Design variables for the optimization
\r\n\tb. The growth of digital environments which can educate and empower as well as exploit and destroy (mobile learning, STEM education, tablets, etc.).
\r\n\tc. Social, racial, class, and gender-based discriminations that restrict the developmental potential and the prosperity perspectives
\r\n\td. Health hazards and illnesses such as the laters COVID-19 pandemic.
\r\n\te. Armed conflicts with casualties and displacements of populations seeking refuge
\r\n\tf. Lack of physical spaces that will support and nourish development and learning, etc.
\r\n\tEducation in the post-modern era strives to address the above issues and develop policies, curricula, methodologies, and strategies to contribute to an environmentally and socially sustainable future. It embraces multiple perspectives and worldviews and seeks to touch on inequalities and discriminations in favor of equity. In this direction, children’s s agency lies at the heart of democratic approaches. Educational processes adopt forms of interactions that actualize learning as “becoming” and place it in a continuum between past, present, and future. This book intends to feature innovative approaches that employ transformative elements (targets, methods, materials, ideas, etc.) and embrace the concept of child development as “becoming” in an ever-changing and challenging world.
\r\n\r\n\tWe invite authors to contribute original research or research review papers that present innovative approaches addressing personal and social transformation. All aspects of early childhood education will be considered, including research methodology for the early years.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-949-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-948-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-950-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"351c41dca5c8c997f15e758f2e035178",bookSignature:"Dr. Maria Ampartzaki and Associate Prof. Michail Kalogiannakis",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11281.jpg",keywords:"Early Childhood Education, Preschool, STEAM, Environmental Sustainability, Social Sciences, Social Sustainability, ICT, Digital Devices, Education for Equity, Gender Issues, Post-modern Epistemology, Social Constructivism",numberOfDownloads:65,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 16th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 14th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 12th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 3rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 2nd 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"8 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Maria Ampartzaki is an Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Education in the Department of Preschool Education at the University of Crete. Her research interests include ICT in education, science education in the early years, inquiry-based and art-based learning, teachers’ professional development, action research, and the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, among others. She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool\r\nEducation, University of Crete in Greece. He graduated from the Physics Department\r\nof the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University\r\nParis-7 and University Paris-5 and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5.\r\nHis research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching\r\nand learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, and games simulations.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"422488",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Ampartzaki",slug:"maria-ampartzaki",fullName:"Maria Ampartzaki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/422488/images/system/422488.jpg",biography:"Dr Maria Ampartzaki is an Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Education in the Department of Preschool Education at the University of Crete. Her research interests include ICT in education, science education in the early years, inquiry-based and art-based learning, teachers’ professional development, action research, and the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, among others. She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education. She also has the experience of participating in five Erasmus+ projects.",institutionString:"University of Crete",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"260066",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Kalogiannakis",slug:"michail-kalogiannakis",fullName:"Michail Kalogiannakis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260066/images/system/260066.jpg",biography:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, and an Associate Tutor at School of Humanities at the Hellenic Open University. He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. 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Their main advantage over both gas engines and Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) is the very high energy density of liquid fuel that allows long driving ranges with small (and light-weight) storage tanks and safe and fast refueling processes. Moreover, gasoline and diesel fuels have an established infrastructure of distribution that is difficult and very expensive to replicate for other energy sources.
Environmental issues, energy crises, concerns regarding peaking oil consumption and the expected increase of number of cars in developing countrieshave eventually encouraged research into alternative energy sources. However, they are still unable to penetrate the market for several technological limitations.
The main drawback of BEVs resides in the batteries. They are still too expensive, too bulky and heavy (due to their low energy density). Moreover, they have an unsatisfactory life cycle and require long recharging times. Vehicles using fuel cell (FCV) a very clean fuel conversion system, have technologic drawback even higher. They add to the problems of a BEV, the use of a very light gaseous fuel that has severe limitations in terms of producing process, storing system, safety and distribution infrastructure. Thus, they are not to be considered as a viable way for eco-mobility in the next future (German, 2003).
Hybrid electric vehicles are characterized by the presence of two different typologies of energy storage systems: usually a battery and a gasoline or diesel fuel tank. HEVs have no limitation of range with respect to conventional vehicle and use the existing distribution infrastructure. The main advantages of HEVs are: the flexibility in the choice of engine operating point that allows the engine to be run in its high efficiency region and the possibility of downsizing the ICE and so obtaining a higher average efficiency. Moreover, the engine can be turned off when the vehicle is arrested (e.g., at traffic lights) or the power request is very low (reduction of the idle losses).
PHEVs can be considered either as BEVs that can be run in hybrid mode when the state of the charge (SOC) of the batteries is low or as HEVs with batteries that can be recharged from the electricity grid. They are characterized by the use of much larger battery pack when compared with standard HEVs. The size of the battery influences the All Electric Range (AER), an important design parameters of PHEVs that is defined as the number of miles they vehicle can run in pure electric mode on the UDDS cycle. A vehicle is classified as PHEVXY if it has an AER of XY miles.
PHEVs require fewer fill-ups at the gas station than conventional cars and have the advantage, over HEV, of home recharging.
BEVs, HEVs, and PHEVs have also the capability of partially recovering energy from brakes by inverting the energy flow from batteries to wheels through the electric machine.
Simpson, 2006 presented a comparison of the costs (vehicle purchase costs and energy costs) and benefits (reduced petroleum consumption) of PHEVs relative to HEVs and conventional vehicles. On the basis of his model, Simpson found that PHEVs can reduce per-vehicle petroleum consumption. In particular, reductions higher than 45% in the petroleum consumption can be achieved using designs of PHEV20 or higher (i.e. vehicles containing enough useable energy stored in their battery to run more than 20 mi (32 km) on the UDDS cycle in electric mode according to the previous definition of AER).
The study of Simpson, 2006 underlined that from the economic point of view, the PHEVs can become a competitive technology is the cost of petroleum will continue to increase and the cost of the batteries will decrease.
Because of different characteristics of multiple energy sources, the fuel economy and the environmental impact of hybrid vehicles mainly depend on a proper power management strategy. The particular operating strategy employed in this kind of vehicles significantly influences the component attributes and the value of the PHEV technology (Gonder et al. 2007).
Generally speaking, the environmental impact of an ecologic vehicle has to be determined with a “well to wheel” (WTW) approach. From a “tank to wheel” (TTW) point of view, a BEV, or a PHEV running in electric mode do not produce either pollutant or greenhouse gases while the emissions of pollutant and CO2 in the WTW processes depend on the primary source and the technology used to generate electric energy at the grid. The well-to- wheel CO2 emissions of a FCV can be equal to those of a diesel engine vehicle if it uses hydrogen produced from non-renewable energies sources (Guzzella and Sciaretta, 2007).
In a hybrid vehicle, the local emissions of CO2 and pollutant strongly depend on the management strategy used for the ICE that becomes the main issue in both HEVs and PHEVs.
Hybrid Electric Vehicles can be classified according to their architecture, the discharge/recharge mode of batteries and the level of hybridization.
As for architecture, HEV are called “parallel” when they use a gasoline or diesel engine mechanically coupled with an electric motor at the same shaft to satisfy the power request at the wheels. A parallel HEV can be run in five modes of operation (Guzzella et al, 2007): power assist (the electric motor give the supplementary torque to the shaft when the request is higher than engine available torque), battery recharging (a part of the engine power is used to recharge the batteries), electric mode (engine turned off), conventional vehicle (electric motor turned off) and regenerative braking.
In a “series” hybrid, the power request is entirely satisfied by the electric motor. Electric current to the motor is the algebraic sum of the current form/to the batteries and the current produced by an engine-driven generator. A series HEV can be run in four modes (the same of a parallel vehicle apart from conventional mode since the engine is not connected to the shaft).
Combined hybrid that can be run either in parallel and series mode have also been developed and introduced in the automotive market.
Traditionally, series HEVs have been neglected in scientific literature since they are less efficient than parallel HEVs and require more additional weight. Moreover, their energy management was considered trivial: a simple on-off engine control was considered sufficient. However, the increasing interest in plug-in vehicles has given new impulse to the research of advanced control strategies for series architectures.
There are two possible ways to regulate the energy management of hybrid vehicles with batteries. The first one (charge depleting mode, CD) accepts the batteries to be completely discharged during the mission. In this mode, the battery SOC can increase or decrease in time but it tends to be reduced along the mission. This approach can be considered for plug-in vehicles only. The second one (charge sustaining mode, CS) tries to keep the battery always charge to not affect the vehicle autonomy. The SOC can increase or decrease in time but it tends tore main constant during the mission (for series and parallel HEVs, not possible for BEV).
A PHEVs is usually run in CD mode without using the engine until reaching a pre-assigned lower bound on the SOC, then a CS strategy is adopted. Another possibility is to discharge gradually the battery throughout the trip as in the so-called
This makes a PHEV more complex, more dependent on traffic and route information and more efficient than a standard series HEV.
Another classification of importance for hybrids is the degree of hybridization.
Finally, the term
The role of the internal combustion engine in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) is quite different from conventional vehicle. The engine has no more to be designed to fulfill the performance (maximum speed, acceleration and climb) required for the vehicle but can be downsized, thus reducing fuel consumption and greenhouse emissions. Moreover, the internal combustion engine can be better managed in order to avoid low-efficiency and high-emission operations like idling, vehicle stops and strong accelerations.
The current approach to HEV design is to use internal combustion engines developed for conventional vehicles. From this point of view, the advantage of fuel economy of HEVs can be actually defeated by the higher complexity, weight and volume of the power-train. However, many of the electronic-controlled devices used in engine to increase their efficiency and reduce emissions at idle and low speed-low torque operating mode are completely useless in HEV applications. This means that simpler, lighter and less costly engine could be developed for hybrid applications.
It is well known that internal combustion engines have poor fuel economy and larger if they work at low temperature. This is particularly important in hybrid electric vehicles since they allow the engine to be turned off for long periods during which the engine temperature decreases. This can lead to higher cold-start emissions particularly due to the poor conversion efficiency of the after-treatment devices when the light off temperature is not reached. On the other hand, hybrid electric allow either engine or after-treatment devices or both devices to be controlled to reduce the warm-up period and improve their performances in a fully integrated approach (Bayar et al., 2010). In HEV, the engine is cranked to higher speed than conventional vehicles and this makes the combustion condition during startup process quite different. Yu et al., 2006, investigated the effect of cranking speed on the start/stop operation of a gasoline engine for hybrid applications. Once again, fuel economy and emission during the engine start process depend on the control strategy used for the engine and the motor.
In order to reduce the warm-up period of the engine Lee et al., 2011 considered the recovering of exhaust gas heat exchanging system with coolant and gear box oil simultaneously. Accordingly, they developed an exhaust heat recovery device, which performs integral heat exchange of the exhaust gas heat of engine to increase the temperature of the coolant and the gear box oil, thereby reducing friction loss and improving fuel economy.
The capability of a HEV in reducing fuel consumption and pollutant emissions strongly depends on the supervisory control strategy and the specific driving conditions. In fact, in hybrid electric vehicles a supervisor control system defines in each time the power split between the fuel conversion system (engine/alternator or fuel cell) and the electric storage systems (batteries and/or super capacitors) in order to minimize fuel consumption, sustain battery charge and reduce polluting emissions. Note that these goals are competitive and the performance of the HEV strongly depends on which goal it is given a higher importance. The optimization should be performed, ideally, over the entire life cycle of the vehicle even if a much shorter time interval (from a small number of minutes to few hours) is usually taken into account.
Several approaches for the optimization of energy management of a HEV have been presented in literature (Serrao, 2009). They can be classified in four categories: numerical optimization, analytical optimal control theory, instantaneous optimization and heuristic control techniques.
Heuristic control techniques are based on a set of rules that generate control action (i.e., the power to be delivered from the two energy sources) according to the value of some vehicle parameters like speed, acceleration, battery SOC, etc. These methods easy to implement in vehicles but they do not guarantee the minimization of either fuel consumption or emissions and the achievement of charge sustaining at the end of the mission.
Numerical optimization usually applies dynamic programming to optimize the vehicle behavior with the unrealistic assumption of perfect knowledge of the vehicle driving conditions (Lin et al, 2003).
An alternative to dynamic program is the application of the Pontrayagin’s principle. This approach assumes that the power train can be described with simple analytical functions. Thus, it is often a too simplified approach and it also requires the knowledge of the driving cycle to be applied (Anatone et al. 2005, Serrao et al. 2008).
In the instantaneous optimization approach, the global minimization problem is implemented and solved as a sequence of local optimization problems. The best known of these strategies is the Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy for charged-sustaining vehicles. The ECMS tries to minimize the equivalent fuel consumption that is calculated as the sum, in a time interval Δt, of the actual engine fuel consumption and the fuel equivalent of the electric energy stored in/extracted from the battery in the time interval Δt. Since battery is only used as an energy buffer, its energy is produced ultimately by the fuel that the engine has consumed/saved in the past (or will consume in the future). The main drawback of the approach is that it requires the definition of equivalent factors in the conversion of fuel energy to electrical energy and vice versa (Guzzella and Sciarretta, 2007).
Recently, Millo et al. 2011 extended the ECMS technique to include engine emissions. In particular, they correlated the use of the battery with equivalent NOx emissions and compared the results of the fuel consumption-oriented optimization and the NOx optimization in terms of State of Charge history, engine operating points, etc. with respect to several standard driving cycles.
The usage of standard driving cycles in the optimization of the control strategies is a common way to obtain sub-optimal controller that, however, can give poor results in the real driving conditions.
