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Hinds",authors:[{id:"91925",title:"Prof.",name:"Phil",middleName:null,surname:"Hinds",fullName:"Phil Hinds",slug:"phil-hinds"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"759",title:"Osteosarcoma",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2f4f2676183c2de632e44e5d72bcc778",slug:"osteosarcoma",bookSignature:"Manish Agarwal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/759.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58420",title:"Dr.",name:"Manish",surname:"Agarwal",slug:"manish-agarwal",fullName:"Manish Agarwal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"647",title:"Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6ed7cea1e96993e2edc66548c29bb436",slug:"chronic-lymphocytic-leukemia",bookSignature:"Pablo Oppezzo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/647.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68891",title:"Dr.",name:"Pablo",surname:"Oppezzo",slug:"pablo-oppezzo",fullName:"Pablo Oppezzo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[{type:"book",id:"647",title:"Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6ed7cea1e96993e2edc66548c29bb436",slug:"chronic-lymphocytic-leukemia",bookSignature:"Pablo Oppezzo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/647.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68891",title:"Dr.",name:"Pablo",surname:"Oppezzo",slug:"pablo-oppezzo",fullName:"Pablo Oppezzo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"81432",title:"Radionuclide Contamination as a Risk Factor in Terrestrial Ecosystems: Occurrence, Biological Risk, and Strategies for Remediation and Detoxification",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104468",slug:"radionuclide-contamination-as-a-risk-factor-in-terrestrial-ecosystems-occurrence-biological-risk-and",body:'Radionuclides are unstable isotopes of different chemical elements. Usually, this instability is due to excess energy in the atomic nucleus, leading to the release of particles with different energies in a process called
The biological effects of radionuclides are mainly due to the emitted ionizing radiation (IR). IR interacts with biomolecules directly by damaging them or indirectly—by producing reactive oxygen species (ROS), which in turn damages biomolecules. According to the paradigms of classical radiobiology, the principal target of IR on a cellular level is genomic DNA—it can be damaged directly or indirectly, leading to cell cycle arrest and an activation of DNA repair systems, followed by recovery, cell death, or mutagenesis [5, 6]. Sparsely ionizing radiations such as β- particles and γ-rays cause around 70% of DNA damage indirectly through ROS, while densely ionizing radiations, such as α-particles and high-energy cosmic particles, cause only about 30% of the biologically significant damage indirectly [7]. Researchers have elucidated the biological effects of high and medium doses of radiation. Nevertheless, biological effects at low doses remain insufficiently understood and a subject of much debate [1, 8]. Currently, radiation risk is extrapolated linearly to the low doses by using the
A significant concern in radionuclide-contaminated areas arises from the process of
Radionuclide | Symbol | Half-life (λ) | Emitted radiation | Target tissues and organs | Biological effects |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cesium-137 | 137Cs | 30.17 years | β-(511, 1173 keV), γ (32, 661.6 keV) | Nerve, muscle | Different cancers |
Strontium-90 | 90Sr | 28.8 years | pure β-(546 keV) | Bone | Bone cancer, leukemia |
Iodine-131 | 131I | 8.02 days | β-(333.8, 606.3 keV), γ (364.5, 636.9 keV) | Thyroid gland | Thyroid cancer |
As evident from the table, the most significant environmental contaminants of the above are 137Cs and 90Sr due to their long half-lives and persistence in nature. 131I was only a very significant contaminant in the first year following the Chernobyl accident, causing ~4000 excess thyroid cancers in the most significantly affected populations of Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine [15].
Natural radioactivity, including external terrestrial γ radiation, internal α-, β-, and γ-radiation from naturally occurring radionuclides, cosmic radiation, and exposure to radon (222Rn) and thoron (220Rn) and their radioactive progeny molecules, accounts for ~95% of the annual radiation dose for the terrestrial biota [1]. The global annual dose for an average person is 3.6 millisieverts/year (mSv/a), of which 82% is due to natural radiation exposure, around 15% is due to medical exposure, and only about 0.8% is due to anthropogenic contamination of the environment. Natural radioactivity has been a subject of concern for decades. Globally, there are areas with increased natural radiation, often due to thorium (232Th) deposits in the form of monazite rocks. Two such areas are Guarapari, Brazil, and the state of Kerala in southern India. The area of Ramsar, Iran, has enormously increased natural radioactivity due to radioactive hot springs containing 222Rn and its progeny. Although annual doses in these areas reach an average of 35–40 mSv/a, compared to 3.6 mSv/a average in Europe and 2.5 mSv/a in Bulgaria, modern biomedical studies report no excess cancer risk, leading researchers to believe that a 10-fold increase in natural radioactivity is harmless [16].
