Activation energy of proton conduction in the chitin system.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3687",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advances in Service Robotics",title:"Advances in Service Robotics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book consists of 18 chapters about current research results of service robots. 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I am really appreciative of all authors who have invested a great deal of time to write such interesting and high quality chapters.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-7619-02-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5734-2",doi:"10.5772/80",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"advances_in_service_robotics",numberOfPages:344,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:null,bookSignature:"Ho Seok Ahn",publishedDate:"July 1st 2008",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3687.jpg",numberOfDownloads:55138,numberOfWosCitations:48,numberOfCrossrefCitations:43,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:65,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:156,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:null,dateEndSecondStepPublish:null,dateEndThirdStepPublish:null,dateEndFourthStepPublish:null,dateEndFifthStepPublish:null,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"3106",title:"Dr.",name:"Ho Seok",middleName:null,surname:"Ahn",slug:"ho-seok-ahn",fullName:"Ho Seok Ahn",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3106/images/system/3106.jpg",biography:"Ho Seok AHN is a lecturer, which is equivalent to Assistant Professor at major universities abroad, at the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Auckland, New Zealand, since 2015. 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\r\n\tExpert systems are the branch of artificial intelligence dealing with utilizing human expertise for solving problems. They are defined as computer systems that are capable of solving problems in the same way as a human expert would do when they face the same problem. With the current stream of digital transportation and an enormous amount of interest in intelligent systems, they will be a potential area of research for providing better intelligence to systems. They will also motivate the researchers to generate systems with more and more expertise. In this book, a general introduction to expert systems will be provided after a brief introduction to Artificial Intelligence. Detailed information about Expert Systems will be defined concerning their basic features and architectures as well as main characteristics and basic differences from traditional computer systems. Various applications of expert systems will also be provided. Potential readers will find both theoretical progress as well as practical applications. They will find a great amount of information to ease their research and implementation of intelligent systems.
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He worked as a Chief Researcher at the Information Technologies Institute of Turkish Science and Technology Council (TUBITAK). He also served as the vice president of the Turkish Measurement and Placement Center of Turkey and as a member of the Executive Board in the TUBITAK Public Research Group.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"306974",title:"Prof.",name:"Ercan",middleName:null,surname:"Oztemel",slug:"ercan-oztemel",fullName:"Ercan Oztemel",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/306974/images/system/306974.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Ercan Oztemel was born in 1962 in Elazig of Turkey. He graduated from the Department of Industrial Engineering, Sakarya Engineering Faculty of Istanbul Technical University in 1984. He completed his postgraduate studies at Boğaziçi University between 1985-1987, and his doctorate study at the Department of Electrical, Electronics and Systems Engineering of University of Wales between 1988-1992. Between 1993 and 2006, he worked as a lecturer at Sakarya University. In addition to his academic life, he worked as a Chief Researcher at Information Technologies Institute of Turkish Science and Technology Council (TUBITAK), between 1993 and 2011. In this institute, he conducted research on Artificial Intelligence applications, especially in the military domain. He carried out projects that were the first of their kind, such as placing simulation systems on military training aircraft (flying simulator), Artificial combat Pilot, nurse robots, war fare exercises in the virtual world. Between 1997 and 2010, he carried out research in the Western European Union Armament Group, as well as a Member of the Executive Board in the 11th and 15th Groups, and a member of the System Analysis and Simulation (SAS) Panel within NATO between 2001-2006. On the other hand, he supported the creation and execution of many sub-projects as a Member of the Executive Board in the IPROMS (Intelligent Production and Mechanization Systems) Center of Excellence project opened within the scope of the European Union 6th Framework Program. He served as the vice president of Turkish Measurement and Placement Center of Turkey between 2011 and 2015, and as the member of the Executive Board in the TUBITAK Public Research Group between 2012 and 2017. He conducts research in areas such as artificial intelligence, intelligent manufacturing systems, management information systems, simulation and modeling, strategic planning, quality management. He has many articles, papers and books on these subjects. He is still working at the Industrial Engineering Department of Faculty of Engineering at Marmara University.",institutionString:"Marmara University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Marmara University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"441704",firstName:"Ana",lastName:"Javor",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441704/images/20009_n.jpg",email:"ana.j@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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However, there are reports that biomaterials play a wider range of roles today and can be used in the field of electronic devices such as sensors. In other words, biomaterials are not limited to medical materials, but are becoming more valuable than materials such as plastics and metals that we usually use.
We have fabricated fuel cells based on chitin and investigated its proton conductivity in chitin systems. It is well known that the chitin is superior biomass emitted from marine products and is obtained from crabs and shrimp shells. It is also famous that chitin has excellent biocompatibility and can be easily decomposed in the environment. For a long time, most research on chitin focused on biocompatibility and ion adsorption capacity. For example, Malette
However, there were few reports in the field of energy such as using chitin in fuel cells. Biomaterials such as DNA, protein and polysaccharide are abundant in nature, and they are disassembled in environment by microbial. Active use of biomaterials is expected to have less environmental impact and manufacturing costs than chemical processes.
We have revealed that the chitin is proton conductor and available for electrolyte of fuel cells (Figure 1) [8]. Moreover, it was found that appearance of proton conductivity in chitin demand water molecules, and the acetyl group plays important role in injection water molecule into chitin. These suggestions are basis on relationship between results of impedance measurement and water content measurement with humidified condition. In appearance of proton conductivity in chitin, it is considered that one more important factor is exist of amino acetyl group. Effects of amino acetyl group have been revealed by comparing to proton conductivity in chitosan which is basic structure of chitin. Considering proton conduction system of chemical polymer Nafion® which is used the most for fuel cell, it is deduced that the amino and acetyl group in chitin involves forming hydration supporting proton transport. Although, it is found that power density and proton conductivity in chitin are lower than the Nafion®.
Schematic diagram of fuel cell used for demonstration (left) and photograph of turning up LED lamp by chitin fuel cell (right).
Therefore, in order to improve proton conductivity, there is room for further investigation of the relationship between the appearance of proton conductivity in chitin and water molecules. These understandings are expected to present the necessary and important factors for applying polysaccharides with little change in basic structure to electrolyte membranes.
Chitin films were prepared with the purified chitin of under 5% of deacetylation degree, obtained from crab (Sugino Machine Limited). This purified 2%(w/v) chitin slurry was well dispersed in distilled water and the chitin sheets were prepared by suction filtration using Teflon membrane filter (ADVANTEC, Co.) [8, 9, 10]. Figure 2 shows the photograph of the chitin film. The thickness of the film is approximately 0.07 mm.
Photograph of chitin sheet [
The chitin fiber specimens were prepared by purifying chitin obtained from the tendon of crab’s legs. Based on the article of Prosky
Figure 3 shows the shape of the fuel cell based on the chitin electrolyte. As show in Figure 3, the chitin electrolyte was inserted between Pt-C electrodes (anode and cathode). The current was collected from the current collector plates. The hydrogen and oxygen gases were introduced from the up and down sides of the fuel cell, respectively. In the fuel gas flow, the relative humidity, temperature and gas-flow ratio were controlled by the humidified gas-flow control system of Auto PEM (Toyo Corporation) at room temperature. The H2 gas flow rate and the air flow rate are 0.1 L/min and 0.25 L/min, respectively [8].
Fuel cell based on the chitin.
The water contents were measured from the relative humidity dependence of the weight of chitin using the electronic analytical balance (OHAUS Inc.) and the number of water molecules per a chitin molecule was calculated from the obtained water contents and molecular weights of water and mono-chitin [8]. The water content
This time,
The measurement of electrical conductivity was carried out using precision LCR meter (E4980A, Agilent Technologies Inc.). The relative humidity and temperature were con-trolled by the humidified gas-flow control system (Auto PEM). In the impedance measurement, the electrical conductivities perpendicular to the surface and parallel to the surface in chitin sheet were measured. In the case of chitin fiber specimens, impedance measurements were performed for specimens along the fiber direction and normal to the fiber direction, respectively [8, 9, 10].
So far, we have revealed that power density in the fuel cell based on chitin or chitosan [8]. Figure 4 shows
Regarding the proton conductivity in chitin and chitosan, which have already revealed, these values in sheet specimens show approximately 10−4 ~ 10−1 S/m [1]. The proton conductivity of the chitin system sheet increases monotonically with increasing humidity, and the value of chitin is tens of times higher, especially when the relative humidity is changed from 60% to 100%. In the case of chitosan, its value changes approximately 10 times higher. Further, we focused on acetyl group in chitin, and have revealed that relationship between proton conductivity in chitin system and the deacetylation by using Fourier transform infrared spectrometer (FT-IR). Figure 5 shows the FTIR spectrum of chitin used in the experiment [10]. It was found that the acetyl group plays important role for appearance of proton conductivity in chitin system because the degree of deacetylation gave conductivity of anomalous behavior [10].
FT-IR spectra of chitin sample [10].