As explained before, the possibility of estimating the future driving profile (speed and related power demand) is a key issue in the development of hybrid vehicles. In fact, the supervisory controller of a HEV could use the future speed profile to optimize the power split in a future time window in order to minimize fuel consumption, pollutant emission, battery usage and so on. Moreover, the information about future can be used to activate the electric warming of engine and after-treatment devices. In this way they will be at the right temperature when the engine will be turned on and the exhaust gas flow will enter the after-treatment device.
In literature, a number of “auto-adaptive” techniques which try to predict future driving conditions based on the past ones have been defined A possible approach is to predict the future driving conditions based on the past behavior of the vehicle (Sciarretta et al, 2004) relying on the assumption that similar operating conditions will exist. But the future driving profile also depends on the instantaneous decisions which the driver will take to respond to the physical environment (driving patterns). Moreover, recent studies have shown that driver style, road type and traffic congestion levels impact significantly on fuel consumption and emissions (Ericson, 2000, Ericson, 2001). For these reasons, the control strategies proposed in some schemes (Won et al, 2005) incorporate the knowledge of the driving environment.
In the case of series HEV, the knowledge of the driving conditions have been found in literature to be less important than in the case of parallel hybrids (Barsali et al,. 2004).
In the case of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, the control is more complex, strongly depending of the initial value of SOC and on the mission length, particularly if Blended Mode control methods are used. In fact, if the total trip was known, the best results would be obtained if the SOC would reach the lower value at the end of the trip (Karbowski et al. 2006). Gong et al. 2007, developed an Intelligent Transportation System that uses GPS information and historical traffic data do define the driving patterns to be used in the optimization. Donateo et al. 2011, have estimate numerically that the knowledge of the driving cycle in a future time window of 60s can improve fuel consumption in a series PHEV with Blended Mode control by 20%.
According to Gusikhin et al. 2008, a vehicle can be defined as intelligent if it is able to sense its own status and that of the environment, to communicate with the environment and to plan and execute appropriate maneuvers. The first application of intelligent vehicle systems has been the increase of safety by providing driver assistance in critical moments. A combination of on-board cameras, radars, lidars, digital maps, communication from other vehicles or highway systems are used to perform lane departure warning, adaptive cruise control, parallel parking assistants, crash warning, automated crash avoidance, intelligent parking systems.
Markel et al. 2008 studied the effect of integration between an electrified vehicle fleet and the electric grid in order to increase the amount of renewable energy used to power the electric vehicles by optimizing the timing and the power of the charging processes during the day. Different communication protocols have been considered and compared by Markel et al. Intelligent Transport Systems like traffic management can have a direct effect on the emissions of CO2 produced by the automotive floats (Dimitrakopoulos, 2011). According to Janota et al. 2010, Intelligent Transportation Systems can reduce consumption and emissions by acting on the vehicle (by monitoring and controlling the engine), on the infrastructure (reduction of number/duration of congestions and stoppage, optimization of intersection, cooperative systems to avoid congestions) and on the driver (planning of ecologic routes based on real-time information, support to driver for economic drive).
Recently, Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) techniques have been proposed for gathering information about the vehicle routes and road conditions that could allow the evaluation of the future power request of the vehicle over a large time window. ICT techniques can be used to estimate the future driving profile, suggest low consumption behaviors to the driver, propose alternative route, communicate the position and the status of electric recharging stations, etc. (Sciarretta et al, 2004).
Schuricht et al. 2010 analyzed two active energy management measures. The first one, uses advanced traffic light, and communication systems to support the driver during intersection approaching. The second one explores the uses of information and sensor sources from the traffic telematics for the predictive online optimal control of hybrid vehicles.
The role of Intelligent Transport Systems in the improvement of PHEV performance and spreading of vehicles electrification is a research issue at the Center for Automotive Research at the Ohio State University. Starting from the awareness that traffic, weather and road conditions will be available in the next future through vehicle-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-infrastructure communications, the researchers at CAR emphasize the possibility this information in order to adapt the tuning of the energy management controller in HEVs, predicting the future driving profile, signaling the availability of recharge stations, predicting the route and generating statistical information for modifying pre-stored maps.
In the paper of Tulpule et al. 2011, the authors concentrated on the impact of the available data on the energy management in order to identify the most important factors on the actual fuel consumption of a PHEV. The factors analyzed in the investigation, named “Impact Factors”, derive from both weather information (temperature and humidity) and traffic information (status of traffic lights, presence of pedestrian, road events in intra-city highway and inter-city highway). Their importance on the performance of the ECMS strategy were evaluated on the basis of a large amount of data acquired on a Toyota Prius converted to plug-in mode. The plug-in Prius has been run for a total of 60,000 miles in the campus area of the Ohio State University and several parameters like GPS information, temperature, fuel consumption, battery SOC, etc. were collected along with time and date.
To study the effect of the driving patterns, Gong et al. 2011 used a statistic approach to analyze real world profiles and derive information about average speed, speed limits, segment length, etc. These data were used to build a series of reference driving cycles by using the Markov chain modeling. The results of the investigation showed that the driving patterns have a relevant effect on the performance of a plug-in HEV and that the statistic values of acceleration have the largest impact of the tuning of the ECMS strategy.
The CREA idea of intelligent hybrid vehicle includes the possibility of sensing the traffic environment in which it moves to predict the future driving conditions (Ciccarese et al. 2010). In particular, the vehicle is assumed to receive information from GPS, on-board sensors and vehicular communications. The scheme of the intelligent HEV according to the CREA research center is shown in Figure 1.
This information can be used on-board to perform a simulation of the traffic in a pre-set time window in order to predict the power request pattern in the next future and execute on-line optimization of the energy management over the predicted power pattern. The main difference with the CAR approach is that the vehicle is assumed to be able to compute on-board a simulation of the traffic conditions by using a microscopic road traffic simulation to derive its own future power request profile and optimize fuel consumption, battery usage, emissions levels, etc. This approach requires a relevant on-board computational capability that we believe could be available in the next future for other applications like safety, entertainments and so on. Alternatively, the simulation of the traffic patterns and the calculation of the speed profiles of the vehicles in a particular urban zone could be performed by a central computational unit that could send the results to the vehicles circulating in that zone.
An intelligent hybrid vehicle according to the CREA approach
The gray area in Figure 1 represents the tools to be implemented on board. They include the prediction system, which is used to estimate the future speed profile of the vehicle, a power train simulator, which evaluates the evolution of fuel consumption and battery SOC during the prediction interval, and an optimizer, which is used to optimize the parameters of the control strategy.
This block gathers status messages that surrounding vehicles and/or the infrastructure broadcast. Messages transmitted by a vehicle carry status information, such as position, speed, acceleration, etc., and, optionally, some information related to its route. Messages generated by the infrastructure, instead, carry the current status and the timing of traffic lights. Besides the status information received through vehicular communications, the system gathers the status information on the “predicting vehicle” locally obtained by a GPS receiver and/or on-board sensors and also retrieves the data on road network from the digital maps used by the GPS navigation device.
The information gathered is exploited to take, at regular intervals, a snapshot of the traffic scenario in a given area. Each snapshot is the input to a run of module which simulates the traffic dynamics over a certain time interval, whose duration is at most equal to the prediction horizon. In Ciccarese et al. 2010, a modified version of SUMO software has been considered as on-board simulator.
SUMO (Simulation of Urban MObility) is an open source microscopic road traffic simulator. The input parameters of SUMO consist of the road network, the characteristics of each vehicle, the path (route) that each vehicle follows and the timing of traffic lights.
Vehicles with the same characteristics are grouped in classes and, for each class, a set of mechanical specifications is provided maximum speed, acceleration and deceleration., vehicle length, mass, friction coefficients, etc.
The road network is represented by an oriented graph, where nodes correspond to intersections and arcs to one-way lanes. For each lane, the maximum speed, the slope and the classes of vehicles which are allowed to go along it have to be also specified. The route of a vehicle consists of a list of consecutive arcs in the graph.
Using the input data, SUMO generates a mobility trace for all vehicles according to a Car-Following model (Wang et al. 2001): each vehicle tries to hold its speed close to the maximum one allowed for the current lane and decelerates if it is approaching either to an intersection or to another vehicle on the same lane; in the latter case, its speed is adapted to that of the vehicle which moves ahead of it.
The accuracy of the proposed prediction method has been tested experimentally (Ciccarese et al. 2012) in a augmented reality environment to simulate the presence in the Ecotecke campus of a certain number of vehicles able to communicate with the target vehicle. The experimental campaign showed that the inaccuracy of the prediction method is below 4km/h. In Figure 2, a comparison is shown between the predicted and the actual speed profile of the target vehicle in a time window of 100s. More details about the experimental campaign can be found in Ciccarese et al. 2012.
Example of speed profiles obtained by the experimental environment
The Power train simulator block implements a model of the power-train. The block processes the output of the prediction system and calculates the related power demand of the predicting vehicle by considering aerodynamic force, inertial contribution, rolling force and grade force. Information from on board sensors (ambient temperature, asphalt conditions, tires pressure and temperature) can be used to correct the predicted load. Then, the block simulates the energy flows according to the selected energy management strategy (described above) and evaluates the evolution of fuel consumption and battery SOC during the prediction interval.
Two different paradigms are usually considered to simulate a hybrid vehicle (Guzzella and Sciaretta, 2007). In the backward paradigm, the velocity of the vehicle is an input. According to the vehicle specification and speed values, the power request at the wheel is calculated. By means of static maps, the energy consumption of both engine and batteries is calculated according to the selected energy management strategy. If the power-train is not able to meet the cycle requirements, the acceleration is reduced and the vehicle diverges from the driving cycle.
In a forward or dynamic model, the power requested by the driver through the acceleration and braking pedals is used as input to evaluate the acceleration and the vehicle speed. This kind of model is used for the development of the control systems, while the backward method is best suited for analysis and evaluation of the energy and power flow in the vehicle driveline. Thus, a backward model is considered in the proposed scheme.
If the driving cycle is predicted with a traffic model that takes into account the actual acceleration and deceleration capability of the power-train, it is not necessary to check if the vehicle is able to follow the prescribed driving cycle.
This block implements the supervisor control system which defines, at each time, the power split between the fuel conversion system (engine/alternator in a series HEV) and the electric storage systems (generally batteries) with the constraints that the sum of the power extracted from each energy source must be equal to the total power requested at the wheels.
The role of the optimizer block is to adapt the parameters of the actual control strategy to the future driving conditions. This block can be implemented either as a on-line optimizer or as a memory device for loading optimized maps (Donateo et al. 2011).
The system also includes a block, named Energy monitoring, which monitors the energy parameters of the vehicle (engine efficiency, level of gasoline in the tank, battery SOC, etc.) and evaluates the effectiveness in optimizing the energy management. This evaluation is carried out at regular intervals of duration equal to the prediction horizon.
Another block, named Prediction accuracy, evaluates the prediction error (based on a comparison between the actual speed profile evaluated by GPS and that estimated by the prediction system). The output of the Prediction accuracy block could be used to trigger a new prediction run.
In order to evaluate the effectiveness of the CREA approach in reducing fuel consumption of a plug-in HEV, a numerical investigation has been performed with respect to ITAN500.. ITAN500 a four-wheel vehicle prototype with a size comparable with that of a large scooter. ITAN500 can be classified as PHEV40 because its all-electric range is 40 miles on the UDDS cycle.
The vehicle was designed to reach a maximum speed of 90km/h in hybrid configuration with a mass of about 800 kg. By taking into account the overall transmission ratio (1/3.46) the DC motor was selected in order to generate a torque of about 27 Nm at the speed of 3560 rpm. A set of six lead acid batteries in series are used to produce the nominal voltage of 72V required to feed the electric motor. The choice of lead acid batteries was due to the need of reducing the vehicle cost. However, other kinds of batteries are currently under consideration.
A small gasoline engine with a maximum power of 9.9kW at 3600 rpm is used to extend the range of the vehicle. More details on the power-train (shown in Figure 3) can be found in a previous publication (Donateo et al. 2012).
Scheme of the ITAN500 power-train
VPR (Vehicle Power Request) is a backward model that uses quasi-static maps for the main power-train components (thermal engine, motor and batteries) to predict their efficiency according to the requested values of torque and speed.
The main outputs of the VPR model are the evolution of fuel consumption and battery SOC along the driving cycle. Starting from the velocity speed and grade traces, the vehicle power request is calculated by considering aerodynamic force, grade force, inertial contribution and rolling force. An example of vehicle power request trace is shown in Figure 4 together with other VPR output.
Note that during deceleration the power request is negative which means that the braking energy can be recovered and stored in the batteries. In the example shown in Figure 4, engine is turned on only in a small fraction of the vehicle missions, around 500s from the start of the cycle.
Example of VPR results
The efficiency of the electric motor according to torque and speed has been evaluated experimentally on an inertial test bench (Donateo et al. 2011).
Since the engine is run at the constant speed of 3000 rpm, its efficiency is considered as function of torque only. Literature data have been used to derive the maps of Figure 5.
The data of Figure 5 refers to a fully-warmed case, i.e. the temperature of the engine block is at the nominal temperature of 90°C. However, engine efficiency is strongly dependent on its temperature; in particular it is very low at cold start. In the VPR model, the efficiency data of Figure 5 are corrected as proposed by Guzzella et Onder, 2004 by multiplying the full-warmed engine efficiency by a correction factor whose dependence on temperature is shown in Figure 6.
