Stimulation development of Barnett shale gas formation [3].
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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New trends and novel developments have been proposed to acquire and process many different biometric traits. The ignored challenges in the past and potential problems need to be thought together and deeply integrated. The key objective of the book is to keep up with the new technologies on some recent theoretical development as well as new trends of applications in biometrics. The topics covered in this book reflect well both aspects of development. They include the new development in forensic speaker recognition, 3D and thermo face recognition, finger vein recognition, contact-less biometric system, hand geometry recognition, biometric performance evaluation, multi-biometric template protection, and novel subfields in the new challenge fields. The book consists of 13 chapters. It is divided into four sections, namely, theory and method, performance evaluation, security and template protection, and other applications. The book was reviewed by editors Dr. Jucheng Yang and Dr. Shanjuan Xie. 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He is a special professor of Tianjin City, too. He received his B.S. degree from South-Central University for Nationalities, China, and M.S. and Ph.D. degree from Chonbuk National University, Republic of Korea. He did his post-doc at the Advanced Graduate Education Center of Jeonbuk for Electronics and Information Technology-BK21 (AGECJEIT-BK21), Republic of Korea. He was a professor in Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics, China and was a visiting fellow in the University of New South Wales, Australia. He has published over 50 papers in related international journals and conferences. He has served as editors or reviews of international journals such as IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics & Security, Sensors, Science China, Information Technology Journal and so on, and as reviewers or PC members of many conferences such as ICNC\\'06-FSKD\\'06, IMPRESS’09, FIRM-EPECC’11. He is the publicity chair of ICMeCG’10-11. 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Importantly, security control now must deal with circumstances over which there is largely no control or expectation of avoiding their impact. Computer security, as it has evolved, shares a similarity with liability assurance: they each face a threat environment that is known in a very general way and can face attacks over a broad spectrum of sources. However, the exact details or even time or certainty of an attack are unknown until an incident occurs.
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In the past four decades, various technologies have been developed and implemented to improve the production from shale gas formation as it is a commercially feasible source of energy. Hydraulic fracturing is a technique applied to enhance hydrocarbon extraction from subsurface geological formations by injecting a fluid at pressure higher than formation pressure to crack open the hydrocarbon formation rock. The hydraulic fracturing technology is not new; first experiment was conducted in 1947, and the first industrial implementation was in 1949 [1]. Hydraulic fracturing has, since then, been used for stimulating unconventional reservoirs and enhancing oil and natural gas recoveries. The first operation of fracturing treatment was performed by gelled crude, and later gelled kerosene was used. By the end of year 1952, many fracturing treatments were carried out by processed and live crude oils. This type of fluids is low-cost and permitting greater volumes at lower cost. In 1953 water-based fluids began to be utilized as a fracturing fluid, and a number of gelling agent additives such as surfactants were added, to the fracturing fluids, to reduce emulsion with formation fluid. Subsequently, additional clay stabilizing agents were improved and incorporated with water and used as a hydraulic fracturing fluid to fracture many reservoir formations. Alcohol and foam were also used to improve water-based fracturing fluids and utilized to fracture more formations. Currently aqueous fluids such as acid, brines, and water are utilized as base fluids with around 96% of all fracturing treatments using a propping agent. During the early years of the 1970s, the key advance in using fracturing fluids was in applying metal-based cross-linking agents to increase the viscosity of gelled water-based fracturing fluids designed for deeper wells at higher-temperature conditions [1].
The key factor of technological revolution is due to the fast evolution of drilling and completion techniques as well as the improvement of the fracturing technology. From the primary explosion technology of nitroglycerin to the newest fracturing technology of synchrotron, the developed fracturing technology has gradually improved the shale gas recovery efficiency.
The earliest nitroglycerin explosion technology was used in the 1970s in a vertical well with an open-hole completion. This technique affected wellbore stability and caused very limited penetrations. In 1981, a new fracturing fluid combined of nitrogen (N2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) foam was utilized in vertical wells in shale gas formations. This implementation led to gas recovery increase by 3–4 times and reduced formation damage. Subsequently, in 1992 the first horizontal well was drilled in shale gas formation in Hammett basin. Horizontal wells then steadily supplanted the practice of vertical wells. A cross-linked gel was applied as a thickening or cross-linking agent during the period from the 1980s to the 1990s. The fracturing technique of horizontal wells can effectively generate fractured networks and increase the hydrocarbon flow area. This method is favorable because it minimizes the cost and increases hydrocarbon recovery. Thus, the development of large-scale hydraulic fracturing using horizontal wells contributed to the economic development of shale gas resources [2].
A major development was made in 1998 in fracturing technology by introducing a water-based liquid fluid instead of gel. This new fracturing fluid has a low sand (proppants) ratio of approximately 90% less than that used in the gelled fracturing. Thus, fracturing fluid associated cost was minimized by more than 50%. This type of fracture fluid can provide better fracturing performance that may increase the recovery efficiency up to 30% [2].
After the year 2000, a new technology called the segmental fracturing technology has been developed and utilized in horizontal wells during shale gas exploitation. This technology has further been developed and improved to include more than 20 segments leading to improvements in both the recovery efficiency and drainage area. Horizontal segmental fracturing technology is broadly used in the United States in the development of shale gas wells over the standard method by 85% [2].
After the year 2005 using both techniques of segmental fracturing technology and microseismic crack monitoring in shale gas development using fracture horizontal wells has significantly enhanced shale gas recovery. A new brand of fracturing technology was subsequently introduced in the year 2006 which is synchronous fracturing technology that has been utilized in the Barnett shale gas basin. Table 1 summarizes the development of drilling and completion methods and the history of shale gas development in the Barnett basin, United States [3].
1979 | 5 | High-energy gas fracturing | |
1981 | 6 | N2 and CO2 foam fracturing | |
1984 | 17 | Cross-linked gel fracturing, liquid quantity 105 gal (378 m3) | |
1985 | 49 | Cross-linked gel fracturing, liquid quantity 5 × 105 gal (1892 m3) | |
1988 | 62 | Cross-linked gel fracturing | |
1991 | 96 | Horizontal well and cross-linked gel fracturing | |
1995 | 200 | Horizontal well fracturing and cross-linked gel fracturing | |
1997 | 300 | Riverfracing treatment, liquid quantity 5 × 105 gal (1892 m3) | |
1999 | 450 | Riverfracing treatment, inclinometer fracture monitor | |
2001 | 750 | Riverfracing treatment, microseismic fracture monitor | |
2002 | 1700 | Horizontal well fracturing, riverfracing treatment | |
2003 | 2600 | New well configuration with 719 vertical wells, 85 horizontal wells, and 117 directional wells | |
2004 | 3500 | 150 wells with horizontal well stage fracturing 2–4 stages | |
2005 | 4500 | 600 new horizontal wells where drilling time is greatly reduced | |
2006 | 5500 | Synchronous fracturing, lower development costs | |
2007 | 7000 | Horizontal well fracturing, synchronous fracturing | |
2008 | 9000 | Repeated fracturing | |
2009 | 13,000 | Maintain capacity, lower costs, enhancing oil recovery |
Stimulation development of Barnett shale gas formation [3].
