZFAvA), there was no statistically significant trend in their performance scores (see Figure 5). For this study, at least 12, 19, and 21 rain gauges not included as anchor stations for the calculation of CHIRPS rainfall estimations during 1981–1998, 1999–2013, and 2014–2019, respectively, were used. One implication of this situation is that it can be considered a relatively independent validation.
\nThe synergetic use of ground-based rainfall observations and satellite-based rainfall estimates is of paramount importance in semiarid regions such as Northeast Brazil. CHIRPS is a state-of-the-art satellite rainfall data set characterized by its blending procedure using thermal infrared satellite observations, TRMM 3B42-based rainfall estimates, monthly precipitation climatology, and atmospheric model rainfall fields from NOAA CFS, with ground-based rainfall measurements [16]. This study set out with the aim of evaluating the performance of CHIRPS against ground-based observations in NEB. The analysis was performed on a pixel-to-station basis at daily time scale and during the period 1981–2019. The major novelty of this study with respect to previous studies [22, 23, 42] is the use of the newest in situ data from the INMET meteorological stations. The main conclusions reached are the following:
The CHIRPS rainfall data set exhibits better performance in inland regions with open flatlands than near the coast (see Figures 6 and 7).
The accuracy of CHIRPS is better in the wettest months (i.e., summer) than in the driest months (i.e., winter) (see Figures 3 and 4). In general, CHIRPS underestimates (overestimates) high (low) rainfall amounts.
CHIRPS appears to be sensitive to the precipitation from the warm-top stratiform cloud systems (e.g., near to the coast), the warm-rain processes induced by orographic lifting (e.g., the mountain areas of NEB), and the sub-cloud evaporation processes (e.g., the Sertão region). The first and second are mainly attributed to a fixed IRP CCD threshold (i.e., 235 K) used by CHIRPS (see Section 2.2), which may be too cold for regions where the warm-rain processes are dominant [34], while the third is a usual phenomenon in semiarid regions [19].
Based on the abovementioned conclusions, CHIRPS can serve as an alternative source of data for operational applications that require rainfall data, especially over the inland regions of NEB (see the C1 stations in Figure 6), during the wettest months of the year (see Figures 3 and 4), and at monthly or annual time scales taking advantage of the cancelation of errors of CHIRPS rainfall estimates as the duration of the integration increases [34]. However, future investigations are needed to adequately choose the operational applications of CHIRPS for each subregion of the NEB.
\nThis work was funded by the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES) and the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) (Grant no. 88887.091737/2014-01: Edital Pró-Alertas no 24/2014 under project Análise e Previsão dos Fenômenos Hidrometeorológicos Intensos do Leste do Nordeste Brasileiro). We acknowledge to the National Institute of Meteorology (INMET) and the University of California Santa Barbara’s Climate Hazards Group (CHG) for providing data that made this study possible.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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The model parameters deciphered here are the amplitude coefficient (k), horizontal location (x0), depth of the body (z), and shape (q). Inversion of the model parameter suggests that constraining the horizontal location and the shape factor offers the most reliable results. Investigation of convergence rate, histogram, and cross-plot examination suggest that the interpretation method developed for the self-potential anomalies is stable and the model parameters are within the estimated ambiguity. Inversion of synthetic noise-free and noise-corrupted data for single structures and multiple structures in addition to real field information exhibits the viability of the method. The model parameters estimated by the present technique were in good agreement with the real parameters. The method has been used to invert two field examples (Sulleymonkoy anomaly, Ergani, Turkey, Senneterre area of Quebec, Canada) with application of subsurface