Main alloying elements used in aluminum alloys.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3767",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Image Processing",title:"Image Processing",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"There are six sections in this book. 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He received a Best Paper Award from the Chinese Institute of Engineers in 1989, and an Outstanding Teaching Award from the Yuan Ze University in 2005, respectively. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE. In 1991, he joined the Electrical Engineering Department of the Yuan-Ze Institute of Technology (currently Yuan Ze University), Taoyuan, Taiwan, ROC, where he is currently a Full Professor. Since 1998, his name has been listed in the Who's Who of the World. Currently, he serves as an Associate Editor of International Journal of Machine Learning and Cybernetics. He is the invited Editor of the book 'Image Processing' published by InTech. 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The increase in the pace of interaction through the use of information technologies, including the development of mass means of communication, and the growing importance of international organizations are the present day of global markets and world trade.
\r\n\r\n\tThanks to the development of communication technologies, the removal of legal and psychological barriers, and the search for new sources of income and diversification of investments, markets have become more and more global for several years. Although this process is being hampered by the global financial crises, pandemics, and wars, it is still gaining momentum and changing its forms and effects. Therefore, the phenomenon of globalization and international trade causes an increase in new, unpredictable forms of risk and an increase in social inequalities on a global scale, or on the scale of individual societies.
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Ireneusz Miciuła",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12139.jpg",keywords:"Product Market, Labor Market, Global Financial Market, Economy, Management, Business, Supply Chain, Transport, Network of Connections, Technological Innovations, Financial Innovation, History of Money",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 23rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 21st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 19th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 8th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 6th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Miciuła is an assistant professor at the Institute of Finance of the University of Szczecin and a visiting researcher at several universities in Europe. He is a Winner of the individual 2nd-degree award of the Rector of the University of Szczecin for his scientific activity and has received a team award for scientific achievement awarded by the Rector of the Warsaw University of Life Sciences. He is a Member of the Polish Finance and Banking Association (PSFiB) and the Polish Economic Society (PTE).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"243649",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Ireneusz",middleName:null,surname:"Miciuła",slug:"ireneusz-miciula",fullName:"Ireneusz Miciuła",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243649/images/system/243649.jpg",biography:'Ireneusz Miciuła - doctor of technical sciences in the discipline of computer science. Assistant professor at the Institute of Finance of the University of Szczecin. He defended his doctoral thesis in 2010 at the Faculty of Computer Science of the Szczecin University of Technology (now the West Pomeranian University of Technology). He also completed a master\'s degree in finance and banking at the Faculty of Economics and Management at the University of Szczecin. Scholarship holder of the Human Capital Operational Program, Measure 8.2 Transfer of knowledge: Regional Innovation Strategies, "Investing in knowledge as a driving force for the development of innovation in the region". Winner of the individual 2nd degree award of the Rector of the University of Szczecin for his scientific activity. He received a team award for scientific achievement awarded by the Rector of the Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW) in 2018. Author of over 200 scientific, popular and journalistic publications in the field of economics, management and IT. Scholarship holder of the Natolin European Center in Warsaw for summer research at the European University Institute (EUI) in Florence (Italy, European Union institution) in 2014 and 2015. Visiting researcher at Fachhochschule Dortmund, Fachhochschule Stralsund, Hochschule Wismar (Germany), Univerity Bata in Zlin (Czech Republic), European University in Tirana (Albania), Universidade Lusofona de Humanidades e Tecnologias in Lisbon (Portugal). Member of the editorial team of the Journal of Economics and Public Finance (USA). Reviewer of the Polish-American Fulbright Foundation. Participant of many national and international scientific conferences. Member of the Polish Finance and Banking Association (PSFiB), Polish Economic Society (PTE) and Polish Information Technology Society (PTI). A scholarship holder of many scientific and economic programs and a member of research teams in R&D projects under NCBiR grants. A scholarship holder in the PROM program under the National Agency for Academic Exchange (NAWA). Expert and member of teams preparing studies for economic practice (including an expert at the Polish Agency for Enterprise Development (PARP) and the Energy Regulatory Office (ERO) in Warsaw). 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The “tunnel boring machine” (TBM) technique is nowadays the most common, allowing for reduction of the environmental impact (in underwater tunnels allows for non-disturbance of the natural bed) and significant savings in costs and time. It has become usual to build more than 0.4 km of a TBM tunnel per month on average, depending on the specific ground conditions.
Despite great progress observed in recent times, the construction of traffic (rail and road) tunnels with the TBM technique still faces significant challenges.
Big issues are the improvement of the structural safety of the tunnels when built in soft ground in seismic areas, the decision on the number of separate tubes to form the tunnel with cost analysis, and the measures to provide safe evacuation of users in the event of an accident or fire inside the tunnel.
In the construction of tunnels bored with TBMs, the circular cutter head of the front shield of the machine excavates the ground as the erector mounts precast segments around the excavated surface, which are clamped together, forming the circular wall (lining) of the tunnel (Figure 1). TBMs are of different types, depending on the characteristics of the ground to be bored (EPB, mix-shield, hard rock, etc.) [1].
Schematic view of a TBM.
The precast segments are made of high-strength concrete (C40 or higher), reinforced with steel bars or fibers (in steel or synthetic). The number of precast segments in each ring will be appropriate to form complete circles with pieces of a given weight, according to the capacity of the handling equipment; commonly medium size tunnels have 6–8 segments per circle. The thickness of the precast segments will depend on the surrounding acting stresses and on the thrust forces applied by the TBM; in common situations it corresponds to about 1/25 of the internal diameter of the tunnel.
After the execution of the tunnel wall, a fill is installed at the bottom of the tunnel, creating a platform for the circulation of the vehicles: trains in the case of rail tunnels or cars and trucks in the case of road tunnels.
As is known, the TBM technique is suitable for the construction of tunnels in stiff ground (rock, stiff clay, compacted sand, etc.), since the tunnels built in this way have their stability ensured by the resistance of the surrounding ground (the precast segments mainly work as a finish), so they do not need to have significant resistance in both the transverse direction and the direction of the tunnel axis.
In the case of soft soil (mud, soft clay, loose sand, etc.), the TBM tunnels can be unreliable because, as the connections between precast segments are very weak (it is a kind of LEGO), the strength and the ductility of the tunnels are low, so there is a risk of sinking, even collapsing, particularly during earthquakes. Soil treatments, sometimes used to aid seismic behavior, are very expensive and often do not guarantee the reliability required for the tunnels.
Regarding the number of tubes, in the case of rail tunnels in order to meet the international safety requirements [2, 3], the installation of both directions of traffic placed side by side in the same tube is only possible in short tunnels.
In long rail tunnels (tunnels over 1 km in length), for safety reasons [2, 3], two separate tunnels are usually be built, each for a direction of traffic, and a complex system of cross-passages connecting the two tubes. In the event of an accident or fire inside the tunnel, users will leave the affected train and move to the other rail gallery to be rescued later by another train. In some situations systems of safety galleries and shafts are also built for local access of the emergency personnel.
As an example, the Gotthard Base tunnel (recently built in Switzerland), with 57 km in length, the longest in the world, is formed of two tubes [4]. Cross-passages regularly spaced along the tunnel and access galleries to outside in some locations were adopted (Figure 2).
Common layouts of rail tunnels.
Where it is not possible to build access galleries or shafts (e.g., in underwater tunnels), three tubes are usually adopted. This is the case of the Channel tunnel (between the UK and France) or the basic layout of the Gibraltar Strait tunnel, where two tubes are used for rail traffic and a third tube, placed between the two, is used for access to emergency services and rescue of users, using special vehicles with wheels (Figure 2) [4]. The three tubes are also interconnected by a number of cross-passages, regularly spaced.
Also in the case of road tunnels, the installation of the two traffic directions in the same tube is only possible in tunnels with a single lane in each direction. When there are two or more lanes in each direction, the required diameter of the tunnel would become so large that it would be impractical. In any case, in long road tunnels (longer than 0.5 km in length), in order to satisfy safety requirements [5], placing bidirectional traffic side by side in the same tube is quite problematic. Hence, two separate tubes, each one for a direction of traffic, are nowadays usually built, so that, for ventilation and smoke removal purposes, air will circulate in one direction, the direction of traffic.
Generally, the two tubes are interconnected by cross-passages, regularly spaced, so that in the event of an accident or fire, users will leave the incident tube to the other, from where they will be evacuated by conventional buses, such the Westerschelde tunnel, in the south of the Netherlands (Figure 3) [6].
Common layouts of road tunnels.
Where possible, instead of cross-passages, access galleries and evacuation routes are built along the tunnel, to allow local access and evacuation of users from the tunnel. This is the case of the tunnel of the south bypass of the M30 motorway, in Madrid, Spain, in which two large diameter tubes were adopted (Figure 3) [6].
Building of two (or three) tubes and the systems of cross-passages or access galleries makes the construction of the tunnels very expensive. In addition, although such layouts represent the most advanced solutions at present for rail and road tunnels, the long time necessary for rescue services to reach the scene may be too long, as has been seen in the recent past.
In order to overcome the abovementioned limitations, the tunnel of improved seismic behavior (TISB) concept for TBM tunnels on soft ground in seismic areas and the tunnel multi-gallery (TMG) and tunnel multi-floor (TMF) concepts for TBM rail and road tunnels, respectively, were recently developed.