The mechanism of fracturing stimulation of shale gas reservoirs is not the same as a conventional or sandstone gas reservoir. Shale gas reservoirs, in general, cannot be found as conventional traps, but they are self-generating and self-storage gas reservoirs. The natural fracturing network can particularly enhance shale tight formation permeability [4]. Shale gas capacity can be attained through microfractures in shale formation. These fractures involve both a percolation path and a storage space of shale gas. They create the necessary communication and connectivity for the shale gas to reach the wellbore. Furthermore, shale gas recovery factor can be achieved through the existence of reservoir fractures’ and its density and characteristic and opening degree in the reservoir. Shale reservoirs are usually well stimulated and completed with good natural fractures and bedding. High brittleness is one of the significant parameters, which relates to the share failure during shale reservoir hydraulic fracturing process. It is responsible for the formation of complex fracture networks and the connections between natural fractures. Hence, the main purpose of utilizing stimulation technology on shale gas formation is to generate effective fracture networks to improve the reconstruction volume and enhance the reservoir capacity [5].
Fracturing technology of shale reservoirs can be classified based on the type of well fracturing into three categories, vertical, deviated, and horizontal fracturing wells, as shown in Figure 1. Fracturing technology can also be divided based on the type of fracturing fluid used such as gas, foam, gel, etc. Target zone can be fractured into different sections as single section and multi-section fracturing. Moreover, various factors should be taken into account while choosing the choice of fracturing fluid and fracturing technology such as the shale gas reservoir depth, capacity and formation sensitivity, natural fractures, and the well completion technology [6].
Sketch map of vertical well and horizontal well fracturing [
The most commonly used fracture technologies now are the multi-section fracturing, riverfracing, hydra-jet fracturing, fracture network fracturing, re-fracturing, and simultaneous fracturing. However, more attention is being given to CO2 and N2 fracturing. This fracturing technology’s features and application conditions are different as shown in Table 2.
Stage fracturing |
|
|
Riverfracing treatment |
|
|
Hydra-jet fracturing |
|
|
Repeated fracturing |
|
|
Simultaneous fracturing |
|
|
Network fracturing |
|
|
CO2 and N2 foam fracturing |
|
|
Large hydraulic fracturing |
|
|
Technical characteristics and application of fracturing technologies [7].
Since it was proposed for the first time by Giger in 1985 [8], the concept of horizontal well fracturing has been widely practiced as a valuable technique to improve well production and increase the recovery of unconventional reservoirs. Horizontal well fracturing treatments in field generally create multi-fractures in selected intervals along the wellbore. Processes of fracture initiation and propagation in horizontal wells are different from those in vertical wells due to the larger contact surface area with the formations, thus resembling more complex reservoir situation. When multi-fractures are propagated, they often join or intersect with each other, forming patterns that are known as multi-fracture networks, which immensely increase the storage capacity and the fluid transmissibility of formations. Multi-fracture networks are not easy to be assessed or studied due to the complexity; however, they are evaluated using mathematical and statistical techniques and may be represented using fractals.
The classical hydraulic fracturing theory indicates that the main formed fracture is a symmetric bi-wing plane extending parallel to the direction of maximum principal stress. However, field hydraulic fracturing treatment is completely different as complex fracture networks take place where the main fracture and other smaller branch fractures simultaneously extend in the fracture propagation zone [9, 10, 11].
Microseismic mapping shows that hydraulic fracturing in shale forms a multi-fracture network system [12, 13, 14, 15] which consists of complex fractures as shown in Figure 2 [16]. It was concluded from the mapping that natural fractures’ direction was to the northwest and the propagation of the induced hydraulic fractures direction was to the northeast where they intersected with natural fractures. This led to many crosscutting linear features and formed a complex fracture. Based on fracture extension characteristic in shale reservoirs, hydraulic fractures are classified into four major types [16]: single plane bi-wing fracture, complex multiple fracture, complex multiple fracture with open natural fractures, and complex fracture network as shown in Figure 3.
Multi-fracture network extension in shale reservoirs during hydraulic fracturing (after Warpinski et al. 2008 [
The hydraulic fracture classification complexity (after Warpinski et al. 2008 [
Confirming field observation from seismic mapping, simulation experiments [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22] show that induced hydraulic fracture presents three types of extensions when intersecting with natural fractures: crossing the natural fractures, extending along the natural fractures or crossing, and extending along at the same time. It was concluded that fracture network would highly form during fracturing process of naturally fractured formations [23]. Moreover, several laboratory experiments confirmed that fracture network exists [24, 25] and found that the fracture network would easily form under low fluid viscosity injection [26, 27]. Other observations proposed that multi-fracture networks in shale reservoirs area are key to increase stimulated reservoir volume (SRV) where treatment success relies on whether hydraulic fracture could extend to form multi-fracture network [28, 29, 30].
Understanding fracture initiation and propagation rules are the main issues faced when commencing hydraulic fracturing because several important geological and engineering factors affecting the multi-fracture network formation are to be considered [31].
Mineral composition. Brittleness is controlled by mineralogy as brittleness mineral concentration, the rock brittleness gets higher, and the development of natural fractures becomes better (mineral concentration increase/decrease).
Mechanical properties. Poisson’s ratio and Young’s modulus are combined to reflect the rock ability to fail under stress (Poisson’s ratio) and maintain a fracture (Young’s modulus) once the rock fractures. The lower Poisson’s ratio and higher Young’s modulus value, the more brittle the rock, and the fracture extends into fracture network.
Distribution of natural fractures. As natural fractures have great effect on hydraulic fracture extension, the more developed the natural fractures are, the more complex is the extension of hydraulic fracture.
Horizontal stress field. Multi-fracture network is controlled by intersecting intensity between induced fractures and natural fractures. Hydraulic fracture would propagate along natural fractures under low horizontal stress and cross natural fractures under high horizontal stress conditions.
Net fracturing pressure. Greater fracturing pressure would cause more complex fractures where it is possible to induce branches of hydraulic fracture to form a complex fracture network.