In contrast, environmental contamination by anthropogenic radionuclides without doubt creates serious risks. The Chernobyl accident is the most prominent example of environmental damage due to technogenic sources, although it is not the only one; Chernobyl caused significant chronic morbidity and mortality in people and enormous damage to the environment and economies in Europe. This is mostly due to 131I, 137Cs, and 90Sr, and their tendencies for
Accident site, year | Country | INES scale | Date | Accident type | Radioactivity released to the atmosphere, PBq | Iodine-131 released, PBq | Cesium-137 released, PBq |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chernobyl, 1986 | USSR | 7 | 26.04.1986 | Reactor meltdown | 12,000 | 1760 | 85 |
Fukushima, 2011 | Japan | 7 | 11.03.2011 | Reactor meltdown | 630 | <380 | <37 |
Mayak (Chelyabinsk-40), 1957 | USSR | 6 | 29.09.1957 | Nuclear waste explosion | 1850 | Not known | Not known |
Chalk River, 1952 | Canada | 5 | 12.12.1952 | Reactor meltdown | 0.3 | Not known | Not known |
Windscale, 1957 | UK | 5 | 10.10.1957 | Reactor fire | 1.6 | 0.7 | 0.02 |
Simi Valley, 1959 | USA | 5 | 26.07.1959 | Partial reactor meltdown | >200 | Not known | Not known |
Beloyarsk, 1977 | USSR | 5 | 1977 | Partial reactor meltdown | not known | Not known | Not known |
Three Mile Island, 1979 | USA | 5 | 28.03.1979 | Partial reactor meltdown | 1.6 | <0.007 | Not known |
The most significant radioactive release accidents, their IAEA INES severity scale, and radioactivities released to the environment (data from [18]).
One aspect evident from the table is that, according to atmospheric radioactivity released, the Chernobyl accident exceeds all other INES scale 5–7 accidents combined. At the same time, during this accident, only about 30% of the core radioactivity was released, suggesting that a full-blown reactor explosion can cause even greater damage to the environment. Another noteworthy peculiarity is that most reactor accidents so far occurred either with new or experimental power plants (Chernobyl, Chalk River, Simi Valley, Beloyarsk) or military reactors (windscale). Nevertheless, the Fukushima accident in 2011 presents a new precedent—the reactors in the plant were old, nearing the end of their design life. Since this is true for many of the currently operating reactors, this presents a new, threatening perspective. Aging, crumbling nuclear infrastructure may present a new, unmitigated radiation hazard in the future.
Some of the risks to ecosystems posed by radionuclide contamination are well understood. They include, at high doses >1 Gray acute dose, teratogenesis in developing embryos, stunted plant growth, and visible damage to the flora and fauna. These are
Deterministic effects of ionizing radiation: Dead pine trees near Chernobyl, Ukraine in 1990 (left, taken from [
As shown in Figure 1, pine trees are very radiosensitive; they can serve as a bioindicator of severe radioactive contamination at doses exceeding 3 Sv acute exposure [19]. The other depicted deterministic effect is teratogenesis in pregnant mammalian species. At doses exceeding 1 Sv acute
Perhaps more worrying are the
Radioecology is a sub-discipline of ecology concerning the presence and effects of radioactivity on Earth’s ecosystems. Some of the risks of ionizing radiation were known in the early twentieth century. Nevertheless, the discipline
Without a doubt, the most significant contamination event in the context of terrestrial ecosystems is Chernobyl. It is estimated that, at the time of the accident, around 10% of the total core radioactivity was released, including 100% of all noble gases and around 30% of volatile atoms including 30% of the core radiocesium (134Cs and 137Cs), 55% of the core 131I, and ~ 45% of the core 132Te. Less volatile radionuclide species such as radiostrontium (89Sr and 90Sr) were also released in smaller amounts (~5% of core inventory), as well as <3.5% of the core transuranic nuclides (neptunium, plutonium, curium) [31, 32]. The core inventories and releases are summarized in Table 3.