Fully-warmed engine efficiency versus torque at 3000rpm
Correction factor for engine efficiency as a function of the block temperature
Note that if VPR is run on-board, the temperature of the engine block is a measured data while in the present investigation it has to be simulated. For this reason, a thermal model based on a zero-dimensional simulation of the engine has been proposed (Donateo et al. 2012). The thermal model is able to simulate the increase of temperature when the engine is on as a function of its actual torque. When the engine is off, its temperature decreases due to the heat transfer to the surrounding air. More details on the thermal model can be found in Donateo et al. 2012.
An example of temperature trace versus time obtained from VPR with the same input conditions of Figure 4 is shown in Figure 7.
An example of temperature trace obtained with the thermal model of the engine
The overall electric efficiency between the chopper and the wheels is set constant and equal to 0.65 for the present investigation.
The energy management strategy developed for ITAN500 includes an initial Charge Depleting (CD) mode where the battery only is used until a threshold value of battery SOC is reached (
In Mode 1, the power to the motor is supplied only by the generator/engine group.
Mode 2 uses only battery to supply power. Both engine and battery are used in the other modes. In particular, in mode 3 the engine is used both to charge battery and to supply power to the motor while in mode 4 the engine and the battery are used together to feed the motor.
According to the actual power to be supplied to the motor to move the wheels (
Note that Areas 11 and 10 of Figure 8 were not taken into account because the power request is always lower than PICE,max for all the operating conditions considered in the present investigation.
The actual size of each area depends on the values of energy management parameters
Energy management strategy
The optimal combination of the parameters can be easily performed off-line with a general optimization algorithm like genetic algorithms (Paladini et al. 2007).
The role of the optimizer is to find the optimal combination of parameters in Table 1 that define the size of the areas of Figure 8. For the optimization described in this paragraph, the minimum and maximum values and the steps of variation of the design variables reported in Table 1 were considered.
Variable | Min | Max |
SOCCD (%) | 60 | 80 |
SOCMIN (%) | 20 | 60 |
K | 0 | 1 |
PICE,min [W] | 500 | 6200 |
Design variables for the optimization
In each case, the goal of the optimization was the reduction of the equivalent fuel consumption calculated in the following way:
where:
Note that eq. (1) has been obtained by adapting the equivalent fuel consumption defined by Sciarretta et al. 2004 for a parallel HEV to the specific power-train of ITAN500.
The equivalent fuel consumption of the battery is obtained as follows:
where ηrepresents the average fuel consumption of the battery which is assumed to be constant and the same in charge and discharge in the present investigation.
When the battery is in charge,
To complete the description of eq. (3),
The penalty function
In the present investigation three kinds of driving cycles were taken into account for ITAN500. The first two are standard driving cycle adopted for the registration on new cars (NEDC and UDDS). Other numerical cycles were obtained with the help of SUMO. The ITAN500 has been simulated to move in the Ecotekne campus of the University of Salento for about 10000s (2.8h) together with other vehicles that, unlike ITAN500, can enter and exit the campus area. Different driving scenarios were taken into account by changing the number and the specification of the vehicles moving in the area.
The specification of the vehicles are used in the framework of SUMO to calculate the maximum values of acceleration/deceleration allowed to each vehicle according to the difference between the actual power request (depending on aerodynamics, rolling and inertia) and the maximum traction/braking power of the vehicle. Cycles obtained in this way were named as Trace A to Trace H. More details on the procedure used to obtain the numerical cycles can be found in Donateo et al. 2011.
Another cycle named R has been taken into account. This cycle is an actual driving cycle acquired with a GPS system on board of the vehicle ITAN500 when it is run in all electric range. The cycle has been assumed to be executed for 25 times (R*25) in order to obtain results of fuel consumption and battery usage comparable with those of cycles A and B.
The specifications of the cycles taken into account in the investigation are reported in Table 2. Note that all the cycles taken into account in the present investigation refer to a zero grade condition.
Cycle | Total time [s] | Average speed [m/s] | Max speed [m/s] | Min speed [m/s] |
Cycle_NEDC | 1225 | 8.93 | 33.36 | 0 |
Cycle_UDDS | 1370 | 8.73 | 25.37 | 0 |
Cycle_1015 | 661 | 6.90 | 19.45 | 0 |
Cycle_HWFET | 766 | 21.56 | 26.80 | 0 |
Trace A | 10001 | 4.69 | 13.90 | 0 |
Trace B | 10801 | 6.88 | 13.90 | 0 |
Trace C | 9999 | 1.79 | 8.33 | 0 |
Trace D | 10001 | 2.00 | 8.33 | 0 |
Trace E | 10001 | 1.38 | 8.33 | 0 |
Trace F | 10001 | 1.08 | 8.33 | 0 |
Trace G | 10001 | 1.95 | 8.33 | 0 |
Trace H | 10001 | 1.47 | 8.33 | 0 |
Cycle R | 382 | 25.75 | 41.61 | 0.2 |
Specification of the driving cycle taken into account for the creation of the maps
In this approach the driving cycle is assumed to be completely known and the parameters of Table 1 are optimized for each cycle of Table 2. The results of the application of this approach to cycles A, B, R, NEDC and UDDS are reported in Table 3.
#A | 10000 | 2.78 | 24.8 | 1.02 | 65 | 44.4 | 0.9 | 3.2 |
#B | 10800 | 3.1 | 24.7 | 1.96 | 77.9 | 50.1 | 0.6 | 2.6 |
#R*25 | 9550 | 3.38 | 24.8 | 1.91 | 77.3 | 34.8 | 0.98 | 2.4 |
#UDDS | 1370 | 1.66 | 18.7 | 0.08 | 60.6 | 37.6 | 0.97 | 6.1 |
#NEDC | 1225 | 2.52 | 17 | 0.16 | 71.4 | 35.6 | 0.26 | 5.9 |
Results of the optimization in the case of full knowledge (initial SOC 45%)
The driving cycle is assumed to be completely unknown. The parameter of the control strategy are optimized for the NEDC cycle and applied to the other cycles. The results are reported in Table 4.
#A | 10000 | 3.47 | 25 | 1.29 | 71.4 | 35.6 | 0.26 | 5.9 |
#B | 10800 | 3.85 | 25 | 2.38 | 71.4 | 35.6 | 0.26 | 5.9 |
#R*25 | 9550 | 3.89 | 25 | 2.19 | 71.4 | 35.6 | 0.26 | 5.9 |
#UDDS | 1370 | 1.67 | 18.7 | 0.08 | 71.4 | 35.6 | 0.26 | 5.9 |
#NEDC | 1225 | 2.52 | 17 | 0.16 | 71.4 | 35.6 | 0.26 | 5.9 |
Results of the optimization in the case of no knowledge (initial SOC 45%)
In order to reduce the on-board computational load required by the CREA approach, Donateo et al. 2011 proposed the use of maps that are optimized off-line with respect to reference driving conditions. They were obtained with the following procedure.
All cycles of Table 2 have been taken into account to generate one global driving cycle of 85208s (about 23 hours). Then, the VPR has been used to calculate the corresponding power request according to the specification of the vehicle and a global power request trace has been obtained. This power request trace has been divided into 1420 Mini Power Cycles (MPC) of 60s.
The 1420 MPCs have been distributed in 90 groups with the help of the K-Means clustering technique. For each group, a representative driving cycle, named Reference Mini Power Cycle has been identified and numbered.
Figure 9 shows, with different colors, five MPCs belonging to the same group. The bold blue line is the RMPC chosen with the clustering algorithm.
The off-line optimization has been performed for each of the 90 RMPCs, two levels of engine temperature (cold-hot), three levels of the initial state of charge, and three levels of the fuel tank. In this way 1620 optimized maps have been obtained. Each map contains the optimized values of SOCmin, k and PICE,min. for a particular combination of RMPC, engine temperature, initial state of charge and level of the fuel tank.
The maps could be used in an intelligent hybrid electric vehicle in the following way.
At any interval of 60 seconds, the predicted speed profile is obtained from the prediction block;
The corresponding power request profile over 60s is calculated according to the vehicle and road specification (es. grade) with VPR;
The power request profile is compared with each of the RMPCs and the most similar one in terms of root mean square error is found;
According to the measured values of engine temperature, fuel tank level and battery state of the charge, the corresponding map is loaded;
The optimized values of the energy management parameters of the selected map are applied over the next 60s.
Example of RMPC
The proposed on board prediction-optimization tool has been evaluated numerically in the following way. The ITAN500 is simulated to execute one of the driving cycles of Table 2 with the assumption that they are know (by prediction) in blocks of 60s.
At any 60s, the power request versus time in the next time window of 60s is evaluated with VPR and compared with each of the RMDCs to find the most similar one. Then, the instantaneous values of engine temperature, SOC and fuel levels are set as initial values and the corresponding optimized map is loaded. The thermal model of VPR is used to predict the profile of engine temperature along the mission. The values of the energy management parameters are used to evaluate the fuel consumption and battery usage in the next 60s on the basis of the actual power request (not on the selected RMDC).
The results in terms of fuel consumption and battery usage obtained with this approach are reported in Table 5.
#A | 10000 | 3.38 | 24.9 | 1.26 | From maps | |||
#B | 10800 | 3.76 | 24.9 | 2.32 | ||||
#R*25 | 9550 | 3.73 | 25 | 2.09 | ||||
#UDDS | 1370 | 2.42 | 13.4 | 0.19 | ||||
#NEDC | 1225 | 2.61 | 15.6 | 0.18 |
Results of the simulation with the optimized maps (initial SOC 45%)
To compare the results of the three approaches, different metrics can be taken into account.
The first metric useful to compare the results of the three approaches can be derived by analyzing the typical SOC trace versus time in a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle. An example is shown in Figure 10 with respect to two different initial values of the battery SOC.
The traces of SOC show an initial zone where the results corresponding to
Then, there is a region in which the SOCs tends to decrease but can be kept locally constant or be increased thanks to the use of the engine (Plug-in Hybrid Mode). This region ends when the battery is fully discharged (SOC=20%). After this, the SOC remains globally constant for all cases (
In the EM region, the fuel consumption is zero but the SOC strongly decreases due to the extensive use of the battery. In the PHM mode, the battery is the main energy source and the engine is turned on (when its efficiency is high) to decrease the slope of the SOC trace. The DBM region is the worst in terms of fuel consumption because engine has to be run also in its low efficiency region since batteries are fully discharged. A plug-in HEV is run at its best when the DBM region (SOC=20%) is reached exactly at the end of the mission and the EM region extends through as much of the mission possible. This is possible when the vehicle mission is entirely known (
Thus, a useful metric to evaluate the performance of an energy management strategy for PHEV could be the percentage of the mission run in EM+DBM modes. This metric is named here CBD% while in a previous investigation (Donateo et al. 2012) it was referred to as Δmission.
Explanation of the meaning of CBD% for Cycle A
The value of the CBD% has been calculated for each approach with reference to cycle A, B and R*25 of Table 2. R*25 means that cycle R has been repeated 25 times to achieve a duration similar to that of cycle A and B.
Values of CBD% for cycles A, B and R*25 with SOCin=45% and 75%
By analyzing the results of Figure 16 it is possible to notice that the performance of the proposed strategy is very close to that of full knowledge for cycle A (for both values of SOCin) and for cycle R with SOCin=75%. The values of
These results suggest that better performances could be obtained by increasing the duration of the prediction window used in the present investigation (60s) even if this could results in a worse accuracy of the prediction. Future development will be related to the optimization of the prediction horizon to increase the % of the mission covered by EM+DBM.
Another aspect to be taken into account in evaluating the performance of the proposed energy management strategy is the usage of the internal combustion engine in terms of percentage of mission during which the engine is turned ON (
The results are shown in Figure 12 with respect to cycles A and B to understand the results of Figure 11. Note that cycle B requires the engine to be turned on for a much higher percentage of the mission with respect to cycle A. This explains why this cycle is more critical in the optimization of metric CBD%. Even if the
Values of
The average efficiency of the engine (AEE) is another important aspect to be taken into account. The results of the comparison are reported in Figure 13.
Once again, the worst performance of the
Values of AEE (SOCin=45%)
The ultimate goal of advanced power-train technologies is to reduce the overall emissions of greenhouse gases. Thus, it could be interesting to evaluate the overall well-to.-wheel (WTW) emissions of CO2 produced with the different approaches considered in this investigation.
The complete combustion of 1 liter of gasoline produces 2.4 kg of CO2. Assuming a density of 700 kg/m3, 1 kg of gasoline produces 3.42 kg of CO2 (tank to wheel emissions). Sullivan et al. 2004 consider a multiplying factor of 1.162 to pass from TTW to WTW emissions of CO2. Thus, a kg of gasoline can be assumed to produce 3.98 kg of CO2 (WTW). Using this conversion factor, the total CO2 produced along the cycles #A, #B and #R25 has been calculated from the results in Table 3 (i.e. for the full knowledge case).
As for the electric emission, the TTW contribute is obviously zero while the well-to-tank (WTT) emissions depend on the energy mixing used to generate the electricity stored in the batteries. A report from the International Energy Agency, 2011 indicates for Italy an average emission of 0.386 kg of CO2 per kWh of electric energy. Using the data about the capacity of the batteries (equivalent 1.8 kWh) and the results in terms of SOC, it is possible to evaluate the total energy used for each cycle and for each approach. Thus, the electric WTT emission of CO2 can be easily calculated.