Fluid viscosity. The viscosity has an important influence on the complexity of fracture extension; from the laboratory experiments, it is obvious if the fluid viscosity gets higher; the complexity of fracture is significantly reduced. The injection of high viscosity fluid in field treating will reduce the complexity of fracture network [32, 33, 34, 35].
Fracturing scale. The impact of fracturing scale can be seen on the production scale, as large amounts of the fracturing fluid volume are pumped; the longer the total length of fracture network, the more complex the resulted fracture network, and the higher the corresponding well production. Using large fracturing scale is an important measure to increase the SRV, which is essential to improve stimulation effect in the shale fracturing, where the bigger the SRV is, the higher the production.
The essential goal for the treatment is to get the most out of each stage and each cluster in the fracturing network. The optimization of fracturing fluid and minding the aforementioned factors can help achieving even flow distribution and network efficiency, both of which can help contribute to increased production. The practices over have realized that, in most cases where it has been measured, only 30–60% of the fractured clusters in a wellbore are providing measurable production [36].
Unconventional reservoirs show significant decline rates after few months of production compromising the economics and imposing the need for increasing or stabilizing production. The decline in production from the unconventional reservoirs is attributed to the closure and damage of the fracture networks within the formations. Hence, re-fracturing as an emerging technology has become a viable option for sustaining production and increasing reserves. Re-fracturing is a preferred option over drilling and completing new horizontal wells as it can be carried at only a fractional cost of up to 25–40% [37], thus minimizing the related financial and safety risks.
Production decline rates from unconventional reservoirs are more rapid than those in conventional reservoirs because of the ultralow permeability, limited reservoir contact, and the original completion strategy. The ability of re-fracturing technology provides a potential to extend the productive life of the unconventional reservoirs beyond the normal and up to an additional 20–30 years [38]. Re-fracturing restores production from underperforming formations by increasing fracturing networks, replacing damaged proppant, bypassing skin zones, and connecting old and new fractures [39]. Successful re-fracturing can increase the estimated ultimate recovery (EUR), shorten the capital return time, and increase the net present value (NPV) of the unconventional reservoirs. Decline curve analysis (DCA) showed that re-fractured wells achieved an average of 60% increase in NPV [40]; therefore, re-fracturing application helps reduce the variability in the unconventional reservoir performance and considered the best option for tackling production declines.
Re-fracturing literally means a second hydraulic fracturing through same or new perforations to repair or recreate fracture networks within the same formation. If a re-fracturing treatment was carried out after a re-fracturing, then it would be considered a tri-fracturing [41].
Practically, re-fracturing is carried out when the initial hydraulic fracturing treatment was undersized or when suspected skin damage exists [42]. It is possible to use the existing fractures for the re-fracture and still generate a new fracture network sufficient to increase production. In a formation with its low in situ stress anisotropy, pressure can be created within the fracture itself to cause the reservoir to be fractured in new directions. Reusing the existed fractures helps control the cost of re-fracturing. Therefore, another approach for re-fracturing is to add perforations between the existing fractures to create additional fracturing networks as shown in Figure 4.
(left) a hydraulic fracturing stimulation created a fracture network (right) after re-fracturing, and additional complex fracture network has developed (Allison & Parker 2014 [
There are many ways available to perform re-fracturing; however, three most common re-fracturing methods are selected for consideration, namely, the diversion method, the coiled tubing fracturing method, and the mechanical isolation method [43]:
Diversion: This method uses diverting agents to plug the existed fractures or perforations, allowing re-fracturing reallocation to new areas. However, it is difficult to control which segment of the lateral would be stimulated that is why it’s also known as a “pump and pray method.” Yet, this method is the most widely used in the industry likely because it is the most cost-effective.
Coiled tubing: This method utilizes resettable packers where re-fracturing is targeted. However, at low rates through coiled tubing, this method is considered inadequate for open-hole environments.
Mechanical isolation: This method typically uses expandable liners and plugs. However, it requires new hardware for re-fracturing which increase costs substantially because it would often need to use a full new liner.
As re-fracturing technology gains popularity in unconventional reservoirs, the ability to isolate reservoir access points and redirect the fracturing fluids and proppant to different parts of the reservoir is crucial to achieving a successful treatment. All known methods have advantages and disadvantages; however, the often selected method is based on their ease of use, cost-effectiveness, and environmental impact.
Many wells are drilled with outdated completion designs; for that, they aren’t efficiently producing the reservoir formations. These wells are specifically targeted when engaging re-fracturing because it is an economical practice to mitigate the flow rate decline and maximize reservoir deliverability [44].
The process of choosing which well to re-fracture is known as “candidate selection” [45], and the following are criteria which are often considered [46]:
Logs or tracers indicating unproductive sections of wellbore
Initial completion used wrong fracture fluid or proppant type
Degree of production depletion
Degradation in fracture conductivity or propped half-length
Productivity of the reservoir
Performance of other nearby wells
The selection methodology must be customized to fit the particular needs of a given field where substantial incremental reserves can be added if the correct candidate selection process is followed [47].
After re-fracturing, a well may experience increase in production due to new fractures or extension of existing fracture networks. The success of re-fracturing can be determined by empirical parameters such as production rate 30 days before and following re-fracturing, EUR ratio based on DCA [48].
Computer programs can simulate re-fracturing scenarios at a considerable degree of accuracy despite the fact that all predictive methods lack robustness that accounts for the original production depletion and the conditions after re-fracturing. However, as technology advances, well performed computer models are able to generate trustworthy forecasts that allow decision-makers to confidently evaluate the economic success or failure of re-fracturing.
Simultaneous fracturing or multiple fracturing (simul-frac) technology is the hydraulic fracturing technique that fractures multiple wells simultaneously. Simultaneous fracturing applies a shortest well-to-well distance to allow both the proppants and fracturing fluid flow through the porous medium from well to well under high pressure as shown in Figure 5. The purpose of the multiple simultaneous process is to increase the recovery efficiency and productivity, of the wells, by increasing the surface area subject to flow through the newly created dense fractures. The typical practice of simultaneous fracturing initiates with two horizontal wells of the same depth; however, currently up to four wells can be simultaneously fractured [46].
An example of simultaneous fracturing [
Many researchers have performed different field experiments to examine the simultaneous fracture multiple adjacent horizontal wells to create complex fracture networks. Even though field attempts have shown significant improvement with simul-frac instead of stand-along wells [50], microseismic information [51], and numerical simulations [52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58] also demonstrate a complex fracture network made through simul-frac. However, the reasons behind its success are not yet well understood. Multiple hydraulic fracture technique is a complex method that requires considering not only the hydraulic fracturing procedure but also fracture interaction between multiple fractures. The hydraulic fracturing treatment is a typical hydromechanical fracture coupling problem, wherein the following three basic processes involve in [59]:
Rock deformation made by fluid pressure applied on fracture surface
Fluid flow into the fractures
Fracture growth
The fracture interaction between multiple fractures would significantly result in stress shadow effects that can cause stress field and fracture geometry alterations.