The “tunnel of improved seismic behavior” concept is an innovative solution for TBM tunnels, when the referred tunnels are built in soft ground (e.g., mud) in seismic areas, allowing the tunnel to be provided with the adequate resistance and ductility. It also allows the strengthening of existing TBM tunnels, using them as external formwork for the execution of the internal strengthening [7]. The TISB concept is a Portuguese patent [8] and is illustrated in Figure 4.
Illustration of the TISB concept.
In the TISB concept, the tunnel is formed by two concentric tubes; an external tube (3), which is a conventional TBM tunnel, and an internal tube (4), which is subsequently executed, inside the external one. The external tube (3) is thus formed by precast segments mounted by the TBM, while the internal tube (4) is later cast inside the external tube (3), using the latter as exterior formwork. Within the thickness of the internal tube (4), longitudinal reinforcement bars (7) and transverse reinforcement bars (8) are laid, both in two layers, which are confined by confinement bars, so as to provide the tunnel with adequate strength and ductility.
Where the vertical actions in the tunnel can have a significant variation (e.g., due to the increase or decrease in the height of the overburden in underwater tunnels), the tunnel will be provided with supports, regularly spaced along the tunnel axis. Those supports are composed of groups of piles with great horizontal deformability and ductility, arranged in the longitudinal and transverse directions, which are anchored at the top in large blocks of jet grouting (5) surrounding the outer tube (3) and at the base in the stiff ground below, so to resist vertical loads, while allowing horizontal movements of the tunnel during earthquakes, functioning as a kind of “movable bearings.”
The TISB concept thus leads to the obtaining of monolithic structures (there are no joints) with appropriate resistance in both longitudinal and transverse directions and great ductility under earthquakes. It will also be very effective if liquefaction and cyclic mobility phenomena occur. In addition, the structures obtained will present great structural redundancy, which can be useful in the case of unforeseen scenarios during the design phase.
The “tunnel multi-gallery” concept allows, with a single TBM tunnel, the creation of rail tunnels with completely independent directions of traffic and the installation of appropriate means that provide a dedicated and very reliable system for local access of the emergency personnel and the evacuation of users, in the event of an accident or fire inside the tunnel. The TMG concept is a Portuguese patent [9] and is illustrated in Figure 5.
Illustration of the TMG concept.
In the TMG concept, the tunnel is constituted by the external wall (1) made by the TBM, a slab (3), placed slightly above the bottom of the tunnel and the entire width, and a separating wall (2), placed in the middle of the tunnel and its entire height, so as to form two independent rail galleries, disposed side by side (4) (5), one for each track, and a service gallery (6) below.
In both sides of the tunnel, vertical access galleries (7), regularly spaced and provided with escape doors (8) in both rail galleries, are also created, allowing for the safe passage of people to the service gallery (6), in the event of an accident or fire inside the tunnel. Inside the service gallery (6), emergency vehicles (9) of monorail type are installed, to provide local access to the emergency personnel and the evacuation of users to outside.
A variant B of the basic solution may also be adopted, in which the vertical access galleries (7) are placed in the middle of the tunnel, in the separating wall (Figure 4). Although there is a local slight reduction of the cross-section of the rail galleries, it avoids the need to make openings in the external wall of the tunnel.
The “tunnel multi-floor” concept allows with a single TBM tunnel the creation of road tunnels with two identical road galleries, isolated and independent, and the installation of appropriate means that provide a dedicated and very reliable system for local access of the emergency personnel and the evacuation of users, in the event of an accident or fire inside the tunnel. The TMF concept is a Portuguese patent [10] and a European patent [11] and is illustrated in Figure 6.
Illustration of the TMF concept.
In the TMF concept, the tunnel is constituted by the external wall (1) made by the TBM and two slabs (2) (3), built at its full width, one placed roughly at half the height of the tunnel and the other placed slightly over the bottom of the tunnel, so as to form two superimposed two road galleries (4) (5), one for each direction of traffic, and a service gallery (6) below.
In one of the sides of the tunnel, vertical access galleries (7), regularly spaced and provided with escape doors (8) in both road galleries, are also created, allowing for the safe passage of people to the service gallery (6), in the event of an accident or fire inside the tunnel. Inside the service gallery (6), emergency vehicles (9) of monorail type are installed, to provide local access to the emergency personnel and the evacuation of users to outside.
The application of these new concepts in the construction of traffic tunnels raises specific issues that require the adoption of appropriate measures.
Relationships between the cross-section of the rail galleries of the tunnels and the speed of the trains.
Admitting as acceptable a pressure variation of 5.5 kPa (appropriate value since there is no clash of the piston effect of the trains), for example, for speeds of 300 and of 250 km/h, cross-sections of 52 and of 38 m2 will be required, respectively, in each railway gallery.
However, as this effect is only sensitive in the portal zones of the tunnel (at the entrance and exit of the trains), it can be overcome by adopting special arrangements in those zones, namely, creating openings in the separating wall, whose area decreases from the outside to the inside, acting as pressure relief (Figure 8), which allows a significant reduction (10–15%) of the cross-sectional area of the railway galleries [13].
Openings in the separating wall at the portal zones of the tunnels.
When variant B of the TMG concept is used, the placing of the vertical access galleries in the middle of the tunnel will cause slight localized decrease of the cross-sectional area of the railway galleries on those areas and thus an increase in the pressure variation inside the trains. However, as the vertical access galleries are inside the tunnel, outside the portal areas, this has no influence on the comfort inside the trains.
Regarding the road tunnels, the internal diameter will depend essentially on the number of lanes in each traffic gallery and their width and the permitted height of the vehicles. In Europe, where the height of the vehicles is limited to 4.0 m, a minimum clearance of 4.8 m will be, in general, adopted.
In situations where there is water pressure around the tunnel, injections of cement grout will allow for the development of the works in safe conditions. In those situations special steel segments will be mounted on those areas, provided with holes to allow for the execution of the injections.
Although there are some risks, they are similar to those of execution the cross-passages in twin-tube tunnels.
Emergency vehicles of the “emergency monorail electric vehicle” (EMEV) type that circulate inside the service gallery will rescue the users to outside of the tunnel.
The Algés-Trafaria road tunnel, crossing the Tagus River in Lisbon, Portugal, aims the decongestion of the road traffic of the suspension bridge, which is currently 50% higher than its capacity. It will allow the closing of the inner ring motorway of Lisbon, constituted by the CRIL in the north bank, the Vasco da Gama Bridge at east, and the CRIPS (A33) in the south bank of the river. It will be located west of the suspension bridge (Figure 9).
Location of the Algés-Trafaria tunnel crossing.
The location of the tunnel is characterized by the existence of thick alluvial deposits along the riverbed, composed of various complexes of mud and sand, extending from elevation −29 m (the deepest level of the river) to elevation −75 m. Underlying the alluvial deposits, there are bedrock formations constituted by basalt and limestone that extend by the north bank. On the south bank, there are Miocene formations composed mainly of sand and clay. The very prone-seismic conditions of the area must also be noted (one must remember the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, one of the most destructive in history).
Preparations for the construction of the new crossing have been under way for a long time, and an immersed tunnel solution has already been studied by Lusoponte, the concessionaire of the Tagus road crossings in Lisbon [14]. However, for various reasons, no significant progress has been made.
The study concluded that the construction of the immersed tunnel is viable but presents significant risks, associated with the high probability of liquefaction of the sands that constitutes the riverbed, in the event of a strong earthquake, and also with the difficulties of the realization of the tunnel connections at its ends, which will significantly increase the overall cost of the project. The cost of the tunnel (at current prices) was estimated at 600 million euros.
A TBM tunnel solution for the crossing, based on TISB and TMF concepts, was, in the meantime, proposed by the author [15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20].
In the proposed solution, the tunnel will be a single-tube tunnel, 5.1 km in length with two superimposed road galleries and a service gallery at the base. At the deepest part, the bottom of the tunnel is at elevation −59 m, allowing for a soil overburden identical to the diameter of the tunnel. The tunnel runs through the alluvia along most of its length under the river (Figure 10).
Proposed TBM tunnel solution for the Algés-Trafaria crossing. Longitudinal section.
The tunnel has an internal diameter of 14.2 m, with precast segments 0.55 m thick (Di/25) and 0.15 m clearance between the lining and the ground to be injected with grouting; hence, the excavated diameter of the tunnel is 15.6 m.
Despite the large diameter of the tunnel, it is significantly smaller than that of the larger tunnels being built, such as the SR99 in Seattle (USA), with a 17.5 m diameter, and the Tuen Mun-Chek Lap in Hong Kong (CN), with a 17.6 m diameter.
Inside the tunnel two concrete slabs are built, in order to create two superimposed road galleries (each one for a direction of traffic) with two lanes each (3.5 m wide and 4.8 m high); outer emergency lane; inner edge and emergency walkways on both sides, with a total width of 12.6 m; and a service gallery at the bottom, 2.0 m high (Figure 11).
Proposed TBM tunnel solution for the Algés-Trafaria crossing. Current cross-section.
