\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8157",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Engineering Geology",title:"Engineering Geology",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book focuses on topics closely related to geological structures and hazards associated with rock constructions. It studies in detail geological masses, field tests, and ground improvement. Chapters discuss various geological investigations in the road, dam, and water reservoir construction.",isbn:"978-1-83881-894-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-864-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-898-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78106",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"engineering-geology",numberOfPages:134,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"2f650c6c80cd6fb768152350964432e8",bookSignature:"Essa Lwisa and Hasan Arman",publishedDate:"April 28th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8157.jpg",numberOfDownloads:2221,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:4,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 29th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 19th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 18th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 6th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 5th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"272012",title:"Dr.",name:"Essa",middleName:"Georges",surname:"Lwisa",slug:"essa-lwisa",fullName:"Essa Lwisa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272012/images/system/272012.jpg",biography:"Dr. Essa Georges Lwisa is an expert in core analysis, rock properties, formation evaluation, and enhanced oil recovery. He has worked at the Chemical and Petroleum Engineering Department, United Arab Emirates University since 2009 as a core analysis lab engineer. He is a reviewer for the Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering and an editorial board member for several other journals. He has edited one book and written several book chapters.",institutionString:"United Arab Emirates University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"United Arab Emirates University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"143532",title:"Prof.",name:"Hasan",middleName:null,surname:"Arman",slug:"hasan-arman",fullName:"Hasan Arman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/143532/images/system/143532.png",biography:"Dr. Hasan Arman has been a professor in the Geology Department at United Arab Emirates University, College of Science, since 2008. He has been head of the department since August 2018. He received his BSc and MSc from Hacettepe and Istanbul Universities, Turkey, in 1984 and 1986, respectively. He obtained a Ph.D. from the University of Arizona, USA, in 1992. He worked as a postdoc at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA, from 1992 to 1993. He worked as a researcher at Tokai University, Japan, from 1995 to 1997 on a Japanese Monbusho Scholarship. He was also a faculty member at the Civil Engineering Department, Sakarya University, Turkey, between 1993 and 2008. Dr. Arman has taught several different courses at undergraduate and graduate levels. His research interests include rock mechanics, engineering geology, environmental degradation, sustainability, water resources, global warming, climate change, and renewable and sustainable energy sources. Dr. Arman has a number of publications in different peer-reviewed national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:"United Arab Emirates University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"United Arab Emirates University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"641",title:"Engineering Geology",slug:"engineering-geology"}],chapters:[{id:"74968",title:"Introductory Chapter: Engineering Geology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95991",slug:"introductory-chapter-engineering-geology",totalDownloads:486,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Essa Georges Lwisa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74968",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74968",authors:[{id:"272012",title:"Dr.",name:"Essa",surname:"Lwisa",slug:"essa-lwisa",fullName:"Essa Lwisa"}],corrections:null},{id:"75858",title:"Time-Dependent Behavior of Rock Materials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96997",slug:"time-dependent-behavior-of-rock-materials",totalDownloads:498,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Understanding the geomechanical behavior of a geological model is still an on-going challenge for engineers and scientists. More challenges arise when considering the long-term behavior of rock materials, especially when exposed to environments that enable time-dependent processes to occur and govern overall behavior. The latter is essential in underground projects such as nuclear waste repositories. The lifespan can exceed one million years or other openings where the project’s lifetime and sustainability are the critical design parameter. In such cases, progressive rock mass deformation that can lead to instabilities, time-dependent overloading of support and delayed failure are considered the product of time-dependent phenomena. Understanding and predicting the overall impact of such phenomena aims to achieve design optimization, avoiding dlivery delays and thus cost overruns. This chapter provides more insight into the time-dependent behavior of rocks. Simultaneously, the emphasis is given to investigating and analyzing creep deformation and time-dependent