With the advance of computer processes, more numerical tools have been developed to become reliable and convenient techniques to investigate the treatment methods of hydraulic fracturing. Moreover, the numerical technique of finite element [60] is a well-established scheme to study rock engineering issues, and also it is frequently used in the last three decades to simulate hydraulic fracture propagation [61]. However, there are many scientific articles published on different finite element methods to numerically study the process of hydraulic fracturing [62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82].
Horizontal well fracturing technology is the main technology promptly utilized to low permeability reservoirs. However, in deep shale reservoirs, the use of traditional single stimulation cannot meet the production requirements. Thus, a new technology of horizontal well pressure cracking has been introduced. Zebo et al. [83] found that, based on the process and concerned parameters of horizontal well fracturing, increasing technical problems during reservoir exploration and development, horizontal section becomes popular where sub-fractured horizontal well technique has wide application potentials. Furthermore, the sub-fracturing technology is an important tool in the technology of staged fracturing. Packer as a completion tool does not consist of multicolumn zones, and supporting tools are necessary for safety and to increase the possibility of successful fracturing treatment.
The success of horizontal well fracture is mainly due to the mechanical properties of the rock, stress, shaft stress fracture initiation, and elongation mechanism. Moreover, the horizontal well sub-fracturing should be considered to obtain better fracturing design and to ensure treatment success and efficiency. To achieve the expected outcomes from well completion of a fracturing job, certain issues must be monitored such as the borehole or near wellbore area, permeability anisotropy, blocking natural cracks, and stimulation failure. Up to date, the horizontal well fracturing technique has become one of the preferred tools to solve these problems. Thus, the main applied technology of horizontal well fracturing consists of limited flow fracturing technique and sub-fracturing process. The following section will describe these techniques.
This technique limits the number of perforations and their diameter while injecting a large volume of fracturing fluid that causes increasing the bottom hole pressure on a large scale. Therefore, the fracturing fluid is forced to shunt into limited entries creating new fractures as shown in Figure 6 [85, 86]. The main advantages of this technique are a relatively simple operation, short operation time, the fact that multi-fractures are created in a single operation which is environmentally favorable for reservoir protection. However, this technique has some limitations including high perforation back pressure, difficult to control any single fracture, and fractures which may not form in perforations of long interval horizontal well.
Technique of the limited entry fracturing of a horizontal well [
An example where limited entry fracturing technology was applied in horizontal well is Zhao 57-Ping 35 of Daqing Oil Field [84]. The well was divided into 4 sections each containing 19 perforations, and an isolating packer was set above the kickoff point. Using two simultaneous pumping facilities, a total fracturing fluid volume of 374.3m3 with an average sand ratio of 35.6% was injected at a rate of 7.5 m3/min. The fracture initiation pressure was 30.5 MPa, four fractures were created, and the total fracture span was 400 m. The entire operation took 79 minutes. This treatment achieved success allowing the production after fracturing to increase 20–30 times and reach the production level of 4 vertical wells.
As limited entry fracturing cannot operate on all the target layers at one time, staged fracturing technique is used when the horizontal section is long and many layers are targeted for fracturing. Staged fracturing creates many fractures by utilizing packers and/or other segmenting materials. Operating a section by section at the time, one fracture is created in every section. The key points to achieve staged fracturing are tools and technique that fulfill the treatment requirements.
There are three types of staged fracturing techniques often used: the bridge plug fracturing, through coiled tubing fracturing with straddle packer and gel complex-slug fracturing as shown in Figure 7. Contrary to packer separation, the gel complex-slug fracturing avoids the risk of downhole tool stuck, but in the latter, the fracture initiation points are difficult to control.
Staged fracturing mechanism of horizontal wells [
An example where gel staged fracturing technology was applied in well Saiping-1 of Changqing Oil Field where four fractures were created. The process is briefly described as the following: perforating the end of horizontal well section, followed by first fracturing treatment, running a production test, and temporary plugging the first section by sand filling gel plug and, next, repeating the process in perforating the second, third, and fourth sections followed by a formation pressure and production tests.
The first hydraulic fracturing treatment was implemented in Hugoton Gas Field in Grand County, state of Kansas, during 1947. By the end of 1952, many fracturing treatments were performed with refined and crude oils. Thus oil-based fluids were the first fracturing fluid utilized for this purpose due to their benefits which are cheap and permitting greater volumes at a lower cost. But due to the safety and environmental issues, which are associated with their applications, it was encouraged that the industry move toward in developing an alternative fluid. At the beginning of 1953, for the first time, water fluid was used as a fracturing fluid; and a number of gelling agents were developed. However, water-based fluids with water-soluble polymers mixed to prepare a viscous solution are commonly used in the fracturing treatment. Since the late 1950s, more than 50% of the fracturing treatments were performed with fluids consisting of guar gums, high-molecular-weight polysaccharides composed of mannose and galactose sugars, or guar derivatives [87].
In 1964, surfactant agents were added to reduce the emulsion formation when in contact with the reservoir fluid; however, potassium chloride was added to decrease the effect on clays and other water-sensitive formation components. Later, additional clay stabilizing agents were developed to enhance the potassium chloride, allowing the use of water in different geological formations. In the early 1970s, a major revolution in fracturing fluids introduced the use of metal-based cross-linking agents to improve the viscosity of gelled water-based fracturing fluids for extreme reservoir condition (i.e., high temperature). Later a critical development was made on gelling agent to achieve a preferred viscosity. Also guar-based polymers are still used in fracturing jobs at reservoir temperatures below 150°C. Other fluid improvements, foams, and the addition of alcohol have enhanced the use of water in more geological reservoir formations. Moreover, various aqueous fluids, such as acid, gas, water, and brines, are currently used as the base fluid in approximately 96% of all fracturing treatments employing a propping agent [87].
