These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\n
This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\n
To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\n
Initially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\n
This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\n
To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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Dynamics of Vehicles - Basics, Simulation and Autonomous Systems",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tOn-road and off-road vehicles constitute an important part of the land transportation sector. Even the economic and chip crises cannot completely stop the production of vehicles in a product range that varies according to customer demand. The use of automobiles in the world is increasing day by day, and vehicle users demand from the sector smarter, more environmentally friendly, and safer vehicles. Vehicle dynamics is one of the most important aspects that all vehicle manufacturers and related researchers should compute and pay attention to before the production of vehicles. Modeling and simulation of dynamic elements of vehicle parts such as tires, steering, brakes, the integrated driver helped systems, etc., is a crucial step before prototyping.
\r\n
\r\n\tIn this book, the dynamics of vehicles will be deeply illustrated, from fundamental to futuristic approaches. The primary aim is to convey to the readers how important the dynamic analysis of vehicles is and how it affects their production, from simple to detailed.
\r\n
\r\n\tFinally, the effects of intelligent systems to be used in autonomous vehicles with developing technologies on vehicle dynamics and future perspectives will be analyzed.
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He has three book chapters, more than 60 publications, and one TR patent. He received the 2019 International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (IJHE)’s Carl-Jochen Winter Award and the 2018-2019 Top Downloaded Paper (International Journal of Energy Research, Wiley). He is also a board member of Turkey's National Hydrogen Technologies Association.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"201245",title:"Dr.",name:"Hüseyin Turan",middleName:null,surname:"Arat",slug:"huseyin-turan-arat",fullName:"Hüseyin Turan Arat",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201245/images/system/201245.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hüseyin Turan ARAT is an Associate Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Sinop. His primary research interest is in hybrid and electric vehicles, hydrogen energy, simulation and vehicle applications. Dr. ARAT holds a B. 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1. Introduction
1.1. Climate change in the high mountains
The world is experiencing a period of climate change, which is very frequently discussed on both local and global levels. The growth in the global mean surface temperature by 0,74 °C ± 0,18 °C, over the last 100 years (1906-2005) is probably related to greenhouse gas emissions and further warming will cause many changes in the global climate system during the 21st century(IPCC, 2007). These changes will affect both the abiotic and biotic conditions of the environment.
High mountains ecosystems represent unique areas for the detection of climate change and the assessment of climate-related impacts (Beniston, 2003). Climate change associated with global warming at higher elevations is more pronounced than at low elevations (Beniston&Rebetez, 1996; Giorgi et al., 1997; Diaz & Bradley, 1997). The effect of elevation on surface warming is especially marked in the winter and spring seasons, since it is mostly associated with a decrease in snowpack and is thus enhanced by the snow–albedo feedback (Giorgi et al., 1997). The main ecological driving force is climate, with temperature and the duration of the snow cover as key factors (Gottfried et al., 1999). Changes in air temperature can extend the length of the average annual growing season (Menzel&Fabian, 1999) and can also cause a shift in phenology (Parmesan &Yohe, 2003; Visser& Both, 2005).
1.2. Climate change effect on high mountain ecosystems
Climate change is an important driving force on natural systems (Parmesan &Yohe, 2003). Many studies show that high mountain ecosystems are vulnerable to climate change (e.g. Theurillat&Guisan, 2001; Dullinger et al., 2003a, 2003b; Dirnböck et al., 2011). Global climate change resulting in warmer climate may cause a variety of risks to mountain habitats (Beniston, 2003). Climate change mainly affects the distribution of plant and animal communities (Beckage et al., 2008) and under the expected climate scenarios in the final perspective results in the loss of rare species of alpine habitats (Dirnböck et al., 2011). In the global meta-analyses from Parmesan &Yohe (2003) and Root et al. (2003) significant range shifts toward the poles or toward higher altitudes for many organisms were documented. Large part of these changes may be attributed to increased global temperatures.
In general terms, we expected that climate related changes in mountain ecosystems will be most pronounced in the "ecoclines" (boundary ecosystem), or Ecotones (Theurillat&Guisan, 2001). Distribution of endemic mountain species is typically severely restricted as a spatial response in mountain areas, however, because of mountain topography (Huntley & Baxter, 2002) and, often, the availability of suitable soils (Theurillat et al., 1998). The upper forest limit is commonly referred to as tree line. Timberline or forest line represents one of the most obvious vegetation boundaries (ecoclines). In reality the transition from the uppermost closed montane forests to the treeless alpine vegetation is commonly not a line, but a steep gradient of increasing stand fragmentation and stuntedness, often called the tree line ecotone or the tree line park land (Körner& Paulsen, 2004).
1.3. Climate change-induced shift of ecosystem boundaries
Scenarios of upward plant species and vegetation shifts are widely discussed in many current research articles. Theurillat&Guisan (2001) released a review discussing this matter concluding that although the alpine vegetation can tolerate an increase of 1-2 °C of average air temperature, in the case of a sharper increase we can expect major changes. Loss of diversity of the alpine communities and fragmentation of plant populations caused by climate warming is expected for comparable high mountains around the world (Grabherr et al, 1995; Sætersdal et al., 1998).
Results from Dirnböck et al. (2003) support the hypothesis, that alpine plant species above the forest line will be affected by heavy fragmentation and habitat loss, but only if the average annual temperature increases by 2 °C or more. Most of these lost alpine plant species habitats are expected to be caused by the expansion of P. mugo in the Alpine zone. The coniferous forest zone has a general tendency to expand to higher elevations (Mihai et al., 2007; Sitko& Troll, 2008). Nicolussi&Patzelt (2006) describe the alpine timberline zone as very sensitive to climate variability. The rise of temperatures during the vegetation period over long periods also induces a rise of the tree line, with higher forest stand density. The tree line is considered to be primarily by temperature controlled, so increases in temperature should result in their upslope expansion (Moen, 2006). Growth and fertility of Pinusmugo is mostly controlled by temperature (Dullinger et al., 2004). Thus the main limiting factor of Pinusmugo growth at high altitude could be the soil temperature (Smith et al., 2003) although Rossi et al. (2007) refers to varying soil temperature thresholds at different sites, indicating that soil temperature may not be the main factor limiting xylogenesis of conifers and provides strong evidence that air temperature is a critical factor limiting xylem cell production and differentiation at high altitudes. However, the air temperature alone may not be the dominant factor determining tree line position, because the direct influence of temperature may be masked by interactions with other factors such as precipitation, cold-induced photoinhibition, disturbance or plant - plant interactions (Harsch, 2009). This evidence is therefore in conclusive. Differences in expert opinions on this matter have lead Smith et al. (2009) to formulate six current hypotheses of the causes of upper tree limit movement: climatic stress, mechanical disturbance, insufficient carbon balance, limitations of the cell growth and tissue formation, limited nutrient supply, and limited regeneration. In the global meta-analyses from Parmesan &Yohe (2003) and Root et al. (2003) significant range shifts toward the poles or toward higher altitudes for many organisms were documented. Large part of these changes may be attributed to increased global temperatures. The expansion of tree line forming species (sub-alpine zone) to higher altitudes is evident in the Pyrenees (Camarero& Gutiérrez, 2004; Peñuelas et al., 2007), in the Alps (Dullinger et al., 2003a, 2003b; Gehrig-Fasel et al., 2007; Vittoz et al., 2008), in the Carpathians (Martazinova et al., 2009; Mihai et al. 2007; Švajda et al., 2011), Sweden (Kullman, 2002), Caucasus (Akatov, 2009) but also in Patagonia (Daniels & Veblen, 2004) and Himalaya (Song et al., 2004; Becker et al., 2007).
Lapin et al. (2005) detected climate changes in the Slovak mountains. The results showed a significant increase in temperature and a decrease in relative humidity in the April to August season after 1990. From 1901–2005, air temperature increased (annual mean) moderately and precipitation decreased (Melo, 2007). This trend of warming is expected to continue in the Slovak mountains. By 2075 the annual average air temperature in Slovakia is expected to increase by 2-4 ° C (with greater warming expected in the winter) and more significant effects of increasing temperatures is expected at the higher altitudes (Mindáš&Škvarenina, 2003). Generally, climate conditions and land use in high mountain areas have been shown to influence the distribution of mountain pine. Since 1965 the ban on grazing in the High Tatras has not yet been raised. This study assesses a potential scenario after the grazing in Tatra Mountains will have been resumed. The potential model of timberline is based on the assumption that climate change as a factor in forest regeneration is primarily responsible for moving the upper limit of the natural forest above the original climatically determined timberline, while the abandonment of farming in the country should be the dominant factor determining forest regeneration below this line.