Chernobyl core inventories at the time of accident | Radioactive release | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Krypton-85* | 85Kr | 10.76 years | 35 | 100 | 35 |
Xenon-133* | 133Xe | 5.3 days | 6500 | 100 | 6500 |
Iodine-131 | 131I | 8.02 days | 3200 | 55 | 1760 |
Cesium-134 | 134Cs | 2.0 years | 180 | 30 | 54 |
Cesium-137 | 137Cs | 30.17 years | 280 | 30 | 85 |
Tellurium-132 | 132Te | 78 hours | 2700 | 45 | 1150 |
Strontium-89 | 89Sr | 52.0 days | 2300 | 5 | 115 |
Strontium-90 | 90Sr | 28.8 years | 200 | 5 | 10 |
Barium-140 | 140Ba | 12.75 days | 4800 | 5 | 240 |
Zirconium-95 | 95Zr | 1.4 hours | 5600 | 3.5 | 196 |
Molybdenum-99 | 99Mo | 65.9 hours | 4800 | 3.5 | 168 |
Ruthenium-103 | 103Ru | 39.26 days | 4800 | 3.5 | 168 |
Ruthenium-106 | 106Ru | 1.0 year | 2100 | 3.5 | 73 |
Cerium-141 | 141Ce | 32.5 days | 5600 | 3.5 | 196 |
Cerium-144 | 144Ce | 284.9 days | 3300 | 3.5 | 116 |
Neptunium-239† | 239Np | 2.4 days | 2700 | 3.5 | 95 |
Plutonium-238† | 238Pu | 86.0 years | 1 | 3.5 | 0.035 |
Plutonium-239† | 239Pu | 24,110 years | 0.85 | 3.5 | 0.03 |
Plutonium-240† | 240Pu | 6580 years | 1.2 | 3.5 | 0.042 |
Plutonium-241† | 241Pu | 13.2 years | 170 | 3.5 | 6 |
Curium-242† | 242Cm | 163 days | 26 | 3.5 | 0.9 |
The most significant release of radioactivity from the damaged reactor was in the form of noble gasses (85Kr and 133Xe). Nevertheless, fast atmospheric dispersal and the lack of chemical reactivity of noble gasses mean that radioactive krypton and xenon resulted only in trace global contamination. In contrast, the volatile iodine-131, released in significant quantities during the reactor fire, was the predominant problem in contaminated areas during 1986. It is estimated that up to 4000 additional thyroid cancers among people can be attributed to this nuclide [4]. In the long term, the most significant contribution of radiation dose to the biota is attributed to radiocesium (134Cs, 137Cs), particularly 137Cs, due to its long half-life (30.17 years), its propensity to accumulate in plant and fungal matter and animal nerve and muscle tissue. The contribution of 90Sr to the background dose is also significant, but much lower and often indistinguishable from pre-Chernobyl global fallout from atmospheric nuclear testing [34].
Radioecological research after 1986 in Europe involved multinational teams working in the Chernobyl exclusion zone (ChEZ) and the most contaminated areas of Belarus and Russia (Gomel and Bryansk regions), as well as many studies on a national level focusing on areas with known contamination. Among the projects conducted in the ChEZ, several exemplary studies of the bioaccumulation of different radionuclides in wildlife stand out [17, 19, 34, 35]. Researchers have demonstrated that the appropriate sentinel species for radioecological studies comprise small rodents including representatives of family Cricetidae like
During the 200 s, researchers reported very high internal doses in Cricetidae, particularly the bank vole (
Study | Location | Result |
---|---|---|
Chesser et al., 2001 [17] | Six different biotopes within the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone | Very high internal doses from 137Cs in dry muscle of |
Beresford et al., 2008 [36] | Three different biotopes within the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone | High total-body internal doses from 137Cs in |
Beresford et al., 2020a [19] | Reference (low-contamination) biotopes within the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone | Comparatively high doses from 137Cs in |
Iovtchev et al., 1996 [37] | Two localities (Musala peak and Skakavtsite), Rila Mountain, Bulgaria | Comparatively high whole-body total β-activities in wild rodents from both localities (2.5–3.0 Bq/g for |
Beltcheva et al., 2019 [38] | Two localities (Musala peak and Skakavtsite), Rila Mountain, Bulgaria | Overall 10-fold reduction in whole-body total β-activities in wild rodents from both localities. Highest residual activities observed in |
A summary of the findings of five radioecological studies using small mammals as zoo monitors.