As the hydrocarbon drilling and production have moved toward deeper reservoirs with high pressure and temperature condition, more fracturing treatments have been developed to be compatible with these conditions. Therefore, gel stabilizers and thermally stable polymers have been developed in which gel stabilizers can be utilized with around 5% methanol, but synthetic polymers have shown a sufficient viscosity at temperatures up to 230°C [88]. After that, chemical stabilizers have been developed and possibly used with or without a methanol. The improvements, which are made in cross-linkers and gelling agents, have led to systems that can permit the fluid to reach the well bottomhole in high-temperature condition before cross-linking, therefore, reducing the effects of high shear in the production tubing. Recently, nanotechnology has been introduced in the design of new, efficient hydraulic fracturing fluids [88]. For example, nanolatex silica is used to reduce the concentration of boron found in conventional cross-linkers. Recent advancement in nanotechnology is the use of small-sized silica particles [20 nm] suspended in guar gels to improve fracturing treatment [89]. Therefore, the following section will discuss the use of CO2 and N2 as fracturing fluid to enhance the hydrocarbon fluid production and to store CO2 into the geological formation to minimize the greenhouse emission. Also it will provide a brief information on hydra-jet fracturing.
In the ordinary fracturing, large amounts of freshwater, sand, and chemicals are injected into the ground at high pressure. It has been reported that up to 9.6 million gallons of water on average are used for a single well fracturing; this lead to the use of more than 28 times the water for wells before fracturing, putting farming, and drinking sources at risk in arid regions, especially during drought [90]. Some of the water used for fracking is brought back to the surface and recycled, but the most of it is lost deep into the formations. Thus, fracking can increase demand for water by up to 30 percent, and this can be a major increase for groundwater consumption.
To solve the water scarcity problem, the fracturing using water, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen is commonly referred to the process in where substantial quantities of both nitrogen and carbon dioxide are incorporated into the fracturing fluid. Amounts of nitrogen and carbon dioxide are incorporated separately into an aqueous-based fracturing fluid to provide a volume ratio of nitrogen to carbon dioxide within an estimated range between 0.2 and 1.0 at wellhead conditions. The volume ratio for the total of both carbon dioxide and nitrogen to the aqueous phase of the aqueous fracturing fluid ranges between 1 and 4. The aqueous fracturing fluid that contains the nitrogen and carbon dioxide is injected in the well under conditions in which the pressure required is high enough to implement hydraulic fracturing of the subterranean formation undergoing treatment. In order to provide a viscous aqueous-based fracturing fluid, a thickening agent may be added into water. Additionally, a propping agent is to be incorporated into a portion of the fracturing fluid. Only then can carbon dioxide and nitrogen be added to the fluid. Carbon dioxide is incorporated in its liquid phase and the nitrogen in its gaseous phase. The use of carbon dioxide and nitrogen as fracturing fluids is discussed briefly in this essay.
Currently, carbon dioxide fracturing is one of the most effective and cleanest approaches available in order to increase oil and gas production. To produce the viscous aqueous-based fracturing fluid, carbon dioxide is injected in its liquid state using conventional frac pumps. Injection rates for it can be improved by incorporating booster capacity. An upside of using carbon dioxide in this process is that it can carry high concentrations of proppant in foam form due to its density and is compatible with all treating fluids (including acids). Because of that density, it is also not susceptible to gravity separation. Additionally, carbon dioxide can be pumped with synthetic and natural polymers, lease crude, or diesel as a foam or microemulsion, increasing the hydrostatic head to or greater than that of fresh water and decreasing the viscosity of the system. This feature of carbon dioxide results in vastly reducing horsepower costs and a decrease in the applied treating pressures. Another benefit of carbon dioxide is that it dissolves in water which causes it to form carbonic acid that dissolves the matrix in carbonate rocks. It buffers water-based systems to a pH of 3.2 which can also control clay swelling and iron and aluminum hydroxide precipitation. Known to act as a surfactant to significantly reduce interfacial tension and resultant capillary forces, carbon dioxide thus removes fracturing fluid, connate water, and emulsion blocks. In regard to it being one of the cleanest approaches in increasing gas and oil productions, carbon dioxide provides the energy to remove formations fines, crushed proppant, reaction products, and mud that is lost during drilling. In addition to that, swabbing of treating fluids can be greatly reduced which will allow for saving in associated treatment costs. Lastly, unlike other agents a carbon dioxide treatment with a 70 quality foam job allows low amounts of the water to contact the formation, roughly 30 percent compared to a gelled water fracturing. This decrease chances of clay swelling and inhibited production. All these benefits of using carbon dioxide as a fracturing fluid in wells with low bottomhole pressure or sensitivity to certain fluids make it a strong alternative candidate.
Although containing different properties, nitrogen similar to carbon dioxide comes with many benefits for fracturing fluids. Nitrogen for the fracturing fluids can be supplied by air products and provides both performance and cost advantages over certain formations of water-based fluids. Although water-based fracturing fluids are commonly used for hydraulic fracturing due to their advanced proppant transport into the fracture, they do also come with disadvantages. Because they can cause water saturation around the fracture and clay swelling which can result in hindering the mass transport of hydrocarbons from the fracture to the wellbore, water-based fluids are often unsuitable for water-sensitive formations. Nitrogen fracking fluids are an excellent alternative to water-based fluids in water-sensitive formations, depleted reservoirs, and shallow formations as they do not result in any water saturation.
Four main types of nitrogen fracturing fluids are used commercially: pure gas, foam, energized, and ultrahigh quality (mists). Foam fracturing fluids typically consist of a water-based system and a gas phase of nitrogen volume in the range of 53 to 95%. Below 53% nitrogen, the fracturing fluid is considered energized. Above 95 percent nitrogen, the fracturing fluid is considered a mist. Cryogenic liquid nitrogen fracking fluid is considered to be the fifth type of nitrogen fracturing fluids used. However, it is rarely employed for commercial operations due to material restrictions and equipment requirements.
The process of hydra-jet fracturing combines hydra-jetting with hydraulic fracturing and involves running a specialized jetting tool on conventional or coiled tubing. Dynamic fluid energy jets form tunnels in the reservoir rock at precise locations to initiate the hydraulic fracture which is then extended from that point outwards. By repeating the process, one can create multiple hydraulic fractures along the horizontal wellbore [91, 92, 93]. The idea of hydra-jet fracturing is not a new one. In fact, it was used a century ago with low-pressure jets [94] where waterjets with erosive materials were used to cut rock and glass. Because erosion does not involve a backflow hindering the sand cutting process, cutting steel plates, wellheads during the Iraqi war, and rock quarries tend to be easily be done. Hydra-jet cutting may be mistakenly claimed as a result of a perforating process which can be seen when used on the rocks sandstone and limestone.