2. Study area
2.1. Description of study area
The Tatra Mountains are situated at the Slovak–Polish border (20°10′E, 49°10′N) and constitute the highest mountain massif within the Carpathian Range of Central Europe. The highest summit reaches 2656 m; the massif is classified as a high-mountain landscape covered by subalpine and alpine zones.
The study area (Figure 1) is situated in the western Tatra Mountains. The geology of the investigated area is based on crystalline bedrock. The western Tatra Mountains contain a significant amount of metamorphics (gneiss and mica schist), in addition to granodiorite(Nemčok et al., 1993). The vegetation of the alpine zone is dominated by alpine meadows (dry tundra with mostly Festucapicturata, Luzulaalpino-pilosa, Calamagrostisvillosa, and Juncustrifidus), with patches of dwarf pine (Pinusmugo) and an increasing percentage of rocks (bare or covered with lichens—commonly Rhizocarpon, Acarosporaoxytona, and Dermatocarponluridum) above the upper tree line of 1800 masl (Vološčuk, 1994).
The average annual air temperature decreases with elevation by 0.6°C per 100 m, being 1.6 and 23.8°C at elevations of 1778 and 2635 m, respectively (Konček&Orlicz, 1974). The amount of precipitation increases with elevation, varying from ~1.0 to ~1.6 m yr-1 between 1330 and 2635 masl but reaching >2.00 m yr-1 21 in some valleys (Chomitz&Šamaj, 1974). Precipitation is generally higher in the northern part than in the southern part of the mountains, as is runoff, which averages 1.42 and 1.57 m yr-1 for the south and north, respectively (Lajczak, 1996). Snow cover usually lasts from October to June at elevations > 2000 masl.
Figure 1.
Western Tatra Mountains in Slovakia and detailed view of the 25 sites in the study area (from west to east: Roháče, Baníkov, Baranec, Bystrá, Jamnická, Račkova, Kamenistá, Tichá, Kôprová, and Špania valleys). (Map by JaroslavSolár)
The relationship between climate conditions of the environment (microclimate and vertical climate) and phytocenoses is expressed at different altitudinal zones in the forest. Constant climate conditions definitively influenced the natural distribution of forest species from the sub-Atlantic period (around 2000 years ago), when the current altitudinal zones were formed. Significant changes of forest stratification were caused by the intense human activity since the 13th century. Ecologically, forest altitudinal zones represent vertical classification of vegetation. Horizontal classification is determined by growth condition of forest societies, differentiated especially according to soil conditions, ecological rows, interrows, and hydric files of forest type groups. The climate-driven tree line in the Tatra Mountains is located around 1550 masl and partly includes natural ecotones with individual conifers reaching ages of 350–450 years (Büntgen et al., 2007).
P. mugo is an obligatory prostrate pine with adult canopy height varying between 0.3 and 2.5 m in the study area. The typical dwarf pine altitudinal (subalpine) zone extends from 1500 to between 1850 and 1900 masl. Mountain pine zone developed especially in the western Tatras with glacial-meadow relief, with great antierosion and water retention potential. Closed mountain-pine thickets stretch up to 300 m above the timberline, reaching approximately 1600–1750 masl in the Tatras and encompassing the upper part of the forest alpine tundra ecotone. Mountain pine plays a significant role in the natural environment: it protects the soil and stabilizes the snow cover, thus restricting the release of avalanches, and it provides habitat for many species of flora and fauna (Jodłowski, 2006).
2.2. Climate change in study area
On slovakia in the period 1881-2007 was increase of annual temperature in 1,6°C and annual precipitation decrease in 24 mm (Lapin et al., 2009). The temperature series show an upward trend in all seasons, especially in the spring (Melo et al., 2009). Over the past 20 years, it seems much warmer and especially in the months of January to August (Faško et al., 2008). Warming scenarios based on applied GCM (General Circulation Model) for Slovakia represent the increase in average annual temperature of 2-4 °C until the end of the 21st century (Melo et al., 2009).The climate in the Slovak mountain region is thus becoming warmer. Figure 2 shows a general trend that could partially explain the dynamics of the vegetation zones.
Winter precipitation in the high-mountain positions of Slovakia is abundant and increases with altitude. (Ostrožlík, 2008, 2010). Sensitivity of snow cover will vary depending on the climate and altitude. Also sensitivity causes maritime climates and less continental climate of cold and dry winters, where precipitations play an important role in the variability of snow cover duration. (Brown & Mote, 2009). The Tatra Mountain have significanly more snow cover days on the northern slopes. More over the less windy and forested areas have higher and longer snow cover as well. (Lapin et al., 2007). Snow cover duration on the northern slopes is critical in altitude of about 1800 m and on the southern slopes of about 2300 m. In this altitudinal level in Tatra mountain should be zone, above which would not even occur to the loss of snow cover duration. (Vojtek et al., 2003). It seems that variability and trends in snow cover characteristics are influenced both by air temperature and precipitation variability. This influence depends significantly on the altitude and local topography conditions. Increase of air temperature by about 1,2 °C and change of precipitation totals from -10% to -20% in the November-April season are the main reasons of obtained trends (Lapin et al., 2007).
Figure 2.
Trends in annual average temperature (in degrees Celsius) and annual total precipitation (in millimeters) from 1965 to 2002 at the meteorological station of Skalnate´ pleso (1751 masl), Slovak Institute of Hydrometeorology (Švajda et al., 2011).
3. Material and research methods
3.1. Theoretical aspects
Changes in landscape can be well observed through remote sensing (RS). RS data (images, aerial photographs, etc.) are further processed and analyzed using Geographic Information Systems (GIS). Progressive development of geo-information technologies offer new approaches to the use of remote sensing in GIS. GIS is very useful for its ability to incorporate the complexity of spatial data in to the various models. Remote-sensing based analysis is particularly useful in mountainous areas where the topography is complex and different environmental gradients require special attention to the spatial patterns (Heywood et al., 1994). Although high mountain environments show a high degree of heterogeneity, we can obtain satisfactory results using the appropriate approaches and high-quality materials. Changes in the natural spatial (morphological, bioenergetical) features can be identified in remote sensing images (Feranec et al., 1997). Using GIS applied approach let us identify the most significant variables and phenomena which affect the natural environment components.
Approach of remote sensing and suitability of this method in detecting of lanscape changes in mountain regions of Slovakia was confirmed in the works: Boltižiar, (2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2006, 2007); Čerňanský&Kožuch, (2001); Hreško&Boltižiar, (2001); Kohút, (2006); Olah et al., (2006); Falťan&Saksa, (2007); Olah&Boltižiar, (2009). However, this approach can be difficult in countries with politically sensitive situation, where the products of remote sensing are subject to various degrees of secrecy (Heywood et al., 1994). We have come across some other problems arise in relation to data quality and its precision of position placement, which takes into account the high diversity of the relief. Advantage of access interpolation of aerial imagery lies in the fact, that we can carry out their research in a relatively short time. Especially aerial photographs provides a large amount of quantitative and qualitative information about the landscape structure and are particularly important in high mountain areas, where field research is difficult (Boltižiar, 2009).
This study is based on results published in the original study by Švajda, Solár, Janiga& Buliak „Dwarf Pine (Pinusmugo) and Selected Abiotic Habitat Conditions in the Western Tatra Mountains“ in journal Mountain Research and Development 31/3 in year 2011. The present analysis was carried out using GIS (ArcGIS 9.3), based on aerial photographs from 1965, 1986 and 2003. The aim of the analysis was to verify the temporal trends in the distribution of Pinusmugo and to investigate which environmental variables best explain the changes in the growth and distribution of the mountain pine. The applied modelling approach is based on three major assumptions: (1) The abiotic factors are assumed to be the major driving force of species distribution changes, as well as the post-grazing succession. (2) The models are calibrated using field data, and thus comprise any competitive constraint a species may force upon or experience from its neighbour. (3) The speed of plant migration is consistent with that of climate change so that plant communities are in a permanent equilibrium with their environment (Dirnböck et al., 2003).