Furthermore, we have approached the proton conductivity in chitin system by using measurement of water contents and comparing chemical component. First, we have used sheet and fiber specimen of chitin, and measured the degree of swelling by microscopic observation after immersion experiment in water. As a result, it was confirmed that the sheet specimen was isotropically swelled in both the cross section and the in-plane, and the fiber specimen was anisotropically swelled by approximately 20% in both the fiber cross section and the fiber direction. From the above, it was clear that the chitin system introduced water molecules, so we made a comparison based on the water content and chemical component. The results obtained by these researches indicated that injection of water molecule and existence of acetyl group for promotion it, that is necessary to appearance of the proton conductivity in chitin system. However, it has not been completely understood that water molecule how to behave in chitin system yet.
In order to clarify the role of water molecules in chitin, we obtained the volume fraction of water molecules with respect to chitin molecules from the results of the relative humidity dependence of the hydration number, and investigated the relationship with proton conductivity. Yamada
Relationship between volume fraction of water molecules and percolation conduction in chitin [
Investigation of proton transport pathways in chitin is important for the future development and development of polysaccharide electrolyte membranes. So far, it has been shown that chitin has proton conductivity, and it is important that the introduction of water molecules behaves like a conductor for the proton conductivity. In addition, since the structure of chitin hydrate has been clarified, we approached the proton conduction pathway of chitin by measuring impedance using an oriented sample. As a result, it was confirmed that chitin and chitosan have orientation dependence of proton conductivity [8, 9]. From this result, the temperature dependence of the proton conductivity of the chitin system was investigated. Figure 7 shows the proton conductivity in the chitin fiber direction when only the temperature factor is changed while maintaining a constant wet weight. As shown in Figure 7, the relationship between the reciprocal of temperature and the proton conductivity of chitin shows an Arrhenius-like linear change. This result indicates that the proton conductivity of chitin has thermal activity. Table 1 shows the activation energy of proton conductivity derived from the Arrhenius equation in each fiber direction of chitin and chitosan. Arrhenius equation is represented by following equation:
Arrhenius plot of proton conductivity in chitin [
Fiber direction (eV) | Fiber vertical direction (eV) | |
---|---|---|
Chitin | 0.55 | 0.30 |
Chitosan | 0.57 | 0.58 |
Activation energy of proton conduction in the chitin system.
Here,
As shown in Table 1, the activation energy of chitin-based proton conduction changed depending on the fiber direction in the case of chitin, and no change was observed in the case of chitosan. In general, a decrease in activation energy indicates a decrease in energy required for proton transport, and is therefore expected to contribute to the realization of high proton conductivity. Considering this, it is considered that the decrease in activation energy of chitin in the vertical direction of the fiber is appropriate. However, in the oriented sample, the activation energy of chitin in each fiber direction seems to be inconsistent, considering that the proton conduction of chitin in the fiber direction is the highest. Since the activation energy is not the only element required for proton conduction, the following equation:
Here,
Figure 8 shows the hydrogen bonds formed in chitin hydrate. In Figure 8, each color line shows hydrogen bonds, pink is about 2.6 Å of water-chitin molecule, yellow is 2.98 Å, and light blue is between chitin and chitin. Further, broken line shows the hydrogen bond formed along the fiber direction of chitin, and the rigid line shows the hydrogen bond formed in the direction perpendicular to the fiber. As shown in Figure 8, among the hydrogen bonds formed in chitin hydrate, the hydrogen bonds between the water molecule and chitin are formed at a distance of about 2.6 Å in the fiber vertical direction (
From the above results, the proton conduction of chitin having high proton conductivity is expected as shown in Figure 10. Proton conduction in chitin is considered to be realized by the Grosus mechanism in consideration of the relationship between the result of percolation conduction and the hydration structure. In the proton conduction, the crystal water becomes an oxonium ion by the proton, and the proton is passed to the adjacent water molecule by repeating the breaking and rearrangement of the hydrogen bond. In addition, as shown in Figure 10, it is considered that the high proton conductivity of chitin in the fiber direction was caused by the increase in the number of pathways due to the hydrogen bond of the bottleneck and the vertical path with low activation energy. On the other hand, the decrease in the proton conductivity in the vertical direction of the fibers of the oriented chitin can pass through the low activation energy pathway in the vertical direction, but the bottleneck is difficult to utilize, so that the number of pathways is reduced.
Schematic diagram of proton transport pathway in chitin [
The high proton conductivity of chitin appeared in the oriented sample and in the fiber direction. From this result, fuel cell using an oriented chitin sample was prepared. Figure 11 shows schematic diagram of the fuel cell when oriented chitin is used and its
Schematic diagram of fuel cell using oriented chitin (left) and its
Since chitin functions as an electrolyte membrane for fuel cells, it has been clarified that it is a proton conductor. It was found that the presence of water molecules is very important for the appearance of proton conductivity in chitin, and that these water molecules behave like conductors in chitin hydrate to conduct protons. Furthermore, it was suggested that the orientation dependence of the proton conductivity appearing in the oriented chitin is due to the bottleneck caused by the different hydrogen bond distances with the water molecules formed in the chitin depending on the position. It was also indicated that the high proton conductivity of oriented chitin appears by increasing the number of pathways by utilizing the bottleneck and the pathway in the fiber vertical direction, which is the low activation energy pathway. When a fuel cell using the fiber direction of oriented chitin having high proton conductivity was prepared, an improvement in proton conductivity of nearly 24 times was observed. In the future, chitin orientation methods and chemical approaches are expected to provide a foothold for more practical polysaccharide-based electrolyte membranes and to clarify new value in the energy field.
Professor Yasumitsu Matsuo of Setsunan University provided appropriate advice and research facilities in carrying out this research. I’m really thankful to you.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
In mid-2021, Africa’s population was more than one billion three hundred and seventy million persons and this figure is expected to reach 2.5 billion people by 2050 [1]. The drivers for the rapid African population growth include high level of youthfulness of the population of most countries, high fertility levels, and high urban population growth [2]. On the basis of regional population, Eastern, Middle and Western Africa countries are bound to continue to experience rapid rates of population growth in the coming decades. However, the Northern and Southern Africa’s share of the total African population will decrease from 21–13% and 6–3% respectively by 2050 [2].
The urban population of Africa increased by a factor of 8 between 1960 and 2010 [3]. Based on 2018 United Nation’s projection, about 59% of African people will be living in urban areas by 2050 [4]. Guengant and May [2] submitted that Africa’s rapid urbanization resulted in 50 cities with more than a million inhabitants and two mega cities (Cairo, 11 million and Lagos, 10.8 million) in 2010. However, these authors further estimated that in 2030 there will be four mega-cities and 11 cities of 5–10 million inhabitants on African continent while 15 mega-cities and 20 cities with a population between 5 and 10 million people are highly probable by 2050. As per the projected increase in Africa’s urbanization rate, of deep concerns are most Eastern, Middle, and Western African countries which will have their urban populations multiplied by a factor of between 3 and 7.
Presently, a phenomenon known as “youth bulge” is a common experience in most African countries whereby youth aged 15–29 represent over 40% of the adult population. The attendant implication of this is that the number of youth entering the labor force will continue to grow rapidly between now and 2050. In 2010, the African and sub-Saharan Africa working age population aged 20–64 were estimated at 466 and 353 million respectively. However, it will reach 774 and 616 million respectively by 2030. By 2050, the number of 20–64 years old Africans will reach 1.097 billion. The implication of these is that between 2010 and 2050 a huge increase of labour force of 2.4–2.7 times the 2010 number will be witnessed [2]. The biggest challenge in this respect will be in Eastern, Middle and Western Africa countries where the number of youth will triple in the next 30 years. African demographic projection of the elderly up till 2050 has not been favorable as well. Almost all African countries are projected to experience dramatic increases of their elderly populations. The number of persons aged 65 years and more was estimated at 36 million in 2010. This number is expected to double and quadruple by 2030 and 2050 respectively.
Given the foregoing demographic analysis, it will be difficult to imagine the magnitude of the problems that will be associated with the sprawling African population, increasing urbanization rates, increasing “youth bulge” and the corresponding jobs required, and increasing elderly population by 2050. The dramatic increase for food secured Africa will most probably be the biggest challenge most African countries will need to confront between now and 2050.The biggest challenges in this respect will be in Eastern, Middle and Western Africa countries.
Various African countries are in different stages of demographic/fertility transition [2]. A total of 13 countries (all Southern and Northern Africa as well as island countries), accounting for 22% of the total population of the continent have completed their transition. In 41 countries, transition is still far from completion; where it ranged from “in progress transition” to “slow and irregular transition” and “very slow and/or incipient transition”. Overall, 31 countries, accounting for nearly 60% of the population of the continent and 70% of the sub-Saharan Africa population can be considered as being far from completing their transition. Demographic transition is usually accompanied by epidemiological transition, i.e., a shift in health patterns from communicable to non-communicable diseases [5]. In addition, socioeconomic changes are also associated with such transition whereby the economy shifts gradually from agricultural to industrial production and eventually to a service-based economy.