mineralized bodies. This technique can be very much helpful for mineral or ore bodies investigation of idealized geobodies buried within the shallow and deeper subsurface.",book:{id:"7315",slug:"minerals",title:"Minerals",fullTitle:"Minerals"},signatures:"Arkoprovo Biswas",authors:[{id:"250390",title:"Dr.",name:"Arkoprovo",middleName:null,surname:"Biswas",slug:"arkoprovo-biswas",fullName:"Arkoprovo Biswas"}]},{id:"71052",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90880",title:"Enhanced Humidity Sensing Response in Eu3+-Doped Iron-Rich CuFe2O4: A Detailed Study of Structural, Microstructural, Sensing, and Dielectric Properties",slug:"enhanced-humidity-sensing-response-in-eu-sup-3-sup-doped-iron-rich-cufe-sub-2-sub-o-sub-4-sub-a-deta",totalDownloads:609,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"The CuFe(2−x)EuxO4 (where x = 0.00, 0.01, 0.02, 0.03) nanoparticles are synthesized by solution combustion method. The influence of Eu3+ on the structural, morphological, dielectrical, and humidity sensing study is recorded. The XRD pattern peaks of the as-prepared CuFe(2−x)EuxO4 (where x = 0.00, 0.01, 0.02, 0.03) nanoparticle confirm the polycrystalline spinel cubic structure with a small amount of CuO impurity phase at 38.87° and 48.96°. Surface morphology of the samples was studied by scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of the nanoparticles, and their respective average grain size was estimated using Image software. Chemical composition of all prepared samples was analyzed by EDS spectra. The dielectric parameters of AC conductivity, electric modulus, and impedance of the samples were measured over a range of frequencies from 0.1 KHz to 1 MHz at room temperature. Europium-doped copper ferrite samples showed good humidity sensing response, response and recover times, and stability over a %RH range of 11–91%. These types of samples are very useful for sensor application, battery applications, electronic applications, and automotive applications.",book:{id:"9247",slug:"mineralogy-significance-and-applications",title:"Mineralogy",fullTitle:"Mineralogy - Significance and Applications"},signatures:"I.C. Sathisha, K. Manjunatha, V. Jagadeesha Angadi, B. Chethan, Y.T. Ravikiran, Vinayaka K. Pattar, S.O. Manjunatha and Shidaling Matteppanavar",authors:[{id:"266255",title:"Dr.",name:"Veerabhadrappa",middleName:null,surname:"Jagadeesha Angadi",slug:"veerabhadrappa-jagadeesha-angadi",fullName:"Veerabhadrappa Jagadeesha Angadi"},{id:"321561",title:"Dr.",name:"I.C.",middleName:null,surname:"Sathisha",slug:"i.c.-sathisha",fullName:"I.C. Sathisha"},{id:"321562",title:"Dr.",name:"K.",middleName:null,surname:"Manjunatha",slug:"k.-manjunatha",fullName:"K. Manjunatha"},{id:"321564",title:"Dr.",name:"B.",middleName:null,surname:"Chethan",slug:"b.-chethan",fullName:"B. 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This chapter presents an outline of a general review of factors that affect the application ability of NCMs and a descriptive analysis of NH4+ and REE adsorption behavior and extraction of rare earth elements (REE) by an ion-exchange with NH4+ ions onto NCMs. Clays and NCMs both effectively remove various contaminants from aqueous solution and serve as alternative sources of minerals, as extensively discussed in this chapter. This review compiles thorough literature of current research and highlights the key findings of adsorption (NH4+ and REE) that use different NCMs as adsorbents or alternative sources of minerals (i.e., REE). The review confirmed that NCMs excellently remove different cations pollutants and have significant potential as alternative source of REE. However, modification and further development of NCMs applications for getting the best adsorption and the best extraction of REE onto NCMs, which would enhance pollution control and leaching system is still needed.",book:{id:"7315",slug:"minerals",title:"Minerals",fullTitle:"Minerals"},signatures:"Aref Alshameri, Xinghu Wei, Hailong Wang, Yang Fuguo, Xin Chen, Hongping He, Chunjie Yan and Feng Xu",authors:[{id:"172947",title:"Prof.",name:"Xin",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"xin-chen",fullName:"Xin Chen"},{id:"250327",title:"Dr.",name:"Aref",middleName:null,surname:"Alshameri",slug:"aref-alshameri",fullName:"Aref