For these two rocks, assume that the jet is used to perforate formation rock. Also assume that the jetting process creates a perforation with a larger inside diameter than the jet nozzle. The velocity of the fluid flowing into the perforation tunnel would be incredibly elevated. Near the bottom of the perforation, the velocity of the flowing fluid would dramatically decrease. If the flow area is sustained and there is no presence of friction, the fluid pressure will be equal to the original jet pressure per the example. However, this tends to be an unlikely happening because pressure losses are typically high. To further explain this, jet boundary friction works to convert kinetic energy to heat loss causing jet flaring. This drastically reduces jet velocity, which in turn reduces the pressure per unit area of impact. This results in a low-pressure transformation efficiency. More importantly, rocks can still be fractured when enough pressure is applied to the jets even at this low of a pressure efficiency rate. An important note is that laboratory tests have shown that rock fracturing is commonplace when jet pressures are high. However, when high-pressure and low-energy transformation efficiencies are used hand in hand, they are technically and economically impractical.
The desired objective of fracturing is to develop and effectively produce from a shale reservoir. To ensure a successful fracturing treatment, a proper fracturing technology must be utilized based on the reservoir characteristics as the reservoir mineral content, physical properties, and geological condition. The utilized formation fracturing technique has a different desired environment to achieve the maximal recovery. During the process of fracturing treatment, the content of a fracturing fluid should be checked based on the formation mineral content and physical properties to improve reservoir permeability and reduce formation damage.
The forming of multi-fracture network is the key to obtain an effective hydraulic fracturing treatment in shale reservoirs. If higher treating net pressure is achieved, lower fluid viscosity is used, and larger fracturing scale attempt would be more helpful to form a fully fracture network. The reservoir geological factors also have high attributes, where brittleness index, elastic characteristic of rock mechanical properties, horizontal stress, and existence of natural fractures are useful to obtain better results of fractures developing into multi-fracture network.
Re-fracturing has the potential to re-energize natural fractures and extend and replace low conductivity existing fracture network. Utilizing re-fracture treatment successfully depends on technology that allows access to larger volumes of unconventional reservoirs. Monitoring the effectiveness of well completions helps guide technologies and methods to gain control of the wellbore to maximize EUR and NPV. Re-fracturing treatments have significant impact on production, and economics of unconventional reservoir development and consideration should be taken to determine the best way to achieve successful re-fracturing as production starts to decline.
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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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However, its large band gap energy, ca. 3.2 eV limits its absorption of solar radiation to the UV light range which accounts for only about 5% of the solar spectrum. Furthermore, the photocatalytic activity of TiO2 is also limited by the rapid recombination of the photogenerated electron-hole pairs. When used in water treatment applications, TiO2 has a poor affinity toward organic pollutants, especially hydrophobic organic pollutants. Several strategies have been employed to reduce its band gap energy, its electron-hole recombination rates as well as enhance its absorption of organic pollutants. In this chapter, we review some of the most recent works that have employed the doping, decoration, and structural modification of TiO2 particles for applications in photocatalysis. Additionally, we discuss the effectiveness of these dopants and/or modifiers in enhancing TiO2 photoactivity as well as some perspective on the future of TiO2 photocatalysis.",book:{id:"7478",slug:"photocatalysts-applications-and-attributes",title:"Photocatalysts",fullTitle:"Photocatalysts - Applications and Attributes"},signatures:"John Moma and Jeffrey Baloyi",authors:[{id:"250026",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Moma",slug:"john-moma",fullName:"John Moma"},{id:"250963",title:"Mr.",name:"Jeffrey",middleName:null,surname:"Baloyi",slug:"jeffrey-baloyi",fullName:"Jeffrey Baloyi"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"68496",title:"Moisture Sorption Isotherms and Isotherm Model Performance Evaluation for Food and Agricultural Products",slug:"moisture-sorption-isotherms-and-isotherm-model-performance-evaluation-for-food-and-agricultural-prod",totalDownloads:1990,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Moisture sorption characteristics of agricultural and food products play important roles in such technological processes as drying, handling, packaging, storage, mixing, freeze-drying and other processes that require the prediction of food stability, shelf life, glass transition and estimation of drying time and texture and prevention of deteriorative reactions. They are useful in the computation of thermodynamic energies of moisture in the products. An understanding of moisture sorption phenomena in products, moisture sorption isotherm (MSI) determination techniques and moisture sorption isotherm model evaluation procedures would be useful in the development or selection, modeling and controlling as well as optimization of appropriate processes to make for enhanced efficiency. The phenomena addressed in this chapter are equilibrium moisture content (EMC)-water activity (aw) relationships and MSI types, temperature influence on isotherms and occurrence of moisture sorption hysteresis. MSI measurement techniques highlighted are the gravimetric, vapor pressure manometric (VPM), hygrometric and inverse gas chromatographic and the use of AquaLab equipment. Commonly used moisture sorption isotherm models (BET, GAB, modified GAB, Hailwood-Horrobin, modified Hailwood-Horrobin, modified Halsey, modified Henderson, modified Chung-Pfost and modified Oswin) were selected, and their evaluation procedures using moisture sorption data were outlined. Static gravimetric technique involving the use of saturated salt solution appears to be the most widely used and recommended method of determining the EMC of agricultural and food products. Most of the MSI models can be fitted to moisture sorption data thorough linearization by logarithmic transformation, while others can be solved using such expression as second-order polynomial. Model goodness of fit can be determined using standard (SE) error of estimate, coefficient of determination (R2), mean relative percentage deviation (P) and fraction explained variation (FEV). The acceptance of a model depends on the nature of its residual plots. A model is considered acceptable if the residual plots show uniform scatter around the horizontal value of zero showing no systemic tendency towards a clear pattern. A model is better than another model if it has lower SE, lower P, higher R2 and higher FEV. Although it appears as if a generalized MSI model is yet to exist, it is recommended that the Ngoddy-Bakker-Arkema (NBA) model should be given thorough going and extensive testing on the MSI of different categories of food as it could prove true to its generalized model posture due to the fundamental nature of its derivation.",book:{id:"8012",slug:"sorption-in-2020s",title:"Sorption in 2020s",fullTitle:"Sorption in 2020s"},signatures:"Ndubisi A. Aviara",authors:[{id:"303694",title:"Prof.",name:"Ndubisi",middleName:null,surname:"Aviara",slug:"ndubisi-aviara",fullName:"Ndubisi Aviara"}]},{id:"63788",title:"Disinfection Methods",slug:"disinfection-methods",totalDownloads:3224,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Water must be made safe to drink, and an important step in