Details of mechanised depillaring operations at different Indian coalfields.
\r\n\tAbout 25 percent of all foods produced globally are lost due to microbial growth. L. monocytogenes is a microorganism ubiquitously present in the environment and affects animals and humans. L. monocytogenes can enter a factory and is able to survive in biofilms in the food processing environment. The use of adequate sanitation procedures is a prerequisite in risk prevention. Moreover, effective control measures for L. monocytogenes are very important to food operators.
\r\n\r\n\tThe safety and shelf life maximizing of food products to meet the demand of retailers and consumers is a challenge and a concern of food operators.
\r\n\r\n\tTo obtain food systems more sustainable, several developments are ongoing to ensure safe food products with an extended shelf life and a reduction of food loss and waste. The problem of antimicrobial resistance is also a great issue that must be taken into consideration.
\r\n\r\n\tThe implementation of natural antimicrobials, using food cultures, ferments, or bacteriophages, is one approach to control L. monocytogenes in food products that meet the consumer preference for clean label solutions.
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art about Listeria monocytogenes in terms of occurrence in humans, animals, and food-producing plants. Its control by more natural agents allows for more sustainable food systems and points future directions to transform challenges into opportunities.
Around 96% of the total coal production in India is currently being produced by opencast mining method and the contribution of underground mining is on a declining trend from 22% in 2001 to 4% in 2019. Opencast is favoured due to availability of reserves at shallow depth of cover and heavy earth moving mechanised technologies over underground as the former has rock mechanics issues as only slope/dump stability. However, opencast mining method has limitations of depth and associated environmental concerns. Underground mining is a way forward towards clean coal production technology and sustainable development. Depletion of coal at shallow depth is paving the way towards underground mining.
Indian coal mining industry had rampantly developed a number of coal seams using Bord and Pillar (B&P) mining method on square/rectangular pillars and galleries with around 20–30% coal recovery as per Regulation 111 of the Coal Mines Regulation [1]. Development of coal seam using B&P mining method requires less technical knowledge of rock mechanics. Depillaring of the developed coal pillars becomes challenging due to complex geomining conditions of Indian coalfields namely nature of roof, geological discontinuities and surface/subsurface structures. Conventional depillaring (CD) using drilling-blasting faced issues of goaf encroachment, high induced stresses and failure of underground structures. Coal producing industries started looking for suitable mass coal producing underground technologies to meet the desired coal production. Longwall mining method was introduced long back in India during 1970s but did not get success due to the direct application of foreign technology in Indian complex geomining conditions without any
Continuous miner (CM) based mechanised depillaring (MD) has been introduced as a mass coal producing technology to extract the standing coal pillars. It has proved to be successful in India and CM has been deployed in a number of Indian coal mines and many more are yet to come. It has gained the faith of industry by proving its potential of safety and production. Reason of success of CM based MD in Indian coalfields are indigenous design of different geotechnical elements like irregular shaped heightened rib/snook, roof bolts-based breaker-line as goaf edge support, warning limit of roof sagging in geotechnical instrument and cut-out distance in different geomining conditions. Average daily production from a CM face is around 2000 t which is around 10 times of the daily production from a CD face using drilling-blasting. Success of any underground mining method depends upon the performance of underground structures under extreme difficult high induced stress condition. Table 1 shows the details of MD during development and depillaring in Indian coalfields using CM.
Name of mine | Depth | Pillar size (m × m) | Gallery width (m) | Immediate roof | Manner of pillar extraction | Snook size (m2) | Roof sagging limit in AWTT (mm) | Cut-out distance (m) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A | 50–163 | 33 × 33 | 6.6 | Sandy shale | Split and slice | 26 | 5 mm as both warning and withdrawal limits | 14 m in split and 10 m in slice |
G | 160–325 | 35 × 36 | 6.0 | Sandstone | Split and slice | 102 | 5 mm as warning and 10 mm as withdrawal limits | 15 m in split and 12 m in slice |
P | 50–120 | 18.5 × 19.5 | 6.6 | Shale | Christmas tree | 22 | 5 mm as warning and 8 mm as withdrawal limits | 12 m in split and 9.5 m in slice |
V | 50–100 | 18.5 × 19.5 | 6.6 | Shale | Christmas tree | 22 | 5 mm as warning and 8 mm as withdrawal limits | 12 m in split and 9.5 m in slice |
Details of mechanised depillaring operations at different Indian coalfields.
Underground mining in India has not boomed to that extent due to the less rock mechanics advances in B&P mining method. Depillaring continues to be one of the most challenging and hazardous activities in underground coal mining due to different accidents by roof/side falls and poor performance of structures. It is the main stage of production with around 60–80% of coal recovery. MD was first introduced in 2003 at Anjan Hill Mine of Chirimiri Area of South Eastern Coalfields Limited a subsidiary of Coal India Limited. Irregular shaped rib/snook created during pillar extraction and resin grouted roof-bolts are used as goaf edge support for the first time in India. Due to non-availability of empirical formulation to design such rib/snook and roof bolts-based goaf edge support, MD achieved mixed results in Indian coalfields. Also, the time interval between flashing of light in auto warning tell-tale instrument and roof fall was recorded to fix a warning threshold limit of roof sagging. It was successful at Anjan Hill Mine and MD was further introduced at a number of Indian coal mines to extract standing coal pillars and virgin coal seams.
It was found that the resin grouted roof-bolts as breaker line support (RBBLS) installed directly at the goaf edge did not work effectively and the roof fall extended inside the working and caused collapse of rib/snook and burial of CM [2, 3]. A small increase in area of rib/snook by 20–40% increased the stand-up time of roof in goaf by 5–10 hours. Hanging roof is a serious problem during MD as it creates the issue of front abutment stress causing goaf encroachment and burial of CM. Safety and productivity are the main concern during the underground mining. Geotechnical investigations found that caveability of overlying strata and size of remnants are the two important factors which affect the safety and productivity. Insufficient knowledge of geological discontinuities further aggravates these issues. Rock mechanics challenges at the goaf edge during MD are very complex which needs to be addressed indigenously.
Natural supports (pillar/fender/rib/snook/stook) are an important element for the success of MD. Size of pillar remnant is critical for the regular caving of overlying hanging strata in goaf during MD. Different countries used different nomenclature for the remnants like snook/stook ‘x’/final stump/rib/narrow fender (Figure 1). Risk of sudden major roof falls is reduced by leaving a proper sized rib/snook against the goaf. It acts like a barrier between the slicing operation and goaf. Pillar is split into two equal halves and each half is called fender/stook. After splitting, one fender keeps supporting the slicing operation in another reduced sized fender. Rib/snook is remains of fender left to temporarily support the cantilevering/beaming roof to permit safe extraction and fall gradually after the extraction is completed. Stability and competency of fender and rib/snook is important for the maximum possible extraction during MD. Natural supports provide more support to the roof than any artificial designed support (cog/chock/bolt/mobile breaker-line roof support). Interaction between the support (natural/artificial) and roof determines the safety and efficiency of the MD.