Alshameri"},{id:"306625",title:"Dr.",name:"Aref",middleName:null,surname:"Alshameri",slug:"aref-alshameri",fullName:"Aref Alshameri"},{id:"306656",title:"Prof.",name:"Fuguo",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"fuguo-yang",fullName:"Fuguo Yang"},{id:"306658",title:"Dr.",name:"Wei",middleName:null,surname:"Xinghu",slug:"wei-xinghu",fullName:"Wei Xinghu"},{id:"306660",title:"Prof.",name:"Wang",middleName:null,surname:"Hailong",slug:"wang-hailong",fullName:"Wang Hailong"},{id:"306664",title:"Prof.",name:"Yan",middleName:null,surname:"Chunjie",slug:"yan-chunjie",fullName:"Yan Chunjie"},{id:"306665",title:"Dr.",name:"Xu",middleName:null,surname:"Feng",slug:"xu-feng",fullName:"Xu Feng"},{id:"306671",title:"Prof.",name:"He",middleName:null,surname:"Hongping",slug:"he-hongping",fullName:"He Hongping"}]},{id:"27435",doi:"10.5772/34861",title:"A Review of Pathological Biomineral Analysis Techniques and Classification Schemes",slug:"a-review-of-pathological-biomineral-analysis-techniques-and-classification-schemes",totalDownloads:4347,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"1600",slug:"an-introduction-to-the-study-of-mineralogy",title:"An Introduction to the Study of Mineralogy",fullTitle:"An Introduction to the Study of Mineralogy"},signatures:"Maria Luigia Giannossi and Vito Summa",authors:[{id:"101919",title:"PhD.",name:"Maria Luigia",middleName:null,surname:"Giannossi",slug:"maria-luigia-giannossi",fullName:"Maria Luigia Giannossi"},{id:"108348",title:"Dr.",name:"Vito",middleName:null,surname:"Summa",slug:"vito-summa",fullName:"Vito Summa"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71052",title:"Enhanced Humidity Sensing Response in Eu3+-Doped Iron-Rich CuFe2O4: A Detailed Study of Structural, Microstructural, Sensing, and Dielectric Properties",slug:"enhanced-humidity-sensing-response-in-eu-sup-3-sup-doped-iron-rich-cufe-sub-2-sub-o-sub-4-sub-a-deta",totalDownloads:608,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"The CuFe(2−x)EuxO4 (where x = 0.00, 0.01, 0.02, 0.03) nanoparticles are synthesized by solution combustion method. The influence of Eu3+ on the structural, morphological, dielectrical, and humidity sensing study is recorded. The XRD pattern peaks of the as-prepared CuFe(2−x)EuxO4 (where x = 0.00, 0.01, 0.02, 0.03) nanoparticle confirm the polycrystalline spinel cubic structure with a small amount of CuO impurity phase at 38.87° and 48.96°. Surface morphology of the samples was studied by scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of the nanoparticles, and their respective average grain size was estimated using Image software. Chemical composition of all prepared samples was analyzed by EDS spectra. The dielectric parameters of AC conductivity, electric modulus, and impedance of the samples were measured over a range of frequencies from 0.1 KHz to 1 MHz at room temperature. Europium-doped copper ferrite samples showed good humidity sensing response, response and recover times, and stability over a %RH range of 11–91%. These types of samples are very useful for sensor application, battery applications, electronic applications, and automotive applications.",book:{id:"9247",slug:"mineralogy-significance-and-applications",title:"Mineralogy",fullTitle:"Mineralogy - Significance and Applications"},signatures:"I.C. Sathisha, K. Manjunatha, V. Jagadeesha Angadi, B. Chethan, Y.T. Ravikiran, Vinayaka K. Pattar, S.O. Manjunatha and Shidaling Matteppanavar",authors:[{id:"266255",title:"Dr.",name:"Veerabhadrappa",middleName:null,surname:"Jagadeesha Angadi",slug:"veerabhadrappa-jagadeesha-angadi",fullName:"Veerabhadrappa Jagadeesha Angadi"},{id:"321561",title:"Dr.",name:"I.C.",middleName:null,surname:"Sathisha",slug:"i.c.-sathisha",fullName:"I.C. Sathisha"},{id:"321562",title:"Dr.",name:"K.",middleName:null,surname:"Manjunatha",slug:"k.-manjunatha",fullName:"K. Manjunatha"},{id:"321564",title:"Dr.",name:"B.",middleName:null,surname:"Chethan",slug:"b.-chethan",fullName:"B. 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Essa and Marc Munschy",authors:[{id:"102766",title:"Prof.",name:"Khalid S.",middleName:null,surname:"Essa",slug:"khalid-s.-essa",fullName:"Khalid S. Essa"},{id:"292929",title:"Prof.