To provide the tunnel with adequate structural safety under earthquakes, the section under the riverbed (2.25 km long) will be strengthened with an internal reinforced concrete tube 0.3 m thick, dully confined, in order to improve its strength and ductility, which are essential in the case of liquefaction of the sand (Figure 11).
The upper slab is supported laterally on continuous corbels executed in the precast segments or cast jointly with the internal tube (where it exists). The lower slab is supported on two small longitudinal concrete walls cast in situ and on the TBM tube.
The road galleries have escape doors located on one side of the tunnel, spaced 400 m (less than the 500 m allowed by the EU rules) [5], which give access to the service gallery below, through vertical access galleries with 2.6 × 3.5 m of inner section (Figure 12).
Proposed TBM tunnel solution for the Algés-Trafaria crossing. Cross-section at vertical access galleries.
Inside the service gallery, emergency vehicles of the EMEV type circulate to allow for the access of emergency personnel to inside the tunnel and the evacuation of users out of the tunnel in the event of accident or fire.
In the event of an accident or fire in one of the road galleries, users will leave the incident gallery by walking through the respective emergency walkways to the nearest escape door, from where they reach the service gallery, down the vertical access galleries.
Inside the service gallery, dedicated EMEVs that circulate in two parallel lines give access to emergency personnel and evacuate the users out of the tunnel. They are grouped in pairs, being parked at the portals of the tunnel. In such situations there will be no disturbance of the traffic flow in the non-incident traffic gallery.
With an excavation diameter of 15.6 m, which corresponds to an area of the excavated section of 191 m2, the unit cost of the tunnel will be about 80 million euros per kilometer. As the tunnel length is 5.1 km, the cost of the tunnel will be about 410 million euros, significantly lower than the cost of an immersed tunnel, 600 million euros, as mentioned above [19, 20].
The application of the TISB and TMF concepts allows to obtain a very cost-effective solution for the construction of the Algés-Trafaria tunnel crossing the Tagus River in Lisbon, with very low environmental impact, improved structural safety under earthquakes, and low construction costs (significantly lower than that of an immersed tunnel), and provides an advanced safety concept for emergency personnel access and rescue of users in the event of an accident or fire inside the tunnel.
The Fehmarnbelt Fixed Link is a Danish-German project, in the Baltic Sea, 18 km long, to provide a direct link by rail and road between the two countries and Scandinavia (Figure 13). It is part of the expansion of the Trans-European Transport Network (TEN-T) of the European Union, being co-financed by EU funds. The project will be owned and financed by Denmark and to be repaid by the users. It is being managed by Femern A/S, a Danish state-owned company.
Location of the Fehmarnbelt fixed link.
The project aims to connect the Lolland island (in Denmark) and the Fehmarn island (in Germany), through the Fehmarn Belt. It will be for mixed traffic, with two road galleries provided with two lanes each and two rail galleries for trains at speeds up to 200 km/h, keeping the pressure variation inside the trains within acceptable limits [21].
The geological profile along the alignment of the tunnel is shown in Figure 14 [21]. Both sides present smooth slopes near the coast areas, the deepest water being 34 m. Under the seabed the soil comprises an upper quaternary layer of post and late glacial deposits (clay and silts) followed by a Paleogene layer of highly plastic clay. The German side is characterized by Paleogene clay and some clay-till, the central basin by sand silts and clays, while the Danish side is dominated by thick deposits of clay-till.
Geotechnical conditions of the site.
Studies for this project began more than 20 years ago, in the 1990s. It has been studied in several variants, starting with a suspension bridge, followed by a cable-stayed bridge. As both bridge solutions received much opposition, especially from environmental organizations, an immersed tunnel solution was also further studied.
Although the costs of the cable-stayed bridge and the immersed tunnel were broadly similar, in 2011 the Danish authorities took a preliminary decision to adopt an immersed tunnel in the link. A TBM tunnel solution was also at the time studied by the promoter but, being composed of three tubes (two tubes for road traffic and another for rail traffic), despite having less environmental impact than the immersed tunnel, was rejected because the estimated cost was higher [21].
The immersed tunnel solution has then been subjected to public consultation of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) by the Ministry of Transport in Denmark in 2013. Under the framework of this consultation, the author developed an optimized TBM tunnel alternative based on the TMF and TMG concepts, which proved to be much more cost-effective than the “official” TBM tunnel solution and the immersed tunnel solution [22]. However, this alternative was not accepted, and the immersed tunnel solution obtained its approval.
The EIA of the project was also submitted to public consultation in the state of Schleswig-Holstein, in Germany, in 2014, where, after a rather harsh process, approval was also recently granted. However, the future of the project in its current form is still uncertain, as several environmental organizations threatened to challenge this decision in the German courts.
The immersed tunnel solution is a conventional immersed tunnel, consisting of a single prismatic tube approximately 18 km long, 42.2 m wide, and 8.9 m high, consisting of 89 precast concrete segments in general with 217 m in length (Figure 15) [21]. There are also cut-and-cover sections at the ends.
Immersed tunnel solution. Current cross-section.
The tunnel is provided with four traffic galleries: two road galleries, 11.0 m wide and 5.2 m high, and two (ballastless) rail galleries, 6.0 m wide and 6.0 m high. It also includes a service gallery, placed between the two road galleries, 2.0 m wide, for the installation of pipes and cables and to be used as temporary refugee although not allowing to be used by vehicles.
The railway galleries are provided with emergency walkways on both sides, 1.3 m wide, while the road galleries have an emergency lane on the outside but have neither internal edge nor emergency walkways.
The precast segments are placed in a trench dredged in the seabed, on a bedding layer of crushed rock. A combination of locking gravel fill and sand fill is then backfilled along the sides of the elements, while a protection layer of stones is placed across the top of the elements. Part of the dredged material is placed over the protection layer.
The execution of the works presents significant risks, since they are developed at the surface of the open sea, in a zone of intense ship traffic, and using precast segments which are significantly larger than those used in prior projects.
On the contrary, the safety concept of the tunnel presents several significant shortcomings [27], namely, (a) the road galleries have no emergency walkways, so, during escape, those from behind will tend to push the others ahead into the traffic lanes; (b) with the arrival of dozens, perhaps hundreds, of people at a roadway gallery, fleeing an incident gallery, there is the risk of disruption of the traffic flow in this gallery, preventing the arrival of rescue vehicles; (c) rescue of the passengers of a train (full of 600 people) will need at least a dozen buses, which can take several hours to have them at the scene; and (d) the traffic flow in the non-incident galleries will be significantly disturbed by the occurrence of any safety problem in one of the galleries of the tunnel.
A very serious question is how to escape from the outer railway gallery. Passengers will have to cross the railway line of the internal rail gallery to reach the adjacent road gallery, which will be very dangerous and therefore should not be acceptable (see Figure 15) [27].
Based on TMG and TMF concepts, an optimized TBM tunnel alternative was developed [22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27] by the author. It consists of two separate tunnels, one for road traffic and the other for rail traffic (Figure 16), placed beside one another at a distance of about 15–20 m, that go deep into the ground to about elevation −63 m, complemented with cut-and-cover sections at the ends.
Optimized TBM tunnel alternative. Current cross-section.
The rail tunnel is about 20 km long and has an inner diameter of 11.5 m, with precast segments 0.45 m thick (Di/25) and 0.15 m clearance between the lining and the ground, to be injected; hence, the excavated diameter of the tunnel is 12.7 m, a common size for TBM tunnels. An intermediate slab and a central wall are then constructed, creating two parallel, independent, and isolated rail galleries with 38 m2 cross-sectional area, each for a direction of traffic, and a service gallery below, 2.2 m high (Figure 17).
Optimized TBM tunnel alternative. Cross-section of the railway tunnel.
The variant B of the TMG concept is used; thus, the emergency walkways of the rail galleries, 1.4 m wide (wider than those of the immersed tunnel solution), are placed on the inner side.
On both emergency walkways, there are escape doors spaced 400 m (less than the required by the EU rules [3]) that have access to vertical access galleries placed in the middle of the tunnel, at the separating wall (Figure 17).
Although the placement of the vertical access galleries in the middle of the tunnel causes a slight local decrease in the cross-sectional area of the railway galleries, since the vertical access galleries are outside the portal zones, the comfort conditions within the trains will not be affected.
The road tunnel is about 19 km long and has an inner diameter of 14.2 m, with precast segments 0.55 m thick (Di/25) and 0.15 m clearance between the lining and the ground to be injected; hence, the excavated diameter is 15.6 m (Figure 18), the same as of the largest TBM tunnels in operation, although (as referred above) larger TBM tunnels are still being built, such as the SR99 in Seattle (USA), 17.5 m in diameter, and the Tuen Mun-Chek Lap in Hong Kong (CN), 17.6 m in diameter.
Optimized TBM tunnel alternative. Cross-section of the road tunnel.
Inside the precast tunnel, two intermediate slabs are constructed, creating two superimposed road galleries, independent and isolated, each one for a direction of traffic, 5.0 m high, and a service gallery below, 2.0 m high.
Both roadway galleries have two lanes of 3.5 m wide each, external emergency lane 2.2 m wide, inner edge 1.0 m wide, and emergency walkways on both sides 1.2 m wide, over a total width of 12.6 m, greater than those of the immersed tunnel (11.0 m).