The onus for a food-secured twenty-first century Africa coupled with the realization of inclusive growth, poverty reduction, and achievement of economic convergence now squarely lays on various African governments and policymakers to design future developmental plans so as to avoid the impeding ‘demographic time-bomb’. In this regard, this paper advocates for the urgent need for optimization of cassava fermentation processes in Africa towards a food-secured and economically prosperous twenty-first century Africa.
The Portuguese traders from Brazil introduced Cassava (
Cassava is cultivated under a wide range of ecological and agronomic conditions of SSA. It is adaptable to relatively marginal soils and erratic rainfall conditions. It gives high productivity per unit of land and labour. The certainty of obtaining some yield even under the most adverse conditions and the possibility of maintaining continuity of supply throughout the year make the crop very adaptable to rain-fed agriculture conditions [6]. Further to these, in the future, cassava has the potential to become a promising crop that can adapt to changing climatic patterns due to its low water and soil acidity requirement compared to rice [8, 9]. The global Agro climatic suitability map for cassava under rain-fed conditions and low level of inputs is shown in Figure 1. Given the state of Agricultural development in Africa, majority of crop cultivation are done under rain-fed conditions and low level of inputs and it is not surprising that these scenarios translate very well to a greater portions of SSA being suitable for cassava production. It was stated earlier that the biggest challenge of impeding ‘demographic time-bomb’ in Africa is in the Eastern, Middle and Western Africa countries. Interestingly, these regions are also the best suited regions in Africa for cassava cultivation as shown in Figure 1. It then behooves the concerned African leaders to consider cassava as a key driver for food security both now and in the future Africa.
Agro climatic suitability map for cassava under rain fed conditions [
Currently, in most African countries and cultures, cassava has become a staple crop of choice [11] as the majority of cassava tubers produced is consumed locally as traditional fermented/unfermented meals, thus making cassava an important crop by production and consumption. Cassava tuber is fermented to produce a range of different products in Africa. Among these are
In most SSA countries, cassava has established itself as a food security crop in the past six decades. For instance, total cassava consumption more than doubled in Africa from 24 million tonnes per year in the early 1960s to 58 million tonnes per year in the late 1990s. This large increase was due to a significant increase in per capita consumption in countries such as Ghana and Nigeria where cassava is produced as a cash crop for urban consumption. Cassava roots were the single largest source of calories in seven African countries (Angola, the Central African Republic, the Congo, the People’s Republic of Congo, Ghana, Mozambique and Nigeria) having 40 percent of the population in the late 1990s, contributing an average of nearly 600 calories per person per day [16]. In a similar development, it was the second largest source of calories in another 11 countries (the Republic of Benin, Cameroon, Côte d’lvoire, Guinea, Liberia, Madagascar, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda and Zambia.) with about 25 percent of Africa’s population, where it provided more than 300 calories per person per day. However, statistics from specific country indicate that many families in Congo ate cassava for breakfast, lunch and dinner thus contributing over 1000 calories per person per day or about 55 percent of the average daily calorie intake in the late 1990s [16]. It is worth mentioning that the significant contribution of cassava to SSA diets has not waned in the recent time. Detailed country data by agro-ecological zones indicates that cassava currently contributes 10–30% and 2–10% of calorie and protein supplies respectively in the diet of SSA countries in humid tropics, moist savanna, and mid-altitude regions [6, 17].
Beyond food security, cassava can potentiate a radical increase of value offering and trade status in its producing regions with a concomitant positive ripple effect on the entire economy of Africa. For instance, a study conducted in cassava growing SSA countries indicated that about 26% of cash income from all food crops in cassava-growing households was derived from sale of cassava [6]. These authors further reported that some SSA countries (Ghana and Uganda) are already taking advantage of inadequacies of Asian Exporters to satisfy the European Union market’s need in relation to cassava chips. There are also some import substitution possibilities for cassava flour and industrial starch in some SSA countries.
It is on record that between year 2001 and 2007, a Presidential Cassava Initiative (PCI) project was executed in cassava-producing countries in some selected SSA countries (Nigeria, Ghana, and the Democratic Republic of Congo). The project aimed at generating about 5 billion dollars annually from exporting value-added cassava products in addition to (1) enhancing the productivity and production of cassava by increasing the area cultivated to 5 million ha, with the hope of harvesting 150 million tonnes of fresh cassava tubers annually; (2) producing 37.5 million tonnes of processed cassava products for the local and export markets [18]. A subsequent, exploratory study by [19] showed that through the PCI, the Federal Government of Nigeria created a policy measure that supported the industrialization of cassava such as 10% cassava bread, 10% bioethanol in gasoline and replacement of paraffin with ethanol gel fuel as a cooking fuel. Furthermore, there were increased investment and employment in the cassava subsector; reduction of food import bills of Nigeria; and increased cassava yield from 10.8 to 20 t/ha. Similarly, [20] submitted that PCI did not only promote cassava production, but had spillover effects on both national food production and food security.
Guengant and May [2] had submitted that the number of youth will triple in Eastern, Middle and Western Africa countries between 2010 and 2050. Beyond the quest for providing food for this teeming population, there is also a need for realization of inclusive growth, poverty reduction, and achievement of economic convergence. Given that these three regions of Africa that are of deep concern incidentally constitutes the best region in Africa which is most suitable for cassava cultivation (Figure 1), it is high time the policy makers in these African regions evolve cassava developmental plans that will seek to exploit the food security and socio-economic potentials that are inherent in cassava value chain.
Cassava (
Selected fermented cassava products: (a) gari (forfoeghgari 1.blog); (b) fufu (
The fermented cassava products in Africa are produced by traditional methods that exploit mixed cultures of various microorganisms and in a domestic setting with only a few small and medium scale industrial operations [25]. The techniques used are usually laborious and time consuming. Typically, such production utilize spontaneous fermentation with no implementation of good manufacturing practice (GMP) and hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) plans. Thus, traditional methods of processing cassava roots can result in poor and varied quality products that contain unacceptable levels of cyanide and spoilage organisms [23]. This variation in quality occurs due to initiation of fermentation by prominent microflora from the raw material, environment and water that vary according to place and time of production [12].
About 70 percent of cassava is turned into gari [24] and consumed by around 200 million people [26]. It is consumed mainly in West, Central and East Africa [24]. Gari is produced by solid state fermentation to form dry, crispy, creamy-white granular product. It is made by fermenting and roasting mash produced from crushed cassava roots.
The traditional gari processing combines different stages of activity. Fresh roots are peeled, grated into pulps, and put in jute sacks for hydraulic pressing and fermentation. Some local producers use heavy stones in the place of a hydraulic jack between wooden platforms. The pulps are left in this state for 3 to 4 days, although some producers prefer a day or 2 days of solid state fermentation. It is during this stage that acidic taste is imparted to the final product [27]. Then a dewatered and fermented pulp are produced in form of lumps that are then crushed by hand. The fibers are separated from the fine pulp by sifting through a traditional sieve. The resulting small pieces are called grits which are roasted in reasonable portions using a wide frying pan with firewood as an energy source until they become dry and crispy. The processors who are mainly women are constantly in contact with smoke, heat, fume, and cyanide which affect their health over a long exposure period [28].
Fresh cassava roots are processed into fermented dried pulp or flour with same procedures in some African countries. The product is called lafun (Nigeria), cossettes (Democratic Republic of the Congo and Rwanda), kanyanga and mapanga (Malawi), and makopa (Tanzania). Cassava is cut into small pieces, washed, steeped in water for 3 to 4 days, drained, sun-dried and milled into powder (flour) (Figure 3). The characteristics of the finished products depend, to a large extent, on whether cassava roots are peeled or not before steeping in water; and whether the fermentation water is changed at intervals during fermentation [29].
Flow diagrams of the production of some fermented cassava products at ambient temperature.
Many traditional processors adopted a minimum of 72 h fermentation of cassava. Although they do not know the advantage of longer fermentation time, the 3-day fermentation period helps to reduce cyanogenic glucoside to a reasonable level. [30] noted that dietary cyanogen results in tropical ataxic neuropathy (TAN), diabetes mellitus, and can aggravate iodine deficiency disorders (IDDs). The stages of steeping and drying during traditional lafun production are typically in an unhygienic earthenware or polyethylene vessels, or rusty drums (Figure 4). Sun-drying the fermented cassava mash could take up to 2 weeks, depending on the weather, making the control of drying conditions very difficult [31].