The calculated values of CO2 emissions from engine and batteries with the
The calculation of the total CO2 emissions has been repeated for the
Cycle | Usage of Electric energy | Fuel consuption | CO2 from engine (WTW) | CO2 from Battery (WTT) | total CO2 (WTW) |
[kWh] | [liters] | [kg] | [kg] | [kg] | |
#A | 24.8 | 1.02 | 2.92 | 0.172 | 3.09 |
#B | 24.7 | 1.96 | 5.61 | 0.172 | 5.78 |
#R*25 | 24.8 | 1.91 | 5.47 | 0.172 | 5.64 |
Well to wheel emissions of CO2 in the case of full knowledge
The results of Figure 14 reveal that complete information about the future driving mission could help to significantly reduce the overall emission of CO2 from a plug-in series HEV. The estimated reduction ranges from 12% for cycle #R*25 to 20% for cycle #A.
Well to wheel emissions of CO2 for the proposed approaches
The results of the
The chapter describes the optimal usage of an internal combustion engine in an intelligent hybrid electric vehicle able to sense its surrounding and adapt the energy management strategy to the actual driving conditions. After an introduction on hybrid electric vehicles and their challenges, the chapter describes the role of Information and Communication Technologies in the reduction of greenhouse emissions. Then, the chapter focuses on different approaches presented in literature on the usage of information about traffic and weather conditions for the optimal energy management of hybrid electric vehicles. In particular, the chapter describes the application of the
Finally, the chapter proposes four metrics to evaluate the performance of the proposed method: the percentage of mission performed before reaching the lowest allowed value for battery state of charge (CBD%), the percentage of mission execute with the engine turned ON (EngON%), the average efficiency of the engine (AEE), calculated according to its actual temperature and the overall well-to-wheel emissions of CO2.
The investigation was supported by the University of Salento and the Italian Ministry for Environment (MATTM), through the funding of the “P.R.I.M.E.”project.
AEEAll Electric Range BEVBattery Electric Vehicles CBD%% of mission with controlled battery discharge CDCharge Depleting CSCharge Sustaining ECMSEquivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy EngON%% of mission with engine turned on FCVFuel-Cell Vehicles GPSGlobal Positioning System HEVHybrid Electric Vehicles PHEVPlug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles ICEInternal Combustion Engine SOCState of Charge TTWTank-to-Wheel WTTWell-to-Tank WTWWell-to-Wheel |
Due to the adverse consequences of industrial pollution and waste, climate change, and resource depletion, the effects of environmental issues on the quality of life have increased in recent years [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35]. The world is witnessing an aggressive violation of nature. In response, companies nowadays have to find a way to balance the relationships between economic development, resources, and ecology [4]. This balance has been among the most complex and important managerial challenges of the twenty-first century [2].
Consequently, the implementation of environmentally friendly policies is an emergent priority on the policymakers and managers’ agenda. Studies on green marketing, green economics, green accounting, green management, and green supply chain management have increased [36]. Thus, the need to integrate green management within human resources is what we call green human resource management (GHRM). In this respect, green human resource management (GHRM), as a management function, has received great deal of attention in the environmental management literature recently [37].
Despite the growing number of studies on GHRM, several researchers outlined the lack of empirical studies from the African continent [20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 38]. Thus, researchers need to conduct empirical research in Africa instead of limiting themselves to Asia, Europe, and America, especially, Africa, which is suffering from severe environmental degradation and environment-related humanitarian disasters [26]. Furthermore, researchers need to investigate the current status of GHRM in the African context given the socioeconomic development challenges and other pressing priorities facing developing African organizations [19].
According to the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, The North African country of Morocco is the fifth-largest economy in Africa and considered to have the most competitive economy in North Africa. Morocco participates fully in international efforts to preserve the environment. For instance, the country has set up many foundations to strengthen its environmental policy, such as the Green Morocco Plan or plan Maroc vert. In addition to the governmental authority in charge of the environment, the Mohammed VI Foundation for the Protection of the Environment plays a key role in the development of many educational and preservation projects [39].
Along with the kingdom commitment and efforts for the good of the whole planet, GHRM should be taken into account in order to assume the environmental responsibility of companies. Thus, this paper aims to investigate GHRM in Morocco.
Given the “newness” of this concept in Morocco, the first aim of this study is to gain insight on the awareness of GHRM. Unless awareness is created, adoption is out of question. In this regard, we believe that assessing awareness on GHRM is an effective way to gain insight on its actual or potential implementation.
Additionally, according to Pardhi et Chaudhary, [25] the focus of the researchers was mostly toward the GHRM and its importance. However, to best of our knowledge, no effort has been made to studying the perceived importance of GHRM by policymakers. Thus, this paper was carried out to examine the HR managers and directors’ perceived importance of GHRM.
Moreover, this paper calls into question the main challenges that may hinder GHRM’s implementation. Assessing GHRM challenges may build resilience capacity, which would enable managers to create a proactive strategy as well as to predict potential problems and solutions. As posited by Kodua et al. [14], studying GHRM challenges serves as a valuable reference to policymakers and practitioners to help them take suitable measures to mitigate the GHRM implementation barriers and consequently promote it. Thus, we believe that investigating challenges related to GHRM may lay a solid foundation for its implementation success and promotion among managers.
Besides, to make sure that the nonawareness of GHRM will not influence our findings, and that GHRM practices (GHRMP) may be implemented implicitly without referring to the term GHRM, we aimed to examine the connection between environmental and HRM strategies within companies as well as to highlight the efforts made by HRM staff to meet environmental management requirements. Thus, the fourth aim of this paper is to emphasize the connection between environmental concern and HRM in the selected companies.
Furthermore, an essential prerequisite for launching GHRM in companies is to identify the key requirements for business decisions to implement it. Thus, the fifth aim of this paper is to improve the understanding of the requirements for GHRM’s implementation. Understanding the necessary requirements is crucial in order to understand the key practices that need to be analyzed and developed to best implement GHRM and for researchers to better understand the issues and the managerial difficulties that need to be addressed.
Finally, studying GHRMP status and feasibility is able to help in determining the viability of this process by identifying the factors that can promote or refrain from its success. For this reason, this study aims to provide a broad picture as well as a detailed analysis of the potential risks associated to GHRMP in reality. Thus, feasibility of practices may give to HRMS the chance to “get it right” before committing time, money, and business resources to some GHRMP that may not fit in Morocco.
The exploration of the questions above is crucial, as this investigation can offer a theoretical foundation for rendering GHRM more rational and valuable to the company’s decision-makers. Overall, this study aims to (a) shed light on the awareness and perceived importance of GHRM among HR managers and directors; (b) explore the connection between environmental concerns and HR strategies in the selected companies; (c) investigate the challenges related to GHRM’s implementation; (d) explore GHRM requirements; (e) highlight HR managers’ and directors’ perceptions of the various GHRMP and their feasibility in the Moroccan context.
In this respect, we selected four ISO14001 certified companies as this certification requires companies to always manage environmental policy and improve environmental performance according to the standard requirements [10]. Additionally, environmental management system (EMS) as a regulatory framework requires from companies to document the procedures and policies that guide the environmental impact of the firm [40].
This article is structured as follows. The first section examines the literature review of GHRM, the second section presents the research methodology, the third section presents the results, while the fourth section presents discussion.
In the past, companies and their shareholders expected good economic performance to guarantee the success of the company; however, this is no longer the case; financial and economical outcomes need to be combined with a reduced ecological footprint and increased attention to social and environmental aspects [41]. Wehrmeyer [42] stated that if a company needs to take an ecological approach to its operations, employees are the key to its success or failure.
GHRM concentrates on using human resource management procedures and guidelines to ensure sustainable resources usage and vigorously boost environmentalism [14]. Thus, through GHRM, the company ensures that employees have a positive attitude toward the environment, have green skills, and are responsible for the environmental consequences of their actions [43].
Given into consideration the above discussion, organizations need to engage in GHRM and build a positive green image and reputation to stay ahead of the competition [37]. Thus, the term of “green HRM” has become the focus of environmental management research and is considered as a hot topic in recent studies [3, 4, 38, 40, 44].
Research studies on ecology based on HRM and environmental management linkage started in the 1990s through the book “Greening people: human resources and environmental management” by Wehrmeyer [42]. Subsequently, GHRM was introduced as a new effective management discipline that integrates environmental management to enhance performance through environmentally friendly management practices [35].
GHRM is most regularly used to refer to the concern of people management policies and practices toward the broader corporate environmental schedule [41]. Ren et al, [28] state that GHRM is an organization’s aspiration to design and implement HRM practices, policies, and philosophies to support environmental objectives, promote attitudinal and behavioral change, and improve the environmental performance of the organization. Therefore, management scholars around the world are currently analyzing different management practices that can contribute to the achievement of environmental goals. HR professionals are advised to deploy green cues in traditional HR functions to ensure environmental sustainability [1].
The following subsection provides a summary of emerging GHRM practices for each HRM function.
In order to ensure that a company achieves appropriate green contributions from its workforce, altering or adapting the HRM functions to be environmentally friendly is essential [21]. It is therefore important to substitute green aspirations and mere good intentions into a real organizational policy.
GHRM practices (GHRMP) are similar to traditional HRM practices as they include recruitment and selection, training and development, performance appraisal and compensation, etc. However, GHRMP ought to lead to the capabilities necessary for the continuous improvement of the firm’s environmental performance [45]. Thus, human resource departments play a major role in greening the policies and practices from entry to exit processes such as recruitment and selection, training and development, performance appraisal, rewards, compensation management, and exit policies that are collectively termed GHRMP [46]. Therefore, such green practices help in fulfilling green objectives and in achieving organizational goals throughout HRM process from recruitment to retirement [25].
Many companies reported that job analysis enhances administrative efficiency; for this reason, a clear delineation of roles and responsibilities for a given position guarantees that each level of the organizational structure understands its contribution and adds value to the company [47]. From an environmental management perspective, an appropriate job design should follow the principles of environmentally friendly jobs, and each job description should specify environmentally friendly duties and tasks [48]. Thus, the implementation of GHRMP begins with job analysis and design and emphasizes the importance of incorporating environmental protection responsibilities and duties in each position [33].
According to Wehrmeyer [42], recruitment practices can support environmental management by ensuring that new entrants are familiar with the environmental culture of the organization and are able to uphold its values. Tang et al, [49] define green recruitment as the organization’s preference to select candidates who are committed and sensitive to environmental issues and who are willing to contribute. Thus, employees’ green tendency should be given attention in recruitment and selection, which is helpful to engage employees in green behaviors, ensure that employees have a positive green attitude, emphasize information about the green agenda in recruitment campaigns, and strive to recruit employees with high environmental behavior [50]. Accordingly, the selection activity for future employees should focus on the overlap between the candidates’ environmental values and those of the organizations and should select those who have significant environmental values as part of their daily practices [45]. As stated by Ramasamy [27] and Ullah, [41], creating this culture at the recruitment stage ensures that the new recruits will be well set in pursuing the objective of corporate green policy and are familiar with the words of conservation and sustainable environment.
The workforce training has long been identified as an important component in fostering and implementing environmental management practices in an organization [51]. Thus, green training is defined as a specific training provided to employees on power saving management, safety, energy efficiency and supported by softcopy as material rather than printed handouts [16].
Xie et al. [52] has defined green training as a process of continuing education designed to update employees’ knowledge and skills, which is exactly what both companies and employees need for sustainable development. Thus, green training is provided to employees in order to improve their environmental awareness and practical operation ability [50].
Indeed, via green training, employees become more receptive to change through the assimilation of the environmental dimension, and they consequently understand the importance of acting proactively [6]. Therefore, enterprises should guide employees to think and handle their work in a more environmentally friendly way while cultivating their professional skills and knowledge [50].
According to Bombiak et Marciniuk-Kluska [48], the integration of environmental management objectives into performance appraisal system ensures regular feedback on employee’s progress. The green performance assessment can be defined as the process by which employees are prompted to enhance their professional skills that help to achieve the organizational goals and objectives in a better way [53].
Green performance appraisal has different activities such as setting green targets for all members, creating green performance indicators, evaluating employees’ green outcomes, and using disbenefits [49]. Accordingly, green performance management creates green indicators to establish green criteria for all members, covering topics such as environmental incidents, environmental responsibilities, reduction of carbon emissions, and communicating environmental concerns and policies [31].
The success of employees in their ecological performance appraisal is the proof that a company’s strategic sustainability goals are being mirrored and accomplished from the top to the bottom [53]. Thus, the reward system is meant to be linked to the outcomes of green initiatives to effectively boost pro-environmental behaviors and to reflect company’s commitment to environmental performance [22, 23].
Green compensation and benefits can be defined as possible tools for encouraging environmental activities in firms [54]. These compensations include financial rewards (salary increases, cash bonuses, a variable component linking pay to eco-performance) and nonfinancial rewards (paid excursions, time off, favored stopping, free transport pass, and blessing declarations) [11].
The process of decision-making becomes a much simpler task when people are given green opportunities, and the end result would be a competitive workforce with high green values that benefit forward-thinking organizations [46]. Thus, motivated employees equipped with new skills will be likely to be proactive in practicing new values and methods at work and to further learn by engaging in green initiatives, such as introducing new ideas to customers and suppliers on how to reduce their environmental impacts [55].
In this regard, green ideas should be embraced of all employees, regardless of their function, which will encourage their interest in environmental issues and enable them to make the most out of their skills.
In order to ensure compliance with environmental management, organization must develop and communicate a clear set of rules and regulations that require employees to be concerned about environmental protection. Therefore, setting sanctions and disciplinary measures (demotion, lay-off, salary, and allowances reduction) for employees who do not meet their performance requirements will ensure that all employees remain committed to achieving the company’s environmental objectives [27].