Laterally to the emergency walkways in one of the sides of the tunnel, there are escape doors spaced 400 m (less than the required by the EU rules [5]) that have access to vertical access galleries, allowing the safe passage of people between the road galleries and the service gallery (Figure 18).
The volume of excavated material that will have to be placed in the reclamation areas is about 6.2 million cubic meters, much smaller than the volume of the dredged material that will have to be placed in the case of the immersed tunnel solution (14.8 million cubic meters, as mentioned). The spending of natural resources in the main building materials (footprint) is as follows: concrete, 1.9 million cubic meters, and rock and sand, non-significant, which is also much smaller than in the case of the immersed tunnel solution [22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27].
In the event of accident or fire in one of the traffic galleries of the tunnels, users will leave that gallery by walking through the respective emergency walkway to the nearest escape door, from which they achieve the service gallery of the tunnel, down the stairs of the vertical access galleries.
Inside the service gallery, dedicated emergency vehicles of the EMEV type that circulate in two parallel lines will allow for the access of emergency personnel and the evacuation of users out of the tunnel. They are grouped in “trains” (of five in the rail tunnel and two in the road tunnel), being parked at both portals of the tunnels (Figure 19). In such situations there will be no disturbance of the traffic flow in the non-incident gallery.
Optimized TBM tunnel alternative. Portals of the tunnels.
The “official” TBM tunnel solution consists of three tubes [21]: two road tunnels with internal diameter of 14.2 m, corresponding to excavated diameters of about 15.6 m, and a rail tunnel with 15.2 m of internal diameter, corresponding to an excavated diameter of about 16.6 m, which leads to excavated volumes of about 3.82 million cubic meters for each road tunnel and 4.32 million cubic meters for the rail tunnel.
Whereas the estimated cost of this solution was 6800 million euros, and considering that the unit cost of the rail tunnels is about 70% the unit costs of the road tunnels [25, 26, 27], unit costs of 450 euros per cubic meter for the rail tunnel and 635 euros per cubic meter for the road tunnel are obtained.
Hence, for the optimized TBM tunnel alternative, unit costs of 450 euros per cubic meter for the rail tunnel (the same as the one obtained for the “official” TBM tunnel solution) and 650 euros per cubic meter for the road tunnel (slightly higher than the one obtained for the “official” TBM tunnel solution, since there are the vertical access galleries to build) are assumed.
Whereas in this case, the excavated volumes are about 2.54 million cubic meters for the rail tunnel and 3.63 million cubic meters for the road tunnel, the estimated costs will be 1150 and 2400 million euros for the rail and the road tunnel, respectively. Therefore, the estimated cost of the TBM tunnel alternative is 3550 million euros, which is less than 2/3 the cost of the immersed tunnel solution [25, 26, 27].
It should also be noted that the unit costs obtained for the “official” TBM tunnel solution are significantly higher than those normally obtained in tunnels under similar conditions, so it has to be admitted that the estimated cost is exaggerated by at least 15%.
Thus, the cost of the optimized TBM tunnel alternative will probably be around 3100 million euros [27], so the financial effort of the promoter would be about half of that of the immersed tunnel solution.
Given the above considerations, the following main conclusions are drawn.
With regard to the environmental impact, while in the immersed tunnel proposal it is very significant, in the Optimized TBM tunnel alternative, it is very low; in particular it avoids any disturbance of the natural seabed along the tunnel.
Regarding the safety in operation, while the immersed tunnel solution has several weaknesses in its safety concept, the optimized TBM tunnel alternative presents an advanced safety concept, in which the rescue of users relies on dedicated unmanned electric vehicles operating inside a service gallery, so completely independent of the access conditions inside the traffic galleries.
With regard to costs, the cost of the optimized TBM tunnel alternative is about 3100–3550 million euros, which is less than 2/3 the cost of the immersed tunnel solution, and the financial effort of the promoter would be halved, allowing for an equivalent reduction in the tolls to be paid by the users or in the repayment period.
In summary, the optimized TBM tunnel alternative is undoubtedly much more cost-effective than the immersed tunnel solution.
The TISB, TMG, and TMF concepts are innovative developments that represent a step forward in the construction of rail and road tunnels executed with the TBM technique.
In addition to the intrinsic environmental advantages of TBM tunnels, they provide improved seismic behavior, reduction in the construction costs, and improvement of safety during operation.
Regarding the seismic behavior of the TBM tunnels built on soft ground, the TISB concept provides the tunnels with the necessary strength and ductility, avoiding the need for additional soil treatments.
Furthermore, although being formed by single tubes, each tunnel accommodates two completely independent and isolated galleries of traffic (for rail or road) and a service gallery below, which allows a very reliable safety concept, much more reliable than any currently existing.
With regard to costs, simply comparing the excavated volumes of the referred single-tube tunnels with those of the equivalent conventional solutions using two parallel tubes connected by cross-passages shows that reductions of more than 20% will be easily achieved.
With regard to safety in operation, the service gallery at the base of the tunnel provides a very reliable pathway for access of the emergency personnel and the rescue of users in the event of accident or fire inside the tunnel, through dedicated emergency vehicles (EMEVs), therefore independent of the availability of conventional rescue vehicles or the access conditions inside the traffic galleries of the tunnel.
In summary, the TISB, TMG, and TMF concepts provide very cost-effective and safe solutions that can be of great value in the construction of the rail and road tunnels of tomorrow, especially long tunnels.
Aluminum is considered a valuable material thanks to its lightness (around a third of copper and steel density), its mechanical properties and its resistance to corrosion. This highly malleable material presents an excellent thermal and electrical conductivity. It is also a magnificent light reflector that gives to it an attractive natural appearance. Furthermore, neither magnetic nor toxic, this metal is 100% recyclable, increasing its value even as a waste. In fact, its recycling offers powerful economic incentives [1, 2]. It should be noted that around 70% of the 761 million of tons of aluminum produced since 1886 continue in use [3].
\nThe large number of chemical elements that can be alloyed to pure aluminum allow to find a suitable aluminum alloy for every industrial case. The different compositions help to enhance some of the mechanical properties, as is shown in \nTable 1\n.
\nAl + | \nCu | \n\n
| \n
Zn | \n\n
| \n|
Si | \n\n
| \n|
Mn | \n\n
| \n|
Mg | \n\n
| \n
Main alloying elements used in aluminum alloys.
Identification | Aluminum Association | AA2024 | AA7475 | AA7050 | AA7075 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
UNS | A92024 | A97475 | A97050 | A97075 | |
ISO | AlCu4Mg1 | AlZn5.5MgCu(A) | AlZn6CuMgZr | AlZn5.5MgCu | |
Composition | Si | ≤0.5 | ≤0.1 | ≤0.12 | ≤0.4 |
Fe | ≤0.5 | ≤0.12 | ≤0.15 | ≤0.5 | |
Cu | 3.8–4.9 | 1.2–1.9 | 1.9–2.5 | 1.2–2.0 | |
Mn | 0.3–0.9 | ≤0.06 | ≤0.1 | ≤0.3 | |
Mg | 1.2–1.8 | 1.9–2.6 | 2.0–2.7 | 2.1–2.9 | |
Cr | ≤0.1 | 0.18–0.25 | ≤0.04 | 0.18–0.28 | |
Zn | ≤0.25 | 5.2–6.2 | 5.9–6.9 | 5.1–6.1 | |
Ti | ≤0.15 | ≤0.05 | ≤0.06 | ≤0.2 | |
Al | Rem. | Rem. | Rem. | Rem. | |
Properties | Density (kg/m3) | 2.78 | 2.81 | 2.83 | 2.81 |
Melting point (°C) | 500–638 | 477–635 | 490–630 | 475–635 | |
Thermal conductivity (W/m°C) | 121–151 | 163 | 157 | 130 | |
Thermal expansion (um/m°C) | 23.2 | 23.2 | 24.1 | 23.6 | |
Young’s Modulus (GPa) | 73 | 72 | 72 | 72 | |
Percent elongation (%) | 6–20 | 12 | 10 | 11 | |
Ultimate tensile strength-UTS (MPa) | 440–495 | 531 | 495–550 | 525–570 | |
Heat treatment | T3, T4, T361, T6, T81,T861 | T7651 | T74 | T6, T651, T73 |
Most frequent aeronautical aluminum alloys designation, compositions and technical properties [5].
Nonetheless, these alloys easily respond to hardening mechanisms, reaching strengths up to 30 times higher than the pure aluminum strength [4, 5]. For these reasons, the variety of applications for aluminum is constantly increasing, being an essential part of our life.
\nParticularly, transport industry absorbs more than a quarter of the produced aluminum, being applied to any type of transport. Cast alloys are widely used in the automotive industry while forging alloys predominate in the aeronautic field.
\nThis material is indispensable for the aeronautic industry since its origin, due to the high influence on the total weight of the aircraft. It is estimated that each ton of weight reduction in the structure of an airplane, considering an average weight of 80 kg per passenger, luggage on board included, results in an increase of 12 passengers per flight [6]. Likewise, the weight of the aircraft is directly proportional to fuel consumption as well as operational and maintenance costs, especially in landing gear consumable elements [7].