Lafun steeping and drying stages; a and c show steeping conditions; b and d are different drying sites adapted from [
There is no formal standard or quality control on this traditional processing method (Figure 5). That is, there is no code of hygiene, food safety or nutrition standards during production. The processors are mainly farmers. So, they harvest cassava roots, process close to the point of harvest, and sell to consumers directly or to retailers. This lack of control indicates that traditional processing of cassava has challenges associated with quality and safety. Unfortunately, it is difficult to get reliable data on the scale of what the problem of the lack of regulatory might be [23]. The fermented dried pulp of cassava is usually ground into flour to be used for the processing of secondary products, such as stiff porridge (oka), doughnuts, and cake. The stiff porridge is obtained when the fermented cassava flour is stirred in boiling water [32], while doughnuts and cake are gotten from frying dough made with dried pulp mixed with wheat flour [24].
Lafun processing environment adapted from [
Fufu (called Foo-Foo in Central Africa) is a staple in both Central and West Africa. It is produced largely by solid-state fermentation where the cassava is not steeped in water but allowed to ferment in a solid-state under a hydraulic press [23]. Hence, the preliminary operations are similar to that of gari. Traditional production involves peeling, washing, and cutting cassava roots into thick chunks then soaking in water contained in earthenware pots or in a slow flowing stream. The roots are left to ferment for 3 to 4 days during which they become very soft (called mash) and produce a characteristic flavor of a retted cassava product [33]. The mash is subsequently sieved after fermentation, allowed to settle within 4 h. The sediment can then be processed by cooking in boiling water [34]. Another processing method is to expel excess water from the sediment by applying heavy pressure, roll it into balls, cook it in boiling water, and pound it to a smooth paste. Fufu is a wet fermented pulp and mostly marketed in this form. Recent work on fufu is geared towards producing it in a dry form to increase shelf-stability, availability and easy transportation [35].
Kivunde is a fermented cassava product made by heaping roots together for fermentation. It is referred to as bada in Tanzanian, and inyange in Burundi. Traditionally, kivunde is produced by spontaneous fermentation or ‘back-slopping’ [36]. For the back-slopping fermentation, a percentage of liquor from a prior kivunde spontaneous fermentation is added to initiate the fermentation process. The traditional fermentation of cassava into kivunde was found to be dominated by molds of the genera
Agbelima is a cassava fermented dough indigenous to Ghana. It is a sourdough cassava meal traditionally produced by using kudeme; an inoculum derived also from cassava roots [37]. The roots are peeled, washed, and grated with a cassava mill. The grated pulp is inoculated with kudeme, and packed into polypropylene sacks to drain and ferment for 3 days. The fermented mash is pressed, crushed and steamed [38].
Attiéké is the main fermented food product in Côte d’Ivoire and forms a significant part of their diet [39]. It is currently consumed in many neighboring countries like Togo, Mali and Senegal [40]. It is produced traditionally by using three different inocula: Alladjan, Ebrié, and Adjoukrou, made from boiled cassava roots [41]. Cassava roots are peeled, washed, cut in pieces, and grated. While grating, the cassava mash is mixed with any of the traditional inocula and some milliliters of palm oil. The inoculated mash is left in a covered container overnight to ferment. Excess water is squeezed out of the mash before sun-drying. The resulting granules are processed by steaming to form attiéké [24].
Cassava (
Cassava is an important raw material for the production of many staples in Africa. Both fermented and unfermented products are derived from cassava roots across the globe. The unfermented products are high quality cassava flour (HQCF), starch, snacks, and pastries among others [23]. These unfermented products are produced from cassava type categorized as ‘sweet cassava’ for its low cyanide content. Thus, the processing of sweet cassava for consumption only requires a simple food preparation. The bitter variety, however, must be processed by any form of fermentation methods to attain a cyanide level that is not toxic for consumption [44].
Indigenous processors use spontaneous fermentation and back-slopping mainly as their production methods. These methods of production have classic problems associated with inconsistent product and sensory qualities. The problems are due, in part, to the microflora of the production environment, the variety of cassava used, the drying method employed, processing equipment availability and hygiene of the production plant [12]. Researchers in Food Sciences have given a great attention to upgrading traditional processes so as to optimize products and thereby increase cassava utilization.
Nigeria, Bénin, and Sierra Leone have shown notable and varying degrees of success in cassava processing at commercial level. The introduction of machines for most unit operations of cassava processing resulted in good achievement of various cassava products in the three countries. Governments policy directed towards promoting cassava subsector encouraged both small and large-scale processing industries in many Africa countries. A good example was the Nigerian Government’s Cassava Initiative that started in 2001 [14]. Small- and medium-scale factories were established by some entrepreneurs to supply high-grade refined intermediate cassava products like cassava-based glucose syrup, starch and HQCF to big manufacturing industries, such as Nestlé Plc. and Cadbury. So, in Africa, the industrial utilization of cassava is not just emerging but increasing day by day. The roots have found uses in many industries processing feeds, paints, textiles, adhesives, and other chemicals [14].
Urbanization and population growth are the key factors driving the demand for cassava products in Africa. Howbeit, the commercialisation of the cassava subsector requires the inputs of responsive private sectors. The private sector inputs market in Africa is not well developed and hardly service the cassava farmers [45]. There are as much agronomic challenges as there are challenges to agro-processing. The lack of cassava stem multiplication and distribution system in Africa is a major constraint for the adoption of high yield varieties by farmers. Although medium-scale industries had been able to reduce the cassava labour bottleneck through certain mechanized technologies; cassava harvesting, peeling, and drying operations for quantity, quality, and standardized products still pose huge challenges. The chief constraint to the industrialization of cassava is perhaps the mode of drying. There is no key success to efficient dryers for mass production of cassava products at the moment. Therefore, drying process takes about 3–4 days with apparent loss in product quality [46]. Presently, high quality cassava flour processing industries in Nigeria are now leveraging on the influx of flash dryer. However, it is worth mentioning that the high initial capital expenditure for procurement, couple with the energy cost now remains a big challenge to widespread adoption of this technology.
Furthermore, there is need to separate the traditional food-oriented market from the new emerging market for industrially processed cassava. Most cassava roots grown in Africa is cultivated, processed, and traded through traditional market networks with little known about the market structure for industrial cassava [47]. Due to population growth and urbanization, there must be a paradigm shift in the traditional utilization of cassava to the opportunities in diversify cassava markets. The successful commercialization of cassava subsector also lies on the users and consumers response to the cassava transformation process for secondary product supply and new food development respectively. Other than the setback highlighted, cassava has great economical potential with its unique features as raw materials for various intermediate and final products. Improvement in cassava production and strategies for marketing products would greatly expand trade and income.
About two decades ago, Africa was described as a continent in crisis; as it was racked with hunger, poverty and the HIV/AIDS pandemic. It was also the region with the fastest population growth, the most fragile natural resource base and the weakest set of agricultural research and extension institutions [16]. It is disheartening that a substantial shift from this narrative is yet to be attained about 20 years after. Current report indicates that Africa is home to 43 economies with the highest poverty rates in the world and yet is the youngest continent in the world as more than 400 million of its people are aged between 15 and 35 years old [48].
Good nutrition is pivotal to the achievement of several of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) such as ending poverty (SDG 1), promoting gender equality (SDG 5), ensuring quality education (SDG 4), and reducing inequalities (SDG 10) [49]. Malnutrition (in all its forms) is due to a complex set of interacting factors, including the inadequate, unbalanced or excessive consumption of the macronutrients that provide dietary energy (carbohydrates, protein and fats) and micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) which are essential for physical and cognitive growth and development [50]. Multiple burden of malnutrition may exist in the form of undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies, but in addition, overweight and obesity are emerging as significant health concerns in a number of countries.
Globally, the prevalence of undernutrition (PoU) has remained at 10.8 percent over 2017 and 2018. In 2018, there are 822 million undernourished people in the world, up from 812 million in 2017 and 797 million in 2016.Though it is on record that the prevalence of undernourishment in Africa fell from 24.5 percent in 2000 to 18.2 percent in 2014, but then started rising to 20 percent of the continent’s population, or 256 million people in 2018, with SSA having a share of 239 million undernourished people [50]. However, recent data indicates that Southern Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa respectively had PoU of 15.8 percent (257.3 million people) and 24.1 percent (234.7 million people) in 2019 [51]. In another development, out of the twenty countries affected with multiple micronutrient deficiencies globally, eighteen were from sub-Saharan Africa and two from Asia [52].
Undernutrition comes with considerable economic costs including lower cognitive skills and school attainment, and impaired physical development, which can reduce productivity in adulthood. Estimates from selected African countries (Egypt, Ethiopia, Swaziland and Uganda) indicate that productivity losses ascribed to adults, who suffered from stunting in their childhood, are huge. For example, annual losses of 3.7, 4.7, 0.092 and 0.899 billion US dollars, equivalent of 1.9, 16.5, 3.1 and 5.6% of GDP, have been estimated for Egypt, Ethiopia, Swaziland and Uganda respectively [53]. In recognition of the overwhelming economic burden of malnutrition, the WHO Member States in 2012 adopted a set of global nutrition targets. The six interlinked WHA global nutrition targets for 2025 are: achieving a 40 percent reduction in the number of children under 5 years who are stunted, achieving a 50 percent reduction of anemia in women of reproductive age, achieving a 30 percent reduction in low birth weight, ensuring that there is no increase in childhood overweight, increasing the rate of exclusive breastfeeding in the first 6 months up to at least 50 percent, and, reducing and maintaining childhood wasting to less than 5 percent. However, overall progress towards these WHA global nutrition targets remains unacceptably slow in Africa, as out of 54 African countries: 7 are on course to meet the target for stunting: 0 are on course to meet the target for anemia in women of reproductive age, 20 are on course to meet the target on overweight, 1 are on course to meet the target on exclusive breastfeeding, while 13 are on course to meet the target on wasting [50]. With these statistics, Africa is quite at a crossroad of food and nutrition insecurity.