stress relaxation phenomenon at the laboratory scale, and in-depth analyses are presented. This work further develops the understanding of these phenomena, and practical yet scientific tools for estimating and predicting the long-term strength and the maximum stress relaxation of rock materials is presented. The work presented in this chapter advances the scientific understanding of time-dependent rock, and rock mass behavior increases the awareness of how such phenomena are captured numerically and lays out a framework for dealing with such deformations when predicting tunnel deformations.",signatures:"Chrysothemis Paraskevopoulou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75858",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75858",authors:[{id:"323324",title:"Dr.",name:"Chrysothemis",surname:"Paraskevopoulou",slug:"chrysothemis-paraskevopoulou",fullName:"Chrysothemis Paraskevopoulou"}],corrections:null},{id:"73111",title:"Neotectonics and Stressed State Patterns of the Sakhalin Island",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93522",slug:"neotectonics-and-stressed-state-patterns-of-the-sakhalin-island",totalDownloads:383,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The study of neotectonics, neotectonic and modern stress of the Sakhalin has been performed by the set of methods. The scheme of modern geodynamics of the island has been constructed by the data of neotectonic activation of the faults. Three types of zones with dissimilar geodynamic conditions have been distinguished: transtension, transpression, and strike-slip (simple shift). The results of Sakhalin modern stress reconstruction based on focal mechanisms of earthquakes allowed to characterize the distribution of the stress state parameters over the island surface: the Lode-Nadai factor and the direction of axes of deviatoric compression and tension. The changes in characteristics of modern tectonic stress field have been noticed at the boundaries of regions with different regimes of modern faulting. Specific orientations of compression axes of the neotectonic stress field are proper for North Sakhalin. Therein, the directions of compression axes become northeast in contrast to the predominant sublatitude orientation on the island as a whole. The obtained data on neotectonics and inherited modern stress field are applicable to the problems of engineering geological support of oil and gas projects’ realization in the Sakhalin (new wells construction, control of the pipelines stability, accompanying urban planning, etc.).",signatures:"Leonid Bogomolov, Lidia Sim and Pavel Kamenev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73111",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73111",authors:[{id:"126962",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonid",surname:"Bogomolov",slug:"leonid-bogomolov",fullName:"Leonid Bogomolov"},{id:"322937",title:"Dr.",name:"Lidia",surname:"Sim",slug:"lidia-sim",fullName:"Lidia Sim"},{id:"322939",title:"Dr.",name:"Pavel",surname:"Kamenev",slug:"pavel-kamenev",fullName:"Pavel Kamenev"}],corrections:null},{id:"73470",title:"Multivariate Assessment of California Bearing Ratio with Contrasted Geotechnical Properties of Soils in Ilorin-Lokoja Highway",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93523",slug:"multivariate-assessment-of-california-bearing-ratio-with-contrasted-geotechnical-properties-of-soils",totalDownloads:277,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"California Bearing Ratio (CBR) is an important parameter used in designing pavement layers in road construction but testing this parameter requires time, labor, and huge cost. The study therefore applies multivariate approach to evaluate CBR based on contrasted geotechnical parameters along Ilorin-Lokoja highway. The results obtained showed that the migmatite-gneiss-derived soils are slightly more fines (< 0.075 mm; 7.4–59.6%), more plastic (PI; 1.6–39%), and have low strength (MDD = 1.8 mg/m3; CBR = 29.0%) than the metasediments (11–57.7%, 2.0–30%, 1.6 mg/m3, 23.6%) and older granite soils (8.2–32.7%, 2.6–13.4%, 1.7 mg/m3, 27.8%), respectively. The principal component analysis (PCA) revealed three major components (eigenvalues >1) which accounted for 83.8% of the total variance at the rate of 33.4, 14.7, and 11.4%. Major contributing variables for the components were fines (R = 0.87), plasticity index (R = 0.7), and coarse sand (R = 0.67%). Spatial distribution of these groups established interplay of sediment-gradation and moisture-connection evident in hierarchical cluster analysis that revealed patterns of homogeneity and soil relationships. Regression analysis established five models from predictor variables such as fines, activity, free swell, liquid and plastic limits, weighted plasticity index, optimum moisture content, and maximum dry density with the coefficient of determination (R2 = 0.33) and root mean square error (RMSE) of 7.80.",signatures:"Attah Fakeye, Olusegun Ige and Olufemi Ogunsanwo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73470",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73470",authors:[{id:"326733",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Attah",surname:"Fakeye",slug:"attah-fakeye",fullName:"Attah Fakeye"},{id:"326796",title:"Dr.",name:"Olusegun",surname:"Ige",slug:"olusegun-ige",fullName:"Olusegun Ige"},{id:"326797",title:"Prof.",name:"Olufemi",surname:"Ogunsanwo",slug:"olufemi-ogunsanwo",fullName:"Olufemi Ogunsanwo"}],corrections:null},{id:"74613",title:"Swelling Clay Parameters Investigation Using Design of Experiments (A Case