Maintaining the green discipline in the organization builds and facilitates green employee competence, which contributes toward pro-environmental behaviors. Accordingly, managers should maintain green discipline by punishing employees or fining them for not observing the environmental policy in companies [20]. Thus, organizations can implement a consistent set of rules and regulations that require/regulate workers to follow the organizations’ environmental policies and to be concerned with environmental conservation [13].
In order to improve employees’ health and safety, some organizations have created strategies such as green factory or green zone to maintain a conducive environment to prevent various health problems [12]. Thus, green health and safety cover the old-fashioned health and safety administration and other aspects of a company’s environmental management [33]. This position comprises a wider range of activities associated with green initiatives.
In this regard, a better workplace can be made possible through “Green Health and Safety” management practices such as wearing helmet, gloves, and glasses wherever necessary, proper waste management at workplace, etc. [46]. Thus, green health and safety management ensures the implementation of environmental standards that meet national and international regulations and eventually to ensure the safety of not only employees but also customers and other stakeholders [56].
In Morocco in particular, there is a lack of publications on GHRM [38]. Thus, this research is an exploratory qualitative study that aims to provide a deep understanding of GHRM in the Moroccan context rather than a generalization.
Given that GHRM is a relatively new, we consider that ISO 14001 certified companies are the most likely to have introduced or at least acknowledge the importance of GHRM. As stated by Al-ghazali and Afsar [40], organizations with environmental management systems, such as ISO 14001, are expected to have implemented green initiatives across the business functional areas. Additionally, ISO14001 certified companies tend to apply more environmentally oriented work practices, have an environmental policy, and are more sensitive to environmental issues [21]. Thus, the selection of the companies and the sample for the interviews were based on the purposive sampling technique. We targeted four ISO14001 certified companies, which are continuously improving their environmental performance in line with the requirements of the standard.
As mentioned previously, data were collected from four ISO14001 companies. The reason for choosing these companies in particular is the fact that they are sensitive to environmental issues and have implemented several projects and proactive actions, including employees and community environmental education, environmentally friendly process, employees environmental volunteering, and several other projects.
Although our sample size contained only four companies, it allowed us to provide a deeper understanding by presenting rich data on HR managers’ perceptions of GHRM. Furthermore, our sample size is considered acceptable compared with other similar studies on GHRM. For example, Suharti and Sugiarto [56] used an exploratory qualitative approach in a single multinational cement company in Indonesia. A study by Yong et al, [57] used a sample of four HR managers/leaders from four large manufacturing companies. Yusoff et al, [58] conducted an exploratory study to understand how four HR managers from four multinational companies in Malaysia perceive and understand the concept of GHRM.
At the first stage, we contacted managers or senior personnel of the selected companies through emails, LinkedIn, and phone calls addressed to HR departments. We stated the objectives and relevance of the study and the potential contribution of the company to the research. Besides, we narrowed the sampling to the HRMs and HRDs because this category is well aware and knowledgeable of HRM practices and strategies. As argued by Obeidat [21], HR managers are in a good position to provide GHRM information. Thus, strategically placed managers within the HR division were the main target group of the study because of the in-depth knowledge they have of administrative HR functions, the strategic planning, and implementation (Table 1).
Activity | Interviewees |
---|---|
Mining | Human Resources Director |
Human Resources Senior Manager | |
Human Resources Manager | |
Sustainable development Project Manager | |
Water and electricity distribution | Human Resources Senior Manager |
Construction and public works | Human Resources Director |
Water solutions and equipment | Chief Financial and Administrative Officer |
Respondents profiles.
The data were collected through semistructured interviews. The themes have been previously prepared in the interview guide. Therefore, the interview questions were framed to understand the connection between environmental concern and HRM, the current status of GHRMP, GHRM awareness, perceived importance, challenges and requirements. Thus, using NVIVO12 software, we created the six main categories of codes listed below.
The data analysis involved the following steps: (a) a careful (re-)reading of the interview after transcription; (b) coding and analysis of the text according to the themes predefined in the guide; (c) interpretation of the results in the light of the codes and themes discerned. NVIVO was used, in particular, to organize the transcription of the interviews by theme, which resulted in a better-quality result than with manual methods.
The purpose of this theme is to examine the awareness of HR managers and directors of GHRM. Data are collected to find out the extent to which managers are aware of this process and have enough information on the subject (Figure 1).
World Cloud.
All managers in the surveyed companies (1, 2, 3, and 4) have never heard of GHRM. This result implies the lack of awareness and the non-familiarity of the process in the Moroccan context. This result is also illustrated in the word cloud where the most used expressions by our respondents were “no,” “never heard,” and “new.”
The unawareness of GHRM may impedes the consideration of implementing it in the core practices of HRM and in the companies’ environmental initiatives. Since the respondents don’t have enough information to determine how important GHRM may be, HRM and HRD may not consider the possibility of taking such insecure step.
After defining, presenting, and explaining GHRM, its relevance and practices, we discussed “the link between environmental concern and HRM”. We aimed to understand if there is an integration of environmental issues into HR strategies, policies, and practices. The collected data revealed that companies implement some green initiatives; however, they don’t have a well-developed process such as GHRM, and in which, the environmental agenda is included in all HR practices.
Accordingly, the results revealed that environmental concerns are integrated into HRM through training and job descriptions. The setting up of these two practices refers to the requirements of ISO14001 certification, which implies, on the one hand, the need to integrate environmental concerns into job descriptions by assessing the risks associated with each job and, on the other hand, to provide training in order to raise employees’ awareness to ecology.
In the same vein, one of our respondents emphasized that the contribution of HRM to the environment is of a short-term nature to meet a periodic demand for certification. Thus, the company implements practices and initiatives without implementing GHRM and without revising and reviewing its HR practices and policies.
In this category, we aim to explore the perceived importance of GHRM. Particularly, we attempted to understand whether HRM and HRD were aware of the need to align HR strategy with environmental strategy and whether they recognize the contribution of the HR function to the environmental management success. All respondents perceived the importance of this process except two respondents.
These two respondents focused on the WHY question of GHRM, more specifically, the reason and motivation for implementing GHRM as they involve their employees in the process through targeted environmental initiatives. Thus, to address this kind of debate on GHRM importance, researchers should frame the arguments of HMRs and HRDs into eminent researches.
In contrast, other respondents perceived the process as important.
According to our respondents, GHRM is considered as a formalization of environmental responsibility and a level of sophistication of green efforts. Instead of having scattered and dispersed organizational initiatives and practices, GHRM is considered as a targeted policy to address the need of involving human resources in environmental issues. Thus, the corporate environmental efforts should involve the workforce through a policy that includes several practices such as GHRM.
In this theme, we address the need to explore the challenges that may confront the implementation of GHRM in the Moroccan context. The first challenge that has been raised is the lack of in-depth knowledge of GHRM by HR managers in Moroccan companies.
The second challenge concerns the operationalization of GHRM. Indeed, GHRM needs a well-designed guideline, an appropriate action plan, and performance indicators.
Operationalizing GHRM will provide a clear standard against which HR managers can measure progress toward their environmental goals. This requires a deepening of the necessary knowledge, skills, abilities, and operations. Therefore, there is a need to set targets to create focus on the gap between the current state of performance and what the company hopes to achieve.
In the same vein, another respondent emphasized the ambiguity and confusion in designing a reliable measure of environmental performance. Thus, it not an easy task to measure every particular human activity that may occur as well as changes in ecosystem conditions.
In this part of our interview, we aimed to find out the extent to which managers in these companies are willing to propose and introduce GHRM. More specifically, the requirements that need to be fulfilled by this process in order to be feasible in ISO14001 certified companies. One respondent showed interest in implementing GHRM, stating that it is a promising path without limitations and restrictions.
Besides, the first requirement that was outlined by our respondents is to demonstrate the impact of GHRM on environmental awareness, responsibility, and green values of employees in Morocco. Several research studies have demonstrated these causal links [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 38, 39, 44, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63], but unfortunately, none of these research studies was conducted in Morocco.
As mentioned by our respondent, the impact of GHRM on cultural and value change among employees needs to be demonstrated by taking into account the contextual Moroccan factors.
Another requirement that was underlined is the setting up of a GHRM action plan. Indeed, for GHRM to be a process embraced by companies, it is necessary to specify how it should be implemented, create reporting for monitoring and analysis, and design performance indicators.
The aim of this part of our analysis is to find out the perception of HR managers of different HR practices and their feasibility in the Moroccan context.
Regarding green recruitment, all companies use social media and online job portals to recruit. However, none of the organizations have planned to specifically assess the ecological awareness, values, or contributions of the applicants.
The first reason for which green recruitment is not feasible in the Moroccan context refers, for our respondent, to the uselessness of including environmental concern in the recruitment of profiles who are not concerned with the environmental goals of the company.
The second reason why green recruitment is not practicable refers to, on the one hand, the difficulty of finding candidates with the main and most necessary skills to carry out the basic and fundamental tasks of the job. On the other hand, the unfairness of judging candidates on skills, knowledge, or values that they did not have the opportunity to acquire or develop at school.
Another reason that was emphasized is the concerns and the priorities of recruiters, and for whom, environmental criterion is not the first factor to be taken into account in recruitment. As long as it is difficult to find the right profile for a vacant position, it is not possible to add an additional environmental criterion, which is also difficult to be found.
In this category, the objective was to explore training and any learning activities that organizations have engaged in to raise environmental awareness. All our respondents perceive the importance green training except for one who stated:
For this respondent, green training is not necessary to get employees involved in ecology, for him, the act of behaving in an environmentally friendly way requires a cultural change and that ecology is a posture rather than a skill to be acquired during training. In contrast, the other respondents expressed their appreciation for green training.
One of the key aspects raised by our respondents was the need to make employees aware of the environmental footprint of their actions. Indeed, the implementation of an environmental management system must be followed by raising employees’ awareness about the behaviors to be displayed and providing them with the necessary skills to perform their tasks.
A major challenge related to green training was highlighted by one of our respondents as the difficulty of sensitizing and changing the behavior of the ageing workforce.
In this part, the data were collected to understand whether the performance appraisal system includes environmental responsibility. The majority of companies implement an evaluation of high environmental risk activities as well as environmental related positions. Thus, a risk assessment is undertaken thorough a look at HSE engineers’ performance. Additionally, harmful activities to the environment are also analyzed and evaluated on how severe the risk is.
One of our respondents pointed out that his company evaluates the overall environmental performance, emphasizing that individual evaluation of environmental performance will have a great contribution to the overall environmental performance.
In this part, we aimed to explore HR managers’ opinions on the possibility of integrating environmental considerations into the company’s disciplinary system. All interviewees agreed that it is impossible to integrate environmental orientation into the disciplinary system. Broadly speaking, a negative and unfavorable judgment was expressed by all interviewees.
Managing green discipline is not doable according to our respondents because there is a regulatory system to be followed. In fact, companies do not have the power to punish employees who violate green conduct because environmental misconduct does not exist in the civil service code and the labor code.
Besides, one of our respondents thinks that green discipline management is a severe and extremely strict practice. Thus, conducting green change in the company requires motivation and involvement practices. For our respondent, punitive system may create resistance to change.
In this part, we aimed to assess, on the one hand, the extent to which the surveyed companies have a green workplace that complies with environmental standards and to list the different initiatives that are in place, on the other hand.
In our context, the initiatives that have been put in place are diverse, including recycling of paper and toners; carbon footprint; suppression of polluting activities; tree planting; optimization of water and energy consumption. However, e-work initiatives such as web and teleconferencing, virtual job interviews, telecommuting, e-learning, etc., weren’t implemented.
Accordingly, it is time for HR managers to consider teleworking and strike a balance between virtual and in-person work so that both employees and employers benefit from a wholesome environment.
Giving employees the necessary independence helps to generate creative solutions, to solve environmental problems, and to invest the best of their abilities [17]. In this category, we tried to understand whether organizations gather and treat employee suggestions on the environmental aspect. We also tried to shed light on the initiatives put in place by the surveyed companies to involve employees in ecology. Two respondents highlighted initiatives that have been put in place in this regard.
Accordingly, the first company has introduced a game in a new production unit to gather employees’ innovative and environmentally friendly suggestions. Thus, this initiative would allow employees to not only identify problems but also suggest solutions. The second company has implemented two initiatives: the first one is a formal program to gather suggestions. The second initiative is to encourage volunteering and contribute to local community. Thus, environmental volunteering may promote employees to be more active in environmental programs and concerned of environmental degradation.
In this category, we aimed to identify the opinion of the HR managers on green rewards, two respondents showed their interest.
According to our respondents, rewards are important tools to increase employee’s motivation toward environmental aspects. Without rewards, employees won’t give much attention to the environment. Thus, this practice may support and encourage the employees to give ultimate environmental performance.
Additionally, our respondent emphasized that performance appraisal needs to be supported by rewards. Therefore, to increase employee’s engagement toward the corporate goals, companies need to implement a green reward program in order to compensate employee’s environmental efforts performance.
Table 2 represents the key findings of this paper.