\nConsequently, light materials such as titanium-based alloys, composite materials and aluminum alloys are the most common choices for the structural elements of this sector. Despite nowadays it seems to be a trend trying to replace aluminum alloys by composite materials, forged aluminum alloys or some of its variants 2xxx (Al-Cu) and 7xxx (Al-Zn) series are still strategic materials for most of the structural parts (\nFigure 1\n) [8]. Their choice ensures a wide scope and a predictable in-service behavior [6]. That’s why, 82% of the structure of a Boeing 747 aircraft and 70% of a Boeing 777 are made of this type material [1, 4].
\nStructural parts manufactured in aluminum in an A319 aircraft.
Aeronautical parts have specific characteristics. They are designed to increase their strength and reduce their weight as well as to be integrated in the aircraft using assembly operations.
\nIn the case of aluminum machining, the cost is significantly influenced by the machinability problems, which are basically associated with the heat generated during machining due to the deformation of the crystal lattice and the friction between the chip and cutting-tool [9].
\nThe study of machining processes and the theory of metal cutting dates back to F.W. Taylor, who published “On the Art of Metal Cutting” in the early 20th century [10]. Since then, the scientific/technical advances have been spectacular, among the most noteworthy milestones are: new materials and tool coatings, automation of the machine tool, increasing the process accuracy and its monitoring, among others.
\nThe most common operations are milling and turning to shape the component, while drilling is mainly used to prepare assembly operations. These processes keep in common the material removal in order to give the desired shape and dimensions, that is, to add value to the workpiece.
\nDue to the widespread use of forging alloys, it is common to find parts with a high Buy to Fly ratio (BtF). The BtF defines the relation between the weight of the purchased raw material and the weight of the part that finally flies [8, 11], which means that most of the raw material is removed transforming it into chips during the machining operation. In fact, milling of monolithic parts can achieve up to 12: 1 BtF. Such high BtF factors will affect the primarily cost, weight, and performance of the part.
\nIn summary, the aeronautical components start from a large volume of raw material, in which is necessary to remove the excess of material. Depending on the geometry and function of the component, various machining processes can be used, standing out the drilling, milling and turning processes. The correct control of these machining processes allows to obtain high quality parts, as those demanded in aeronautics.
\nIn the following sections, the main characteristics of these machining processes are presented based on a literature review. The text analyzes when and how each machining is used, covering the parameters and the cutting-tool wear effects on the quality of the produced components. This text is illustrated with examples extracted from experimental campaigns performed by the authors of this chapter.
\nAll the experimental work and most of the literature find is focused on the two main Al series which characteristics are shown in \nTable 2\n.
\nAircrafts are subjected to a wide temperature ranges during their service, being able to reach up to 40°C while operating in airports and temperatures below −50°C when flying. This wide gradient implies that the structural joints must be designed to withstand stresses in a wide thermal gradient. Therefore, the joint must be made with rivets, while the use of welded joints is not certified. Because of this, drilling is one of the prior machining operations in the assembly of aerospace components [11, 12].
\nDrilling operation have a direct impact on the performance of the riveted joint, affecting mainly its dimensional compatibility with the part to join and the joint fatigue behavior, being particularly important in airframes parts. For this reason, drilling is monitored measuring the thrust force and the torque produced during the machining. Afterwards, some quality parameters such as roughness, burr formation or roundness, are usually measured to ensure the quality of the obtained hole [13, 14, 15].
\nThis quality is usually affected by different factors, including the correct the selection of the cutting parameters, movements of the operator during the machining, incorrect chip removal, marks produced by the cutting-tool due to uncontrolled vibrations, as well as imperfections in the drilling angles [16].
\nUncontrolled vibrations can be reduced by using automatic drilling machines or by reducing the length of the cutting-tool, decreasing the deflection of the tip and improving the roundness cylindricity of the hole [16]. However, the main problems of aluminum drilling are roughness, burr formation and cutting-tool wear, which are related mainly to the machining parameters [17].
\nAdditionally, fatigue behavior is highly influenced by the roughness, even more than by residual stresses, so their control becomes a critical task. A higher roughness on the hole surface reflects deeper machining marks, scratches and gauges that may work as stress concentration points, increasing the possibilities of crack propagation by magnifying the stress on the part at the assembly point [18].
\nDrilling is an axial machining operation where the cutting-tool rotates and penetrates perpendicular to the surface to be drilled at the same time, \nFigure 2\n.
\nDrilling scheme and image of a drilling process.
It is governed by two main parameters: tangential cutting speed (
Similarly,
Both parameters have a direct impact on the quality of the hole, and though on the quality of the joint.
\nIn a general way, lower values of roughness are obtained when low cutting speed and feed-rate are used [17, 19]. Higher spindle speed brings longer chips that curl inside the hole, producing marks on its surface [19]. Other way to improve the roughness results it to use high point and helix angles [20], but in this case, diamond coatings should be considered to increase wear resistance [17]. Similarly, higher-feed rates increase thrust force and though the wear behavior, while an increase of the cutting speed slightly reduces the thrust forces.
\nCylindricity and perpendicularity errors rise by increasing feed-rate and depth of cut, but cutting speed have a different effect in both of them. Low cutting speed reduces roundness error but it also peaks the perpendicularity error, so the optimum value should be selected depending on the part requirements [21].
\nProbably, the most relevant phenomenon in the drilling of aluminum alloys is the burr formation. Burrs in aluminum are usually classified as type “A”, uniform along the hole [22]. They are related to the aluminum ductility (10–12% elongation), affected by the drill geometry (point angle, helix angle, diameter, web thickness and chisel edge) and the process parameters (F, S). Low feed-rates are recommended to reduce burr height, especially near the exit of the cutting tool [22], while a proper cutting speed can interact on the burr thickness. Additionally, large point angles minimize burr height [19]. If the selection of the suitable parameters cannot avoid burr appearance, deburring operations before riveting and assembly are performed. They depend on the burr height, being mandatory when it excess 0.3 mm.
\nFinally, the dimensional accuracy is mainly related to the helix angle. Larger helix angles increase it [20]. However, it should be considered that oversized holes are common and low cutting speed and high-feed rates can also increase its deviation from the nominal value [19], mainly due to adhesion wear mechanism.
\nAluminum alloys are usually machined under dry conditions using tungsten carbide (WC-Co) tools but more aggressive parameters can be selected depending on the lubricating conditions. Carbide tools increase the process efficiency in terms of wear behavior [14] but they may have an impact on the hardness and the cylindricity whereas parameters need to be carefully selected to not increase the tool wear due to thermal effects.
\nWhen liquid lubricants are used, they should be placed inside the working area, but as drilling edges work inside the material, the chips produced inside it are constantly removed upward, forcing the lubricant to be evacuated from the place of action and reducing its cooling effect [16]. For this reason, the most adopted lubricating option to avoid this problem it to project the cutting fluids trough the cutting-tool, creating an internal lubrication.
\nWear control is essential to obtain the expected quality parameters, affecting the diameter, the roughness and burr height. As example of the aforementioned, \nFigure 3\n shows different graphs analyzing the diameter, the roughness, the burr and cutting forces evolution in the dry drilling of AA7475 alloy.
\nDiameter, average roughness, burr and cutting forces evolution in the dry drilling of a AA7475 alloy drilled using a double-lip 6.6 mm diameter cutting-tool, S = 4800 rev/min and F = 1085 mm/min.
It can be observed a diameter reduction produced by the heat effect on the expansion of the hole during the drilling operation. A slight opposite trend can be found for the thrust force due to the loss of cutting edge capacity, reduced by wear effects. Similarly, burr height easily grows over 0.3 mm, the maximum value permitted, forcing deburring operations as long as the tool wear increase. At last, Ra values present a high variability, indicating the presence of dynamic problems or a poor chip evacuation, as well as the alternate effects of the secondary adhesion wear mechanism. However, they are far from 3.2 μm, the maximum value allowed for metal alloys.
\nDrilling of aluminum components is sometimes performed in multiple materials at the same time such as stacks or laminates. For this reason, different advanced drilling techniques are used to improve the quality of the hole and avoid possible defects derived from them.
Orbital Drilling (OD) is a technique where the hole is produced using a milling-tool instead of a drill bit. The cutting tool generates an orbital path to create the hole instead of an axial one. This technique is usually limited to 40 mm depth to reduce the possible vibration produced during the operation, which may decrease the hole quality as well as the cutting-tool life [23]. Moreover, cutting forces are lower than the obtained in conventional drilling, increasing the option of robots and machines that can be used in this operation [24]. It also drops the thermal effect of the machining, by its discontinuous cut and the short chip produced, that is also continuously removed reducing the need of lubricants [25]. This technique is quite useful when stacks of aluminum and titanium are drilled.
Vibration Assisted Drilling (VAS) is a technique that combines the drilling operation with an impose high frequency vibration on the tool. It reduces the cutting forces, the burr formation and it increases the breakability of the chip, which increases the surface quality and reduces the dimensional error and the wear behavior [26, 27]. This technique includes peck drilling, where the amplitude and the frequency are higher and created by the alternative axial displacement in the machining center. VAS is a common technique for aluminum and fiber composite stacks drilling.
Milling of aluminum in the aeronautical industry is used to produce light components with a high accurate dimension. This operation creates slim parts or monolithic parts. Peripheral milling is performed in the first type to adjust the final dimensions of preformed sheets. Otherwise, monolithic parts come from a rough stock of aluminum and up to the 95% of the material can be removed [28], as it was mentioned before. For this reason, milling of aeronautic alloys selects the most aggressive parameters, so the material removal rate is as high as possible.