Different sizes of rib/snook created during the conventional and mechanised depillaring (modified after Singh et al. [
During the retreat rib/snook created are further reduced judiciously for regular caving of roof in the goaf which involves dangerous risk of accident. Narrow rib/snook crushes easily compared to wider snook and size of snook decides the fall area, pattern and filling. Massive/strong overlying strata are more affected by the rib/snook size compared to weak/laminated strata. The practice of leaving too large and too many rib/snook in the goaf over supports the roof cantilever/beam resulting in increased stand-up time of roof. This results in transfer of abutment stress towards fender and solid pillars in the working. Laminated/weak strata and shallow depth cover strata have less tendency of bridging compared to strong/massive at higher depth of cover. For weaker strata even a small rib/snook acts like a solid pillar at shallow depth of cover.
Small increase in area of rib/snook may lead to increased stand-up time of roof. Different shapes and sizes of rib/snook created during the three different manner of extraction are shown in Figure 1. The shape of rib/snook is often irregular in shape due to the manoeuvrability of CM and existing rectangular/square pillars. Shapes and estimation of area of such shapes of rib/snook formed during CD and MD is shown in Figure 2. No empirical formula is applicable or available to estimate the strength of such irregular rib/snook Figure 2(b) and (c). Seam height, depth of cover and nature of roof strata plays important role in deciding the competency of a given size of rib/snook. A conceptual model is developed for establishing a relationship of stand-up time of different nature of roof with the different sizes of rib/snook during MD as shown in Figure 3.
Area of different shapes and sizes of rib/snook created during the conventional and mechanised depillaring. (a) Shape of snook during conventional depillaring method. (b) Shape of snook during Christmas tree/fish bone method. (c) Shape of snook during split and fender method.
Stand-up time of different nature of roof in goaf with variation with rib/snook area.
Singh et al. [4] studied the performance of rib/snook at different underground mines practising MD at different depths and nature of roof. CM carried out the slicing operation under the shadow of created competent rib/snook. Therefore, stability of rib/snook becomes a concern for the safety of men and machineries. Some cases of burial of CM occurred at few mines due to failure of incompetent rib/snook explained in Singh et al. [2]. Singh et al. [4] conducted a parametric study based on the field studies on numerical models by varying the nature of roof and depth of cover. This study found to be useful in designing a competent rib/snook during MD.
Goaf edge during MD poses a challenging rock mechanics issue especially during the reduction of fender into rib/snook. Rib/snook formed cannot alone act against the goaf encroachment as it needs the support of breaker/hinge-line to break the bridging beam/cantilever roof. Performance of RBBLS in different mines had been monitored visually and also, using instrumented roof bolt. It was found that the position of hinge/breaker-line is affected by the nature of roof rock and size of competent fender/rib/snook/stook ‘x’, split gallery and out-bye intersections. Function of the hinge/breaker-line is to enhance the strength of rib/snook against caving roof and prevent the encroachment inside the working.
RBBLS forms an important geotechnical element of MD for its success. Pillar/fender at the goaf edge experienced fracturing of its sides (called spalling) which leads to shifting of position of RBBLS by 0.5–2.0 m towards the out-bye side depending upon the extent of spalling. After shifting the position, the efficiency of RBBLS enhanced (Figure 4). Ram et al. [5] designed the roof bolts-based breaker line as goaf edge support in Indian MD coalfields using the field and numerical simulation studies based on parametric variation of nature of roof and depth.
Controlled caving inside the goaf after placement of an efficient breaker line supports at the goaf edge.
Auto warning tell-tale is a geotechnical instrument which has a LED light for flashing in dark environment when the roof sagging crosses the threshold limit fixed in it. There are two important factors which decide success of AWTT in MD, namely, setting of safe roof sagging threshold limit and the fixation of anchorage point. Generally, the anchorage is fixed at a horizon of 10 m in the roof which is found to be a successful practice as the roof below it is vulnerable to failure during local fall after extraction. Roof sagging value is found to be varying in different methods of mining and factors like size of remnant, thickness and elasticity of roof affected it. Therefore, Kumar et al. [6] studied the roof sagging limit set in AWTT at different MD faces. Further, a parametric study to estimate a safe warning roof sagging limit is decided based on field studies and numerical simulation.
A typical observation by AWTT is shown in Figure 5 indicating the time-interval between flashing and roof fall in a MD panel. Initially, due to the support by barrier pillar from three sides and solid pillar from one side, the time taken for roof fall is the maximum. As the extraction progresses away from the barrier on dip-side, the time-interval between flashing of AWTT and roof fall reduced due to the formation of cantilever from beam. Variation in recording of roof displacement is studied in a MD panel through tell-tales (auto warning/single height/rotary). Most of the observations of roof sagging is found to be between 11 and 20 mm (Figure 6) as recorded from different tell-tales used in the mine.
Time-interval between flashing and roof fall in a MD panel measured using auto warning tell-tale.
Range of roof displacement observed in a panel through tell-tales.
Rock load height increases with increase in width of a gallery and found to be independent of its height. Cut-out distance defines the productivity of CM; therefore, it becomes an important geotechnical element to be designed in a panel. It is defined as the safe and stable span for a fixed width of gallery excavated by CM in a single lift without application of any applied/reactive support. Field studies are conducted at a number of Indian MD coalfields. It is found that width of the excavated gallery and nature of overlying strata are the two most influencing parameters which affects the cut-out distance to be practised in a given geo-mining conditions.
It has been also found that cut-out distance is to be kept different for a development and depillaring operations. Lesser rock mechanics issues are encountered during development activity by CM whereas depillaring involves dynamic activity where overlying strata are highly vulnerable to large induced stresses compared to development. However, it is kept to be a constant value in both development and depillaring operation for easier practice and understanding by the miners. It can be increased during development for faster preparation of the panel and reduced during depillaring for safety and productivity of the mine.
Thickness is a serious issue in Indian coalfields as a major amount of coal is lost due to unplanned development of a seam along roof/floor/middle horizon. A number of thick coal seams in the country are left developed along different horizons locking huge amount of coal [7]. Extraction of full thickness of a thick coal seam at a time is important for Indian underground coal mines. Earlier blasting gallery (BG) method was used by the Indian industry to extract the complete thickness of a thick coal seam in a single lift [8, 9]. But this method failed to improve the safety as well as faster and efficient recovery of coal extraction from BG panels. Height of the pillars at the goaf edge increased from the inbye side due to full extraction of the coal seam thickness during BG. Barrier pillars and pillars at the goaf edge in the panel were vulnerable to goaf encroachment and their premature collapse occurred due to strength dilution by indirect increase in height. Stability of heightened coal pillar was studied by Kumar et al. [10] using numerical simulation and established a relation between strength estimated through numerical modelling with that of CSIR-CIMFR formula, shown below.
where SNM = pillar strength estimated through numerical modelling and SCMRI = pillar strength estimated through empirical formulation.