3.2. Materials and data processing
Aerial images from 2002 were acquired and georeferenced by Eurosense Ltd. and Geodis Slovakia on the basis of contour lines at a scale 1:10,000 (digital elevation model); we georeferenced aerial photographs from 1986 and 1965 on the basis of orthophotos (Table 1).
Year
Source
Type
Resolution
Width
Height
Format
2002
Eurosense Slovakia
Orthophoto
RBG 72 DPI
2500
2000
.jpg
1986
Topographical Institute
Aerial photo
Gray 2400 DPI
21.829
21.924
.tiff
1965
Knazovicky
Aerial photo
Gray 300 DPI
2164
2175
.jpg
DPI. dots per inch; RBG. red green blue.
Table 1.
Quality and resolution of data features (aerial imagery) (Švajda et al., 2011).
Mountain pine fields were extracted from the aerial photos in gray scale and than reclassified into gray scale range representing mountain pine occurrence in the study area. Each photo was examined individually. If mountain pine on the slide was gray, with a value from 75 to 110, all such values in the range were reclassified as 1. The remaining values from 0 to 75 and 110 to 256 were reclassified as 0. We created a grid where each pixel contained either the value 1 or the value 0. Then the grid was automatically vectorized on the basis of the 2 values.
Habitat conditions were spatially simulated using GIS, digital terrain model, meteorological data and existing maps. In addition we analyzed historical records in order to derive information about past land-use changes. The most significant factors explaining the presence of Pinusmugo according to Dirnböck et al., (2003) are the daily temperature, followed by slope, geology, solar radiation in September and duration of snow cover.
To test this hypothesis it was necessary to create an explicit temporal and spatial explicit model of the spread of mountain pine and analyze their sensitivity to predicted climate change trends. Histogram transformation was not carried out due to the misrepresentation of values. The size of the pixels’ (cell) grid was equivalentin all RS images, because each image was adjusted to the same size cell size through the transformation of the grid, as well as during georeferencing. Thus all images and the grids had the same pixels (Figure 3).
Selection of the appropriate areas, which represented 25 localities from the study area, and analysis of imagery were realized in ArcGIS 9.2. Differences in the P. mugo surface cover between the 2 periods were calculated using Statistica 8.
The increments in dwarf pine were reported as means and standard deviations for potential comparison with other studies, but the values showed a highly skewed distribution in most sample groups. Therefore, a nonparametric approach to the analysis of the data was necessary. The significance of difference between groups was tested using the Kruskal–Wallis nonparametric test. When P, 0.05, the data were considered as significantly different. A digital elevation model of the study area was used for the representation of a selected abiotic habitat conditions. A single matrix was analyzed. GIS intersection of study sites with 3 parameters (slope, aspect, and height masl) has divided the studied sites into 325 smaller areas with unique characteristics related to pine increase. Two sites (nos. 5 and 9; Table 2) were excluded due to lack of data from 1986.
The principal component analysis (PCA)–correlation matrix, a multivariate technique was used to extract the potential relationships between the studied variables. Principal components are linear combinations of original variables (slope, height masl, and relative increase of pine during observed periods), each axis being statistically orthogonal to the others. Integration of the variables slope and elevation m asl in different periods enabled us to follow different processes of mountain colonization by mountain pine during the respective periods. Since this statisticale technique produces statistically orthogonal axes, we were able to examine potentially independent biological phenomena. We used 4 variables; consequently, we evaluated 4 principal components. The proportions of the total variance accounted for by each component are shown in Table 3 (see results).
Figure 3.
Example of the comparison between aerial photographs: changes between 1965, 1986, and 2002 in 1 analyzed valley (Site 17, Račková valley; Figure 1).
Site number
Average altitude (masl)
Average slope (%)
Covered with Plnus(%)
Difference (+/-)
1
1674
34
27
+1/+20
2
1670
46
7
+9/+11
3
1614
44
29
+9/+23
4
1675
36
24
+31/+41
5 (excluded)
1686
42
—
—
6
1614
33
35
+8/+-10
7
1733
28
28
+4/+9
8
1604
40
53
+11/+13
9 (excluded)
1807
34
—
—
10
1825
22
16
+6/+16
11
1511
47
61
+14/+14
12
1533
43
68
+12A16
13
1493
33
47
+8/+10
14
1684
40
19
+4/+12
15
1617
46
21
+11/+13
16
1561
43
62
+3/+10
17
1640
45
48
+18/+28
18
1777
35
34
+6/+11
19
1595
55
45
+10/+12
20
1627
30
42
+6/+23
21
1449
33
49
+21/+20
22
1632
45
42
+11/+31
23
1599
36
68
+11/+20
24
1428
31
59
+20/+16
25
1533
38
65
-2/+2
Table 2.
Overview of evaluated sites with different P. mugo cover in the period.
4. Results
4.1. Surface cover of mountain pine
Mountain pine cover in the western Tatra Mountains in the period 1965–2002 permanently increased at all observed sites. The total surface area covered by mountain pine increased from 8,173,812 m2 in 1965 to 10,141,505 m2 in 1986 and 11,394,461 m2 in 2002. The percentage of total surface area covered thus increased from 41.8% in 1965 to 51.8% in 1986 and 58.2% in 2002. Only in one case (No. 25) surface area covered by dwarf pine decreased. In two cases (No 21 and 24) the area decreased in the first, and increased in the second period (Table 2, Figure 4). This was probably due to the influence by human activities or avalanches.
The results also indicate that the mean increase of mountain pine surface cover was in all periods about 0.4 percent per year (0.42% first period, 0.40% second period) from the total surface area but results in relation to selected abiotic conditions still showed some differences.
Figure 4.
Comparison of area covered with P. mugo (23 sites) in 1965, 1986, and 2002, in square meters (Švajda et al., 2011).
4.2. Expansion of mountain pine growth
From 1965 to 1986, mountain pine showed a rapid expansion in surface cover at the lower elevations (Table 3 – PC1, Figure 5A). This could be observed as thickening of mountain pine cover at lower elevations, indicating that the mountain pine is able to recolonize sites of previous occurrence.
Variable
PCI
PC2
PC3
PC4
Slope
0.51
-0.64
-0.50
0.26
Elevation
-0.71
0.11
-0.63
-0.27
Pine increment (1965-1986)
0.73
0.14
-0.10
-0.64
Pine increment (1986-2002)
-0.38
-0.78
0.30
-0.37
Variability (%)
36.5
26.8
18.9
17.8
PC. principal component.
Table 3.
Component vectors (loadings) and percent variance associated with the components indicating the pattern of natural reforestation with dwarf pine in the Tatra Mountains (n 5 325; snaps from aerial photographs) (Švajda et al., 2011).
In the period from 1986 to 2002, pine grew rapidly on steeper slopes (Table 3 – PC2), mainly at elevations from 1500 to 1700 masl (Figure 5B). During the first analyzed period, mountain pine was able to concentrate to such a level at elevations between 1300–1400 m a.s.l. that in the following period it completely covered this zone and further increments were minimal.
The third factor (Table 3 - PC3) is less important for the explanation of the historical pine increments: it shows a positive relation between slope and elevation. PC4 (Table 3) is a unipolar vector indicating that mountain pine grew more rapidly in the earlier period (1965–1986) than later (1986–2002).
In the earlier period mountain pine grew intensely at all locations (Figure 5C) whereas in the period 1986–2002 it mainly preferred northwest and northeast aspects on steeper slopes, probably the most suitable locations for plant development in the Tatra Mountains. These sites might have more favorable conditions for the growth of the mountain pine due to changes in climate in terms of higher surface temperature of environment.
Figure 5.
Increments in dwarf pine cover in the western Tatra Mountains in the periods 1965–1986 and 1986–2002, according to (A and B) elevation and (C and D) aspect. In the earlier period, the groups did not differ according to aspect. (C) Kruskal–Wallis nonparametric test at p = 0.05. (D) In the period 1986–2002, the following aspects differed significantly: N:NE, N:SW, NE:W, NE:S, NE:SE, SE:SW, S:SW, and SW:W (Švajda et al., 2011).