Study)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95443",slug:"swelling-clay-parameters-investigation-using-design-of-experiments-a-case-study-",totalDownloads:286,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The present paper aims to investigate geotechnical parametric effects on the expansion behavior of clayey soils in Tebessa province northeast of Algeria using the Design Of Experiments (DOE) methodology. It has been used as powerful tools based on physical and mechanical properties, data results obtained within laboratory soil mechanics testing. This statistical tool methodology presents the factor screening design to determine the effect of different parameters such as dry unit weight, saturation degree, water content, plasticity index, etc., on the swelling pressure parameter which can be used as expansion behavior of clay indicator. All data previously collected in the studied prone area allows the ability of detailed analysis using design of experiment and parametric optimization process with response surface methodology (RSM). Each variable that present effects on swelling pressure is also discussed. Besides, the obtained models and equations related the factors affecting the expansion process have been determined. At the output process; the response desirability of the screening design methodology can be optimized by maximization or minimization of the optimal values affecting the swelling behavior. This process allows us to find the best describing models, whereas output results may be compared to empirical laboratory tests results to assess the RSM models.",signatures:"Yacine Berrah, Serhane Brahmi, Nouar Charef and Abderrahman Boumezbeur",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74613",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74613",authors:[{id:"324029",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Yacine",surname:"Berrah",slug:"yacine-berrah",fullName:"Yacine Berrah"},{id:"330289",title:"Dr.",name:"Nouar",surname:"Charef",slug:"nouar-charef",fullName:"Nouar Charef"},{id:"330290",title:"Dr.",name:"Serhane",surname:"Brahmi",slug:"serhane-brahmi",fullName:"Serhane Brahmi"},{id:"330292",title:"Prof.",name:"Abderrahmane",surname:"Boumezbeur",slug:"abderrahmane-boumezbeur",fullName:"Abderrahmane Boumezbeur"}],corrections:null},{id:"73278",title:"Construction Materials and Dam Foundation While Memve’ele Dam Building in the Craton’s Region of South Cameroon",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93758",slug:"construction-materials-and-dam-foundation-while-memve-ele-dam-building-in-the-craton-s-region-of-sou",totalDownloads:291,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter mainly focuses on engineering geology for dam construction from the Memve’ele region in Cameroon. Here, it deals with geotechnical and geological proprieties of both construction and dam foundation materials. This study is done at the aim to ensure that these materials need to be improved and how they have been used during dam construction. Field investigations, borehole information, density and seismic velocity measurements have been used, and results indicate that soil deposits have slightly clay content, mechanically well for dam construction and display a weak thickness layer particularly on the dam site. These conditions suggest that soil materials can be used as construction (cushion, transition layers, etc.) and foundation materials after few amendments. Ntem Formations appear weathered and fractured sometimes, though their mechanical behaviors display a good character for civil applications. However, engineering processes have been used to improve it by GIN (Grouting Intensity Number) methods. These formations have been used as construction (rip rap crushing aggregate, etc.) and dam foundation materials. Thus, this chapter contributes to highlight materials and dam foundation conditions which are crucial criteria encountered in the dam with emphasis on both theoretical study and practical application during dam construction.",signatures:"Sylvestre M. Ntomba, Christelle R. Magnekou Takamte, Dieudonné Bisso and Joseph Mvondo Ondoa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73278",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73278",authors:[{id:"324737",title:"Dr.",name:"Sylvestre Martial",surname:"Ntomba",slug:"sylvestre-martial-ntomba",fullName:"Sylvestre Martial Ntomba"},{id:"324859",title:"Prof.",name:"Bisso",surname:"Dieudonné",slug:"bisso-dieudonne",fullName:"Bisso Dieudonné"},{id:"324860",title:"Mrs.",name:"Magnekou Takamte",surname:"Rufine Christelle",slug:"magnekou-takamte-rufine-christelle",fullName:"Magnekou Takamte Rufine Christelle"},{id:"329051",title:"Prof.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Mvondo Ondoa",slug:"joseph-mvondo-ondoa",fullName:"Joseph Mvondo Ondoa"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8620",title:"Mining Techniques",subtitle:"Past, Present and Future",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b65658f81d14e9e57e49377869d3a575",slug:"mining-techniques-past-present-and-future",bookSignature:"Abhay Soni",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8620.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"271093",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhay",surname:"Soni",slug:"abhay-soni",fullName:"Abhay Soni"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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It allows decreasing of the UAV size in folded state inside the tube, e.g., wingspan might be 30–40% <1 for a conventional aerodynamic scheme. So this aerodynamic scheme has become quite widespread in the twenty-first century [1, 2, 3].