Modification in manner of pillar extraction by CM helped in complete recovery of a 6 m thick coal at a time. CM extracted the floor coal up to 1.5–2.0 m during retreat in a slice. This created an issue of heightened irregular shaped rib/snook. Stability of such heightened rib/snook during MD was studied by Kumar et al. [7] by changing the heights of rib/snook from 3.0 to 6.0 m for a given area, nature of roof and depth. It needs to be further studied by changing the depth of cover and nature of roof with the variation in heights of rib/snook.
Depth is a major issue for design of underground mining structures as B&P mining method is no more feasible at overburden cover greater than 400 m. Longwall is feasible at such depth of cover but indigenous design of barrier/chain/rib pillar is important. A new concept of barrierless design of longwall panel has been introduced in China. Similar concept can be used in B&P for the design of barrier pillars. Optimum design of pillars helps in maximum coal recovery and minimum wastage as left-out remnants in goaf. Worldwide available empirical formula for estimation of pillar strength does not explain the effect of depth on their strength except Sheorey [11]. Higher depth creates the case of high value of vertical in-situ stress which affects the performance of underground structures [12]. Available empirical formulation becomes redundant for the strength estimation of underground structures at higher depth. CSIR-CIMFR empirical strength formula may be used to estimate pillar strength but it did not consider the failed and stable cases of pillar at such high depth of cover [13].
Experiences of working at higher depth are important for the Indian industry as it is planning to go deeper for coal extraction in near future. Recent experiences gained by IGN, Czech Republic in collaboration with CSIR-CIMFR, are beneficial for the Indian mining industry. Underground structures at higher depth of cover needs to be designed judiciously for the maximum coal recovery by leaving less amount of coal in the goaf. Further, it would not create the issues of spontaneous heating, goaf encroachment and coal bump. Also, there is a need to design an optimum barrier pillar at higher depth of cover exceeding 300 m which crushes with retreat of working in the panel. Concept of rib/snook design in MD needs to be used for design for pillar at higher depth of cover. It should be capable to support the roof and stand stable till the extraction is over under its shadow and should fail in a controlled manner in goaf due to increase stresses. Following such design norm would help in sustainable development with maximum utilisation of resources with less wastage.
Different nature of overlying strata has different unsupported span for its caving. During first row of coal pillar extraction in MD, the goaf span is not sufficient for caving and therefore it is suggested to go for the maximum possible extraction due to the support from barrier and solid pillars from all the sides. Generally, roof fall is experienced when the length of the goaf span is equal to the panel length. Presence of thick difficult to cave massive competent strata does not cave even after this span due to the higher strength and thickness [14]. Hanging of such strata creates issues of goaf encroachment, over riding of pillars and sometimes air blast and coal/rock bump.
Different techniques have been used to deal with such strata during MD. MD is practised in Pinoura and Vindhya mine having easily caveable roof with frequent roof fall to VK-7 and Churcha mine having massive Deccan trap/sill delaying roof fall. Bulking factor plays a major role in caving of roof and estimation of subsidence on the surface. Sometimes the difficult to cave massive strata is located after a parting in the roof. In this case the bulking of the caved material fills the void. If the roof is difficult to cave-in and present as immediate strata then it remains hanging in goaf for a longer span of exposure and remedial measures like induced blasting or small panel (non-effective width) technique is adopted. High induced stress is created due to large span of overhang in the goaf. Figure 7 shows the area of exposure and progressive area of fall in a MD panel.
Details of area of exposure and roof falls occurred in MD panel.
The value of caveability index (
where
This caveability index developed for Longwall mining is not applicable in case of MD as it has a number of openings around the goaf edge and left-out ribs/snooks. There is a need to develop such index for MD which would help to extract coal by CM especially under extremely difficult to cave massive strata.
Underground mining operation has witnessed failure of roof during widening and heightening of the developed galleries for adaptability and manoeuvrability of CM (Figure 8). This failure occurs due to hidden joints/slips with wash-outs, intercalation, and cross-stratification of shale and sandstone (Figure 8). Further, this failure was controlled by using the appropriate support system as per the results of numerical simulation and field investigations. Support becomes an important element under such disturbed nature of roof. Artificial supports in the immediate roof are installed generally after a length of 12 m (cut-out distance of CM) in a gallery width of 6 m. Geological discontinuities (hidden slips, wash-outs, cross-stratifications and intercalations of shale and sandstone) in immediate roof strata affected the advancement of drivages using CM in a panel. Freshly exposed immediate roof strata up to 1.8 m failed over the remotely operated CM. The local fall was dangerous to the drivages as it affected the safety, production and productivity of the mine. After the roof fall, cut-out distance was reduced to 4 m but the roof instability continued in the drivages. Further, support system was redesigned (increased density and length of bolts with wire mesh) to successfully control the roof instability for the reduced cut-out distance of 4 m.
Wash-outs exposed in the roof of dip rise gallery reduced the cut-out distance of CM during development.
It is easier to estimate the physico-mechanical properties of coal and rock in the laboratory using different rock testing equipment. These properties do not reflect the actual properties of in-situ coal/rock mass. There is available Sheorey failure criterion but it is age old and needs to be re-established for the higher depth of cover cases. Also, the strength estimated in laboratory are on a higher side and if these are considered for design of underground structures then there are likely chances of an under design which is vulnerable to fail.
Strength of rock mass is important for the stability of underground structures in rock and its realistic assessment for coal measure strata presents a unique challenge. Rock mass classifications have tried to quantify the behaviour of the rock mass. Failure criterion is helpful in prediction of strength of rock mass. But, the anisotropic and inhomogeneous behaviour of coal pillar restricts the scope of rock mass failure criteria for higher depth of cover. There is a need to revisit RMR classification system for failure criteria of intact coal measure formations at higher depth of cover.
Stress concentration on underground structures results into accumulation of strain energy inside it resulting into coal bump/rock burst. Coal measure formations have the capability to store large amount of strain energy before failing. It involves the violent failure of rock/coal around an excavation causing severe injury to the miners. Indian coalfields have rare experience of dealing with coal bump/rock burst due to working under moderate nature of roof at shallow depth of cover. Some incidences of coal bump/rock burst have been experienced due to hanging of overlying strata for a longer span in goaf after pillar extraction which creates high abutment stresses over the solid pillars. It is difficult to deal with such strata as their sudden caving lead to sometimes air blast.
Deep coal mines with massive/strong roof and high stress-conditions experience coal bump/rock burst. Severity of the rock bump increases with increase in depth and stress. Instrumentation and monitoring using geotechnical instruments and micro seismic methods are helpful in understanding and prevention of such occurrences. Energy stored depends upon the physico-mechanical properties of strata. Various destressing techniques have been practised worldwide to deal with such issues.