In both periods, the increments in the areas covered by mountain pine were very low at the elevation of 1900 m, reflecting its natural upper line of occurrence. In the earlier monitored period the increments at 1900 m were 0%, whereas between 1986 and 2002 they were approximately 3% (Figures 5A, 4B). The trend is probably associated with climate warming in the region. Changed enviromental conditions caused by climate change promote the expansion of mountain pine and favour it in competition against alpine meadow communities.
5. Discussion
The interaction of individual components of the environment is an ongoing process. The result of this interaction as seen in our results, show an apparent shift of mountain pine to higher altitudes. The expansion of mountain pine was confirmed by remote sensing. The precision of our results was limited by the fact that we performed a very fast automatic extraction of mountain pine fields. However, this analysis was repeated several times in order to avoid any errors during the extraction of mountain pine fields. We also recorded other factors which might affect the results of the distribution and growth of dwarf pine. This mainly relates to landslides, avlanches, snow cover and shadows from clouds or hills on the air photographs. Generally, a place where we have identified these problems, we excluded from the assessment in all of times periods. Due to aim of this study was not to highlight the processes that operate in the opposite direction to the expansion of mountain pine, so we did not dealt with this problem more. We had some problems in the lower parts of fields where the scrub of mountain pine interleaved with spruce forest. Analysis of this border and its response to climate change would be also interesting. We can assume, that spruce forest has pushed the lower limit of mountain pine to the higher altitudes (Mihai et al., 2007). But this process is slower than the expansion of mountain pine due to problems with the successful survival of spruce seedlings and seed production (Dullinger et al., 2005). Evidence of spruce forest move to higher altitudes was shown by Mihai et al. (2007) in the Southern Carpathians of Romania. In comparison to spruce stands the mountain pine cover in our study represented comparatively homogeneous areas easy to extract in our aerial images.
Similarly to other high mountains also the Carpathians show a trend of climate change and possibly the shift of vegetation types with altitude. Expected changes in tree line boundaries are evident in Carpathians but also other mountain ranges around the world, which could present a threat to the habitats of many rare species in the future. Over the last 50 years, summer temperatures in the Tatra Mountains summer temperatures have increased by 0.7 ° C at higher elevations, and 1.4 ° C at lower elevations. Winter temperatures have increased by 1.4 ° C at higher elevations, and 1.9 ° C at lower elevations (Melo, 2005). The temperature limit of the mountain pine zone is determined by the bio-temperature threshold in the range of 3.0 to 2.0 ° C (°C Max - Min ° C) (Miňdáš&Škvarenina, 2003). Considering the rate of current temperature changes (2-3 °C for 100 years) we can expect more turmoil changes to the growth within a single generation of woody plants. According to Miňdáš et al. (1996) a model scenario expects a complete extinction of conditions for alpine communities and their replacement by bioclimatic conditions for sub-alpine forest. The occurrence of mountain pine is subject to extreme habitat conditions, including soil. Mountain pine is a strongly heliophilic shrub. The most important factor of habitat which has a decisive role in the expansion of mountain pine is the light intensity. The spreading of mountain pine is conditioned mainly by altitude, slope, moisture conditions, but also the horizontal and vertical slope curvature. This can be seen in the fact that the mountain pine is spreading up along the ridges.
Minďáš et al. (2004) predict the following changes in an area of mountain pine zone timberline: (1) an increase in the abundance of tree species, (2) dominant representation of spruce, (3) a decrease of dwarf pine, and (4) an increase of general production and biomass of about 200–300%. These changes could also be contributed by the changes in phenological phases, which reflect the changing climate condtions. The onset of individual phenological stages and their proceeding is mainly influenced by air temperature, as well as temperature and humidity of soil and other meteorological variables (Škvareninová, 2009). Development of climate can to some extent affect phenological trends (Bauer 2006; Škvareninová, 2008) and identyfying these relationships can help us use trees as bio-climatic indicators of climate change (Škvareninová, 2009).At high altitudes the vegetation is under constant environmental stress and thus abiotic conditions become more important for the community development than biotic relationships (Pauli et al., 1996).
The main results of our case study confirm the results of previous research on mountain vegetation zones in the Slovak Tatras. Boltižiar (2007) analyzed spatiotemporal landscape structure change in the alpine environment of the Tatra Mountains. The landscape structure in 1949 in the study area was dominated by grassland, which resulted mainly from human activity. Statistical analysis of thematic maps from 2003 suggests extension of mountain pine cover, advance of forest, and reduction of grassland areas. Martazinova et al. (2009) conducted research on grasslands above the upper forest limit in the Ukrainian Carpathians. Grass cover significantly decreased in the sites whit conifer presence. Spruce stands mainly on the northern slopes moved to higher altitudes, while the beech stands in the same area on the southern slopes did not show any significant movement. Apparently the greatest changes were recorded at those sites where upper forest limit was marked at higher elevations. In their study of alpine, subalpine, and forest landscapes in the Iezer Mountains (southern Carpathians), Mihai et al. (2007) described how mountain pine–subalpine associations developed and gradually covered subalpine meadows and barren land (between 1986 and 2002, colonization averaged 0.14 km2/y). This might be important in the context of the surface of the subalpine and alpine zones in the mountains. However, mountain pine area has lost some lower stands because of spruce forests, which increased in elevation. This is largely a feature of southern aspect slopes (sunny), where the natural timberline is under some local conditions higher. It is also related to shorter duration of snow cover on the southern slopes (Lapin et al., 2007). Peneuelas et al., (2007) also observed a shift and change in the distribution of species on the tree line in the Montseny Mountains (Span). As observed from historic photographs for the last 60 years, beech stands significantly increased in abundance, which is reflected in the shift of this species to higher altitudes by about 30-50 meters.
However, there are interesting comparisons with studies from other European mountains. The results of the study conducted by Dirnböck et al. (2003) support earlier hypotheses that alpine plant species on mountain ranges with restricted habitat availability above the tree line will experience severe fragmentation and habitat loss, but only if the mean annual temperature increases by 2 °C or more. Even in temperate alpine regions, it is important to consider precipitation, in addition to temperature, when climate impacts are to be assessed. Another example from the Alps in Austria (Dullinger et al., 2004), after running a model for 1000 years, predicted that the area covered by pines will increase from 10% to between 24% and 59% of the studied landscape. The shape of the dispersal curve and spatial patterns of competitively controlled recruitment suppression affect range size dynamics at least as severely as does variation in assumed future mean annual temperature (between 0 and 2°C above the current mean). Moreover, invasibility and shape of the dispersal curve interacted with each other due to the spatial patterns of vegetation cover in the region. Dullinger et al. (2003a) indicated that a shift of tree and shrub species caused by landuse and expected climate change can be expected in the European Alps. Abandonment of pasture will allow invasive expansion of Pinusmugo scrubs to new areas. In the peripheral areas this process will be dependent on the competitive struggle for light with abandoned grasslands after the grazing has ceased. Gehrig-Fasel et al. (2007) compared upward shifts to the potential regional tree line by calculating the difference in elevation of the respective pixels. The altitude of the potential regional tree line was considered as a reference. Upward shifts above the potential regional tree line were considered to be influenced primarily by climate change, while upward shifts below the potential regional tree line were interpreted as primarily influenced by land abandonment. Generally, dwarf pine forest lost a total surface area under pressure from lower vegetation communities and even secondary pastures (Mihai et al., 2007).
In addition to climate change, human land use may drive changes in tree line. Land use in subalpine and alpine areas (grazing and extraction) affects the distribution of flora just as much as climate. Since the 13th–14th century, anthropogenic land cover change has involved clearing mountain-pine thickets to obtain new pastures for sheep and cattle grazing, for extensive charcoal and oil production, and for copper and iron-ore mining, sometimes leading to degradation. Jodłowski (2007) described how establishing national parks in the Tatras—Babia Góra and Giant Mountains enabled secondary succession, which has led to colonization of previously abandoned habitats. However, these processes have been hampered by harsh edaphic and climatic conditions as well as by avalanches and debris flows. Extensive planting of mountain pine in former Czechoslovakia significantly facilitated the regeneration of mountain pine thickets. After the absolute restriction of grazing in some national parks, we observed progressive long-term trends in secondary succession and patterns of plant establishment driven by climate.