In Africa, three major drivers of hunger and food insecurity are climate change, conflict and economic slowdowns and downturns [50]. In consideration of the fact that evolving coping strategies against the imminent consequences of climate change is more needed in Africa both now and in the nearest future, increased utilization of climate-smart crop is perhaps one of the needed approach to fight food and nutrition insecurity. In Africa, roots and tubers are one of the most consumed food groups and cassava as a climate-smart tuberous crop is an ideal crop to fight the scourge of malnutrition given its high rate of consumption by rural and urban Sub-Sahara African populations. Although cassava does not have a high nutritive value, especially for certain micronutrients and protein, the crop has benefitted from several initiatives focused on increasing its micronutrient load through biofortification. For instance, organizations like HarvestPlus have made great strides towards improving the nutritive value of cassava through the development of vitamin A-rich cassava and its promotion for adoption into the food systems of several African countries like Nigeria, Ghana, Cameroon, and DRC. In addition, food-to-food fortification using soybean flour/residue has the potential to produce cassava-based foods that could be used to fight macronutrient and micronutrient deficiencies in African countries where cassava products are staples [54, 55]. The onus therefore lays on African policy makers, especially in the Sub-Sahara Africa, to leverage on the potentials of value-added cassava-based products in addressing the twenty-first century food security concerns in Africa.
As stated earlier, the dramatic increasing need for food secured Africa occasioned by the sprawling African population, and the corresponding jobs required, will be the biggest challenges most African countries will need to confront between now and 2050. In addition, the projected increase in urbanization rates and increased aged/elderly population are “demographic time bombs” that will further worsen food and nutrition security situation in most African countries in the coming decades if proactive steps are not taken to shift from traditional cottage level to mass scale food processing. While evolving future developmental plans so as to avoid this impeding ‘demographic time-bomb’, it is imperative for various African governments and policymakers to learn from European history, especially in relation to industrialization of food processing.
Food processing using fire and cooking has occurred since pre-historic times. However, more complex forms of food processing such as baking of bread, production of cheese, wine production, sun-dried or vinegar-pickled vegetables production, and salted or smoked meat production emerged in ancient and medieval times [56]. Historically, various factors are responsible for processing foods. These include impossibility to eat fresh food, seasonality of crop production, crop failures, wars and long sea voyages. However, the aims of modern processing are manifold, and include the prolongation of shelf-life, ensuring safety, improving palatability, increasing variety, improving nutritional value and increasing convenience [57]. Mass scale food processing (producing foods in large amounts) was introduced during the industrial revolution in the eighteenth and nineteenth century, starting with the advent of canned and pasteurized foods [56]. In the first half of the twentieth century, Europe was ravaged by malnutrition (undernutrition), caused by poverty, an economic depression and two catastrophic world wars [57, 58]. As a result, mass food production focused on sustaining the European population; reducing foodborne diseases, malnutrition and nutrient deficiencies by providing protein-rich, energy-dense and fortified foods (with vitamins) that were accessible to all [56].
It is important to envision the impact of the demographic projections for Africa up till 2050 on African food and nutrition security situation in the middle of this twenty-first century. This will be helpful to appraise the needed imperatives that must be factored in while evolving a sustainable food and nutrition security road map for Africa for the rest part of this century. Rapid population growth will demand more food to be produced using the same size of arable land. Desert encroachment and climate change and their accompanied consequences will constitute major problems for food production, except innovative ways of sustainable agricultural practices are adopted. Increase urbanization rates will limit availability and accessibility of traditionally produced food for the great majority that live in urban environment. Increased poverty rate, economic slowdown or downturn will definitely limit food accessibility of the poor majority. Most often than not, children, women and elderly are the most vulnerable groups whenever there is a food crisis. This scenario will definitely be sacrosanct amid the looming possible food crisis in Africa build up to 2050.
As stated earlier, the biggest challenges of impeding ‘demographic time-bomb’ in Africa is in the Eastern, Middle and Western Africa countries. Interestingly, these regions are also the best suited regions for cassava cultivation in Africa as shown in Figure 1. Kolapo and Sanni [59] submitted that utilization of locally sourced food material must be of primary consideration in the quest of any nutritional development programme. It then behooves the concerned African leaders to consider cassava as a key driver for food security both now and in the future Africa. This will be consistent with the earlier description of cassava as Africa’s super crop.
The cassava fermentation process varies from one region to another, both in Africa and other part of the globe. However, these fermentation techniques in cassava processing are broadly categorized into solid-state and submerged fermentation. In solid-state fermentation, cassava root is not soaked in water whereas in submerged fermentation processes, cassava roots are soaked in water for the duration of fermentation. Gari, Attieke, and Injera are produced by the former technique [60, 61, 62] while Fufu, Pupuru, and Chikwangue are produced using the later technique [63, 64, 65]. Microorganisms of various groups such as lactic acid bacteria (LAB), yeasts, molds and
Food product | LAB and other bacteria | Yeasts | Molds | Countries of production |
---|---|---|---|---|
Gari | West, Central, and East Africa countries | |||
Ikivunde | Burundi, Rwanda | |||
Main central Africa countries | ||||
Inyanga | Burundi | |||
Attieke | Bénin, Mali, Sénégal, Togo | |||
Fufu | Nigeria | |||
Pupuru | South western Nigeria and west Africa |
The main microorganisms associated with fermentation in some cassava-based food (Adapted from [66]).
The fermented cassava products in Africa are produced by traditional methods that exploit mixed cultures of various microorganisms and in a domestic setting with only a few small and medium scale industrial operations [25]. These traditional methods of processing cassava roots do result in poor and varied quality products that contain unacceptable levels of cyanide and spoilage organisms [23]. Though, the earliest production of cassava fermented foods was based on spontaneous fermentation due to the development of the microflora naturally present in the raw material, there are current attempts to optimize cassava fermentation processes using starter cultures. Padonou and co-workers [32] assessed the role of
While developing starter cultures for gari fermentation, [26] recommended the inclusion of
Though these optimization attempts resulted in positive flavor, nutritional and physical properties and cyanide reduction, thereby advancing the development of these starter cultures and providing a basis for further research required for their development and adoption; there is still a long way to go in the industrialization of the production process of these Africa cassava fermented foods. It is incontrovertible that the application of molecular technologies with emphasis on the application of novel sequencing technologies to generate phylobiomes, metagenomes and metatranscriptomes for microbial community profiling that complement culturing studies has greatly facilitated monitoring of fermentation ecosystems and characterization of the microbial species in the past two decades. Such technologies involved the use of High-Throughput-Sequencing (HTS) techniques such as whole-genome sequencing, amplicon bases meta-taxonomic approaches (such as 16S rRNA sequencing), shotgun metagenomics, and (meta) transcriptomics, and rely on downstream bioinformatics analysis [74]. In this regard, an increasing number of fermented foods of Asian origin were analyzed with these techniques [75]. However, in Africa, whole-genome sequencing was initially used for the analysis and surveillance of foodborne pathogens [76].
While fermented food products around the world are increasingly being studied using shotgun metagenomic techniques, very few studies have explored the use of shotgun sequencing in African fermented foods, with some exceptions being “Nunu” (Ghana), “Kokonte” (Ghana/Togo) and “Wagashi” (Benin) [77]. Given that, shotgun metagenomic sequencing facilitates deeper insights into the microbiome, allowing strain-level identification, functional annotation including carbohydrate pathways and bioactive molecule production (such as bacteriocins), and the assembly of high quality genomes in the form of metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) [78, 79], there is an urgent need to harness the traditional culture-based and HTS techniques to characterize and optimize the microbiome of African cassava fermented foods, from commercial to nutritional and health-promoting aspects. This will require a huge investment on the part of the leaders of concerned African countries.