Topics | Key findings | |
---|---|---|
Awareness | Nonawareness of GHRM and non-familiarity of the term. | |
Relationship between environ. concern and HRM | Implementation of certain practices to comply with the certification requirements. | Training programs to raise environmental awareness among employees in compliance with the standard. |
Job descriptions to evaluate environmental risk in order to fulfil the standard requirements. | ||
Occasional relationship, there is no GHRM that include environmental concern permanently. | ||
Perceived importance of GHRM | Not important | The Why question of GHRM. Thus, there is an ambiguity about its value and importance. |
Companies already involve employees to environmental preservation with no need for GHRM. | ||
Important | If sustainable development is the cornerstone of the company’s strategy, GHRM will be a reflection of company’s efforts to preserve the environment. | |
GHRM is a formalization of the company’s attempt to involve employees in environmental protection. | ||
Challenges | Lack of in-depth knowledge of GHRM. | |
Nonexistence of an operational plan and a well-designed guideline. | ||
Difficulty to design a reliable measure of environmental performance. | ||
Requirements | Prove the benefits of GHRM in Morocco specifically. | |
Emphasize the impact of GHRM on mindset, culture, responsibility, commitment and value change. | ||
Set up a GHRM’s action plan with a reporting for monitoring and analysis as well as performance indicators. | ||
Green recruitment | Extensive use of E-recruitment and non-feasibility of assessing candidates’ environmental awareness. | |
Uselessness of including environmental concern in the recruitment of profiles who are not concerned with the environmental goals. | ||
The difficulty of finding green profiles. | ||
Unfairness of judging candidates on skills, knowledge or values that they have not acquired or practiced at school. | ||
Not a priority for recruiters. | ||
Green training | Not important | Ecology is mindset and a culture, not a skill to be developed in training programs. |
Important | The introduction of every new system must be followed by training on its key requirements. | |
Raising employees’ awareness of the behaviors to be displayed is crucial in some activities. | ||
Green performance appraisal | Assessment of High-risk activities. | |
Assessment of HSE engineers’ performance. | ||
Assessment of the overall company environmental performance. | ||
Green discipline | Companies do not have the power to punish employees who violate green conduct. | |
Environmental misconduct does not exist in the civil service code and the labor code. | ||
Green discipline is a rough practice that may engender resistance to change. | ||
Green health and safety | Companies have an environmentally friendly workplace. However, e-work isn’t implemented. | |
Green involvement | Green suggestions. | |
Encouragement for environmental volunteering. | ||
Green compensation | Without rewards, environmental programs will not be considered by employees. | |
Performance appraisal should absolutely be followed by rewards. |
Key findings.
Several research studies were conducted to assess GHRM awareness among HR managers. Findings were diverse. In India, Mathur and Soni [18] found that in Indian manufacturing companies, the majority of participants were not aware of GHRM and have never heard of it. However, in [64], the majority of Indian IT professionals were aware of this process.
In Bangladesh, Almamun [1] affirms that Bangladeshi HR managers from different industries are aware of GHRM, However, proper green HR activities are not yet practiced in the organization. In the same vein, Uddin [65] found that the majority of Bank commercials in Bangladesh are ware of GHRM and believe that it helps the organization indirectly by improving its image as a green organization.
Moreover, In Egypt, Farid [60] found that HR managers in hotels were aware enough and familiar with the GHRM concept. While Tsymbaliuk et al. [66] found that GHRM practices have not become widespread in Ukraine.
These research studies oppose our findings in which all our respondents without exception have never heard of this construct. Indeed, GHRM is not a common and well-known process at the surveyed companies and has not earned yet the proper attention it deserves.
Although GHRM has proven its relevance and benefits in several environmental aspects and is increasingly gaining researchers’ and practitioners’ attention in the European and Asian context [38]. The nonfamiliarity of the concept by Moroccan HR managers could hinder its implementation. Indeed, if HR managers are not convinced, persuaded, and confident of the importance of their involvement in greening, they can never undertake a green revolution within the department. Thus, since GHRM can only be initiated and implemented with the support of senior managers [21], this process needs more campaigns to promote and communicate the importance of green practices to HR managers. Thus, all managers must have sufficient amount knowledge in greening without which, it is impossible to deploy green policies in their departments [60].
According to Opatha and Arulrajah [24], in order to achieve green contributions and environmental performance from employees, it is essential for all HRM practices to be adapted to be green or modified to ensure green outputs. However, most of our interviewees pointed out that there are only few practices required by ISO14001 certification. From this perspective, the HRM function according to our respondents is considered as a momentary support function to the implementation of environmental management system (EMS).
Our findings are in line with those found by Saifuddin et al. [32], who observed that HR managers implement green HR policies and strategies because their internal policies are based on the environmental standards. Thus, GHRM implementation is limited to practices required by IS014001 certification.
Additionally, this limited coverage of GHRMP can be explained also by the lack of knowledge of GHRM by all our interviewees. By introducing GHRM and its practices, HRDs realized that they are implementing some GHRMP such as green training and green job descriptions, without knowing that they are actually, GHRM practices. Therefore, it is the concept of GHRM that is not overly common and the level of refinement and perfection of the practices that has not yet been achieved.
Concerning the perceived importance of GHRM, we found that there is a debate on this process significance. Our respondents emphasized an important question that should be proven in future studies, it is the WHY question of GHRM. According to HR managers, since they have green initiatives that are working well, why would they implement GHRM. Thus, the WHY question of GHRM refers to the need to prove the value and importance of GHRM.
According to Ullah [41], raising awareness on GHRM’s importance could be achieved by proving that the success of environmental systems is crowned by its alignment with other corporate strategies. Thus, it is suggested to demonstrate the importance of having a policy with a package of interrelated and synergistic practices where the impact of each practice is enhanced when the others are also implemented [29]. As a result, GHRM will reflect the environmental efforts that the company redeploys by having a goal-oriented HR policy.
On the other hand, some of our respondents considered GHRM as an effective tool to enhance employee’s involvement toward environment. According to them, GHRM is a level of refinement, perfection, and formalization of the corporate green efforts toward a well-defined policy.
In summary, since GHRM is an understudied field in Morocco [38], it has become important to demonstrate its importance in the Moroccan context in order to limit this debate and uncertainty related to its relevance and importance.
Based on our findings, the lack of knowledge on GHRM is the first challenge that has to be overcome. This finding is consistent with past studies, according to Fayyazi et al, [61], the lack of knowledge could be considered as the main challenge related to GHRM implementation. In the same vein, Mtembu [19] reported that there is a lack of knowledge of GHRM in the African continent. This lack of knowledge is a major barrier to successful EMS implementation [62], which was also highlighted by Shukla [34], who stated that the lack of awareness is considered as the biggest challenge to bring GHRM into practice.
If managers do not have a clear vision of GHRM, they will not embrace the responsibility of implementing it [61]. Therefore, the involvement of HR department in environmental management should be encouraged through appropriate communication and awareness raising.
The second challenge that was outlined is the nonexistence of an operational plan of GHRM. In this regard, Janaki et al, [8] affirm that the fundamental problem for organizations does not lie in the strategy formulation phase, the problems often emerge during operationalization. Indeed, the operationalization of GHRM and its decomposition into clear lines and concrete practices are a challenging task that needs to be addressed. This challenge was also outlined by Al-Rommedy [36], who noted that there isn’t a comprehensive design for GHRM implementation. Indeed, if there is no comprehensive plan that defines the guidelines for GHRM and its operational plan, there will be no commitment to its implementation [61]. As stated by Dhingra, [64], most managers lack the knowledge of GHRM practical application.
The third challenge that was highlighted is the difficulty to create a reliable assessment of environmental performance. Our results corroborate those found by Renwick et al, [29], who pointed out that environmental performance management presents a challenge related to the measurement of green performance in different departments/units of the organization. Therefore, the incentives that could be linked to unreliable and unfair measurement of environmental performance are potentially conflictive and could compromise the organizational climate [6].
Similarly, Saeed et al. [31] affirm that there is a need to create performance indicators for all employees that include environmental responsibility, environmental incidents, car emissions, etc. To do this, it would be appropriate to address this challenge by focusing on assessing the risks associated with each department, section, or production unit. Then decide on actions to be taken to monitor environmental performance, ecological footprint, and pro-environmental behaviors.
GHRM requirements may emphasize what needs to be proven and improved to implement GHRM in companies. The first requirement that was outlined is to prove GHRM benefits in terms of values, awareness, culture, responsibility, and commitment.
Contemporary literature on values has emphasized the importance of individual values in explaining attitudes and behaviors [59]. Therefore, demonstrating the impact of GHRM on employees’ green values is of paramount importance. From this perspective, if the employee’s green values are in line with those of the organization, it is expected that the employee will be more likely to adopt environmentally friendly behaviors in the workplace. Chaudhary [44] states that GHRM reflects the environmental values of the organization, influences the environmental values of the employees, and shapes their green behavior. In this regard, employees can become “environmental activists” within the organization by absorbing organizational pro-environmental values [67]. Despite the previous studies that have proven the importance of GHRM in shaping employees’ green values, none of those studies have been conducted in Morocco.
In addition, our respondent highlights the importance of proving the impact of GHRM on employees’ environmental awareness. Al-Ghazali and Afsar [40] found that involvement in environmental actions requires a certain degree of environmental knowledge and awareness. Therefore, employees with a high level of environmental awareness and concern may feel a stronger moral obligation to voluntarily carry out environmental actions and initiatives [68]. Thus, GHRM practices have the ability to raise employees’ green/environmental awareness and shape their behaviors to develop pro-environmental attitudes in their personal and professional lives [31]. However, these findings need to be expanded to the Moroccan context.
The second requirement that was highlighted is to create an action plan of GHRM. Consistent with Fayyazi et al [61], the lack of a comprehensive plan for implementing GHRM creates ambiguity. Hence, there is a need to create an operational plan with specific actions to implement, and thus, so that managers become more aware of the actions to be undertaken and policies that need to be modified and oriented to be green. Hence, the operationalization of various GHRMPs and development of valid and reliable indicators are a serious requirement [31]. Thus, to commit to integrating environmental management into multiple levels of HR policies, there is a need to concretize the policy into action.
Despite previous research studies that highlight the need of hiring employees with a passion to preserve the environment [20], our findings emphasize that none of the respondents consider implementing this practice.
Green recruitment and selection are not achievable because the education system in Morocco does not focus on educating students in schools and universities on how to be environmentally friendly citizens. In other words, the academic programs and extracurricular activities in schools and universities do not take into account issues of environmental protection and resource sustainability. Therefore, recruiting candidates on the basis of environmental criteria does not seem adequate in the Moroccan context at the moment, efforts should be redeployed to use the educational system as a tool to raise the green awareness of students who will be employees in the future.
In the same vein, Anwar [69] states that even though universities emit relatively less pollution than companies, they bear a considerable responsibility for raising awareness and educating current and future generations about the importance of pro-environmental behavior, which was also posited by Almamun [1], who states that universities should introduce greening in their syllabus. Thus, education may be considered as driving force toward a sustainable future.
Similarly, Jabbour [5] states it is impossible to include environmental concerns as a selection criterion in the recruitment process. As mentioned by our respondents, green recruitment can only be implemented if environmental protection is embedded in the country’s culture and education system, but as long as this condition is not met, green recruitment could be labeled as discriminatory.
Additionally, green recruitment is not an interesting practice because assessing environmental awareness is not recruiters’ priority. Our findings corroborate those of Bombiak and Marciniuk-Kluska, [48] where the Polish managers considered the recruitment candidates with ecological knowledge and skills to be difficult. Thus, the assessment of candidates’ ecological skills during the recruitment process was not appreciated.
In summary, the recruitment of environmentally conscious candidates seems incompatible for several reasons, the Moroccan educational system does not include environmental protection in its curricula, the country does not have a national ecological culture shared by all citizens, the recruiter’s priorities do not allow him/her to prioritize the environmental concerns of the candidates, and finally, the difficulty of finding environmentally friendly profiles.
Environmental training is implemented by all the companies of our sample, stating that on the one hand this practice is very important to the development of the required EMS skills, and on the other hand, the need to raise awareness of any new process or implemented system. Only one respondent was not interested in this practice, stating that environmental protection is a mindset and culture rather than a skill to be acquired.
Several research studies highlighted the importance of green training. For instance, Yong et al, [51] recognized that training plays a key role in developing the environmental knowledge, raising environmental awareness, motivating creativity for green innovation, strengthening green commitment, and improving environmental performance. Indeed, companies need to enhance the knowledge and skills of employees in order to encourage them to actively participate in environmental protection activities [4].
Additionally, the result advocates that the difficulty to raise awareness and involve older workers is a major challenge. Our findings are in line with Guerci and Carollo, [63] who found that young people are more sensitive to environmental plans while older workers, because of age and narrow-mindedness, consider environmental plans unnecessary. On the other hand, our results are in contrast with those reported by Wiernik et al., [70], who found that employee age had no effect on the degree of embracing green behaviors and that older employees embraced green practices and gained broad experience more than younger employees.
In a proactive approach against older people’s resistance, companies use environmental selection criteria by mainly asking older people about their own attitude toward sustainability, to avoid older people who are unwilling to advance the green agenda and do not believe in it [15].
Yong et al, [51] point out that without a formal performance assessment process, discipline will be weakened and employees’ ability to improve may be hindered. Therefore, companies need to create environmental benchmarks at the performance appraisal system for all employees to keep track of noncompliance or non-achievement of environmental goals [33]. However, our respondents pointed out that only HSE engineers and high environmental risk positions are being evaluated on this aspect. In contrast, administrative positions are not appraised on this aspect. Therefore, the assessment of the environmental performance of a specific category could limit the commitment of all staff is the EMS. The literature highlights the need to involve all employees including administrative positions to sustain good environmental performance, support the company’s core values, and build green intellectual capital [10].
Similar to Mathur and Soni [18], not all companies include the environmental performance of employees at all levels. In our case, there are companies that set goals and evaluate the environmental performance of higher environmental risk activities, while others assess the overall environmental footprint of the company’s activity. Thus, an environmental assessment of all activities is needed.