Closed mountain pine thickets stretch up to 300 m above timberline, reaching approximately 1600–1750 masl in the Tatras and encompassing the upper part of the forest-alpine tundra ecotone. Habitats in the peripheral or isolated mountain belts at or above the tree line are generally rich in diversity of endemic species. In these habitats, tree line expansion disproportionally reduces habitats of high-altitude species. Such legacies of climate history, which may aggravate extinction risks under future climate change, have to be expected for many temperate mountain ranges (Dirnböck et al., 2011). Minimizing greenhouse gas emissions effectively in order to reduce climate warming, and thus the expansion of tree line species to higher altitudes.Furthermore, slowing down forest expansion by land use. The maintenance of large summer farms may contribute to preventing the expected loss of nonforest habitats for alpine plant species and might provide additional refuges for those endemic species which can survive in managed habitats (Dirnböck et al., 2003).
6. Conclusion
Our study shows an apparent shift and densification of Pinusmugo scrubs at higher altitudes. This shift was shown to correlate with climate change. Longer growing seasons, milder winters, shorter duration of snow cover create favourable conditions for the growth of mountain pine. This shift has not only had a devastating effect on alpine plant communities due to habitat loss, but also due to greater fragmentation, which ultimately will strongly affect the population of different animal species dependent on these habitats.
More research on vegetation dynamics in Slovakia’s mountain areas is needed in light of the significance of vegetation in the context of global change. The results of our study can be used not only as a baseline for future research to test possible climate change influences (resulting upward shifts compared to a potential surface size and trends in approach of dwarf pine extension) but also to compare trends in other mountainous areas. Further understanding of dispersal, persistence, and survival strategies of mountain pine in the western Carpathians is also required. We will continue to monitor dispersal of P. mugo in Slovakia and extend our studies to the central Tatras. This workwill help to describe and evaluate the total tree surface area as a basis for the State Nature Conservancy’s management of mountain national parks and protected areas in Slovakia.
Acknowledgement
This research was partly supported by the European Economic Area and Norwegian financial mechanism grant SK-00061. We thank Dr L. Kňazovický for aerial photos from 1965. Let us also thank to authors Dr. J. Švajda, Prof. M. Janiga and M. Buliak who created the previous study entitled "Dwarf Pine (Pinusmugo) and Selected Habitat Abiotic Conditions in the Western Tatra Mountains" published in journal Mountain Research and Development 31/3 in the year 2011.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/41990.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/41990.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/41990",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/41990",totalDownloads:2174,totalViews:252,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:3,impactScorePercentile:86,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"December 8th 2011",dateReviewed:"October 29th 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"January 16th 2013",dateFinished:"January 14th 2013",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/41990",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/41990",book:{id:"3162",slug:"climate-change-realities-impacts-over-ice-cap-sea-level-and-risks"},signatures:"Jaroslav Solár",authors:[{id:"146614",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Solár",fullName:"Jaroslav Solár",slug:"jaroslav-solar",email:"solar@uniza.sk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Žilina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovakia"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. Climate change in the high mountains",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2. Climate change effect on high mountain ecosystems",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"1.3. Climate change-induced shift of ecosystem boundaries",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"2. Study area",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.1. Description of study area",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.2. Climate change in study area",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"3. Material and research methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.1. Theoretical aspects",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.2. Materials and data processing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"4. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.1. Surface cover of mountain pine",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.2. Expansion of mountain pine growth",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. Discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"6. 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A2003Fingerprints of global warming on wild animals and plants.Nature421691857600028-0836'},{id:"B69",body:'RossiSDeslauriersAAnfodilloTCarraroV2007Evidence of threshold temperatures for xylogenesis in conifers at high altitudesOecologia15211121432-1939'},{id:"B70",body:'SætersdalMBirksH. J. BPeglarS. M1998Predicting changes in Fennoscandian vascular-plant species richness as a result of future climatic change. Journal of Biogeography, 251111221365-2699'},{id:"B71",body:'SitkoATrollM2008Timberline changes in relation to summer farming in the western Chornohora (Ukrainian Carpathians)Mountain Research and Development283-42632711994-7151'},{id:"B72",body:'SmithW. KGerminoM. JHancockT. EJohnsonD. M2003Another perspective on altitudinal limits of alpine timberlines.Tree Physiogy, 2316110111121758-4469'},{id:"B73",body:'SmithW. KGerminoM. JHancockT. EJohnsonD. 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1. Introduction
The total body potassium (K+) in an average 70-kg adult is approximately 3000–4000 mEq (50–55 mEq/kg) [1]. About 98% of this is intracellular, approximating to a concentration of 140 mEq/L and 2% in the extracellular compartment, which amounts to 4–5 mEq/L. Potassium’s two primary physiologic functions are cellular metabolism, protein, glycogen, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) synthesis, and resting potential membrane maintenance. Multiple physiologic processes have been identified in humans that maintain potassium homeostasis with a goal of appropriate tissue potassium distribution [1]. They can be classified into two groups based on the mechanisms involved: transcellular shifts and potassium excess excretion.
Transcellular mechanisms maintain the ICF (intracellular fluid): ECF (extracellular fluid) potassium ratio by acting immediately within the first few minutes to hours by regulating Na+/K+-ATPase (sodium/potassium adenosine triphosphatase pump), resulting in transcellular shifts. It is an electrogenic pump transporting sodium and potassium in the ratio of three sodium to two potassium. It is an integral membrane protein and serves as an ion channel, maintaining the electrochemical gradient across the cell membrane. The delayed mechanisms are slower to kick in but play a significant role in the excretion of the excess potassium from the body via renal and gastrointestinal mechanisms.
2. Potassium homeostasis mechanisms
2.1 Factors responsible for the transcellular shift of potassium
2.1.1 Insulin
Insulin is released after a meal when the plasma glucose concentration increases. Insulin plays a vital role in shifting dietary potassium into the cells and avoiding hyperkalemia before the kidneys can work on the excretion of the extra potassium [2, 3]. Insulin attaches to specific cell surface receptors and inserts GLUT4 (glucose transporter type-4) into the cell membranes, promoting glucose uptake in insulin-responsive tissues such as skeletal muscles, adipocytes, and cardiomyocytes. More than 80% of glucose is transported into the muscle cells. Also seen is an upregulation of the GLUT4-mediated glucose transport in elevated transport needs, like elevated blood glucose during a carbohydrate-rich meal or during increased metabolic demands by skeletal muscles during exercise [4]. The potassium uptake is also increased during this process by increasing the Na+/K+-ATPase activity. Insulin is also noted to have differential glucose and K uptake regulation, as noted in a metabolic syndrome where insulin-mediated glucose is compromised, but the cellular K+ uptake usually occurs [5, 6].
2.1.2 Catecholamines
Catecholamines play a critical role in potassium homeostasis. They alter internal K+ distribution by acting through alpha and beta receptors. Beta-2 receptors enhance K+ uptake by cells by activating the Na+/K+-ATPase pump [7, 8]. This effect appears to be present at basal catecholamine levels [9, 10]. The beta-adrenergic activity also increases insulin secretion from the pancreas by directly stimulating and enhancing glycolysis, which increases blood glucose levels. A stress response results in epinephrine release that causes an acute drop in plasma K+ by approximately 0.5– 0.6 mEq/L. Alpha-1,2 adrenoreceptors mediate the initial hyperkalemia by activating hepatic calcium-dependent potassium channels [11, 12]. Beta-3 adrenoreceptor stimulation may also affect the plasma potassium [12].