Most food fermentation processes depend on mixtures of microbes which act in concert to produce the desired product characteristics. Brenner and co-workers [80] posited that this can be explained by two features. First, members of the consortium communicate with one another by trading metabolites or by exchanging molecular signals. Second, division of labour exists between the members of the consortium leading to an overall output that can only be explained by combining tasks performed by constituent individuals or sub-populations. The best well-known example is the proto-cooperation between
While contemplating industrialization of cassava fermentation process in Africa, two possibilities that could be leveraged upon are backslopping (in the short term) and the use of functional starters (in the long term). Backslopping involves inoculation of the raw material with a small quantity of a previously performed successful fermentation, which eventually results in dominance of the best adapted strains. Functional starter cultures are starters that possess at least one inherent functional property which can contribute to food safety and/or offer one or more organoleptic, technological, nutritional, or health advantages [75]. Backslopping is still in use, for instance in the production of sauerkraut and sourdough, and particularly for products for which the microbial ecology and the precise role of successions in microbial population are not well known [86]. It also represents a cheap and reliable preservation method in less developed countries [87], whereas in Western countries the use of starter culture in large-scale production of fermented foods has become an important routine procedure of the food industry [88].
African leaders in 2013, through the 50th Anniversary Solemn Declaration during the commemoration of the Fiftieth Anniversary of the Organization of African Unity (OAU), while acknowledging past successes and challenges, rededicated themselves to the continent’s accelerated development and technological progress. They emphasized a guiding vision “to build an integrated, prosperous and peaceful Africa, driven and managed by its own citizens and representing a dynamic force in the international arena”, and forthwith identified seven aspirations to serve as pillars for the continent in the foreseeable future. Agenda 2063 was subsequently designed to translate these aspirations into concrete objectives, milestones, goals, targets and actions/measures. The first aspiration of the Agenda seeks to obtain prosperous Africa based on inclusive growth and sustainable development. The policy document defined a prosperous Africa as a continent with a high standard of living, quality of life and well-being; whose citizens are healthy and well-nourished, subsequent to a robust food and nutrition strategy initiatives. A prosperous Africa is also expected to be well educated and be a key player of knowledge economy and become a Science, Technology and Innovation hub. As a prosperous Africa, the continent is expected to adopt modern Agriculture for increased productivity and production. In order for Africa to attain prosperity status, it was envisioned that Africa must develop coping strategies against the imminent challenges of climate change. The sixth aspiration of Agenda 2063 envisions an Africa whose development is people-driven, relying on the potential of African people, especially its women, youth, and children. These are to be achieved by attainment of full gender equality in all spheres of life, as well as rigorous youth and children empowerment.
It is on record that African countries account for 64% of the global production of cassava and five of them are among the top 10 largest global producers [7]. Africa must therefore know what must be done to this ‘cassava resource’ to achieve economic prosperity as well as food and nutrition security, since utilization of locally sourced food material must be of primary consideration in the quest of any nutritional development programme [59]. The foregoing analysis encapsulated in this paper has clearly shown what must be done in this regard.
The biggest challenge of impeding ‘demographic time-bomb’ in Africa is in the Eastern, Middle and Western Africa countries. Interestingly, these regions are also the best suited regions for cassava cultivation in Africa It then behooves the concerned African leaders to consider cassava as a key driver for food security both now and in the future Africa. This is consistent with the earlier description of cassava as Africa’s super crop.
Demographic transition is usually accompanied by both epidemiological and socioeconomic changes whereby the economy shifts gradually from agricultural to industrial production and eventually to a service-based economy. Incidentally, 31 African countries, accounting for nearly 60% of the population of the continent and 70% of the sub-Saharan Africa population can be considered as being far from completing their transitions. The projected increase in population figures, urbanization rates and increased aged/elderly population are “demographic time bombs” that will further worsen food and nutrition security situation in most African countries in the coming decades if proactive steps are not taken to shift from traditional cottage level to mass scale food production and processing.
While evolving future developmental plans so as to avoid this impeding ‘demographic time-bomb’, it is imperative for various African governments and policymakers to learn from European history, especially in relation to industrialization of food processing. In the twentieth century, political, social, and economic changes, and scientific and technological advances moved at an ever increasing pace and impacted on the European food processing industry and influenced the ways foods were processed and marketed. As a result, mass food production focused on sustaining the European population; reducing foodborne diseases, malnutrition and nutrient deficiencies by providing protein-rich, energy-dense and fortified foods (with vitamins) that were accessible to all.
If Africa must contain the impending demography-associated food crisis in the coming decades, increased food production and industrialization of the processing of produced food crops is never an option but a necessity. As Africa’s super crop, cassava has a great role to play in this respect, as fermented cassava products have become prominent staples across many SSA countries. There is therefore an urgent need to harness the traditional culture-based and HTS techniques to characterize and optimize the microbiome of African cassava fermented foods, from commercial to nutritional and health-promoting aspects. This will require a huge investment on the part of the leaders of concerned African countries. However, given the immense benefits of such project and the expectations of Agenda 2063, African leaders must begin to put their resources where their mouths are so as to ensure that the twenty-first century Africa is food-secured.
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Problems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"39ff133e87b1d1f1a07d872ff755762b",slug:"updates-in-volcanology-a-comprehensive-approach-to-volcanological-problems",bookSignature:"Francesco Stoppa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/409.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"57017",title:"Prof.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Stoppa",slug:"francesco-stoppa",fullName:"Francesco Stoppa"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:8,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"25980",doi:"10.5772/25264",title:"Hydrovolcanic vs Magmatic Processes in Forming Maars and Associated Pyroclasts: The Calatrava -Spain- Case History",slug:"hydrovolcanic-vs-magmatic-processes-in-forming-maars-and-associated-pyroclasts-the-calatrava-spain-c",totalDownloads:2860,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"409",slug:"updates-in-volcanology-a-comprehensive-approach-to-volcanological-problems",title:"Updates in Volcanology",fullTitle:"Updates in Volcanology - A Comprehensive Approach to Volcanological Problems"},signatures:"F. Stoppa, G. Rosatelli, M. Schiazza and A. Tranquilli",authors:[{id:"57017",title:"Prof.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Stoppa",slug:"francesco-stoppa",fullName:"Francesco Stoppa"},{id:"62737",title:"Dr.",name:"Gianluigi",middleName:null,surname:"Rosatelli",slug:"gianluigi-rosatelli",fullName:"Gianluigi Rosatelli"},{id:"62738",title:"Mr",name:"Mariangela",middleName:null,surname:"Schiazza",slug:"mariangela-schiazza",fullName:"Mariangela Schiazza"},{id:"62739",title:"Mr",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Tranquilli",slug:"andrea-tranquilli",fullName:"Andrea Tranquilli"}]},{id:"51948",doi:"10.5772/64129",title:"Fumarolic Minerals: An Overview of Active European Volcanoes",slug:"fumarolic-minerals-an-overview-of-active-european-volcanoes",totalDownloads:2269,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"The fumarolic mineralogy of the Icelandic active volcanoes, the Tyrrhenian volcanic belt (Italy) and the Aegean active arc (Greece) is investigated, and literature data surveyed in order to define the characteristics of the European fumarolic systems. They show broad diversity of mineral associations, with Vesuvius and Vulcano being also among the world localities richest in mineral species. Volcanic systems, which show recession over a longer period, show fumarolic development from the high-temperature alkaline halide/sulphate, calcic sulphate or sulphidic parageneses, synchronous with or immediately following the eruptions, through medium-temperature ammonium minerals, metal chlorides, or fluoride associations to the late low-temperature paragenesis dominated by sulphur, gypsum, alunogen, and other hydrous sulphates. The situation can be different in the systems that are not recessing but show fluctuations in activity, illustrated by the example of Vulcano where the high-temperature association appears intermittently. A full survey of the mineral groups and species is given in respect to their importance and appearance in fumarolic associations.",book:{id:"5311",slug:"updates-in-volcanology-from-volcano-modelling-to-volcano-geology",title:"Updates in Volcanology",fullTitle:"Updates in Volcanology - From Volcano Modelling to Volcano Geology"},signatures:"Tonči Balić-Žunić, Anna Garavelli, Sveinn Peter Jakobsson, Kristjan\nJonasson, Athanasios Katerinopoulos, Konstantinos Kyriakopoulos\nand Pasquale