The summarized works show evidence for the high value of
During recent monitoring studies, conducted in Bulgaria in the period 1996–2020, small mammals such as rodents and insectivores were selected mainly due to their positions in the food chain like primary consumers, rapid maturity, large population number, and rapid biological reaction to the environmental changes [38]. The possible biological response of the organism was studied at different levels of organization of living matter, and evaluated the population number and structure, food spectrum, total beta-activity in target tissues, and organs of the investigated animals, standard hematological methods—to determine hemoglobin contents, hematocrit, and morphological characterization of erythrocytes, as well as cytogenetic methods. The food spectrum was analyzed as a basis for further investigations on the transfer of beta-emitters through the rodent populations and the whole ecosystem.
The total body burden of β-emitters of a species depends on the trophic chain position, food, life mode, physicochemical composition of the atmospheric precipitation, total suspended dust content in atmospheric air, and other factors. The total β-activities in Bq/kg of some small mammal species were investigated at two different altitudes in Rila Mountain, Bulgaria. The results, obtained in 2019–2020, are presented on Table 5.
Moussala Peak 2925 m a.s.l. | β-activity /mean ± SD/, Bq/kg | Beli Iskar (Skakavtsite area), 1400–1500 m a. s. l. | β-activity /mean ± SD/, Bq/kg | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
n = 12 | 230.3 ± 7.2 | n = 13 | 366.3 ± 8.1 | ||
n = 12 | 382.0 ± 8.3 | n = 22 | 424.2 ± 5.3 |
Whole-body total β-beta activities at two localities (Rila Mountain, Bulgaria), 2019–2020 [38].
All values were below 480 Bq/kg and were considered as referent.
Significant differences between mice and voles were obtained only due to the difference in their food specialization. Mice are omnivorous, while voles are mainly herbivorous species. Green vegetable parts accumulate radiocesium more actively than seeds and the quantity of the consumed low-caloric green food by animals is higher.
The comparison of the results obtained with the data 20 years ago makes it obvious that the values of total β-activity decreased by about 10 times in the period 1995–2019. Data obtained in the bodies of different monitor species of small mammals from Rila Mountain during 1995 varied from about 3500 Bq/kg in the yellow-necked wood mouse to 5000 Bq/kg in the snow vole. The total level of beta-activity in bank vole and yellow-necked wood mouse from Beli Iskar region during 1995 was between 2000 and 3000 Bq/kg [37].
High doses of radiation can influence the normal function of the blood and disturb the hematopoiesis. These were possible basophilic granulations that appear in enhanced, but also disturbed erythropoiesis, basophilic DNA fragments observed in a blood smear, frequently as a result of decreased spleen function, anemia, and overloaded bone marrow. However, the given results do not suggest such changes, and they have not been established.
A correlation between total beta-activity loading and chromosome aberration frequency in bone marrow cells was established. The percentage of chromosome aberrations in mice was about 1.6% and breaks were 0.2% and in herbivorous voles respectively 7.0 and 2.5%. The percentage of aberrant bone marrow cells of mice from the investigated regions is visibly lower than in vole species. This fact correlates with the recorded total body burden of β-emitters in herbivorous species in comparison with the omnivorous murids.
The issue of remediating radioactively contaminated terrestrial ecosystems dates back to the early years of the Atomic Age (1945–1965) when protection measures were a secondary consideration to weapons production. Tests were conducted in contaminated areas such as near Hanford, Washington, and Ozyorsk (Chelyabinsk-40) [27, 29].