2.1.3 Exercise
Exercise causes an elevation in plasma K+ levels. The rise is proportional to the exercise intensity. There is an increase of 0.3–0.4 mEq/L with slow walking, 0.7–1.2 mEq/L with moderate exercise, and a max of 2.0 mEq/L with strenuous exercise leading to exhaustion [13, 14, 15]. These changes are transient for few minutes and then normalize. This transient increase is due to the release of potassium from the exercising cells. Skeletal muscle cells have ATP-dependent K+ channels. A reduction of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) levels causes the opening of more K+ channels. The release of potassium from the muscles causes a local increase in the plasma K+ concentration, which causes vasodilation, and hence increases blood supply to the muscles during exercise. This mechanism is attenuated in physical conditioning as there is an increase in both cellular K+ concentration and Na+/K+-ATPase activity.
2.1.4 Acid-base balance changes
The changes in acid-base balance cause alterations in K+ levels to maintain electroneutrality. Hence, such changes are seen only in the setting of acidosis caused by inorganic acids. Electroneutrality is maintained by the movement of K+ and Na+into the ECF, as chloride (Clˉ) movement into the cells is limited. The wide range of variation is possibly due to other mechanisms involved in regulating potassium homeostasis [16, 17].
Skeletal muscles also have another mechanism to regulate intracellular pH via Na+-H+ exchanger present on the cell membrane to regulate intracellular pH. The exact mechanism is explained in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Intracellular pH regulation by skeletal muscles.
2.1.5 Plasma tonicity
The changes in plasma tonicity also affect K+ levels. Effective osmoles such as glucose, mannitol, and sucrose accumulate in the ECF, resulting in an osmotic gradient that causes water movement from ICF to ECF [18, 19, 20]. This effect leads to a decrease in cell volume. During this process, the intracellular K+ concentration increases and causes K+ efflux through K+ permeable channels. This process is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Plasma tonicity.
2.1.6 Plasma K+ concentration
The plasma K+ concentration itself influences the movement of K+ in and out of cells via passive mechanisms, hence regulating the homeostasis. For example, there is an initial elevation of plasma K+ concentration after a K load, promoting K+ movement inside the cells. Similarly, in K+ losses either via gastrointestinal or renal processes, there is an initial fall in plasma K+ level in the plasma within the required normal range transiently, unless the total body K+ stores are significantly affected [21, 22].
2.1.7 Effect of cell breakdown and production on plasma potassium
Clinical conditions such as severe trauma, tumor lysis syndrome, acute tissue ischemia, and necrosis cause cell breakdown and release of intracellular K+ into the ECF [23]. The hyperkalemia severity is dependent on the ability of other cells to uptake the excess K+ and the capability of the kidney to excrete K+ quickly. Conversely, there is a movement of ECF K+ to ICF due to increased cellular metabolic needs like protein synthesis in situations with increase in rapid cell production. This effect is observed in cases of severe vitamin B 12 or folic acid deficiency. When such individuals are supplemented with vitamin B 12 or folic acid, there is a marked increase in erythropoiesis and red blood cell production, causing hypokalemia; hence, it is recommended to monitor labs and supplement potassium to replete the levels [24].
2.2 Factors responsible for potassium excretion (renal)
The kidney plays a significant role in the excretion of excess K+ and maintaining K+ balance. The colon plays a trivial role as small amounts of K+ are lost through feces each day. Insignificant amounts are lost through sweat.
2.2.1 Potassium handling in proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
Around 80% of the filtered potassium is reabsorbed in the proximal collecting tubule. The movement of K+ in the PCT is mainly passive, following sodium and water. The Na+ absorption increases across the PCT, by both active and passive processes causing net fluid reabsorption. This process drives K+ reabsorption by solvent drag. There is also a minimal change in the transepithelial voltage from negative to slightly positive as we move down the PCT, favoring K+ and calcium (Ca2+) reabsorption via the paracellular pathway (Figure 3) [2].
Figure 3.
Potassium handling in proximal convoluted tubule (PCT).
2.2.2 Potassium handling in thick ascending limb
K+ reabsorption in this segment occurs by both paracellular and transcellular pathways. Na+/K+/Clˉ co-transporter plays a significant role in the reabsorption of potassium here. This channel is located on the luminal side. The low-intracellular Na+ concentration and high-transcellular Na+ gradient caused by the Na+/K+-ATPase pump activity in the basolateral membrane help activate the Na+/K+/Clˉ co-transporter. This electroneutral process causes an increase in intracellular K+, which then exits via the K+/Clˉ co-transporter located in the basolateral membrane. A ROMK (renal outer medullary potassium channel) is present on the luminal side, allowing K+ out of the cell into the lumen. This activity helps maintain the Na+/K+/Clˉ co-transporter activity by recycling the K+ (Figure 4) [2, 25].
Figure 4.
Potassium handling in the thick ascending limb.
2.2.3 Potassium handling in distal convoluted tubule (DCT) and collecting duct
Less than 10% of the filtered load reaches the distal tubule. The lumen’s K+ concentration increases down the lumen and is secondary to voltage-dependent K+secretion mediated by the ROMK channel. Late DCT has an epithelial Na+ channel (ENaC) responsible for sodium absorption and creating lumen-negative electrochemical gradient and hence effusion of K+, similar to collecting duct [26].
Most potassium secretion is in the connecting segment and the collecting tubules (cortical, outer medullary, and inner medullary). This secretion varies according to the physiologic needs of the body. The connecting tubule has two major types of cells: principal cells and intercalated cells.
In principal cells, K+ movement out of the cell into the tubular lumen is due to the electrochemical gradient generated by the entry of Na+ into the cell via the ENaC channel located on the luminal side. The Na+/K+-ATPase pump at the basolateral membrane moves 3 Na+ out of the cells in exchange for 2 K+ creating a favorable concentration gradient. The gradient leads to the movement of Na+ from the tubular lumen into the cell. This movement creates a negative voltage on the luminal side. This electrochemical gradient favors K+ secretion into the lumen. It also promotes paracellular reabsorption of chloride (Figure 5) [27].
Figure 5.
Potassium handling in principal cells.
Intercalated cells are of two types, type A and type B, involved in acid-base regulation. In type A cells, the H+/K+ATPase pump on the luminal side results in H+ secretion and K+ reabsorption (Figure 6) [28, 29]. The activity of this pump is increased in K+-depleted states and decreased in the setting of elevated K+ levels.
Figure 6.
Potassium handling in intercalated type A cell.
In intercalated type B cells, the reabsorption of K+ is along with the Clˉ reabsorption via Clˉ/HCO3ˉ exchanger, which is a proposed mechanism and not yet substantially proven (Figure 7) [29, 30, 31].
Figure 7.
Potassium handling in intercalated type B cell.
2.3 Role of aldosterone in potassium homeostasis
Aldosterone is a steroid hormone. It enters the cell, binds with a cytosolic receptor and moves to the nucleus, increasing the synthesis of sgk mRNA (serum and glucocorticoid regulated kinase messenger ribonucleic acid), resulting in sgk protein [32]. sgk protein stimulates the ENaC activity sevenfold. An increase in serum K+ levels as little as 0.1–0.2 mEq/L can stimulate significant aldosterone levels [33].
2.4 Tubular flow and potassium secretion
Increasing the distal tubular flow rate potentiates K+ secretion in those segments. This effect is more prominent when a person consumes a high K+ diet as it also causes a simultaneous increase in aldosterone levels. Under normal circumstances, the fluid entering the distal tubule has a K+ concentration of <1 mEq/L as most of the K+ filtered is absorbed in the earlier parts of the nephron. Due to water reabsorption in the presence of ADH (antidiuretic hormone) and K+ secretion in the tube’s distal parts, the tubular K+ concentration increases. However, if the distal flow rate is increased, enhanced flow washes the secreted K+, keeping the K+ concentration in the tubular fluid relatively lower and creating a favorable concentration gradient for K+ secretion [34, 35].
Increased distal flow also increases Na+ delivery to the distal nephron, increasing Na entry into the cells and potentiating the changes to create a favorable electrochemical gradient for K+ secretion.
Two major K+ channels are found in the thick ascending loop, DCT, cortical, and medullary collecting ducts. ROMK, also known as the constitutive K+ secretary channel, is responsible for K+ secretion during normal tubular flow. Cortical ROMK expression is upregulated by aldosterone and increased plasma K+ concentration, whereas medullary ROMK expression is regulated by plasma K+ levels and not aldosterone.