Our findings emphasized that it is not possible to integrate a disciplinary sanction against employees who do not respect the environmental rules in the company. This is due to the legal system that must be followed, which already defines the serious offences that can be punished. Therefore, even if there is a breach of the rules, the companies do not have the necessary power to sanction. Thus, the governing environmental laws do not provide explicit powers of inspection and enforcement to companies. Instead, companies try to sensitize, motivate, and involve rather than punish. Therefore, despite progress made, the environmental legal framework remains underdeveloped and still inconsistent.
In response to legal inconsistency, Jyoti [11] emphasizes that the legal initiative that companies can undertake in the long-term is to guarantee that ecological commitments are anchored by including provisos in staff contracts, i.e., that ecologically threatening conduct may comprise a rupture of agreement and consequently a conceivable reason for expulsion. In the same line, Almamun [1] states that in Bangladesh, government should incorporate GHRM in labor law as well as promote the organizations who practice it.
Besides, this practice is not doable as it is considered as a harsh practice that will make employee involvement more difficult, which was also highlighted by Guerci and Carollo, [63], who considered that a system of control and sanctions does not assure that the workforce is truly committed to environmental actions, it only reduces deviant behavior.
Furthermore, the management of green discipline is not appreciated because companies fear employee resistance to change. Indeed, to bring in a new system, companies prefer to involve employees instead of punishing them.
Green management is a strategic activity of the company that allows it to reduce waste, save energy, promote environmental health while preventing damage to the environment [71]. Thus, the provision of green workplace for all employees is the central function of green health and safety management [33]. The Moroccan ISO14001 certified companies set many initiatives such as using daylight, conducting green audits, recycling, reusing, planting, and optimizing water and electricity.
In this regard, companies have paid much attention to employees’ health and safety. However, video conferencing and online work were not practiced. Thus, companies need more sensitizing on the benefits of this work modality. Particularly, as the teleworking revolution helps employees and organizations in many ways. Not only does it reduce the operational costs of the organization through reduced absenteeism and transport costs, but it has also become a retention tool where employees are relieved of nerve-wracking commutes and are able to balance work and life [9].
Increasing employee interest through green involvement and empowerment by creating suggestion systems for innovative environmental ideas and solutions is of paramount importance [17]. Nisar [20] states that companies are required to provide opportunities for their employees to implement what they have learned during training programs, which will result in improved environmental skills, knowledge, abilities, and pro-environmental behaviors.
Nevertheless, this practice was not very common at the surveyed companies. Only two companies out of the four gave all employees the opportunity to actively participate in proposing innovative and environmentally friendly ideas. Indeed, it is necessary to allow employees to participate in regular meetings to solve environmental problems and to encourage them to introduce environmentally friendly ideas and initiatives. Thus, implementing green involvement practices may boost employee’s confidence and self-esteem to actively participate in the corporate green goals.
The implementation of a green reward system is seen as a valuable tool to increase employee motivation and commitment to the environment. These rewards can be financial or nonfinancial, with the aim of encouraging high performers to continue and pushing the rest to become more environmentally active and involved. Despite the literature pointing out that rewards can be valuable [2, 3, 4, 46], none of the surveyed companies use a green reward system to encourage pro-environmental behavior among employees.
The development of recognition and reward programs to encourage employees to be environmentally active is a fundamental practice of GHRM. Green incentives and rewards are often recognized as the most powerful way to link organizational interests with employee interests [35]. Indeed, the use of this practice can have a positive impact on employees’ motivation to be environmentally responsible [54], which further increase the need to promote this practice in Moroccan companies.
Recent years have shown a growing scientific interest in the role of HRM in environmental management. A literature review provides evidence that GHRM brings tangible benefits to the company rather than simply adding luster to the brand and reputation. Indeed, it is time for HRM department to embrace the green agenda alongside the scattered initiatives based on environmental protection.
This study reveals that GHRM is still at a primitive stage in Moroccan ISO14001 certified companies. Although the selected companies practice many green initiatives, they have not yet reached the level of detail, sophistication, and progress discussed in the literature. Indeed, although GHRM is a trend in other countries, it is not well known in Morocco. The lack of knowledge of this process could limit its implementation, hence a wide promotion of GHRM is needed to overcome this challenge.
Overall, the implementation of GHRM practices is moderate. The majority of the initiatives undertaken refer to the certification requirements, namely green job design and analysis, green training, and green health and safety management. Two companies are the exception in implementing green empowerment initiatives.
Our research work responds to the call of researchers who have recently recognized the importance of conducting GHRM exploratory qualitative studies [7, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 41, 42, 47, 49, 52, 56, 65, 66, 70, 71] in the African context [38, 72]. To our knowledge, this is the first research work that studies this concept in Moroccan firms. Consequently, this study contributes to a better understanding of GHRM through HR managers’ perceptions from various Moroccan companies. Although the findings cannot be generalized, given its exploratory nature, we believe that this work can be considered as an opener for future research. Taking this further, we look forward to seeing more research on this topic in the near future.
The finding of this study offers several implications for theory and practice. From a theoretical perspective, as GHRM is an emerging research field, there are limited studies in developing countries such as Morocco that offer empirical evidence. Hence, this research contributed to the literature by enhancing the understanding of GHRM in Morocco. Additionally, to the best knowledge of the researchers, prior studies on the subject matter have focused merely on quantitative field studies. Thus, the current study has been one of the limited qualitative studies that aims to highlight the GHRM’s perception from the experiences of HR managers and directors. Besides, through qualitative approach, the present paper added originating themes to previous literature, which previous studies have not yet established. Finally, our framework can be a starting point for analyzing GHRM as this paper also highlights future directions from HR managers perspective.
From a practical perspective, our discoveries give HR professionals a more profound comprehension of GHRM, its practices, importance, requirement as well as the main challenges that may hinder this process implementation. Consequently, findings may provide HR managers with a better idea of the solutions and the possible factors that may logically solve the situation of the newness of GHRM. Thus, being able to forecast and predict future events helps HR managers to predict how to achieve the environmental goals and drive a more efficient green change through HRM process.
Besides, this paper contributes to practitioners within the field of HRM with insights to how organizational strategies and practices can be designed and developed to prevent the negative effects on the environment, which may further boost up the willingness of HR managers to build interest in GHRM and endeavor to set up an environmentally policy to enhance the commitment of all company’s departments.
As is the case with most research, our study has limitations, which are also opportunities for future research. This research is a qualitative exploratory study in four IS014001 companies in Morocco. Although the results provide a deep understanding on GHRM perception by HRM and HRD, the findings cannot be considered representative of the ISO14001 certified companies as a whole. Thus, the study recommends future studies to investigate the same topic in other companies, thus potentially able to provide richer and diverse findings. Further, our sample was specially selected because of the company’s environmental concern. Thus, future research could examine whether HRM and HRD in non-green organizations have the same perception of GHRM or do not consider its implementation.
Additionally, this exploratory study was based on gathering information from only seven HR managers and, again, the limited number of participants means that the findings cannot be generalized. Besides, our interviewees didn’t know GHRM, thus, the results may have been affected by differences in respondents’ understanding of the topic.
In addition to the above limitations along with their related opportunities for future research, other avenues for further research can be proposed. We invite future research to conduct longitudinal studies to track the evolution of environmental performance, environmental awareness, green values, and EMS in organizations that are introducing GHRMP, with the aim of encouraging organizations to devote time, budget, and human resources to GHRM implementation.
Also, many HR managers seem to be doubtful about the importance of GHRM. Thus, future research can also focus on the “why” question of GHRM by emphasizing its importance in creating green businesses. Besides, as most of GHRM literature largely focuses on the consequences of GHRM [38]. It is suggested that future research should also investigate the determinants and what motivate companies to implement GHRM, which may also respond to HR managers question “Why implementing GHRM?”.
Additional research studies may also emphasize the impact of green training on attitudes, values, and behaviors, as environmental awareness is considered by some as a posture and not a skill to be acquired.
It is also recommended to focus on the awareness and behavioral change of older workers, we invite future research to focus on this aspect by investigating the impact of awareness raising of Generation X on their behavior, values, identification, and commitment to environmental policy. Moreover, a factor that is worth analyzing is local culture and educational system that are likely to play an important role in implementing GHRM.
Finally, HR professionals not only need to be certain that they have all the necessary competencies for using GHRM, but they must also be able to measure its effectiveness and consequences. Thus, it would be useful to develop a practical guide with clear policies that integrates all the GHRMP with concrete aspects to implement.
Authors are listed below with their open access chapters linked via author name:
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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"49246",doi:"10.5772/61300",title:"Chitosan as a Biomaterial — Structure, Properties, and Electrospun Nanofibers",slug:"chitosan-as-a-biomaterial-structure-properties-and-electrospun-nanofibers",totalDownloads:4727,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:63,abstract:"Chitosan is a polysaccharide derived from chitin; chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in the world, after cellulose. Chitosan is biocompatible, biodegradable and non-toxic, so that it can be usedin medicalapplications such as antimicrobial and wound healing biomaterials. It also used as chelating agent due to its ability to bind with cholesterol, fats, proteins and metal ions.",book:{id:"4648",slug:"concepts-compounds-and-the-alternatives-of-antibacterials",title:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials",fullTitle:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials"},signatures:"H. M. Ibrahim and E.M.R. El- Zairy",authors:[{id:"90645",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Ibrahim"},{id:"175694",title:"Dr.",name:"Enas",middleName:null,surname:"El- Zairy",slug:"enas-el-zairy",fullName:"Enas El- Zairy"}]},{id:"70919",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90891",title:"Antimicrobial Effect of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles",slug:"antimicrobial-effect-of-titanium-dioxide-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:1817,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:47,abstract:"The widespread use of antibiotics has led to the emergence of multidrug-resistant bacterial strains, and therefore a current concern for food safety and human health. The interest for new antimicrobial substances has been focused toward metal oxide nanoparticles. Specifically, titanium dioxide (TiO2) has been considered as an attractive antimicrobial compound due to its photocatalytic nature and because it is a chemically stable, non-toxic, inexpensive, and Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) substance. Several studies have revealed this metal oxide demonstrates excellent antifungal and antibacterial properties against a broad range of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. These properties were significantly improved by titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) synthesis. In this chapter, latest developments on routes of synthesis of TiO2 NPs and antimicrobial activity of these nanostructures are presented. Furthermore, TiO2 NPs favor the inactivation of microorganisms due to their strong oxidizing power by free radical generation, such as hydroxyl and superoxide anion radicals, showing reductions growth against several microorganisms, such as Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Understanding the main mechanisms of antimicrobial action of these nanoparticles was the second main purpose of this chapter.",book:{id:"9521",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A One Health Perspective"},signatures:"Carol López de Dicastillo, Matias Guerrero Correa, Fernanda B. Martínez, Camilo Streitt and Maria José Galotto",authors:[{id:"244902",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez De Dicastillo",slug:"carol-lopez-de-dicastillo",fullName:"Carol Lopez De Dicastillo"},{id:"315494",title:"Mr.",name:"Matias",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero Correa",slug:"matias-guerrero-correa",fullName:"Matias Guerrero Correa"},{id:"315495",title:"Ms.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"B. Martínez",slug:"fernanda-b.-martinez",fullName:"Fernanda B. Martínez"},{id:"315496",title:"Mr.",name:"Camilo",middleName:null,surname:"Zuñiga",slug:"camilo-zuniga",fullName:"Camilo Zuñiga"},{id:"315497",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria José",middleName:null,surname:"Galotto",slug:"maria-jose-galotto",fullName:"Maria José Galotto"}]},{id:"65613",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84411",title:"The Methods for Detection of Biofilm and Screening Antibiofilm Activity of Agents",slug:"the-methods-for-detection-of-biofilm-and-screening-antibiofilm-activity-of-agents",totalDownloads:9283,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"Biofilm producer microorganisms cause nosocomial and recurrent infections. Biofilm that is a sticky exopolysaccharide is the main virulence factor causing biofilm-related infections. Biofilm formation begins with attachment of bacteria to biotic surface such as host cell or abiotic surface such as prosthetic devices. After attachment, aggregation of bacteria is started by cell-cell adhesion. Aggregation continues with the maturation of biofilm. Dispersion is started by certain conditions such as phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs). By this way, sessile bacteria turn back into planktonic form. Bacteria embedded in biofilm (sessile form) are more resistant to antimicrobials than planktonic bacteria. So it is hard to treat biofilm-embedded bacteria than planktonic forms. For this reason, it is important to detect biofilm. There are a few biofilm detection and biofilm production methods on prosthetics, methods for screening antibacterial effect of agents against biofilm-embedded microorganism and antibiofilm effect of agents against biofilm production and mature biofilm. The aim of this chapter is to overview direct and indirect methods such as microscopy, fluorescent in situ hybridization, and Congo red agar, tube method, microtiter plate assay, checkerboard assay, plate counting, polymerase chain reaction, mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF, and biological assays used by antibiofilm researches.",book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}]},{id:"63397",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80624",title:"Antibiotic Resistance in Lactic Acid Bacteria",slug:"antibiotic-resistance-in-lactic-acid-bacteria",totalDownloads:2486,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Most starter cultures belong to the lactic acid bacteria group (LAB) and recognized as safe by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). However, LAB may act as intrinsic or extrinsic reservoirs for antibiotic resistance (AR) genes. This fact may not constitute a safety concern itself, as the resistance gene transfer is vertical. Nevertheless, external genetic elements may induce changes that favor the horizontal transfer transmission of resistance from pathogens as well as from the human intestinal microbiota, which represents a severe safety issue. Some genus of AR LAB includes Enterococcus, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and Streptococcus isolated from fermented meat and milk products. Currently, the WHO recommends that LAB used in the food industry should be free of resistance. Therefore, the objective of this chapter is to present an overview of the LAB antibiotic resistance and some methods to determine the same.