Acquafredda",authors:[{id:"183593",title:"Dr.",name:"Tonci",middleName:null,surname:"Balic-Zunic",slug:"tonci-balic-zunic",fullName:"Tonci Balic-Zunic"},{id:"183700",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Garavelli",slug:"anna-garavelli",fullName:"Anna Garavelli"},{id:"183701",title:"Dr.",name:"Sveinn Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Jakobsson",slug:"sveinn-peter-jakobsson",fullName:"Sveinn Peter Jakobsson"},{id:"183702",title:"Prof.",name:"Athanasios",middleName:null,surname:"Katerinopoulos",slug:"athanasios-katerinopoulos",fullName:"Athanasios Katerinopoulos"},{id:"188833",title:"Dr.",name:"Kristjan",middleName:null,surname:"Jonasson",slug:"kristjan-jonasson",fullName:"Kristjan Jonasson"},{id:"188834",title:"Dr.",name:"Konstantinos",middleName:null,surname:"Kyriakopoulos",slug:"konstantinos-kyriakopoulos",fullName:"Konstantinos Kyriakopoulos"},{id:"188835",title:"Dr.",name:"Pasquale",middleName:null,surname:"Acquafredda",slug:"pasquale-acquafredda",fullName:"Pasquale Acquafredda"}]},{id:"51105",doi:"10.5772/63486",title:"How Polygenetic are Monogenetic Volcanoes: Case Studies of Some Complex Maar‐Diatreme Volcanoes",slug:"how-polygenetic-are-monogenetic-volcanoes-case-studies-of-some-complex-maar-diatreme-volcanoes",totalDownloads:1939,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"The increasing number of field investigations and various controlled benchtop and large‐scale experiments have permitted the evaluation of a large number of processes involved in the formation of maar‐diatreme volcanoes, the second most common type of small‐volume subaerial volcanoes on Earth. A maar‐diatreme volcano is recognized by a volcanic crater that is cut into country rocks and surrounded by a low‐height ejecta rim composed of pyroclastic deposits of few meters to up to 200 m thick above the syn‐eruptive surface level. The craters vary from 0.1 km to up to 5 km wide and vary in depth from a few dozen meters to up to 300 m deep. Their irregular morphology reflects the simple or complex volcanic and cratering processes involved in their formation. The simplicity or complexity of the crater or the entire maar itself is usually observed in the stratigraphy of the surrounding ejecta rings. The latter are composed of sequences of successive alternating and contrastingly bedded phreatomagmatic‐derived dilute pyroclastic density currents (PDC) and fallout depositions, with occasional interbedded Strombolian‐derived spatter materials or scoria fall units, exemplifying the changes in the eruptive styles during the formation of the volcano. The entire stratigraphic sequence might be preserved as a single eruptive package (small or very thick) in which there is no stratigraphic gap or significant discordance indicative of a potential break during the eruption. A maar with a single eruptive deposit is quantified as monogenetic maar, meaning that it was formed by a single eruptive vent from which only a small and ephemeral magma erupted over a short period of time. The stratigraphy may also display several packages of deposits separated either by contrasting discordance surfaces or paleosoils, which reflect multiple phases or episodes of eruptions within the same maar. Such maars are characterized as complex polycyclic maars if the length of time between the eruptive events is relatively short (days to years). For greater length of time (thousands to millions of years), the complex maar will be quantified as polygenetic. These common depositional breaks interpreted as signs of temporal interruption of the eruptions for various timescales also indicate deep magma system processes; hence magmas of different types might erupt during the formation of both simple and complex maars. The feeding dikes can interact with groundwater and form closely distributed small craters. The latter can coalesce to form a final crater with various shapes depending on the distance between them. This observation indicates the significant role of the magmatic plumbing system on the formation and growth of complex and polygenetic maar‐diatreme volcanoes.",book:{id:"5311",slug:"updates-in-volcanology-from-volcano-modelling-to-volcano-geology",title:"Updates in Volcanology",fullTitle:"Updates in Volcanology - From Volcano Modelling to Volcano Geology"},signatures:"Boris Chako Tchamabé, Gabor Kereszturi, Karoly Németh and\nGerardo Carrasco‐Núñez",authors:[{id:"51162",title:"Dr.",name:"Károly",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"karoly-nemeth",fullName:"Károly Németh"},{id:"62029",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabor",middleName:null,surname:"Kereszturi",slug:"gabor-kereszturi",fullName:"Gabor Kereszturi"},{id:"182834",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",middleName:null,surname:"Chako Tchamabé",slug:"boris-chako-tchamabe",fullName:"Boris Chako Tchamabé"},{id:"183809",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Carrasco-Núñez",slug:"gerardo-carrasco-nunez",fullName:"Gerardo Carrasco-Núñez"}]},{id:"49656",doi:"10.5772/61974",title:"Optical Satellite Remote Sensing of the Coastal Zone Environment — An Overview",slug:"optical-satellite-remote-sensing-of-the-coastal-zone-environment-an-overview",totalDownloads:2463,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Optical remote-sensing data are a powerful source of information for monitoring the coastal environment. Due to the high complexity of coastal environments, where different natural and anthropogenic phenomenon interact, the selection of the most appropriate sensor(s) is related to the applications required, and the different types of resolutions available (spatial, spectral, radiometric, and temporal) need to be considered. The development of specific techniques and tools based on the processing of optical satellite images makes possible the production of information useful for coastal environment management, without any destructive impacts. This chapter will highlight different subjects related to coastal environments: shoreline change detection, ocean color, water quality, river plumes, coral reef, alga bloom, bathymetry, wetland mapping, and coastal hazards/vulnerability. The main objective of this chapter is not an exhaustive description of the image processing methods/algorithms employed in coastal environmental studies, but focus in the range of applications available. Several limitations were identified. The major challenge still is to have remote-sensing techniques adopted as a routine tool in assessment of change in the coastal zone. Continuing research is required into the techniques employed for assessing change in the coastal environment.",book:{id:"5104",slug:"environmental-applications-of-remote-sensing",title:"Environmental Applications of Remote Sensing",fullTitle:"Environmental Applications of Remote Sensing"},signatures:"Ana C. Teodoro",authors:[{id:"18485",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Teodoro",slug:"ana-teodoro",fullName:"Ana Teodoro"}]},{id:"49851",doi:"10.5772/62122",title:"Detection of Tree Crowns in Very High Spatial Resolution Images",slug:"detection-of-tree-crowns-in-very-high-spatial-resolution-images",totalDownloads:3240,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"The requirements for advanced knowledge on forest resources have led researchers to develop efficient methods to provide detailed information about trees. Since 1999, orbital remote sensing has been providing very high resolution (VHR) image data. The new generation of satellite allows individual tree crowns to be visually identifiable. The increase in spatial resolution has also had a profound effect in image processing techniques and has motivated the development of new object-based procedures to extract information. Tree crown detection has become a major area of research in image analysis considering the complex nature of trees in an uncontrolled environment. This chapter is subdivided into two parts. Part I offers an overview of the state of the art in computer detection of individual tree crowns in VHR images. Part II presents a new hybrid approach developed by the authors that integrates geometrical-optical modeling (GOM), marked point processes (MPP), and template matching (TM) to individually detect tree crowns in VHR images. The method is presented for two different applications: isolated tree detection in an urban environment and automatic tree counting in orchards with an average performance rate of 82% for tree detection and above 90% for tree counting in orchards.",book:{id:"5104",slug:"environmental-applications-of-remote-sensing",title:"Environmental Applications of Remote Sensing",fullTitle:"Environmental Applications of Remote Sensing"},signatures:"Marilia Ferreira Gomes and Philippe Maillard",authors:[{id:"177110",title:"Dr.",name:"Philippe",middleName:null,surname:"Maillard",slug:"philippe-maillard",fullName:"Philippe Maillard"},{id:"177172",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Marilia",middleName:"Ferreira",surname:"Gomes",slug:"marilia-gomes",fullName:"Marilia Gomes"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66703",title:"P-Wave Teleseismic Tomography: Evidence of Imprints of Deccan Mantle Plume below the Kachchh Rift Zone, Gujarat, India",slug:"p-wave-teleseismic-tomography-evidence-of-imprints-of-deccan-mantle-plume-below-the-kachchh-rift-zon",totalDownloads:2602,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The Indian plate had experienced the Deccan volcanism at 65 Ma when it moved over the Re-union hotspot, which has altered lithospheric structure below the Kachchh rift zone (KRZ). To quantify the influence of Deccan volcanism on the crust-mantle, the present chapter focuses on the delineation of the upper mantle structure below the KRZ, through the modeling of crust corrected P-residuals and P-wave teleseismic tomography. The crust corrected normalized P-residuals suggest dominant negative residuals associated with the central KRZ, indicating crustal and lithospheric thinning below the KRZ. A low velocity down to a depth of 170 km below the central KRZ is detected through the teleseismic tomography using these P-residuals. However, these residuals also show positive values for the surrounding un-rifted zones. Note that a low shear velocity zone extending from 100–120 km to 170–220 km depth beneath the central KRZ has already been revealed by the modeling of P-RFs. This reduction in seismic velocity in the upper mantle could be explained by the presence of trapped carbonatite/partial melts related to the Deccan volcanism. The influx of volatile CO2 emanating from the carbonatite melts in the asthenosphere might be generating lower crustal earthquakes occurring in the