\nThe quality of these type of parts is verified trough the surface quality and the dimensional accuracy [29] and both types involve at some point of the operation, a low stiffness situation were deflection and vibration, including chatter issues, may appear severally affecting their final quality. Consequently, low stiffness becomes determinant to select the machining parameters and reduce wear behavior. Additionally, this process has to consider residual stresses produced and released during the milling as well as the temperature achieved, especially to meet the precision targets [30].
\nIn contrast to drilling, the continuous release of chip and cooling effect of inconstant contact favor manufactures to recommend high speed machining parameters. This option reduces the wear mechanism and increase the process efficiency. Nevertheless, high speed combined with low rigidity makes easier the appearance of chatter. These vibrations can arise due to the system excitation at the natural frequency response of the cutting-tool or the workpiece or due to the amplification of the displacements caused by the forces and the lack of stiffness [31, 32]. In these cases, the cut is unstable creating an un-constant chip thickness, which is afterwards reflected on the surface quality [33, 34]. Similarly, the static deflection produced by the forces involved in the process leads to over or under cuts, affecting the final dimension of the parts [35, 36]. These facts enhance the importance of the workholding to ensure the final quality of the parts.
\nTherefore, different workholding and fixture devices had being designed to increase the part stiffness. Most of them change their position during the operation to ensure the maximum rigidity of the complete system all over the operation [37]. It is common to combine them with active damping actuators to attenuate vibrations [38]. The better clamping system, the more aggressive the parameters will be and the higher the efficiency of the process.
\nRegarding the parameters and tool path selection, analytical approaches can be useful to reduce defects on the part and in-process issues. Simulations must include an accurate model of the material and a system that allows them to consider the continuous material removal, which will update the rigidity behavior of the part [39].
\nFor the particular case of tool path and strategies, virtual twins’ developments are common since they allow to predict the part behavior and improve the operation [40].
\nMilling is a machining process where a rotary cutting-tools is used to remove material. The tool advance into a work piece varying the direction on one or several axes, \nFigure 4\n. This operation is defined with the same cutting parameters proposed in the expressions that govern drilling operation, Eqs. (1) and (2), including a radial feed rate.
\nMilling scheme and image of milling processes.
Conventional milling strategies are prone to generate undercut while climb milling is usually related to overcut [37]. Symmetric tool paths are selected to compensate the effect of residual stresses in the part deformation [41] as well as to reduce in-process deflection. Similarly, particular tool paths may be designed to increase the part stiffness during the cutting operation [42].
\nIn terms of parameter selection, higher cutting speeds and lower axial depths of cut reduce the cutting forces and though the deflection [35, 36]. High cutting speeds also have an impact on the temperature of the process. When high cutting speeds are used, the chip formation mechanism changes to a near to adiabatic process. In this situation, the chip takes a relevant role as a heat exchanger, evacuating most of the heat generated and keeping the workpiece and cutting-tool relatively cold. This fact directly influences the cutting force components, as is shown in \nFigure 5\n. The force in the feed rate direction is reduced up to 50% from 600 to 750 m/min, the high speed machining range for aluminum. The other force component is kept almost constant and proportional to the feed rate.
\nEvolution of the cutting force components, obtained during the milling of a AA2024-T3 alloy, as a function of the cutting speed and the feed rate. Axial depth of cut is kept constant at 10 mm.
Roughness is also proportional to the feed-rate, directly increasing with it. Nevertheless, the adhesion wear mechanism can produce alterations in the geometry of the cutting-tools, improving the surface quality with the machining time, as is shown in \nFigure 6\n.
\nRoughness average evolution during the milling of an AA2024-T3 alloy.
Milling operations are usually performed in different steps, roughing and finishing, as a consequence burr formation is less significant than in drilling operations. However, deburring operations may be included in the same process if the tool wear considerably increases, having direct impact on the burr height, \nFigure 7\n.
\nBurr height evolution during the milling of an AA2024-T3 alloy.
The cutting tools recommended for aluminum milling have the following characteristics. Very sharp edges to minimize adhesion and to perform a smooth cut. Two-lip cutting tools, with low helix angles (25°-30°) and long pitches to facilitate the evacuation of large chip flow rates [43, 44]. In order to reduce dynamic instabilities, lower than 5 length-to-diameter ratios (L/D < 5) are recommended.
\nWhereas the choice between integral or insert tools depends on the application, rounded inserts are more stable if they work with a considerably larger radial (20–60% diameter) than axial paths (2–8% diameter) [45] while integral cutting-tools, with both flat and toroidal tips, work much better laterally, with axial depth of cut between (50–150% diameter). However, these depths of cut also depend on the conditions described in the previous paragraph [45].
\nNowadays there is a great interest in the machine intelligence. In this sense, different monitoring solutions are available to control the process. This measure allows to control the system state and with an adaptive control system, auto-regulate the cutting parameters.
\nFor instance, an increase of the part vibration can be detected through the cutting forces or the acoustic emission frequency analysis will lead to a decrease of the surface quality, if it is detected on time and there is a model governing the case, the correct parameters can be changed so the situation is inverted [46].
\nSimilarly, distance sensors are used to act on the depth of cut, so when the distance recorded is not in the expected range the system automatically modifies the depth of cut improving the dimensional accuracy [47, 48].
\nFinally, the cutting power and the cutting force signals can provide information about the tool wear or the process temperature improving the dimensional accuracy. It should also be considered that the variation on the cutting parameters can extend tool life slightly decreasing the material removal rate but increasing the process efficiency.
\nDespite turning processes are mainly applied in aerospace to critical elements, such as connecting bolts for gates and actuators built of titanium alloys, several non-critical elements are made of aluminum, as shafts, fasteners and spacers. These parts are also evaluated in terms of roughness, roundness, parallelism deviation and residual stresses to define their in-service behavior, but their requirements are less stringent than those for critical structural parts.
\nTurning is the simplest machining process, so its use is also essential to obtain preliminary results that may give an initial approximation to more complex processes like drilling and milling. That’s why, this operation is commonly used to define the machinability of the alloys as well as the tool wear behavior in orthogonal or oblique cutting configurations, therefore its importance.
\nSeveral studies about the turning of aluminum alloys identify the importance of cutting parameters on the micro geometrical properties of the generated surfaces, evaluating them in terms of roughness average (Ra) [49]. Few of them correlate the residual stresses and machining of aluminum alloys [50], but the induced residual stresses are in all cases compressive not having a negative effect on the part. Finally, the roundness is usually measured from the parallelism deviation, since it is a relevant feature that can affect the in-service behavior.
\nTurning is the most suitable machining process to create revolution surfaces by using a cutting-tool. This operation has two main movements to set the dimensions, one along the Z axis of the stock (
Turning scheme and image of a turning process.
Regarding the cutting parameters, they are defined by the same expressions that govern drilling and milling operations, but in this case,
These parameters have a direct impact on the micro and macro geometrical deviations as well as on the tool wear. Generally, better Ra results are achieved when low feed-rates and high cutting speeds are applied during short machining times (\nFigure 9\n).
\nRa as a function of the cutting speed in the dry turning of AA2024-T3, depth of cut 1 mm and machining time 10 s.
Ra is also affected by the machining time (\nFigure 10\n). It gradually decreases due to the adhesive wear [51]. This mechanism modifies the initial tool geometry, due to the material adhered to the rake and clearance faces, that reduces the edge position angle [52]. This fact decreases the height of the peaks created in each step, producing a smoother surface, in a similar way that was exposed for milling.
\nRoughness average evolution in the turning of AA2024 as a function of the depth of cut.
Shape quality criteria for turning parts include roundness and parallelism deviations (
Parametric surface
Finally, as in the previous machining processes, the current trend in the machining of Al alloys is to minimize or eliminate the environmental impact reducing or avoiding the use of cutting fluids (dry turning) [56, 57, 58].
\nHowever, both turning and dry turning can have a negative impact on the in-service behavior of the parts or components manufactured, by reducing the functional performance of the process through the loss of the quality or the surface integrity [51, 56, 59]. Dry machining also has an impact on the wear behavior affecting the macro geometrical properties of the machined elements, in terms of dimensions or shape tolerances.
\nIn the previous sections, the main machining techniques applied in the machining of aluminum aerospace alloys have been explained. For each machining process, it was indicated the influence of cutting-tool wear in the quality features of the machined parts. For this reason, it is relevant to explain the wear mechanisms that take place in the machining of aluminum alloys.
\nWhen the cutting-tool penetrates the part, it causes a compressive plastic deformation, which intensity can exceed the bond energy in certain planes, leading to shearing or sliding elements along planes. At the same time, the elastic recovery of the chip and the tribological interaction between the part-chip-tool provoke an exchange of heat that may thermally affect the tool properties. This change of properties or tool wear may be produced by different wear mechanism but all of them lead to possible changes in the cutting forces or in the dynamic stability of the process modifying, as a consequence, the properties of the surface generated [60, 61, 62, 63].