Parametric study by varying the nature of roof and depth of cover was carried out in FLAC3D by Singh et al. [4] to estimate the size of irregular shaped rib/snook during MD of existing square/rectangular shaped pillars. Further, height of rib was also varied [7] during extraction of complete thickness of a thick coal seam at a time using numerical simulation to estimate a stable competent size. Results of field and numerical simulation were used to estimate a competent rib/snook. Conceptual model was formulated to have a general idea about variation in size of rib/snook with depth of cover and nature of roof strata.
Area of competent sizes of ribs/snooks with variation in depth of cover and nature of the roof strata are analysed through a multivariate regression. A relationship is developed based on the analysis to estimate a competent size of the rib/snook (S), which is given as:
where H = depth of cover (m) and R = CMRI-RMR.
Rock load height (RLH) estimated at the goaf edge using numerical models with variation in RMR and depth of cover and analysed using multivariate regression by Ram et al. [5]. Based on field studies and numerical simulation observations, relationships are developed for the design of RBBLS at three different locations around the goaf edge which are given below.
For 0 m out-bye from goaf edge
For 1 m out-bye from goaf edge
For 2 m out-bye from goaf edge
Kumar et al. [6] did a multivariate analysis of the roof sagging recorded from the numerical models with variation in thickness and elastic modulus of immediate roof, size of remnants and distance from the goaf edge. This analysis helped in derivation of an Eq. 9 to calculate the limiting roof sagging value as:
where C is the roof sagging observed in model (mm), D is the goaf edge distance (m), E is the elastic modulus of immediate roof (GPa), A is the size of remnants left in or around goaf edge (m2), and T is the immediate roof thickness (m).
Taking into account the anisotropic and heterogeneous natures of rock, a safety factor of 2 is selected for fixation of the sagging value for a warning limit in AWTT which is given as:
where S is the warning value of roof sagging (mm) to be fixed in an AWTT.
CM does not damage the surrounding roof like drilling-blasting during cutting of coal. Cut-out distance in field has been practised based on trial and error in field. Numerical models based on a safe and stable roof sagging value of 5 mm are used to study the cut-out distance with varying nature of roof and width of gallery [7]. Elastic constitutive model is used to study the cut-out distance based on field studies in FLAC3D by fixing the allowable range of roof sagging to 5 mm (Figure 9). Roof sagging values for a 6 m width of gallery by varying the cut-out distances are shown in Figure 9 on numerical models. Figure 9 also depicts that the cut-out distance can be further extended beyond 12 m during development using CM for faster extraction.
Roof sagging value for different cut-out distance in FLAC3D. (a) 9 m, (b) 10 m, (c) 11 m, and (d) 12 m.
Based on the results of numerical model and field studies, a relationship is established to estimate the cut-out distance with variation in nature of roof and gallery width, which is given as:
where S is the length of cut-out distance (m), W = width of gallery (m), and E = elastic modulus of immediate roof (GPa).
Apart from abovementioned issues for B&P mining method using CM based MD, there are challenges of rock mechanics in Indian coalfields at higher depth of cover for the characterisation of rock mass, response of underground structures to high in-situ stresses, design of underground structures, economics, subsidence, complete extraction of difficult coal seam at a time, failure criterion of rock mass, fixation of warning limit for stress and convergence in different geotechnical instrumentation and so forth.
Despite being the second largest producer of coal in the world, Longwall top coal caving method of mining is still not practised in Indian coalfields whereas China produces around 90% of the coal using this technology. Most of the Indian coal is being produced using opencast method which is not sustainable for longer duration due to its different limitations. Solutions to these future problems lie in carrying out R&D for each such issue on priority basis for the Indian coalfields.
Mechanised depillaring using continuous miner technology has proven its potential in improvement of production and safety since last 10 years. A number of Indian coal mines are preferring mechanised depillaring over conventional technique to extract the locked-up coal pillars. Field study found that geo-mining conditions and design of geotechnical structures created during mechanised depillaring affect the performance of this mass coal producing technology. Rock mechanics developments in design of geo technical such as breaker-line support, rib/snook, cut-out distance/lift length and determination of roof sagging limit in instruments at the goaf edges has improved the performance of mechanised depillaring operations. However, rock mechanics issues like complete extraction of a thick coal seam, large span of overhang, caveability of difficult overlying strata, geological discontinuities, depth of working and pillar design at higher depth remains a challenge for this technology. Efforts are being made to deal with these issues in Indian coalfields as per their confrontation.
The authors are obliged to the Director of CSIR-Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research, Dhanbad, and the Director of Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad, for their permission to publish this chapter. The authors also give their due regards to the mine management of different Indian coalfields for the support during field studies. The views expressed in this chapter are that of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the opinion of their organisations.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Tomato (
According to the statistical agency of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAOSTAT) (2020), the world’s total tomato production is estimated at 186,821 million tonnes with a cultivated area of about 5,051,983 hectares. In comparison, there has been a 3.35% increase in production from 180,766 million tonnes in 2019 to 186,821 million tonnes produced in 2020. China is the leading producer of tomatoes in the world accounting for about 34.67%. Egypt ranked fifth in global tomato production contributing 3.6% whiles leading the tomato production in Africa estimated at 6731.22 million tonnes cultivated on an area of 170.862 hectares. In addition to Egypt, other North African countries with both tropical and temperate conditions including Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco accounted for about 2.39% of the world’s tomato production. Among the West African countries, the leading producers, Nigeria and Cameroun produced 3693.72 million and 1.246.65 million, respectively, whiles Kenya produced 1056.18 million to lead tomato production in East Africa [8]. In Ghana, according to the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA), tomato production is estimated at 420,000 tonnes in 2019 cultivated on 47,000 hectares [9, 10].
The rapid increase in tomato consumption in the tropics is one of the factors influencing emerging production practices and strategies to meet local and export demands. Thus, many tropical countries have expanded their tomato acreage to meet local needs and, in some cases, to generate foreign exchange due to the increased importance of tomatoes in food and nutrition security. Several different production systems have been used successfully in different parts of the world to produce tomatoes. For instance, in the tropics, particularly in Africa, the open field cultivation system is mostly adopted whereas, in the developed countries, there is a massive shift to controlled environment systems [11]. Tomato cultivars with a determinate or semi-determinate growth habit are typically grown in open fields which are usually for fresh consumption. This system is also distinguished by the use of either direct sowing or transplanting where a nursery is established. Currently, transplanting is commonly practiced since it ensures good stand establishment, uniformity, reduced weed competition, and improved survival rate and yield compared to direct sowing [12]. Nonetheless, open-field tomato seedlings tend to be weaker and have a lower rate of transplant survival, resulting in low yields [13]. Other constraints such as biotic (high incidence of pests and diseases) and abiotic stresses (such as drought and high temperature) pose serious threats to open-field tomato production [14]. Root-knot nematodes (including
Increased tomato consumption [20] combined with unfavorable climatic conditions necessitates the development of urgent strategies to boost production whiles improving fruit quality in the tropics. Open field tomato production is hampered by climate change-related factors such as high temperatures, drought and high incidence of pests and diseases. In recent years, greenhouse tomato farming has proven to be the most efficient method of producing high-quality fresh tomatoes for both domestic and international markets [1]. In addition, it provides the opportunity for year-round production. Indeterminate tomato cultivars are usually used in this system, allowing the harvesting period to be extended, thereby, increasing the tomato productivity and revenue as well as improving the livelihood of farmers. This chapter discusses greenhouse structures and systems, agronomic practices, postharvest handling, prospects and challenges of greenhouse tomato production in the tropics and the use of axillary stem cuttings as an alternative method of producing true-to-type tomato seedlings for cultivation.