After 1986, to protect the environmental health and resolve the liabilities due to eventual radioactive contamination, severely contaminated countries and the responsible institutions have undertaken certain remediation and protection measures:
mechanical/physical methods—creation of barriers, burial/demobilization of radioactive sources; deep tilling of agricultural fields for facilitating downward migration of radioisotopes;
forestry management—clearing and burial of severely contaminated coniferous forests presenting a fire hazard, natural succession/ecosystem restoration, and manual afforestation of contaminated agricultural areas with deciduous trees;
selective use of soil additives—addition of lime to increase soil pH and limit the uptake of 90Sr by plants, use of fertilizers containing phosphorus, and potassium in order to reduce 137Cs bioaccumulation in plant matter, the addition of complexing agents such as powdered zeolites, and other aluminosilicate minerals in order to demobilize 137Cs; addition of hydroxyapatite (HAP) to prevent 90Sr cycling in ecosystems;
crop selection in agricultural areas—production of non-food/feed crops such as cotton, flax, timber, and biofuels; use of land with low levels of contamination for sugar and oil production, whereby most residual radioactivity is removed during the refining processes;
careful livestock farming—feeding farm animals clean fodder, administration of powdered zeolites as bio-sorbents, the addition of salt licks containing Prussian Blue to reduce 137Cs uptake by grazing animals.
Most of these strategies are discussed in detail elsewhere [39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44]. All of the methods were applied to some degree within the ChEZ and the highly contaminated areas of the former USSR [42]. By far, the most widespread method used was the deep tilling of agricultural fields. Nevertheless, one of the strategies for remediation, the use of zeolites for demobilization and biodetoxification of 137Cs has only been tested on a small scale in the ChEZ, while, at the same time, being the most promising approach for countering the toxicity of radiocesium [39, 45].
Natural zeolites are one of the most interesting groups among minerals, some of which (clinoptilolite, mordenite, chabazite) have enormous potential in science and technology due to their high sorption capacity and the presence of deposits with huge reserves in many countries, including Bulgaria. In the early years of zeolite research, Ames (1960) found that clinoptilolite from the Hector deposit, California, is highly selective for Sr2+ and Cs+ [46]. Other heavy metals, especially monovalent ones, were also well adsorbed—respectively ion-exchanged by this natural zeolite. The author introduced an order of selectivity of clinoptilolite, which is:
The ion exchange properties of clinoptilolite and its selective sorption are especially valuable in the control of radioactive waste from nuclear energy production. The mineral has been successfully used as a sorbent of radionuclides from water and contaminated soils, as well as a food additive to limit 137Cs absorption in livestock [39, 41, 45].
Very significant research on zeolites has been conducted in Bulgaria for the past five decades, with two deposits of clinoptilolite in the Eastern Rhodope Mountains—Beli Plast and Beliya Bair-Zhelezni Vrata—being particularly suitable for bio-sorbents of heavy metals and radionuclides in the form of additives to food and livestock feed [47]. Recently, it was demonstrated that modified natural clinoptilolite from the Golobradovo deposit in the Eastern Rhodopes was practically non-toxic to laboratory mice and facilitated significantly the excretion of Pb2+ions from the gastro-intestinal tract of the experimental animals, thus protecting them against lead toxicity [48, 49]. In parallel, other Bulgarian researchers validated the use of zeolites from the Eastern Rhodopes in decontamination procedures and as soil fertilizer and even developed a clinoptilolite-based artificial soil (“Balkanin”) that was used for growing vegetables in space onboard the Mir station [50]. In the early 1990s, researchers from the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences developed a specially modified natural clinoptilolite (CLS-5) as a bio-sorbent for radiocesium (134Cs and 137Cs) and radiostrontium (89Sr and 90Sr) [51]. In a modified form and labeled KS-3, CLS-5 was used in the production of over 55,000 personal radiation protection emergency kits, most of which were distributed among the personnel of the Kozloduy Nuclear Power Plant and the people from the surrounding areas (Figure 2).
Modified natural zeolites as part of a radiation protection emergency kit: Plastic vials containing CLS-5 (left), and the entire emergency kit (right) [
Two plastic vials containing CLS-5 with a quantity of 7 grams each have been integrated in the radiation emergency kit. The other components of the radiation protection kit are a painkiller syrette, a syrette with an antiemetic, a broad-spectrum antibiotic, potassium iodide (KI) tablets, and CBT (a radioprotector for abating acute exposure to radiation), bandages, and ethanol for disinfection [51].