\nThe most common wear mechanism of aluminum alloys machining is secondary adhesion. This phenomenon takes place due to the temperature achieved in the process, the thermal conductivity (between 120 and 165 W/m°C) of the part-tool combination and the selected cutting speed. This mechanism, as well as the temperature and parameters associated, has been deeply studied for ferrous materials. Nevertheless, these studies are not directly applicable for softer materials such as aluminum. The high plasticity of this material favor chipping or notch wear for low cutting speeds [61, 62, 64].
\nSecondary adhesion appears divided in to two well-located phenomena, the Built-Up Edge (BUE) is located close to the cutting edge and the Built-Up Layer (BUL) is placed on the rake face [60, 65], as it is shown in \nFigure 12\n.
\nSecondary adhesion in turning insert, milling and drilling cutting tools.
This adhesion process appears in different steps, which are represented in \nFigure 13\n. At the beginning of the machining process, a layer of material is adhered on the rake face of the cutting-tool, creating a BUL due to a mechanic-thermic effect of the cutting mechanism. Once it is formed, the cutting-tool geometry changes, promoting the growth of the adhered material over the cutting edge (BUE), which grows up to a critical thickness. Once this critical thickness is reached, BUE is mechanically extruded along the rake face, increasing the thickness of BUL and forming an adhered multilayer of material [66, 67].
\nScheme of the secondary adhesion mechanism.
Both the BUL and the BUE can disappear, be detached and be rebuilt, causing the gradually breaking of cutting-tool particles that are removed by the chip flow. This is therefore, a dynamic mechanism with successive layers of chip material welded and hardened. This cyclic behavior may change a gradual wear into a full weakening and even into the complete fracture of the tool [66, 67]. \nFigure 14\n shows the previous instants to the detachment of the adhered material, enriched with cutting-tool (WC-Co) elements in the machining of AA2024 alloy. This fact may also be favored by a weak edge or other types of tool wear, such as abrasion and diffusion.
\nDetachment of adhered material in the dry turning of AA2024.
If the temperature achieved is low the adhesion is not very significant, no matter if the chips are long or short. Otherwise, when a critical temperature is reached, other types of wear mechanisms such as diffusion may appear, increasing the synergy effect previously described [68, 69].
\nThe use of aluminum alloys, mostly forged, remains essential to build aircrafts. Al-Cu and Al-Zn are the most used alloys due to their excellent physicochemical-cost ratio properties. They come as raw material as sheets, blocks or cylinders that have to be drilled, milled or turned, in order to give them a final geometry.
\nDrilling, milling and turning are complex machining processes whose fundaments are based on the theory of metal cutting. The drilling process is fundamental in the manufacture of aircraft for the assembly of the structures using rivets. For specific applications with high quality requirements, OD and VAS techniques are used. Milling produces light components with a high accurate dimension, being mainly applied to monolithic parts that present deflection, overcuts, residual stresses and part deformation issues if the parameters are not properly selected. Turning generates surfaces of revolution, used to manufacture non-critical elements as shafts, fasteners and spacers.
\nThe parameters that governs the machining processes, mainly cutting speed and feed rate, are highly related to the quality features usually required in aeronautics, surface quality, burr formation, macro geometrical deviations, form errors, etc. Generally, feed rate increase cutting forces and roughness while the effect of the cutting speed is related to thermal phenomenon and its influence depends on the machining regime. Feed rate selection usually comes with an agreement between different quality criteria and the process efficiency and high cutting speeds are the best choice whenever they are possible. Finally, both affects the tool wear produce by the secondary adhesion mechanism creating a BUL/BUE, which affects the macro and micro geometrical deviation. However, these effects can be diminished in different ways, using advanced tool coatings or projecting harmful cutting fluids in the cutting zone. In more advanced systems, machine intelligence is commonly used to look for adaptive control responses that auto-regulate the cutting parameters after the measure of the system state.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
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This chapter thus briefly discusses different biological methods, specially biofilm technologies, the development of biofilms on different filter media, factors affecting their development as well as their structure and function. It also tackles various conventional and modern molecular techniques for detailed exploration of the composition, diversity and dynamics of biofilms. 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Chitosan is biocompatible, biodegradable and non-toxic, so that it can be usedin medicalapplications such as antimicrobial and wound healing biomaterials. It also used as chelating agent due to its ability to bind with cholesterol, fats, proteins and metal ions.",book:{id:"4648",slug:"concepts-compounds-and-the-alternatives-of-antibacterials",title:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials",fullTitle:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials"},signatures:"H. M. Ibrahim and E.M.R. 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Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"65914",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Action Mechanisms of Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-action-mechanisms-of-antibiotics-and-antibiotic-resistance",totalDownloads:4428,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu, Nesrin Gareayaghi and Bekir S. Kocazeybek",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"},{id:"248288",title:"Prof.",name:"Bekir",middleName:null,surname:"Kocazeybek",slug:"bekir-kocazeybek",fullName:"Bekir Kocazeybek"},{id:"406463",title:"Dr.",name:"Nesrin",middleName:null,surname:"Gareayaghi",slug:"nesrin-gareayaghi",fullName:"Nesrin Gareayaghi"}]},{id:"50992",title:"Probiotics: A Comprehensive Review of Their Classification, Mode of Action and Role in Human Nutrition",slug:"probiotics-a-comprehensive-review-of-their-classification-mode-of-action-and-role-in-human-nutrition",totalDownloads:5429,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Probiotics are live microorganisms that live in gastrointestinal (GI) tract and are beneficial for their hosts and prevent certain diseases. In this chapter, after a complete introduction to probiotics, definition, mechanism of action, and their classification, currently used organisms will be discussed in detail. Moreover, different kinds of nutritional synthetic products of probiotics along with their safety and drug interaction will be noticed. This chapter mentions all clinical trial studies that have been done to evaluate probiotic efficacy with a focus on gastrointestinal diseases.",book:{id:"5193",slug:"probiotics-and-prebiotics-in-human-nutrition-and-health",title:"Probiotics and Prebiotics in Human Nutrition and Health",fullTitle:"Probiotics and Prebiotics in Human Nutrition and Health"},signatures:"Amirreza Khalighi, Reza Behdani and Shabnam Kouhestani",authors:[{id:"179560",title:"Dr.",name:"Amirreza",middleName:null,surname:"Khalighi",slug:"amirreza-khalighi",fullName:"Amirreza Khalighi"},{id:"185238",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Behdani",slug:"reza-behdani",fullName:"Reza Behdani"},{id:"185239",title:"Dr.",name:"Shabnam",middleName:null,surname:"Kouhestani",slug:"shabnam-kouhestani",fullName:"Shabnam Kouhestani"}]},{id:"56849",title:"Physiology and Pathology of Innate Immune Response Against Pathogens",slug:"physiology-and-pathology-of-innate-immune-response-against-pathogens",totalDownloads:6226,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Pathogen infections are recognized by the immune system, which consists of two types of responses: an innate immune response and an antigen-specific adaptive immune response. The innate response is characterized by being the first line of defense that occurs rapidly in which leukocytes such as neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, eosinophils, mast cells, dendritic cells, etc., are involved. These cells recognize the pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), which have been evolutionarily conserved by the diversity of microorganisms that infect humans. Recognition of these pathogen-associated molecular patterns occurs through pattern recognition receptors such as Toll-like receptors and some other intracellular receptors such as nucleotide oligomerization domain (NOD), with the aim of amplifying the inflammation and activating the adaptive cellular immune response, through the antigenic presentation. In the present chapter, we will review the importance of the main components involved in the innate immune response, such as different cell types, inflammatory response, soluble immune mediators and effector mechanisms exerted by the immune response against bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites; all with the purpose of eliminating them and eradicating the infection of the host.",book:{id:"5975",slug:"physiology-and-pathology-of-immunology",title:"Physiology and Pathology of Immunology",fullTitle:"Physiology and Pathology of Immunology"},signatures:"José Luis Muñoz Carrillo, Flor Pamela Castro García, Oscar\nGutiérrez Coronado, María Alejandra Moreno García and Juan\nFrancisco Contreras Cordero",authors:[{id:"214236",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Muñoz-Carrillo",slug:"jose-luis-munoz-carrillo",fullName:"Jose Luis Muñoz-Carrillo"},{id:"216080",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandra",middleName:null,surname:"Moreno-García",slug:"alejandra-moreno-garcia",fullName:"Alejandra Moreno-García"},{id:"216081",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Gutiérrez-Coronado",slug:"oscar-gutierrez-coronado",fullName:"Oscar Gutiérrez-Coronado"},{id:"216082",title:"Dr.",name:"Pamela",middleName:null,surname:"Castro-García",slug:"pamela-castro-garcia",fullName:"Pamela Castro-García"},{id:"220717",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Contreras Cordero",slug:"juan-francisco-contreras-cordero",fullName:"Juan Francisco Contreras Cordero"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"13",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83067",title:"Multiplicity in the Genes of Carbon Metabolism in Antibiotic-Producing Streptomycetes",slug:"multiplicity-in-the-genes-of-carbon-metabolism-in-antibiotic-producing-streptomycetes",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106525",abstract:"Streptomycetes exhibit genetic multiplicity, like many other microorganisms, and redundancy occurs in many of the genes involved in carbon metabolism. The enzymes of the glycolytic pathway presenting the greatest multiplicity were phosphofructokinase, fructose 1,6-bisphosphate aldolase, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, and pyruvate kinase. The genes that encode citrate synthase and subunits of the succinate dehydrogenase complex are the ones that show the greatest multiplicity, while in the phosphoenolpyruvate-pyruvate-oxaloacetate node, only malic enzymes and pyruvate