Greenhouse farming systems have been adopted in some African countries, especially in Northern Africa (Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, and Tunisia), Eastern Africa (Kenya, Ethiopia, Uganda, and Rwanda), Western Africa (Ghana) and South Africa. In Northern Africa, the greenhouse system is mainly used for vegetable production whiles that of Eastern Africa (for e.g., Kenya), is for flower production. Furthermore, in Rwanda, South Africa and Ghana greenhouse system is mainly used for tomato production [21]. In all these countries, the greenhouse specifications are dependent on the availability of construction inputs, local climatic conditions and socio-economic status [11]. Generally, the initial investment cost of greenhouse construction is very high. Galvanized metals including steel or aluminum are the preferred construction material as they are durable and require less amount of material for construction thereby increasing light transmission (Figure 1). Wood such as bamboo is an alternative material (Figure 2). Though it is less expensive, more wooden materials are required to ensure a solid and firm structure. This, however, reduces light transmission. Also, the cost of maintenance in using bamboo is relatively higher compared to those constructed from metals [21].
Greenhouse of West Africa Center for Crop Improvement (WACCI), University of Ghana built from galvanized metals including steel or aluminum.
Greenhouse of Institute of Applied Science and Technology (IAST), University of Ghana built from bamboo.
High sidewalls in greenhouse construction are critical for maximizing the effectiveness of natural ventilation in greenhouses with roof venting. The direct/diffuse ratio in incident light, as well as the diffusion properties of covering materials [22, 23], greenhouse design, time of day, season, and location, all influence light transmission and spatial uniformity of light intensity inside the greenhouse [11]. To promote plant growth and development, an ideal greenhouse ensures that light is evenly distributed. Again, to ensure optimal light transmission in the greenhouse, the type of covering material should be considered. These include; (1) a non-waterproof net which provides partial shade and protection against insect permeability; (2) a plastic film for protection against insects and rains and (3) a glass which is more durable and effective than plastic films. Glass is mostly used for high-tech greenhouses [21]. In most greenhouses in Africa, side nets are fixed to provide natural ventilation (Figure 3). Circulation fans (chimney) (Figure 4), misting/fogging and hosing (Figure 5) can also be used to regulate/manage the climatic conditions in the greenhouse. In addition, shade screens/nets are also used to reduce the intensity of solar radiation in the greenhouse (Figure 5) [21].
Fixing of side nets (indicated with the arrow) to provide natural ventilation.
Circulation fans (chimney) are fixed on greenhouses of IAST to regulate the climatic conditions in the greenhouse.
Misting/fogging and hosing (blue arrow) are used to regulate the climatic conditions as well a shade net (red arrow) is used to reduce the intensity of solar radiations in the greenhouse.
Good greenhouse crop management practices serve as a gateway for ensuring sustainable production, increasing yield and high fruit quality, concomitant with increased income generation. Before plant establishment; raising vigorous and healthy seedlings, greenhouse fumigation media selection and sterilization, fertigation and irrigation, etc. need to be considered. In addition, other recommended greenhouse cultural practices such as plant spacing, pruning, topping, training/trellising and hormone application and pollination should be performed.
The cultivation of tomatoes in the tropics is solely by using seeds; either open-pollinated (OPV) or hybrids. Hybrid seeds of tomatoes are the most suitable planting materials because of their vigor and high yielding potential [24]. Since greenhouse cultivation is done in a limited area, indeterminate hybrid tomato varieties are cultivated [11]. For instance, in Ghana, hybrid tomatoes such as Cobra, Anna F1, Lebombo, Kwando, Jaguar, Gamharr, Jarrah, Eva, Ranja, and Sodaja are being introduced by seed companies for greenhouse cultivation. Several greenhouse screenings and evaluations of exotic tomato lines are being carried out to identify adaptable high yielding types with excellent fruit quality. However, cultivating these hybrid tomatoes in the tropics could be very expensive and as such, vegetative propagation of tomatoes could be a viable option for producing true-to-type tomato hybrid planting materials [25] to ensure sustainable production.
A study was conducted to identify a suitable soilless medium for regenerating tomato seedlings from axillary stem cuttings and to assess the agronomic performance of the regenerated seedlings under greenhouse condition. Cuttings (12–15 cm long) from mature tomato plants were taken and raised using 100% rice husk biochar, 100% rice husk, 100% cocopeat, 50% biochar + 50% cocopeat, 50% cocopeat + 50% rice husk. A 2 × 2 factorial experiment arranged in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with four (4) replications was used. Treatments consisted of two factors; two tomato hybrid varieties (Lebombo and Anna) and planting materials (cuttings and seeds). Seedlings were also raised using 100% rice husk biochar. Seedlings and rooted cuttings were sown and transplanted 28 days respectively into pots (22 × 25 cm) half filled with 100% cocopeat. The study identified rice husk biochar (Table 1) as a suitable medium for generating vigorous and healthy tomato stem cuttings obtained from pruned axillary shoots of tomato varieties, Lebombo and Anna F1 (Figure 6). Further evaluation using tomato plants generated from seeds and stem cuttings indicated that there were no significant differences in yield (Table 2) and fruit quality (Table 3). Hence, vegetative propagation via axillary stem cuttings could be used as an alternative method of raising tomato seedlings in the tropics. Seed companies and tomato nursery production operators can collaborate to leverage this method to supply tomato seedlings at affordable rates to ensure sustainable greenhouse tomato production in the tropics.