BK channels are also known as big/large conductance channels or “Maxi K” channels opened by the high tubular flow, hence were earlier called a flow-dependent channel. High tubular flow increases Na+ delivery and eventually causes apical membrane depolarization. The depolarization leads to increased intracellular calcium levels and activates the BK channels. Recent studies suggest that K+ secretion by ROMK is also increased in the setting of increased tubular flow. Both these channels work together in maintaining potassium homeostasis and preventing hyperkalemia. Either of them is upregulated in the absence of the other channel [36].
2.5 Role of the colon in potassium homeostasis
The primary absorption site for K+ from the diet is the small intestine. The colon plays a minimal role in the absorption and secretion of potassium. Potassium secretion occurs primarily by passive mechanisms; however, in the rectum and sigmoid colon, K+ is secreted by an active process [37].
Animal studies have shown that active K+ secretion is mediated by apical K+ channels, which coordinate with the basolateral Na+/K+/Clˉ co-transporter. Intermediate conductance K+ (IK) and large-conductance K+ (BK) channels are present on the apical membrane of colonic epithelia. In patients with chronic renal insufficiency, especially when creatinine clearance is less than 10 mL/min, the net colonic K+ secretion increases compared to normal renal function due to increased expression and activity of the BK channel. Colonic K+ losses increase in the setting of diarrhea and by using cation resins (e.g., sodium polystyrene sulfonate) [38].
2.6 Feedforward control of potassium balance
Feedforward control means the response to a specific signal is preset and happens irrespective of the changes in the environment, unlike in the feedback mechanism where the changes in the environment control the pathway.
An increase in dietary intake of K+ causes an increase in renal excretion of potassium, even though the K+ concentration is not sufficient to cause any changes in plasma K+ concentration or stimulate aldosterone. It was also noted that this mechanism acts independently and is not altered by changing the tubular flow rate of urine, urine pH, renal Na+ excretion, or an aldosterone antagonist. `The feedforward mechanism is wholly dissociated from the common pathways involved in the feedback mechanisms of K+ homeostasis [39].
The precise mechanism is still unknown, but it is hypothesized that there is a possible gastrointestinal-renal signaling pathway in humans responsible for this feedforward control of K+ homeostasis [40].
2.7 Circadian rhythm and potassium levels
Potassium excretion is also influenced by the circadian rhythm irrespective of the activity levels or posture. The peak potassium excretion is observed in the middle of the day [41]. The presence of an oscillator system in DCT, connecting tubule and cortical collecting duct renal tubular cells, is responsible for the circadian variation of potassium excretion. The pathway includes cellular receptors for central nervous system signals, intracellular messenger’s, effectors, and renal tubule membrane transporters [42]. The oscillations result in circadian gene and transcriptional factor expression changes modifying the expression of vasopressin V2 receptor and multiple transcellular channels (Aquaporin 2, Aquaporin 4, alpha ENaC, and ROMK-1), maintaining the plasma sodium and potassium concentration [39, 43]. ROMK gene expression is higher during physical activity, whereas the H+/K+ATPase gene expression is higher at rest [44]. Circadian rhythm causes a variation in aldosterone secretion, thus impacting renal potassium excretion [45].
3. Conclusion
To maintain a normal potassium concentration, both the feedback and feedforward mechanisms work in tandem. After a potassium-rich diet, the increased plasma potassium levels gain entry into the cells via transcellular processes. At the same time, the body gears up to activate the renal and the colonic potassium excretion. This is the classical feedback pathway, whereas the feedforward pathway acts independently. Understanding the intricate mechanisms of potassium homeostasis in humans is a must in our clinical approach to potassium disorders for effective treatment strategies.
Acknowledgments
No external funding was received in preparation of this manuscript.
Conflict of interest
We declare no conflict of interest.
Notes/thanks/other declarations
We thank the editor for allowing us to author this manuscript.
Acronyms and abbreviations
K+
potassium
mEq/L
milliequivalent/liter
kg
kilogram
DNA
deoxyribonucleic acid
ICF
intracellular fluid
ECF
extracellular fluid
Na+/K+-ATPase
sodium/potassium-adenosine triphosphatase
Na+
sodium
GLUT4
glucose transporter type 4
ATP
adenosine triphosphate
Clˉ
chloride
pH
a scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution
H+
hydrogen
MCT
monocarbohydrate transporter
NHE1
sodium hydrogen exchanger 1
PCT
proximal convoluted tubule
Ca2+
calcium
Na+/K+/Clˉco-transporter
sodium/potassium/chloride co-transporter
ROMK
renal outer medullary potassium channel
DCT
distal-convoluted tubule
ENaC
epithelial sodium channel
H+/K+ATPase
hydrogen/potassium adenosine triphosphatase
Clˉ/HCO3ˉexchanger
chloride/bicarbonate exchanger
mRNA
messenger ribonucleic acid
ADH
antidiuretic hormone
BK/Maxi Kchannels
big/large conductance channels
IK
intermediate conductance
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A loss of this gradient results in hyper- or hypopolarization of the cell membrane, especially in cardiac muscles leading to life-threatening arrhythmias. Multiple mechanisms in human maintain homeostasis. Transient initial changes are due to transcellular shifts activating sodium-potassium ATPase pumps on the cell membrane. The kidneys essentially take part in excess potassium excretion, maintaining total body stores constant within normal range. Gastrointestinal secretion of potassium is insignificant in individuals with normal renal function, however plays an essential role in individuals with compromised renal function. So far, a classic feedback mechanism was thought to maintain potassium homeostasis; however, a recently recognized feedforward mechanism acting independently also helps preserve potassium homeostasis. 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Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"Notes/thanks/other declarations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_22",title:"Acronyms and abbreviations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Palmer BF, Clegg DJ. Physiology and pathophysiology of potassium homeostasis: Core curriculum 2019. American Journal of Kidney Diseases. 2019;74(5):682-695'},{id:"B2",body:'Palmer BF. Regulation of potassium homeostasis. Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 2015;10(6):1050-1060'},{id:"B3",body:'Masharani U, German MS. Pancreatic hormones and diabetes mellitus. In: Gardner DG, Shoback D, editors. Greenspan’s Basic & Clinical Endocrinology. 10th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education; 2017'},{id:"B4",body:'Vargas E, Podder V, Carrillo Sepulveda MA. Physiology, Glucose Transporter Type 4. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls; 2021'},{id:"B5",body:'Nguyen TQ, Maalouf NM, Sakhaee K, Moe OW. 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Increase in serum potassium resulting from the administration of hypertonic mannitol and other solutions. The Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine. 1969;73(2):291-298'},{id:"B21",body:'DeFronzo RA, Lee R, Jones A, Bia M. Effect of insulinopenia and adrenal hormone deficiency on acute potassium tolerance. Kidney International. 1980;17(5):586-594'},{id:"B22",body:'Sterns RH, Cox M, Feig PU, Singer I. Internal potassium balance and the control of the plasma potassium concentration. Medicine (Baltimore). 1981;60(5):339-354'},{id:"B23",body:'Drakos P, Bar-Ziv J, Catane R. Tumor lysis syndrome in nonhematologic malignancies. Report of a case and review of the literature. American Journal of Clinical Oncology. 1994;17(6):502-505'},{id:"B24",body:'Lawson DH, Murray RM, Parker JL. Early mortality in the megaloblastic anaemias. QJM. 1972;41(161):1-14'},{id:"B25",body:'Burg MB. Thick ascending limb of Henle’s loop. 