phosphate dikinase present two copies in some Streptomyces. The extra DNA from these multiple gene copies can be more than 50 kb, and the question arises whether all of these genes are transcribed and translated. As far as we know, there is few information about the transcription of these genes in any of this Streptomyces, nor if any of the activities that are encoded by a single gene could be limiting both for growth and for the formation of precursors of the antibiotics produced by these microorganisms. Therefore, it is important to study the transcription and translation of genes involved in carbon metabolism in antibiotic-producing Streptomyces growing on various sugars.",book:{id:"10893",title:"Actinobacteria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10893.jpg"},signatures:"Toshiko Takahashi, Jonathan Alanís, Polonia Hernández and María Elena Flores"},{id:"82972",title:"Actinomycosis: Diagnosis, Clinical Features and Treatment",slug:"actinomycosis-diagnosis-clinical-features-and-treatment",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104698",abstract:"Actinomycosis is a filamentous bacterium that forms part of the normal human flora of the gastrointestinal, oropharynx and female genitalia. This indolent infection is characterized by abscess formation, widespread granulomatous disease, fibrosis, cavitary lung lesions and mass-like consolidations, simulating an active malignancy or systemic inflammatory diseases. It is subacute, chronic and variable presentation may delay diagnosis due to its capability to simulate other conditions. An accurate diagnostic timeline is relevant. Early diagnosis of pulmonary actinomycosis decreases the risk of indolent complications. Proper treatment reduces the need for invasive surgical methods. Actinomycosis can virtually involve any organ system, the infection spread without respecting anatomical variables as metastatic disease does, making malignancy an important part of the differential diagnosis. As it is normal gastrointestinal florae, it is difficult to cultivate, and share similar morphology to other organisms such as Nocardia and fungus. It is often difficult to be identified as the culprit of disease. Its true imitator capability makes this infectious agent a remarkable organism within the spectra of localized and disseminated disease. In this chapter, we will discuss different peculiarities of actinomycosis as an infectious agent, most common presentation in different organ systems, and challenging scenarios.",book:{id:"10893",title:"Actinobacteria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10893.jpg"},signatures:"Onix J. Cantres-Fonseca, Vanessa Vando-Rivera, Vanessa Fonseca-Ferrer, Christian Castillo Latorre and Francisco J. Del Olmo-Arroyo"},{id:"82412",title:"Potential of Native Microalgae from the Peruvian Amazon on the Removal of Pollutants",slug:"potential-of-native-microalgae-from-the-peruvian-amazon-on-the-removal-of-pollutants",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105686",abstract:"Environmental pollution is a severe and common problem in all the countries worldwide. Various physicochemical technologies and organisms (e.g., plants, microorganisms, etc.) are used to address these environmental issues, but low-cost, practical, efficient, and effective approaches have not been available yet. Microalgae offer an attractive, novel, and little-explored bioremediation alternative because these photosynthetic organisms can eliminate pathogenic microorganisms and remove heavy metals and toxic organic compounds through processes still under study. Our research team has conducted some experiments to determine the bioremediation potential of native microalgae on some pollutant sources (i.e., leachate and wastewater) and its ability to remove hazardous chemical compounds. Therefore, in this chapter, we provide the results of our research and updated information about this exciting topic. Experiments were conducted under controlled culture conditions using several native microalgae species, variable time periods, different pollutant sources, and hazardous chemicals such as ethidium bromide. The results indicated that native microalgae can remove pollutants (i.e., phosphorus, ammonia, etc.) of wastewater, leachate, and some hazardous chemical compounds such as ethidium bromide. In conclusion, native microalgae have an excellent potential for removing several pollutants and, consequently, could be used to develop bioremediation technologies based on native microalgae from the Peruvian Amazon.",book:{id:"11366",title:"Microalgae",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11366.jpg"},signatures:"Marianela Cobos, Segundo L. Estela, Carlos G. Castro, Miguel A. Grandez, Alvaro B. Tresierra, Corayma L. Cabezudo, Santiago Galindo, Sheyla L. Pérez, Angélica V. Rios, Jhon A. Vargas, Roger Ruiz, Pedro M. Adrianzén, Jorge L. Marapara and Juan C. Castro"},{id:"81859",title:"Respiratory Syncytial Virus",slug:"respiratory-syncytial-virus",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104771",abstract:"Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV)-driven bronchiolitis is one of the most common causes of pediatric hospitalization. Every year, we face 33.1 million episodes of RSV-driven lower respiratory tract infection without any available vaccine or cost-effective therapeutics since the discovery of RSV eighty years before. RSV is an enveloped RNA virus belonging to the pneumoviridae family of viruses. This chapter aims to elucidate the structure and functions of the RSV genome and proteins and the mechanism of RSV infection in host cells from entry to budding, which will provide current insight into the RSV-host relationship. In addition, this book chapter summarizes the recent research outcomes regarding the structure of RSV and the functions of all viral proteins along with the RSV life cycle and cell-to-cell spread.",book:{id:"11369",title:"RNA Viruses Infection",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11369.jpg"},signatures:"Sattya Narayan Talukdar and Masfique Mehedi"},{id:"82148",title:"Mosquito Population Modification for Malaria Control",slug:"mosquito-population-modification-for-malaria-control",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104907",abstract:"Malaria is a mosquito-borne disease that kills millions of people every year. Existing control tools have been insufficient to eliminate the disease in many endemic regions and additional approaches are needed. Novel vector-control strategies using genetic engineering to create malaria-resistant mosquitoes (population modification) can potentially contribute a new set of tools for mosquito control. Here we review the current mosquito control strategies and the development of transgenic mosquitoes expressing anti-parasite effector genes, highlighting the recent improvements in mosquito genome editing with CRISPR-Cas9 as an efficient and adaptable tool for gene-drive systems to effectively spread these genes into mosquito populations.",book:{id:"11379",title:"Mosquito Research - Recent Advances in Pathogen Interactions, Immunity, and Vector Control Strategies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11379.jpg"},signatures:"Rebeca Carballar-Lejarazú, Taylor Tushar, Thai Binh Pham and Anthony James"},{id:"81934",title:"Lactobacillus Use for Plant Fermentation: New Ways for Plant-Based Product Valorization",slug:"lactobacillus-use-for-plant-fermentation-new-ways-for-plant-based-product-valorization",totalDownloads:16,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104958",abstract:"Today, plant production is increasing, but most industrial processes generate a lot of waste and by-products for which, in the current context, it is a priority to recycle or valorize them. One of the cheapest valorization routes is fermentation, in particular lactic fermentation by Lactobacillus species, which produces lactic acid and other molecules of industrial interest such as bioactive compounds such as anthocyanin, organic acid, peptides, or phenol, which are widely found in the plant matrix, mainly in cereals, grass, fruits, and vegetables. Bioactive compounds may exert beneficial health effects, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, or prebiotic activities. In addition, lactic acid fermentation can improve existing products and lead to new applications in food, livestock feeding and biotechnology, such as the production of lactic acid, protein, or silage. This chapter reviews the use of Lactobacillus strains in the fermentation process of many plant bioresources or by-products through their different bioactivities, active molecules, and applications.",book:{id:"11372",title:"Lactobacillus - A Multifunctional Genus",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11372.jpg"},signatures:"Morgan Le Rouzic, Pauline Bruniaux, Cyril Raveschot, François Krier, Vincent Phalip, Rozenn Ravallec, Benoit Cudennec and François Coutte"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:102},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tGlobally, the ecological footprint is growing at a faster rate than GDP. This phenomenon has been studied by scientists for many years. However, clear strategies and actions are needed now more than ever. Every day, humanity, from individuals to businesses (public and private) and governments, are called to change their mindset in order to pursue a virtuous combination for sustainable development. Reasoning in a sustainable way entails, first and foremost, managing the available resources efficiently and strategically, whether they are natural, financial, human or relational. In this way, value is generated by contributing to the growth, improvement and socio-economic development of the communities and of all the players that make up its value chain. In the coming decades, we will need to be able to transition from a society in which economic well-being and health are measured by the growth of production and material consumption, to a society in which we live better while consuming less. In this context, digitization has the potential to disrupt processes, with significant implications for the environment and sustainable development. There are numerous challenges associated with sustainability and digitization, the need to consider new business models capable of extracting value, data ownership and sharing and integration, as well as collaboration across the entire supply chain of a product. In order to generate value, effectively developing a complex system based on sustainability principles is a challenge that requires a deep commitment to both technological factors, such as data and platforms, and human dimensions, such as trust and collaboration. Regular study, research and implementation must be part of the road to sustainable solutions. Consequently, this topic will analyze growth models and techniques aimed at achieving intergenerational equity in terms of economic, social and environmental well-being. It will also cover various subjects, including risk assessment in the context of sustainable economy and a just society.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11975,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo, Ph.D., is a professor in the Department of Engineering, University of Naples “Parthenope,” Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Italy. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plants, logistics, manufacturing, and safety. She serves as an associate editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process and is an editorial board member for several other journals. 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