As evident from the material presented, research into zeolites as bio-sorbents of radionuclides and heavy metals is fairly advanced in Bulgaria. The past achievements in developing modified clinoptilolite derivatives as 90Sr and 137Cs sorbents, and current and ongoing basic research in clinoptilolites as a countermeasure to Pb2+ and Cd2+ intoxication in mammalian species promise to yield the interesting results.
Ionizing radiation is one of the best understood cytotoxic and genotoxic agents. Nevertheless, much remains to be understood about the behavior of radionuclides in nature and the biological responses they induce. The radiobiology of low-dose, protracted irradiation is still an open area of research.
At the same time, bioaccumulation of certain radioisotopes along food chains poses serious ecosystem risks, or as the doyen of modern ecology Eugene Odum stated: “we could give nature an apparently innocuous amount of radioactivity and have her give it back to us in a lethal package!” [26].
The mitigation of environmental risks from radionuclides involves responsible management of the nuclear fuel cycle, as well as careful monitoring and safeguarding of nuclear installations. Among the strategies discussed in the chapter, all have been applied to a varying degree in severely contaminated agroecosystems and forest ecosystems. Perhaps the most promising venue of detoxication research is the application of zeolites as immobilizers and bio-detoxifiers for radiocesium and radiostrontium. Nevertheless, no method can fully remediate a contaminated ecosystem, meaning that prevention of radioactive contamination remains the first and best defense against anthropogenic radioactive pollution.
This work is supported by the National Science Fund of the Republic of Bulgaria, Project KP-06-PN44/3, 12.12.2020: “Crystal-chemical and structural characteristics of modified natural clinoptilolite and correlation between its sorption properties, ion exchange capacity for heavy metals and biological response in vivo and in vitro”.
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This chapter examines many questions that need to be considered and the role of the key individual with oversight of the GME, the designated institutional official (DIO). Topics examined are the leadership theories, practices and strategies for the DIO, dealing with change when the DIO starts, using authority versus power, effective problem-solving and decision-making, adaptive leadership style, the historical function of the DIO, as well as the many tools available to the DIO including networking. The chapter concludes with several pearls of wisdom to positively help the DIO meet the many challenges of this very important role in GME.",book:{id:"8645",slug:"contemporary-topics-in-graduate-medical-education",title:"Contemporary Topics in Graduate Medical Education",fullTitle:"Contemporary Topics in Graduate Medical Education"},signatures:"Jay M. 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He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. 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Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNVJQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-07T13:23:04.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. 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There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. 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She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. Dr. Serra\\'s current projects are soil organic matter, soil phosphorus fractions, compositional nutrient diagnosis (CND) and isometric log ratio (ilr) transformation in compositional data analysis.",institutionString:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",institution:{name:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"14",type:"subseries",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11410,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",slug:"ana-isabel-flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",slug:"christian-palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"9959",title:"Biomedical Signal and Image Processing",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9959.jpg",slug:"biomedical-signal-and-image-processing",publishedDate:"April 14th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Yongxia Zhou",hash:"22b87a09bd6df065d78c175235d367c8",volumeInSeries:10,fullTitle:"Biomedical Signal and Image Processing",editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259308/images/system/259308.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Southern California",institution:{name:"University of Southern California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9973",title:"Data Acquisition",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Applications in Biomedical Engineering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9973.jpg",slug:"data-acquisition-recent-advances-and-applications-in-biomedical-engineering",publishedDate:"March 17th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",hash:"75ea6cdd241216c9db28aa734ab34446",volumeInSeries:9,fullTitle:"Data Acquisition - Recent Advances and Applications in Biomedical Engineering",editors:[{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9905",title:"Biometric Systems",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9905.jpg",slug:"biometric-systems",publishedDate:"February 10th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarfraz",hash:"c730560dd2e3837a03407b3a86b0ef2a",volumeInSeries:8,fullTitle:"Biometric Systems",editors:[{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Kuwait"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8622",title:"Peptide Synthesis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8622.jpg",slug:"peptide-synthesis",publishedDate:"December 18th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Jaya T. 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