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In addition, the commercialization progress of EVs drugs will be mentioned here, and the problems in their applications will be discussed in conjunction with the application of EVs in the treatment of COVID-19.",book:{id:"10232",slug:"theranostics-an-old-concept-in-new-clothing",title:"Theranostics",fullTitle:"Theranostics - An Old Concept in New Clothing"},signatures:"Chunying Liu, Xuejing Lin and Changqing Su",authors:[{id:"36101",title:"Dr.",name:"Changqing",middleName:null,surname:"Su",slug:"changqing-su",fullName:"Changqing Su"},{id:"326640",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Chunying",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"chunying-liu",fullName:"Chunying Liu"},{id:"329915",title:"Ms.",name:"Xuejing",middleName:null,surname:"Lin",slug:"xuejing-lin",fullName:"Xuejing Lin"}]},{id:"74944",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95567",title:"Pretargeted Theranostics",slug:"pretargeted-theranostics",totalDownloads:230,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Personalized medicine is becoming an integral part of our healthcare system, in which theranostics play a fundamental role. Nanomedicines such as monoclonal antibodies are a commonly used targeting vector in such approaches due to their outstanding targeting abilities as well as their capabilities to function as drug delivery vehicles. However, the application of nanomedicines in a clinical setting is connected with several challenges. For example, nanomedicines typically possess slow pharmacokinetics in respect to target accumulation and excretion. For targeted radionuclide therapy, this results in high radiation burden to healthy tissue. For drug delivery systems, long circulation and excretion times of the nanomedicine complicate site-specific release approaches and limit as such the usability of these strategies. One way to circumvent these challenges is the use of pretargeting strategies, which allow to separate the accumulation and excretion of nanomedicines from the actual diagnostic or therapeutic application. As such, pretargeting allows to use theranostic concepts utilizing the same nanomedicine and determine the success chances with diagnostic measures before initiating therapy. This chapter will explain the concept of pretargeted theranostics, which pretargeting systems have thus far been developed and compare how these systems performed.",book:{id:"10232",slug:"theranostics-an-old-concept-in-new-clothing",title:"Theranostics",fullTitle:"Theranostics - An Old Concept in New Clothing"},signatures:"Markus Staudt, Matthias M. Herth and Christian B.M. Poulie",authors:[{id:"328435",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Matthias M.",middleName:null,surname:"Herth",slug:"matthias-m.-herth",fullName:"Matthias M. Herth"},{id:"328436",title:"Dr.",name:"Markus",middleName:null,surname:"Staudt",slug:"markus-staudt",fullName:"Markus Staudt"},{id:"328437",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian Bernard Matthijs",middleName:null,surname:"Poulie",slug:"christian-bernard-matthijs-poulie",fullName:"Christian Bernard Matthijs Poulie"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"47916",title:"Frankincense (Heaven’s Gift) — Chemistry, Biology, and Clinical Applications",slug:"frankincense-heaven-s-gift-chemistry-biology-and-clinical-applications",totalDownloads:4964,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"4500",slug:"evidence-based-strategies-in-herbal-medicine-psychiatric-disorders-and-emergency-medicine",title:"Evidence-based Strategies in Herbal Medicine, Psychiatric Disorders and Emergency Medicine",fullTitle:"Evidence-based Strategies in Herbal Medicine, Psychiatric Disorders and Emergency Medicine"},signatures:"Farid A. Badria",authors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}]},{id:"47519",title:"Evaluation of Glycyrrhiza glabra Cream as Treatmentfor Melasma",slug:"evaluation-of-glycyrrhiza-glabra-cream-as-treatmentfor-melasma",totalDownloads:3028,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"4500",slug:"evidence-based-strategies-in-herbal-medicine-psychiatric-disorders-and-emergency-medicine",title:"Evidence-based Strategies in Herbal Medicine, Psychiatric Disorders and Emergency Medicine",fullTitle:"Evidence-based Strategies in Herbal Medicine, Psychiatric Disorders and Emergency Medicine"},signatures:"Amina Hamed Alobaidi, Eqbal Salih Hamad, Abdulghani Mohamed Alsamarai and Kudair Abass Kudair",authors:[{id:"96822",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdulghani",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Alsamarai",slug:"abdulghani-alsamarai",fullName:"Abdulghani Alsamarai"}]},{id:"74628",title:"Radiopharmaceutical Precursors for Theranostics",slug:"radiopharmaceutical-precursors-for-theranostics",totalDownloads:338,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Due to the complex nomenclature used in various regulations and guidance documents, the understanding of radiopharmaceutical precursor’s definition might be challenging. Depending on the context it could be interpreted as the substance which becomes a radiopharmaceutical after radiolabeling with a radionuclide of choice or a radionuclide which is used for radiolabeling of that substance. In this Chapter we present and discuss the requirements for precursors which are used in the preparation of theranostic radiopharmaceuticals, in particular for preparation of new radiopharmaceuticals for clinical trials within the EU. In discussion on the available methods for assessing the quality of radiopharmaceutical precursors and on the specified limits the reference to Ph. Eur. is made. Since the EANM guidelines for in-house preparation of radiopharmaceuticals also specify the need for testing the quality of radiopharmaceutical precursors, information provided herein might help the radiopharmacist working on the development of new theranostic agents to adequately define identity, strength, quality, purity and stability of the final radiopharmaceutical preparation.",book:{id:"10232",slug:"theranostics-an-old-concept-in-new-clothing",title:"Theranostics",fullTitle:"Theranostics - An Old Concept in New Clothing"},signatures:"Justyna Pijarowska-Kruszyna, Piotr Garnuszek, Clemens Decristoforo and Renata Mikołajczak",authors:[{id:"326467",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Renata",middleName:null,surname:"Mikolajczak",slug:"renata-mikolajczak",fullName:"Renata Mikolajczak"},{id:"326470",title:"Dr.",name:"Justyna",middleName:null,surname:"Pijarowska-Kruszyna",slug:"justyna-pijarowska-kruszyna",fullName:"Justyna Pijarowska-Kruszyna"},{id:"339867",title:"Prof.",name:"Piotr",middleName:null,surname:"Garnuszek",slug:"piotr-garnuszek",fullName:"Piotr Garnuszek"},{id:"339868",title:"Prof.",name:"Clemens",middleName:null,surname:"Decristoforo",slug:"clemens-decristoforo",fullName:"Clemens Decristoforo"}]},{id:"48031",title:"Rational Polypharmacy in Psychiatry",slug:"rational-polypharmacy-in-psychiatry",totalDownloads:1744,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"4500",slug:"evidence-based-strategies-in-herbal-medicine-psychiatric-disorders-and-emergency-medicine",title:"Evidence-based Strategies in Herbal Medicine, Psychiatric Disorders and Emergency Medicine",fullTitle:"Evidence-based Strategies in Herbal Medicine, Psychiatric Disorders and Emergency Medicine"},signatures:"S. Haque Nizamie and Sai Krishna Tikka",authors:[{id:"171523",title:"Dr.",name:"Haque",middleName:null,surname:"Sh.Nizamie@gmail.Com",slug:"haque-sh.nizamie@gmail.com",fullName:"Haque Sh.Nizamie@gmail.Com"}]},{id:"74614",title:"Aptamers: Magic Bullet for Theranostic Applications",slug:"aptamers-magic-bullet-for-theranostic-applications",totalDownloads:394,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Aptamers are a short polymer of oligonucleotides (natural or modified) that can bind to its cognate target (small molecules to large macromolecules like proteins, cells, microorganisms etc.) with high affinity and selectivity. They can fold into unique secondary and tertiary conformation in solution (pH, ionic concentration) and bind to their targets in a specific manner (binding constants in sub-nano to pico molar range). They rival the monoclonal antibodies and other specific biological ligands with respect to affinity, stability, robustness, non-immunogenicity and facile to synthesis. Nucleic acid aptamers are selected from an oligonucleotide library by an iterative process called SELEX (Systematic Evolution of Ligands by Exponential Enrichment Analysis). These aptamers are compatible to any kind of chemical modification, conjugation and functionalization. Briefly, this chapter discusses about the diagnostic and therapeutic application of aptamers.",book:{id:"10232",slug:"theranostics-an-old-concept-in-new-clothing",title:"Theranostics",fullTitle:"Theranostics - An Old Concept in New Clothing"},signatures:"Arghya Sett",authors:[{id:"301899",title:"Dr.",name:"Arghya",middleName:null,surname:"Sett",slug:"arghya-sett",fullName:"Arghya Sett"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1202",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:249,paginationItems:[{id:"274452",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"yousif-abdallah",fullName:"Yousif Abdallah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274452/images/8324_n.jpg",biography:"I certainly enjoyed my experience in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, particularly it has been in different institutions and hospitals with different Medical Cultures and allocated resources. Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"147824",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Revuelta Sanz",slug:"pablo-revuelta-sanz",fullName:"Pablo Revuelta Sanz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"27",type:"subseries",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11423,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. 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