ensuring water safety is disinfection. Disinfectants are added to water to kill disease-causing microorganisms. Ground water sources can be disinfected by “The Water Treatment Rule,” which requires public water systems for disinfection. Chlorination, ozone, ultraviolet light, and chloramines are primary methods for disinfection. However, potassium permanganate, photocatalytic disinfection, nanofiltration, and chlorine dioxide can also be used. Organic material is naturally present in water. Certain forms of chlorine can react with these organic materials and result in the formation of harmful by-products; the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has anticipated maximum levels for these contaminants.",book:{id:"7478",slug:"photocatalysts-applications-and-attributes",title:"Photocatalysts",fullTitle:"Photocatalysts - Applications and Attributes"},signatures:"Muhammad Saqib Ishaq, Zobia Afsheen, Amjad Khan and Amjad\nKhan",authors:[{id:"228353",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saqib",middleName:null,surname:"Ishaq",slug:"muhammad-saqib-ishaq",fullName:"Muhammad Saqib Ishaq"},{id:"246559",title:"Dr.",name:"Zobia",middleName:null,surname:"Afsheen",slug:"zobia-afsheen",fullName:"Zobia Afsheen"},{id:"246561",title:"Mr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"amjad-khan",fullName:"Amjad Khan"},{id:"271289",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"amjad-khan",fullName:"Amjad Khan"}]},{id:"41887",title:"Microbial Techniques for Hydrocarbon Exploration",slug:"microbial-techniques-for-hydrocarbon-exploration",totalDownloads:6593,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"2351",slug:"hydrocarbon",title:"Hydrocarbon",fullTitle:"Hydrocarbon"},signatures:"M.A. Rasheed, D.J. Patil and A.M. Dayal",authors:[{id:"143475",title:"Dr",name:"Mohammed Abdul",middleName:null,surname:"Rasheed",slug:"mohammed-abdul-rasheed",fullName:"Mohammed Abdul Rasheed"},{id:"144630",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayal",middleName:null,surname:"Anurodh",slug:"dayal-anurodh",fullName:"Dayal Anurodh"}]},{id:"58999",title:"The DFT+U: Approaches, Accuracy, and Applications",slug:"the-dft-u-approaches-accuracy-and-applications",totalDownloads:4522,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:45,abstract:"This chapter introduces the Hubbard model and its applicability as a corrective tool for accurate modeling of the electronic properties of various classes of systems. The attainment of a correct description of electronic structure is critical for predicting further electronic-related properties, including intermolecular interactions and formation energies. The chapter begins with an introduction to the formulation of density functional theory (DFT) functionals, while addressing the origin of bandgap problem with correlated materials. Then, the corrective approaches proposed to solve the DFT bandgap problem are reviewed, while comparing them in terms of accuracy and computational cost. The Hubbard model will then offer a simple approach to correctly describe the behavior of highly correlated materials, known as the Mott insulators. Based on Hubbard model, DFT+U scheme is built, which is computationally convenient for accurate calculations of electronic structures. Later in this chapter, the computational and semiempirical methods of optimizing the value of the Coulomb interaction potential (U) are discussed, while evaluating the conditions under which it can be most predictive. The chapter focuses on highlighting the use of U to correct the description of the physical properties, by reviewing the results of case studies presented in literature for various classes of materials.",book:{id:"6193",slug:"density-functional-calculations-recent-progresses-of-theory-and-application",title:"Density Functional Calculations",fullTitle:"Density Functional Calculations - Recent Progresses of Theory and Application"},signatures:"Sarah A. Tolba, Kareem M. Gameel, Basant A. Ali, Hossam A.\nAlmossalami and Nageh K. Allam",authors:[{id:"175824",title:"Dr.",name:"Nageh",middleName:"K.",surname:"Allam",slug:"nageh-allam",fullName:"Nageh Allam"},{id:"398157",title:"Dr.",name:"Sarah A.",middleName:null,surname:"Tolba",slug:"sarah-a.-tolba",fullName:"Sarah A. Tolba"},{id:"398158",title:"Dr.",name:"Kareem M.",middleName:null,surname:"Gameel",slug:"kareem-m.-gameel",fullName:"Kareem M. Gameel"},{id:"398162",title:"Dr.",name:"Basant A.",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"basant-a.-ali",fullName:"Basant A. Ali"},{id:"398163",title:"Dr.",name:"Hossam A.",middleName:null,surname:"Almossalami",slug:"hossam-a.-almossalami",fullName:"Hossam A. Almossalami"}]},{id:"40233",title:"Ammonia as a Hydrogen Source for Fuel Cells: A Review",slug:"ammonia-as-a-hydrogen-source-for-fuel-cells-a-review",totalDownloads:9329,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:40,abstract:null,book:{id:"2795",slug:"hydrogen-energy-challenges-and-perspectives",title:"Hydrogen Energy",fullTitle:"Hydrogen Energy - Challenges and Perspectives"},signatures:"Denver Cheddie",authors:[{id:"141157",title:"Dr.",name:"Denver",middleName:null,surname:"Cheddie",slug:"denver-cheddie",fullName:"Denver Cheddie"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"86",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81713",title:"Transition Metals-Based Metal-Organic Frameworks, Synthesis, and Environmental Applications",slug:"transition-metals-based-metal-organic-frameworks-synthesis-and-environmental-applications",totalDownloads:38,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104294",abstract:"This work illustrates examples of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) derived from transition metals and their environmental applications in areas of catalysis, sorption, and hydrogen evolution. Explanation of some of the techniques employed for their synthesis has been discussed. On the other hand, the advantages of the use of hybrid materials such as the metal-organic frameworks are exposed in this book as well a detailed description of the different linkers and metals used for the synthesis of this kind of porous materials going through the methodologies and techniques utilized by different authors to obtain good-quality crystalline applicable materials. Adjustments of linker geometry, length, ratio, and the functional group can tune the size, shape, and internal surface property of an MOF for a targeted application. The uses of MOFs are exploring new different areas of chemistry such as catalysis, adsorption, carrier systems, hydrogen evolution, photocatalysis, and more. Different examples of MOFs from Scandium to Zinc are well described in this book, and finally, a brief description of some common environmental applications such as metals and azo dyes sorption, hydrogen evolution, and catalyst in the transesterification process of vegetable oils to produce biodiesel is explored and commented.",book:{id:"11216",title:"Sorption - From Fundamentals to Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11216.jpg"},signatures:"Lidia E. Chiñas-Rojas, Guadalupe Vivar-Vera, Yafeth F. Cruz-Martínez, Seth Limón Colohua, José María Rivera and Eric Houbron"},{id:"81332",title:"Adsorption of Chromium from an Aqueous Solution onto Chitosan Beads Modified with Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate (SDS)",slug:"adsorption-of-chromium-from-an-aqueous-solution-onto-chitosan-beads-modified-with-sodium-dodecyl-sul",totalDownloads:25,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104093",abstract:"The goal of this research is to make chitosan beads that have been treated with sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) to remove chromium (Cr) from an aqueous solution effectively. The successful synthesis of the SDS-chitosan was proven through characterization, which were carried out using by scanning electron microscopy–energy dispersive X–ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The adsorption of Cr on the SDS material was investigated by varying experimental conditions such as pH, contact time and adsorbent dosage. The maximum adsorption capacity of SDS-chitosan for Cr(III) was estimated to be 3.42 mg·g−1 and 