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Munschy",slug:"marc-munschy",fullName:"Marc Munschy"}]},{id:"69811",title:"Chemical Synthesis and Characterization of Luminescent Iron Oxide Nanoparticles and Their Biomedical Applications",slug:"chemical-synthesis-and-characterization-of-luminescent-iron-oxide-nanoparticles-and-their-biomedical",totalDownloads:588,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The syntheses and characterizations of biocompatible luminescent magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles has drawn particular attention as diagnostic and drug delivery tools for treatment of cancer and many other diseases. This chapter focuses on the chemical synthetic methods, magnetic and luminescent properties, including the biomedical applications of iron oxide nanomaterials and luminescent magnetic iron oxide-based nanocomposite materials. The influences of functionalizing with short ligands such as dopamine and L-cysteine on the magnetic properties of synthesized nanoparticles are described. The chapter contains some data on necessary reagents and protocols for bioconjugation aimed at cell culture and step by step the MTT assays used to evaluate cytotoxicity are also presented. In the final section of the chapter, we focus on the biomedical applications specifically for diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer treatment. This chapter also investigates the application of various characterization techniques for analysis of the structural, optical and magnetic properties of the iron oxide nanoparticles and as their nanocomposites.",book:{id:"9247",slug:"mineralogy-significance-and-applications",title:"Mineralogy",fullTitle:"Mineralogy - Significance and Applications"},signatures:"Martin Onani, Leandre Brandt and Zuraan Paulsen",authors:[{id:"258023",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",middleName:null,surname:"Onani",slug:"martin-onani",fullName:"Martin Onani"},{id:"302723",title:"Dr.",name:"Leandré Bianca",middleName:null,surname:"Brandt",slug:"leandre-bianca-brandt",fullName:"Leandré Bianca Brandt"},{id:"302725",title:"MSc.",name:"Zuraan",middleName:null,surname:"Paulsen",slug:"zuraan-paulsen",fullName:"Zuraan Paulsen"}]},{id:"27429",title:"An Introduction to 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He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11421,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. 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Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. 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Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. Daramola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"357014",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",middleName:null,surname:"Bobrowski",slug:"leon-bobrowski",fullName:"Leon Bobrowski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bialystok University of Technology",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"354126",title:"Dr.",name:"Setiawan",middleName:null,surname:"Hadi",slug:"setiawan-hadi",fullName:"Setiawan Hadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Padjadjaran University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"332603",title:"Prof.",name:"Kumar S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"kumar-s.-ray",fullName:"Kumar S. Ray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Statistical Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"415409",title:"Prof.",name:"Maghsoud",middleName:null,surname:"Amiri",slug:"maghsoud-amiri",fullName:"Maghsoud Amiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Allameh Tabataba'i University",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"17",type:"subseries",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11413,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",slug:"attilio-rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",slug:"yanfei-(jacob)-qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:7,paginationItems:[{id:"82777",title:"Sustainability and Social Investment: Community Microhydropower Systems in the Dominican Republic",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105995",signatures:"Michela Izzo, Alberto Sánchez and Rafael Fonseca",slug:"sustainability-and-social-investment-community-microhydropower-systems-in-the-dominican-republic",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"82387",title:"Kept Promises? 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