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Yenizey M. 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After attachment, aggregation of bacteria is started by cell-cell adhesion. Aggregation continues with the maturation of biofilm. Dispersion is started by certain conditions such as phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs). By this way, sessile bacteria turn back into planktonic form. Bacteria embedded in biofilm (sessile form) are more resistant to antimicrobials than planktonic bacteria. So it is hard to treat biofilm-embedded bacteria than planktonic forms. For this reason, it is important to detect biofilm. There are a few biofilm detection and biofilm production methods on prosthetics, methods for screening antibacterial effect of agents against biofilm-embedded microorganism and antibiofilm effect of agents against biofilm production and mature biofilm. The aim of this chapter is to overview direct and indirect methods such as microscopy, fluorescent in situ hybridization, and Congo red agar, tube method, microtiter plate assay, checkerboard assay, plate counting, polymerase chain reaction, mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF, and biological assays used by antibiofilm researches.",book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}]},{id:"62553",title:"Antibiotic Use in Poultry Production and Its Effects on Bacterial Resistance",slug:"antibiotic-use-in-poultry-production-and-its-effects-on-bacterial-resistance",totalDownloads:7327,totalCrossrefCites:43,totalDimensionsCites:92,abstract:"A surge in the development and spread of antibiotic resistance has become a major cause for concern. Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"65914",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Action Mechanisms of Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-action-mechanisms-of-antibiotics-and-antibiotic-resistance",totalDownloads:4428,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu, Nesrin Gareayaghi and Bekir S. Kocazeybek",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"},{id:"248288",title:"Prof.",name:"Bekir",middleName:null,surname:"Kocazeybek",slug:"bekir-kocazeybek",fullName:"Bekir Kocazeybek"},{id:"406463",title:"Dr.",name:"Nesrin",middleName:null,surname:"Gareayaghi",slug:"nesrin-gareayaghi",fullName:"Nesrin Gareayaghi"}]},{id:"63397",title:"Antibiotic Resistance in Lactic Acid Bacteria",slug:"antibiotic-resistance-in-lactic-acid-bacteria",totalDownloads:2486,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Most starter cultures belong to the lactic acid bacteria group (LAB) and recognized as safe by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). However, LAB may act as intrinsic or extrinsic reservoirs for antibiotic resistance (AR) genes. This fact may not constitute a safety concern itself, as the resistance gene transfer is vertical. Nevertheless, external genetic elements may induce changes that favor the horizontal transfer transmission of resistance from pathogens as well as from the human intestinal microbiota, which represents a severe safety issue. Some genus of AR LAB includes Enterococcus, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and Streptococcus isolated from fermented meat and milk products. Currently, the WHO recommends that LAB used in the food industry should be free of resistance. Therefore, the objective of this chapter is to present an overview of the LAB antibiotic resistance and some methods to determine the same.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Yenizey M. Álvarez-Cisneros and Edith Ponce-Alquicira",authors:[{id:"256345",title:"Dr.",name:"Yenizey Merit",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez Cisneros",slug:"yenizey-merit-alvarez-cisneros",fullName:"Yenizey Merit Alvarez Cisneros"},{id:"256347",title:"Dr.",name:"Edith",middleName:null,surname:"Ponce-Alquicira",slug:"edith-ponce-alquicira",fullName:"Edith Ponce-Alquicira"}]},{id:"49246",title:"Chitosan as a Biomaterial — Structure, Properties, and Electrospun Nanofibers",slug:"chitosan-as-a-biomaterial-structure-properties-and-electrospun-nanofibers",totalDownloads:4726,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:63,abstract:"Chitosan is a polysaccharide derived from chitin; chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in the world, after cellulose. Chitosan is biocompatible, biodegradable and non-toxic, so that it can be usedin medicalapplications such as antimicrobial and wound healing biomaterials. It also used as chelating agent due to its ability to bind with cholesterol, fats, proteins and metal ions.",book:{id:"4648",slug:"concepts-compounds-and-the-alternatives-of-antibacterials",title:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials",fullTitle:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials"},signatures:"H. M. Ibrahim and E.M.R. El- Zairy",authors:[{id:"90645",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Ibrahim"},{id:"175694",title:"Dr.",name:"Enas",middleName:null,surname:"El- Zairy",slug:"enas-el-zairy",fullName:"Enas El- Zairy"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"897",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81704",title:"Quorum Sensing Inhibition Based Drugs to Conquer Antimicrobial Resistance",slug:"quorum-sensing-inhibition-based-drugs-to-conquer-antimicrobial-resistance",totalDownloads:22,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104125",abstract:"Quorum sensing is the cell to cell communication mechanism in microorganism through signalling molecules. Regulation of virulence factor, sporulation, proteolytic enzymes production, biofilm formation, auto-inducers, cell population density are key physiological process mediated through quorum-sensing (QS) signalling. Elevation of innate immune system and antibiotic tolerance of pathogens is highly increased with perspective of quorum-sensing (QS) activity. Development of novel drugs is highly attractive scenario against cell-cell communication of microbes. Design of synthetic drugs and natural compounds against QS signal molecules is vital combat system to attenuate microbial pathogenicity. Quorum sensing inhibitors (QSIs), quorum quenchers (QQs), efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs) act against multi-drug resistance strains (MDR) and other pathogenic microbes through regulation of auto-inducers and signal molecule with perceptive to growth arrest both in-vitro and in-vivo. QQs, QSIs and EPIs compounds has been validated with various animal models for high selection pressure on therapeutics arsenal against microbe’s growth inhibition. Promising QSI are phytochemicals and secondary metabolites includes polyacetylenes, alkaloids, polyphenols, terpenoids, quinones.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Kothandapani Sundar, Ramachandira Prabu and Gopal Jayalakshmi"},{id:"82372",title:"Unlocking the Potential of Ghost Probiotics in Combating Antimicrobial Resistance",slug:"unlocking-the-potential-of-ghost-probiotics-in-combating-antimicrobial-resistance",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104126",abstract:"Antimicrobial resistance is a global concern that requires immediate attention. Major causes of development of antimicrobial resistance in microbial cells are overuse of antimicrobials along the food chain especially in livestock, in preventing infections as well as misuse of antimicrobials by patients. Probiotics could be a viable alternative to antibiotics in the fight against antimicrobial resistance. Probiotic strains can act as a complement to antimicrobial therapy, improving antimicrobial function and enhancing immunity. However, there are safety concerns regarding the extensive use of live microbial cells especially in immunocompromised individuals; these include microbial translocation, inhibition of other beneficial microorganisms and development of antimicrobial resistance, among other concerns. Inevitably, ghost probiotics have become the favored alternative as they eliminate the safety and shelf-life problems associated with use of probiotics. Ghost probiotics are non-viable microbial cells (intact or broken) or metabolic products from microorganisms, which when administered in adequate amounts have biologic activity in the host and confer health benefits. Ghost probiotics exert biological effects similar to probiotics. However, the major drawback of using ghost probiotics is that the mechanism of action of these is currently unknown, hence more research is required and regulatory instruments are needed to assure the safety of consumers.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Abigarl Ndudzo, Sakhile Ndlovu, Nesisa Nyathi and Angela Sibanda Makuvise"},{id:"82178",title:"Managing Antimicrobial Resistance beyond the Hospital Antimicrobial Stewardship: The Role of One Health",slug:"managing-antimicrobial-resistance-beyond-the-hospital-antimicrobial-stewardship-the-role-of-one-heal",totalDownloads:16,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104170",abstract:"Infections caused by micro-organisms affect the health of people and animals, causing morbidity and mortality, with Asia and Africa as the epicenters. Some of the infectious diseases are emerging and re-emerging in nature. Examples include viral hepatitis, Lassa fever, Ebola, yellow fever, tuberculosis, covid-19, measles, and malaria, among others. Antimicrobials have been playing an important role in the treatment of infections by these microbes. However, there has been a development of resistance to these antimicrobials as a result of many drivers. This write-up used secondary data to explore the management of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) beyond the hospital antimicrobial resistance steward using the one health concept. The findings showed AMR to be a transboundary, multifaceted ecosystem problem affecting both the developed and developing countries. It is also one of the top ten global public health threats facing mankind. Globally, AMR will cost over US$100 trillion in output loss by 2050, about 700,000 deaths a year, and 4,150,000 deaths in Africa by 2050. About 2.4 million people could die in high-income countries between 2015 and 2050 without a sustained effort to contain AMR. The drivers of AMR are beyond the hospital and hospital AMR stewardship. Therefore, the need for one health concept to manage it.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Istifanus Anekoson Joshua, Mathew Bobai and Clement Sokfa Woje"},{id:"81918",title:"Machine Learning for Antimicrobial Resistance Research and Drug Development",slug:"machine-learning-for-antimicrobial-resistance-research-and-drug-development",totalDownloads:53,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104841",abstract:"Machine learning is a subfield of artificial intelligence which combines sophisticated algorithms and data to develop predictive models with minimal human interference. This chapter focuses on research that trains machine learning models to study antimicrobial resistance and to discover antimicrobial drugs. An emphasis is placed on applying machine learning models to detect drug resistance among bacterial and fungal pathogens. The role of machine learning in antibacterial and antifungal drug discovery and design is explored. Finally, the challenges and prospects of applying machine learning to advance basic research on and treatment of antimicrobial resistance are discussed. Overall, machine learning promises to advance antimicrobial resistance research and to facilitate the development of antibacterial and antifungal drugs.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Shamanth A. Shankarnarayan, Joshua D. Guthrie and Daniel A. Charlebois"},{id:"81891",title:"Alternatives to Antibiotics in Semen Extenders Used in Artificial Insemination",slug:"alternatives-to-antibiotics-in-semen-extenders-used-in-artificial-insemination",totalDownloads:29,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104226",abstract:"Antimicrobial resistance is a serious global threat requiring a widespread response. Both veterinarians and medical doctors should restrict antibiotic usage to therapeutic use only, after determining the sensitivity of the causal organism. However, the addition of antibiotics to semen extenders for animal artificial insemination represents a hidden, non-therapeutic use of antimicrobial substances. Artificial insemination for livestock breeding is a huge global enterprise with hundreds of million sperm doses prepared annually. However, reporting of antimicrobial resistance in semen is increasing. This review discusses the consequences of bacteria in semen samples, as well as the effect of antimicrobial substances in semen extenders on bacteria in the environment and even on personnel. Alternatives to antibiotics have been reported in the scientific literature and are reviewed here. The most promising of these, removal of the majority of bacteria by colloid centrifugation, is considered in detail, especially results from an artificial insemination study in pigs. In conclusion, colloid centrifugation is a practical method of physically removing bacteria from semen, which does not induce antibiotic resistance. Sperm quality in stored semen samples may be improved at the same time.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Jane M. Morrell, Pongpreecha Malaluang, Aleksandar Cojkic and Ingrid Hansson"},{id:"81699",title:"Efflux Pumps among Urinary E. coli and K. pneumoniae Local Isolates in Hilla City, Iraq",slug:"efflux-pumps-among-urinary-e-coli-and-k-pneumoniae-local-isolates-in-hilla-city-iraq",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104408",abstract:"Urinary tract infections (UTI) are the most common bacterial infections affecting humans. Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae were common enterobacteria engaged with community-acquired UTIs. Efflux pumps were vital resistance mechanisms for antibiotics, especially among enterobacteria. Overexpression of an efflux system, which results in a decrease in antibiotic accumulation, is an effective mechanism for drug resistance. The ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, small multidrug resistance (SMR), and multidrug and toxic compound extrusion (MATE) families, the major facilitator superfamily (MFS), and the resistance-nodulation- cell division (RND) family are the five superfamilies of efflux systems linked to drug resistance. This chapter highlights the results of studying the prevalence of efflux pump genes among local isolates of E. coli and K. pneumoniae in Hilla City, Iraq. class RND AcrAB-TolC, AcrAD-TolC, and AcrFE-TolC genes detected by conventional PCR of E. coli and K. pneumoniae respectively. The result revealed approximately all studied efflux transporter were found in both E. coli and K. pneumoniae in different percentages. Biofilm formation were observed in 50(100%) of K. pneumoniae and 49(98%) of E. coli isolates were biofilm former and follow: 30(60%), 20(40%) were weak, 12(24%), 22(44%) were moderate and 7(14%) and 8(16%) were Strong biofilm former for E. coli and K. pneumoniae, respectively.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Hussein Al-Dahmoshi, Sahar A. Ali and Noor Al-Khafaji"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:13},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:124,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:7,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13633",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhamid",middleName:null,surname:"Mellouk",slug:"abdelhamid-mellouk",fullName:"Abdelhamid Mellouk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13633/images/1567_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Paris 12 Val de Marne University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"109268",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Ataby",slug:"ali-al-ataby",fullName:"Ali Al-Ataby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109268/images/7410_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Liverpool",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"3807",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmelo",middleName:"Jose Albanez",surname:"Bastos-Filho",slug:"carmelo-bastos-filho",fullName:"Carmelo Bastos-Filho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3807/images/624_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Pernambuco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"38850",title:"Dr.",name:"Efren",middleName:null,surname:"Gorrostieta Hurtado",slug:"efren-gorrostieta-hurtado",fullName:"Efren Gorrostieta 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