3.23 mg·g−1 for Cr(VI). Based on the results of adsorption kinetics and isothermal models, the adsorption process conform to the pseudo-second-order and Langmuir isotherm models. This indicates that the adsorption of Cr on SDS-chitosan is mainly dominated by chemical adsorption and monolayer reaction. In addition, according to thermodynamic analyses, the adsorption of Cr is an endothermic reaction. These results show that the new adsorbent has obvious application prospect for removing Cr.",book:{id:"11216",title:"Sorption - From Fundamentals to Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11216.jpg"},signatures:"Naoki Kano, Zou Ming, David Eva Vanessa Anak and Muhammad Nabil Md Sari"},{id:"81111",title:"Coconut Shell Charcoal Adsorption to Remove Methyl Orange in Aqueous Solutions",slug:"coconut-shell-charcoal-adsorption-to-remove-methyl-orange-in-aqueous-solutions",totalDownloads:32,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102898",abstract:"Activated charcoal was prepared and characterized from residues of coconut peel (CACC) to remove by adsorption the Methyl Orange (AM) dye in aqueous solution. The charcoal was activated with phosphoric acid. The morphology and structure of the pores of the carbon obtained were analyzed by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and a surface analyzer. The adsorption data were evaluated by the BET, Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms, finding the Langmuir type I model. The surface area of the activated carbon was 526 m2/g with a pore volume of 0.234 cm3/g and an average pore diameter of 1.78 nm, according to BET, which indicates the presence of micropores. The calculated thermodynamic parameters showed that the adsorption of the AM dye in CACC is a spontaneous process at room temperature and that physisorption and chemisorption are probably involved. The adsorption tests were followed by UV–visible spectrophotometry. The effects of the adsorbate concentration (AM) and the heat treatment (450–500°C) with an air atmosphere were investigated, keeping constant the stirring time and the H3PO4/sample weight ratio. The results obtained indicate that the activated carbon obtained could be used as an alternative low-cost adsorbent in the removal of AM from effluents in aqueous solution.",book:{id:"11216",title:"Sorption - From Fundamentals to Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11216.jpg"},signatures:"Isabel Cristina Páez-Pumar Romer, Isabella Victoria Plazola Santana, Rosa María Rodríguez Bengoechea and Miguel Manuel Pérez Hernández"},{id:"80319",title:"Sorption Isotherms and Some Functional Properties of Cowpea Varieties Flour",slug:"sorption-isotherms-and-some-functional-properties-of-cowpea-varieties-flour",totalDownloads:58,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101902",abstract:"In sub-Sahara, preservation of processed cowpea flour remained a challenge, and there are no standard isotherm conditions for drying cowpea flour. This study aims to define the optimum isotherm conditions for cowpea flour and assess their functional properties. Adsorption isotherms of three varieties of cowpea at temperatures 30, 40, and 50°C and in each case with six different applications depending on the constant relative humidity of the medium were executed. Water and oil absorption capacities including swelling index were determined. Results show that water content at equilibrium is inversely proportional to the temperature, and at the same temperature, the water content increases when water activity augments. The adsorption isotherms are of type II according to the fitted BET and GAB models. The absorption capacities ranged from 1.06 ± 0.01, 1.08 ± 0.02, and 1.09 ± 0.01(mL/g), respectively, for CS133, CS032, and control. However, the swelling index was significantly separated (P < 0.05). The adsorption isotherm curve of the sample CS032 at 50°C shows a stronger correlation (R2 = 0.9274) than the other varieties regardless of the mathematical isotherm model used. It can be concluded that depending on some functional properties of cowpea variety flour, these varieties seemed to behave separately vis-a-vis their sorption isotherm.",book:{id:"11216",title:"Sorption - From Fundamentals to Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11216.jpg"},signatures:"Issoufou Amadou"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:4},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"205604",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Jarzembowski",slug:"tomas-jarzembowski",fullName:"Tomas Jarzembowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKriQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-16T11:01:31.jpg",biography:"Tomasz Jarzembowski was born in 1968 in Gdansk, Poland. He obtained his Ph.D. degree in 2000 from the Medical University of Gdańsk (UG). After specialization in clinical microbiology in 2003, he started studying biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance at the single-cell level. In 2015, he obtained his D.Sc. degree. His later study in cooperation with experts in nephrology and immunology resulted in the designation of the new diagnostic method of UTI, patented in 2017. He is currently working at the Department of Microbiology, Medical University of Gdańsk (GUMed), Poland. Since many years, he is a member of steering committee of Gdańsk branch of Polish Society of Microbiologists, a member of ESCMID. He is also a reviewer and a member of editorial boards of a number of international journals.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"484980",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Garbacz",slug:"katarzyna-garbacz",fullName:"Katarzyna Garbacz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003St8TAQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-07-07T09:45:16.jpg",biography:"Katarzyna Maria Garbacz, MD, is an Associate Professor at the Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland and she is head of the Department of Oral Microbiology of the Medical University of Gdańsk. She has published more than 50 scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals. She has been a project leader funded by the National Science Centre of Poland. Prof. Garbacz is a microbiologist working on applied and fundamental questions in microbial epidemiology and pathogenesis. Her research interest is in antibiotic resistance, host-pathogen interaction, and therapeutics development for staphylococcal pathogens, mainly Staphylococcus aureus, which causes hospital-acquired infections. Currently, her research is mostly focused on the study of oral pathogens, particularly Staphylococcus spp.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. 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He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. 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Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7723",title:"Artificial Intelligence",subtitle:"Applications in Medicine and Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7723.jpg",slug:"artificial-intelligence-applications-in-medicine-and-biology",publishedDate:"July 31st 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"a3852659e727f95c98c740ed98146011",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Artificial Intelligence - Applications in Medicine and Biology",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Computational Neuroscience",value:23,count:1},{group:"subseries",caption:"Evolutionary Computation",value:25,count:1},{group:"subseries",caption:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",value:26,count:3},{group:"subseries",caption:"Applied Intelligence",value:22,count:4}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:2}],authors:{paginationCount:148,paginationItems:[{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",biography:"Vahid Asadpour, MS, Ph.D., is currently with the Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California. He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. 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Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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