KRZ.",book:{id:"7677",slug:"forecasting-volcanic-eruptions",title:"Forecasting Volcanic Eruptions",fullTitle:"Forecasting Volcanic Eruptions"},signatures:"Prantik Mandal",authors:[{id:"279344",title:"Dr.",name:"Prantik",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"prantik-mandal",fullName:"Prantik Mandal"}]},{id:"49608",title:"Remote Sensing of Mountain Glaciers and Related Hazards",slug:"remote-sensing-of-mountain-glaciers-and-related-hazards",totalDownloads:2386,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Mountain glaciers are highly sensitive to temperature and precipitation fluctuations and active geomorphic agents in shaping the landforms of glaciated regions which are direct imprints of past glaciations, providing reliable evidence of the evolution of the past Cryosphere and contain important information on climatic variables. But most importantly, glaciers have aroused a lot of concern in terms of glacier area changes, thickness change, mass balance and their consequences on water resources as well as related hazards. The contribution of glacier mass loss to global sea-level rise and increasing number of glacier-related hazards are the most important and current socioeconomic concerns. Therefore, understanding the dynamics of the changes and constant monitoring of glaciers are essential for studying climate, water resource management and hydropower and also to predict and evade glacier-related hazards. The recent advances in the techniques of earth observations have proved as a boon for investigating glaciers and glacier-related hazards. Remote sensing technology enables extraction of glacier parameters such as albedo/reflectance/scattering, glacier area, glacier zones and facies, equilibrium line, glacier thickness, volume, mass balance, velocity and glacier topography. The present chapter explores the prospective of remote sensing technology for understanding and surveying glaciers formed at high, inaccessible mountains and glacier-induced hazards.",book:{id:"5104",slug:"environmental-applications-of-remote-sensing",title:"Environmental Applications of Remote Sensing",fullTitle:"Environmental Applications of Remote Sensing"},signatures:"Pratima Pandey, Alagappan Ramanathan and Gopalan\nVenkataraman",authors:[{id:"18342",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramanathan",middleName:null,surname:"Alagappan",slug:"ramanathan-alagappan",fullName:"Ramanathan Alagappan"},{id:"177179",title:"Dr.",name:"Pratima",middleName:null,surname:"Pandey",slug:"pratima-pandey",fullName:"Pratima Pandey"},{id:"178231",title:"Prof.",name:"Gopalan",middleName:null,surname:"Venkataraman",slug:"gopalan-venkataraman",fullName:"Gopalan Venkataraman"}]},{id:"60548",title:"Volcanic Glass and its Uses as Adsorbent",slug:"volcanic-glass-and-its-uses-as-adsorbent",totalDownloads:1601,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Volcanic glasses are an amorphous phyllosilicates formed by the fast cooling of the magma. The physicochemical properties of volcanic glasses are directly related to their chemical composition. Thus, the rhyolitic magma, which presents the highest SiO2 percentage, displays a high viscosity, which leads to explosive eruptions by the ex-solution of H2O, CO2, and SO2, when the pressure diminishes generates a macroporous structure with interesting applications in construction, as abrasive, acoustic, filter as well as in the agriculture field. The macroporosity of volcanic glass allows to host large molecules as biomolecules, tensoactives, or dyes. On the other hand, the existence of hydroxyl groups in this amorphous aluminosilicate also favors the adsorption of cations and anions, so the volcanic glass is an economical adsorbent to retain heavy metals or radioactive cations.",book:{id:"6104",slug:"volcanoes-geological-and-geophysical-setting-theoretical-aspects-and-numerical-modeling-applications-to-industry-and-their-impact-on-the-human-health",title:"Volcanoes",fullTitle:"Volcanoes - Geological and Geophysical Setting, Theoretical Aspects and Numerical Modeling, Applications to Industry and Their Impact on the Human Health"},signatures:"Juan Antonio Cecilia, Miguel Armando Autie-Pérez, Juan Manuel\nLabadie-Suarez, Enrique Rodríguez Castellón and Antonia Infantes\nMolina",authors:[{id:"126325",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique",middleName:null,surname:"Rodríguez-Castellón",slug:"enrique-rodriguez-castellon",fullName:"Enrique Rodríguez-Castellón"}]},{id:"57502",title:"The Characteristics of Volcanic Eruption in Indonesia",slug:"the-characteristics-of-volcanic-eruption-in-indonesia",totalDownloads:1846,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter discusses the unique characteristics of the volcanic eruptions in Indonesia. We know that Indonesia has 147 volcanoes and 76 of them are active volcanoes and spread along the islands of Java, Lesser Sunda, Sumatra, and Celebes. The characteristics of Indonesian volcanoes are quite unique in terms of the formation process, eruption phenomenon, and the resulting natural disasters. Most volcanoes in Indonesia consist of stratovolcanoes, but this does not mean that the resulting eruptions are always explosive and they have a long period. This can be seen from the activity of Semeru that always erupts effusively every day, Sinabung that has a very short eruption period, Tangkuban Perahu eruption that occurs suddenly with the lack of early signs, and Merapi and Kelud that have eruption period that is getting shorter. Based on the results of our study it can be known that the types of volcanic eruption are influenced by the structure of the constituent rocks of the volcanoes. However, the presence of external control factors in the form of large-scale earthquakes will affect their periodicity. The large earthquakes can affect the stability of the magma chamber that can trigger a premature eruption.",book:{id:"6104",slug:"volcanoes-geological-and-geophysical-setting-theoretical-aspects-and-numerical-modeling-applications-to-industry-and-their-impact-on-the-human-health",title:"Volcanoes",fullTitle:"Volcanoes - Geological and Geophysical Setting, Theoretical Aspects and Numerical Modeling, Applications to Industry and Their Impact on the Human Health"},signatures:"Eko Hariyono and Liliasari S",authors:[{id:"214360",title:"Dr.",name:"Eko",middleName:null,surname:"Hariyono",slug:"eko-hariyono",fullName:"Eko Hariyono"},{id:"219699",title:"Prof.",name:"Liliasari",middleName:null,surname:"S",slug:"liliasari-s",fullName:"Liliasari S"}]},{id:"51105",title:"How Polygenetic are Monogenetic Volcanoes: Case Studies of Some Complex Maar‐Diatreme Volcanoes",slug:"how-polygenetic-are-monogenetic-volcanoes-case-studies-of-some-complex-maar-diatreme-volcanoes",totalDownloads:1939,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"The increasing number of field investigations and various controlled benchtop and large‐scale experiments have permitted the evaluation of a large number of processes involved in the formation of maar‐diatreme volcanoes, the second most common type of small‐volume subaerial volcanoes on Earth. A maar‐diatreme volcano is recognized by a volcanic crater that is cut into country rocks and surrounded by a low‐height ejecta rim composed of pyroclastic deposits of few meters to up to 200 m thick above the syn‐eruptive surface level. The craters vary from 0.1 km to up to 5 km wide and vary in depth from a few dozen meters to up to 300 m deep. Their irregular morphology reflects the simple or complex volcanic and cratering processes involved in their formation. The simplicity or complexity of the crater or the entire maar itself is usually observed in the stratigraphy of the surrounding ejecta rings. The latter are composed of sequences of successive alternating and contrastingly bedded phreatomagmatic‐derived dilute pyroclastic density currents (PDC) and fallout depositions, with occasional interbedded Strombolian‐derived spatter materials or scoria fall units, exemplifying the changes in the eruptive styles during the formation of the volcano. The entire stratigraphic sequence might be preserved as a single eruptive package (small or very thick) in which there is no stratigraphic gap or significant discordance indicative of a potential break during the eruption. A maar with a single eruptive deposit is quantified as monogenetic maar, meaning that it was formed by a single eruptive vent from which only a small and ephemeral magma erupted over a short period of time. The stratigraphy may also display several packages of deposits separated either by contrasting discordance surfaces or paleosoils, which reflect multiple phases or episodes of eruptions within the same maar. Such maars are characterized as complex polycyclic maars if the length of time between the eruptive events is relatively short (days to years). For greater length of time (thousands to millions of years), the complex maar will be quantified as polygenetic. These common depositional breaks interpreted as signs of temporal interruption of the eruptions for various timescales also indicate deep magma system processes; hence magmas of different types might erupt during the formation of both simple and complex maars. The feeding dikes can interact with groundwater and form closely distributed small craters. The latter can coalesce to form a final crater with various shapes depending on the distance between them. This observation indicates the significant role of the magmatic plumbing system on the formation and growth of complex and polygenetic maar‐diatreme volcanoes.",book:{id:"5311",slug:"updates-in-volcanology-from-volcano-modelling-to-volcano-geology",title:"Updates in Volcanology",fullTitle:"Updates in Volcanology - From Volcano Modelling to Volcano Geology"},signatures:"Boris Chako Tchamabé, Gabor Kereszturi, Karoly Németh and\nGerardo Carrasco‐Núñez",authors:[{id:"51162",title:"Dr.",name:"Károly",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"karoly-nemeth",fullName:"Károly Németh"},{id:"62029",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabor",middleName:null,surname:"Kereszturi",slug:"gabor-kereszturi",fullName:"Gabor Kereszturi"},{id:"182834",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",middleName:null,surname:"Chako Tchamabé",slug:"boris-chako-tchamabe",fullName:"Boris Chako Tchamabé"},{id:"183809",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Carrasco-Núñez",slug:"gerardo-carrasco-nunez",fullName:"Gerardo Carrasco-Núñez"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"658",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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