Substrate | Root length (cm) | Survival (%) | Root volume (cm3) | Shoot dry weight (g) | Root dry weight (g) | Total dry weight (g) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rice husk biochar/Lebombo | 16.6 b | 95.8 de | 1.71 b | 1.74 bc | 0.26 ab | 1.44 b |
Cocopeat/Lebombo | 10.4 a | 29.2 a | 1.89 b | 1.41 b | 0.14 a | 1.55 b |
Biochar + Cocopeat/Lebombo | 10.1 a | 40.6 ab | 1.66 b | 0.96 a | 0.15 a | 1.11 a |
Cocopeat + Rice husk/Lebombo | 13.0 ab | 45.8 ab | 1.55 b | 1.35 ab | 0.20 a | 1.52 b |
Rice husk biochar/Anna | 17.4 b | 100.0 e | 1.89 b | 2.13 c | 0.38 b | 2.54 c |
Cocopeat/Anna | 10.4 a | 50.0 abc | 1.71 b | 1.40 b | 0.17 a | 1.56 b |
Rice husk biochar + Cocopeat/ Anna | 10.7 a | 83.3 cde | 0.97 a | 1.37 ab | 0.14 a | 1.51 b |
Cocopeat + Rice husk/Anna | 10.6 a | 72.9 bcd | 1.58 b | 1.45 b | 0.20 a | 1.62 b |
Mean Root length, Survival plants per replication, Root volume, shoot dry weight, root dry weight and Total dry weight. Means followed by the same letters within a column are not significantly different according to Fisher’s Protected LSD at 5%.
Treatments | Days to 50% flowering | Days to 50% fruiting | Total number of fruits | Fruits per plant | Fruit weight per Plant (g) | Yield (kg/ha) | Shelf life (days) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variety | |||||||
Anna | 25 | 32 a | 24 b | 5 b | 96.5 | 6431.0 | 5 |
Lebombo | 27 | 34 b | 21 a | 4 a | 97.6 | 6506.0 | 5 |
Propagule | |||||||
Seeds | 32 b | 37 b | 23 | 5 | 97.6 | 6503.0 | 5 |
Cuttings | 21 a | 28 a | 22 | 4 | 96.5 | 6434.0 | 5 |
Variety * Propagule |
Days to 50% flowering and fruiting, the total number of fruits, number of fruits per plant, fruit weight per plant, yield and shelf life of tomato plants. Means followed by the same letters within a column are not significantly different according to Fisher’s Protected LSD at 5%.
Treatments | Fruit girth (mm) | Fruit length (mm) | Brix (%) | Firmness (kg/lb) | Pericarp thickness (mm) | Juice volume (cm3) | pH | Titratable acidity |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variety | ||||||||
Anna | 34.66 a | 44.16 | 6.64 | 7.06 | 4.43 a | 26.8 | 4.12 | 0.56 a |
Lebombo | 38.05 b | 46.24 | 6.45 | 6.66 | 5.11 b | 27.4 | 4.12 | 0.73 b |
<0.001 | 0.036 | 0.567 | 0.438 | 0.050 | 0.874 | 0.947 | 0.028 | |
Propagule | ||||||||
Seeds | 36.20 | 44.50 | 6.47 | 6.73 | 4.49 | 27.8 | 4.13 | 0.58 |
Cuttings | 36.51 | 45.90 | 6.62 | 6.99 | 5.05 | 26.4 | 4.10 | 0.71 |
0.587 | 0.137 | 0.653 | 0.622 | 0.100 | 0.684 | 0.217 | 0.083 | |
Variety * Propagule | ||||||||
Anna * seeds | 34.59 | 43.63 | 7.02 b | 7.51 b | 3.75 a | 26.4 | 4.12 | 0.71 b |
Anna * cuttings | 34.73 | 44.69 | 6.27 ab | 6.61 ab | 5.11 b | 27.3 | 4.11 | 0.41 a |
Lebombo * seeds | 37.82 | 45.37 | 5.93 a | 5.95 a | 5.23 b | 29.2 | 4.09 | 0.71 b |
Lebombo * cuttings | 38.28 | 47.10 | 6.98 b | 7.36 ab | 4.99 b | 25.6 | 4.14 | 0.75 b |
Fruit girth, Fruit length, Brix, Firmness, Pericarp thickness, Juice volume, pH and Titratable acidity of tomato fruits. Means followed by the same letters within a column are not significantly different according to Fisher’s Protected LSD at 5%.
Lebombo (A) and Anna (B) tomato seedlings raised from stem cuttings.
Plant roots are contained within a porous rooting medium called a ‘substrate’ or ‘growing medium.’ A suitable growing medium is required to provide root anchorage and a favorable environment for healthy root development, [26]. Growing media for greenhouse cultivation in the tropics comes in two basic types: soil- and organic-based. Field soil is the main component of the soil-based media and is the most simple and cheapest. However, it is associated with a high risk of soil-borne diseases such as bacterial wilt [21]. On the other hand, organic materials such as composted waste, peat, coconut peat/coir, sawdust, wood and bark are used to prepare the organic-based media [27]. Peat moss, vermiculite, and perlite which are premixed blends of organic and inorganic materials are commercially available. These products, however, are costly and difficult to obtain locally in the tropics, especially in Africa. Agricultural and municipal wastes, which are locally available, affordable, and environmentally sustainable, should be investigated as alternatives to commercial products in the tropics. A good soil-free substrate should have excellent chemical, biological and physical characteristics with low nutrient content, low pH, a unique combination of high-water retention capacity, high air space, lightweight, pest, and disease-free [28]. Cocopeat, a waste product obtained from the mesocarp of coconut (
Dry heat from a flame used for the sterilization of growing media.
Due to the high cost of greenhouse infrastructure, increasing plant density is one strategy for maximizing the limited space [30]. However, it is also important to plant in rows at a recommended spacing (Figure 8) to achieve an optimum yield. The required spacing between tomato plants will ensure an even distribution of resources such as water, nutrients, light, and air [31]. For example, there is more competition for light due to the overlapping and shading of leaves when plants are closely spaced [32]. The amount of light intercepted by the basal leaves could be drastically reduced, lowering the plants’ photosynthetic efficiency. Consequently, the plants may be forced to trade off their energy for stem elongation and reduced assimilate transport to developing fruits [31], thereby, causing yield reduction and poor fruit quality [33]. There have been reports of great increases in tomato yield and yield components when recommended plant spacing was used [33, 34, 35]. A recent study by Nkansah et al. [36] suggested plant spacing of 0.2 × 1.3 m for greenhouse tomato production.
Tomato plants planted in rows at a recommended spacing.
Adequate water supply to plants is essential for various metabolic and physiological processes such as photosynthesis, nutrient transport, and cell expansion and development [27]. In the tropics, water for greenhouse production can be obtained from rivers, ponds or reservoirs, rain, groundwater (boreholes), and municipal sources (tap water). Unfortunately, water quantity, quality and seasonal availability are not guaranteed in most tropical environments. A good water should be free from pests (such as pathogenic bacteria, fungi, weeds and pesticide contamination) and high concentrations of dissolved salts and toxic ions (heavy metals) [27]. As a result, a thorough biological and chemical analysis of water for greenhouse tomato production is required as this can affect plant health, growth and development. The chemical property, for instance, is useful for the formulation of nutrient solutions.
In the tropics, the manual irrigation system is the cheapest but does not give precision in terms of the quantity of water and nutrients applied. Gravitational fertigation in combination with drip irrigation is the commonly adopted method. The water tank is elevated (Figure 9) to allow water and nutrients to flow naturally [37]. Water and nutrients can be reused by using a recirculation system [11]. Water recirculation, on the other hand, increases the risk of spreading soil-borne diseases, necessitating the use of a disinfection unit (UV or heat treatment) [38] which can be costly. Another means of supplying water and nutrients is using a computerized system with sensors and a pre-programmed fertigation regime (Figure 10). This system, however, is reliant on a constant supply of electricity, which is a major challenge in the tropics [21].
Water tanks are elevated above the level of the field to allow for the natural flow of water and nutrients.
Water and nutrients are applied using a computerized system with sensors and a pre-programmed fertigation regime.
Tomato cultivars are divided into two categories based on their growth habits: determinate and indeterminate. Determinate tomatoes grow in a bush-like manner, reaching a fixed mature size characterized by synchronized flower formation and fruit production. On the other hand, indeterminate tomatoes grow in a vine-like manner, continuing to grow throughout the growing season and thus, having continuous flower and fruit formation [39]. The indeterminate tomato cultivars are used in greenhouse tomato cultivation [11]. Tomato vines are pruned by removing the stem suckers (Figure 11). These are stem branches or side shoots that emerge from the leaf axils which are the junctions between the main stem and the true leaf. If not pruned, these suckers will grow into full shoots with leaves, flowers, and fruits, and even regenerate new suckers. When suckers are young and small, they can be pinched or cut using pruners such as knives, scissors and secateurs. In any of these pruning approaches, it is better to ensure decontamination either by using an alcohol-based sanitizer or washing with soap to prevent the spread of pathogens [40]. Pruning can be done on weekly basis to improve or ensure efficient air circulation/aeration [41]. In addition, pruning helps to prevent the diversion of assimilates from the developing fruits thereby, improving tomato fruit quality [40, 42].
Pruning of tomato vines by removing the stem suckers.
Another important greenhouse technique is topping (Figure 12), which involves cutting or pinching off the terminal bud to break the apical dominance [43]. This technique is critical because tomato cultivars for greenhouse cultivation are indeterminate types characterized by indefinite growth. Topping has been shown to improve fruit quality and yield by causing assimilates to be redistributed to developing fruits [44, 45]. In the Solanaceae family, topping improved yield and yield components in eggplant [46], pepper [47] and tomato [36]. According to Nkansah et al. [36], tomato yields were increased by topping at truss 2.
Topping tomato plants by cutting or pinching off the terminal bud.
The main stem of tomato plants is positioned upright immediately after transplanting to keep the leaves and fruits from touching the ground [48], facilitate pollination, maximize light interception of the younger leaves, and increase labor efficiency in pruning and harvesting [11]. This method known as stem training/trellising (Figure 13) is necessary for indeterminate tomato cultivars. It entails securing the main stem with a twine/rope suspended from a horizontal wire about 2.5–3.2 m above the ground [11, 49]. Non-slip loops or clips are used to secure the twine’s tip to the stem’s base. The twine is then neatly wound in two or three spirals around the stem for each truss without damaging the stem [11].
Trellising or training of tomato plants by securing the main stem with a twine/rope suspended above the ground.
Heat stress is a major problem hampering tomato production in the tropics [50]. Poor fruit set occurs in greenhouse systems where the microenvironment is not fully controlled or automated. Tomato is an extremely sensitive crop to heat stress, which can lead to total yield loss. The optimal day and night temperatures for tomato production are 21–29.5°C and 18.5–21°C, respectively. However, a slight increase in night temperature especially can decrease pollen viability and female fertility thereby impairing fruit set and consequently yield reduction [19]. Pollination and fertilization must both be completed before the fruit set can occur (Figure 14) [51]. Under heat stress, however, these processes are disrupted, resulting in flower abortion and flower drop [50]. Unfortunately, the molecular mechanisms underlying tomato fruit set are unknown, despite the fact that exogenous application of auxin and gibberellin to the tomato stigma improved tomato fruit set. Bypassing pollination and fertilization, auxin or gibberellin can stimulate tomato fruit development (cell division and expansion) [51]. As a result, using these hormones can help increase greenhouse tomato production by increasing fruit set and yield [52]. The coordinated mechanism of auxin, gibberellin, and cytokinin has been investigated for the development of parthenocarpic tomato fruits [53], which improves fruit quality. Although this may be labor intensive, the high returns from increased productivity and improved fruit quality can compensate for this.
Pollination and fertilization of tomato flowers before fruit set.
One of the reasons for the rise in greenhouse tomato production in the tropics is the benefit of reducing pest and disease outbreaks, which can affect plant growth and development, resulting in lower yields and poor fruit quality. To control pest or disease outbreaks, an integrated pest management approach including cultural, biological and chemical measures (Figure 15) is used. Because prevention is the best approach, ensuring good environmental practices is an important first step [54]. Regular cleaning and washing of the greenhouse and its equipment with disinfectant (such as bleach) and fumigation prior to the start of the production cycle are examples of best practices. Another strategy is to keep a close eye on the crops in the greenhouse in case of a pest or disease outbreak [55]. Pheromone traps and sticky cards (Figure 16), for example, are used to trap, detect, and determine pest population thresholds of pests such as leaf miners, whiteflies aphids and thrips [8, 55]. A comprehensive pest management guide for tomato production is available [8]. Pruning, trellising, and proper plant density and spacing ensure good aeration. Avoidance of wet floors by preventing irrigation water spillage helps to reduce the creation of a microclimate that promotes disease outbreaks [55].
Chemical application for the management of pest and disease in greenhouse vegetable production.
Pheromone traps (A) and sticky cards (B) are used to trap, detect, and determine pest population thresholds in greenhouses.
Harvesting of greenhouse tomatoes is usually done at the breaker of color or when the fruit is orange-red, by handpicking. Thus, greenhouse tomatoes are typically harvested riper than fresh market field-grown fruit, making them more susceptible to mechanical injuries due to their softer nature and shorter shelf life than mature-green fruit. Greenhouse-grown fruit harvesting is done twice or three times per week as it reaches the appropriate stage of fruit development [11]. Prior to temporary storage, tomato fruits are sorted and graded. Grading allows a grower to serve different qualities at different prices to different markets, such as a supermarket and a wet market. As such, good packaging is required to reduce losses during transportation [21]. Harvested tomato fruits are chilling sensitive. Breaker fruits can be stored at 10–12.5°C for a week whiles orange-red at 7–10°C for 3–5 days [11]. Even though greenhouse tomatoes are more expensive than field-grown fruits, they are primarily produced for local consumption in the tropics. On the other hand, Northern African countries (such as Egypt and Morocco) and South Africa, produce greenhouse tomatoes for export to Europe [21].
In the tropics, greenhouse tomato production has the potential to create attractive jobs for youth and women in particular [56]. Greenhouse training programs have been introduced in West Africa, particularly in Ghana, to target entrepreneurs and young graduates to learn how to grow vegetables in greenhouses [57].
The increased demand for greenhouse tomatoes, owing to their superior fruit quality, benefits growers by earning appreciable income to improve their livelihoods [58]. People in urban and peri-urban cities have gradually accepted and are willing to pay more for greenhouse tomatoes, despite the fact they are more expensive than those grown in the field [59].
Greenhouse tomato production supplements local tomato production, which is primarily a field-grown system that is affected by biotic and abiotic factors. Thus, the introduction of greenhouses in the topics has helped to ensure year-round tomato production and supply of high-quality fruits, ensuring sustainable food and nutrition security [60]. Also, there will be a constant supply of tomatoes to the processing industries for various industrial activities.
In addition, the greenhouse tomato production system contributes to the economic maximization of limited land and other resources [61]. This system, for example, ensures efficient water and nutrient supply to the plants while reducing losses such as leaching, which is common in field-grown systems. Also, unproductive lands, rooftops and concreted areas can be utilized for greenhouse tomato cultivation [62].
Another advantage of greenhouse tomato production is the complete control over indiscriminate agrochemical (pesticides, fungicides and weedicides) application. Strict adherence to greenhouse agronomic practices and integrated pest management systems eliminates traces of these agrochemicals on tomato fruits, which are harmful to human health [58]. This could promote the use of traceability systems to encourage the export of greenhouse tomato fruits in order to generate foreign exchange to boost tropical economies [63].
The introduction of greenhouses has opened up new areas in the tropics for academic and research work. To improve greenhouse tomato cultivation in the tropics, researchers should look into areas such as greenhouse agronomic practices, breeding for tropics-adapted greenhouse tomatoes, commercial adoption of grafting techniques for soil-based greenhouse cultivation, development of tropical soilless media and nutrient solutions, assessment and availability of raw materials for greenhouse constructions and so on.
The initial cost of constructing a greenhouse is high which deters average income entrepreneurs to venture into greenhouse tomato production [64]. In addition to this, accessibility to credit facilities is difficult [65]. Lack of greenhouse technical know-how has also hindered the adoption of greenhouse tomato production in most tropical countries. In some areas, there are no greenhouse training centers for hands-on training to fully equip trainees in greenhouse design, construction, repair and maintenance and cultivation [66].
The unavailability of adaptable greenhouse tomato cultivation possess a major challenge. There is a high influx of imported tomato hybrids into various countries, however, some of these tomato hybrids are not adequately evaluated or screened to identify the promising candidates for further evaluations and official release. In addition, the available tomato hybrids are generally expensive for the local growers and may have fruit quality characteristics which are not preferred by the local market [45].
There is also a lack of greenhouse cultivation inputs and important resources. For instance, poor water quality and quantity prevent seasonal and year-round greenhouse tomato cultivation. Also, the unavailability of quality soilless substrates is a major challenge [58].
In conclusion, greenhouse tomato production is a promising technology that can ensure sustainable food and nutrition security in Africa. The selection of the proper greenhouse structure and system as well as the adoption of the appropriate agronomic practices and postharvest handling techniques would ensure enhanced tomato production under greenhouse condition in the tropics. Our research findings point to tomato cuttings as a viable source for raising planting material for tomato cultivation in the developing countries. The yields and fruit quality obtained from the use of seedlings versus stem cuttings were comparable.
It is therefore essential to encourage scientific research about greenhouse production in Africa to foster its adoption. Greenhouse tomato production has the potential of creating jobs and increasing income generation thereby improving the livelihood of the people in the greenhouse tomato value chain.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen - where academia and industry create content with global impact
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\\n\\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\\n\\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\\n\\nSara Uhac, COO
\\n\\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\\n\\nDr Alex Lazinica
\\n\\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"Our business values are based on those any scientist applies to their research. We have created a culture of respect and collaboration within a relaxed, friendly and progressive atmosphere, while maintaining academic rigour.
\n\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\n\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\n\nSara Uhac, COO
\n\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\n\nDr Alex Lazinica
\n\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
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This chapter will discuss an innovation in seaweed cultivation of the genus Eucheuma, which is the prime marine commodity in the tropical regions of the world. Research conducted during 2015-2017 and 2019 in Southeast Sulawesi Province, Indonesia, provided an overview of the use of floating cage that showed very significant growth results. The research result showed that the growth rates of Eucheuma denticulatum and Kappaphycus alvarezii in floating cage seemed faster and resulted in better thallus morphology. Daily production of E. denticulatum and K. alvarezii that were cultivated in floating cage was higher than daily production of E. denticulatum and K. alvarezii cultivated on longline. Specific growth rate (SGR) of E. denticulatum and K. alvarezii cultivated by using floating cage method was also higher than E. denticulatum and K. alvarezii cultivated by using longline method. 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One of the methods to produce high amount of food is integrated farming including rice-aquaculture farming, which produces protein and carbohydrate as major components besides others. Rice-aquaculture farming produces grain (carbohydrate) and animal protein without affecting the quality and quantity of rice yield on the same piece of land and renders additional financial gain besides main crop (rice) like conventional monoculture. The aquatic species grown in the integrated culture are mainly distinct types of fishes, selected crustaceans and other selected species. Profitable rice-aquaculture integrated farming is popular in Asian countries than in Western countries. However, the integrated rice-aquaculture farming has its own limitations. 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There is no effective solution for harmlessness of ammonia in traditional aquaculture operations except exchanging water, which would bring negative effects on environment, or fixing expensive equipment. Biofloc technology (BFT) that appeared in recent years supplies a novel solution for this issue without exchanging huge water and fixing equipment. This technology could assimilate ammonia almost in real time with many other supplemental benefits. Because of the very high nutritional value for fish and shrimp, bioflocs, the by-product of BFT, could also be reused as a complemented food in situ or a gradient for feedstuff to replace expensive fishmeal or be processed to pellet diet to feed fish and shrimp directly. However, some aspects with regard to the effective use of biofloc as a food source for fish and shrimp, such as high lipid content, productivity, and palatability, need to be further researched in detail.",book:{id:"8928",slug:"emerging-technologies-environment-and-research-for-sustainable-aquaculture",title:"Emerging Technologies, Environment and Research for Sustainable Aquaculture",fullTitle:"Emerging Technologies, Environment and Research for Sustainable Aquaculture"},signatures:"Hai-Hong Huang",authors:[{id:"305215",title:"Dr.",name:"Hai-Hong",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"hai-hong-huang",fullName:"Hai-Hong Huang"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"32",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. 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He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. 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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"3",type:"subseries",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"