\nTube launched UAVs: “Switchblade,” “Sokil-2,” “Trident” (in folded state).
Specificity of such UAVs is that immediately after launch, they have a flight path in which wings are turned from the position along the fuselage to flight position with sweep angles equal to about zero [4].
\nThe
Analytic methods are not applicable for such tasks because for low-wing rotation angles, there is a high sweep angle and, therefore, a low aspect ratio (\nFigure 2\n). For such a type of geometry, flat section hypothesis is not correct, and more complicated methods must be used.
\nUAV model geometry for wings’ rotation angles equal to 30° (sweep angles equal 60°).
In view of the experimental research expensiveness, it is reasonable to determinate aerodynamic characteristics with the help of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methods. Ansys 16.0 software was used that allows proper determining of pressure distribution throughout UAV surface and, therefore, appropriate lift and moment coefficients (\nFigure 3\n). Unstructured meshes were built, and the results independence of cells number was proved for every case. One wing chord equals 110 mm and maximal size of mesh elements are following;
inlet and far-field—500 mm;
pressure-outlet—400 mm;
wing, fuselage—10 mm;
fins—5 mm;
fuselage nose and wingtips—2 mm;
leading edges curves of wings and fins—0.5 mm; and
trailing edges curves of wings and fins—1 mm.
UAV surface mesh with wings’ rotation angles equal to 60°.
Total height of prism layer is 2 mm which approximately corresponds to maximal boundary layer thickness at wings’ trailing edges. There was only one layer of prismatic elements, i.e., mesh was not sufficient to present shear stress and friction drag values in the boundary layer, but as lift and moment coefficients were the priority of this research, this approach that saves a great amount of time is appropriate.
\nDomain size equals to about 18 spans of rear wing as a larger model dimension. Mesh created in ICEM CFD software was converted to a polyhedral type that decreases calculation time greatly. Final mesh consists of 1.0–1.5 millions of polyhedral cells depending on the wings’ rotation angles value.
\nUse of Menter’s turbulence model (k-ω SST) is recommended for aerodynamic characteristics’ determination at low and high angles of attack when separation occurs [5, 6]. Only a steady case was considered. A pressure-based solver was used with a coupled scheme and a second-order upwind for all available parameters. Computation model includes energy equations as well. Air density was defined as ideal gas, and viscosity was set according to the Sutherland model. Pseudo-transient factors and all unmentioned parameters were set on default. All UAV surfaces had roughness equal to 0.05 mm according to wind tunnel model demands. Gauge pressure of 101,325 Pa, velocity of 25 m/s, and temperature of 288 K were set. Calculation process was finished after all residuals had reached 10−4. For high angles of attack, this threshold was not always achievable, so iteration process was stopped after residuals had become minimal and force coefficients had become about constant.
\nThe object has typical geometric parameters of tube launched UAV with equal chords of all wings and the rear wing span slightly bigger than the forward wing span. In the unfolded state, distance between leading edges of forward and rear wings (stagger) was equal to about 4 chords of one wing. Vertical gap between forward and rear wings from one side is about 70% of wing chord. Gap between left and right wings equals 10% of wing chord, i.e., slightly bigger than airfoil thickness. Wings’ rotation angles of 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, and 90° were considered (equal for forward and rear wings). So wings’ rotation angle of 15° means forward wing swept angle of 75° and rear wing swept angle of −75°. Reynolds number corresponded to one wing chord and is 110,000. Forces and longitudinal moment coefficients are calculated relatively to the total area of all wings, and moment coefficient is calculated relatively to sum of forward wing and rear wing chords. Moment characteristics were defined for conditional center of gravity (CG) that is placed between axes of wings rotation at the distance of 40% from forward wing axis.
\nModelling with the help of CFD methods allows getting forces and moments’ coefficients, pressure distribution, and pathlines over UAV model for different wings’ rotation angles and angles of attack.
\nQualitatively, lift coefficient dependences on the angle of attack are analytically predictable as for higher swept angles (lower rotation angles) lift slope is lower, maximal lift coefficient is lower, and critical angle of attack is higher (\nFigure 4\n).
\nLift coefficient dependences on angle of attack for different wings’ rotation angles.
Calculated UAV polars for different wing rotation angles can be used for relative comparison only (\nFigure 5\n), as the mesh in boundary layer does not have appropriate density (number of layers and first layer height) to compute drag coefficient properly. So absolute values of drag calculated are not reliable.
\nPolars for different wings’ rotation angles.
Quantitative results prove that UAV is unstable with wings’ rotation angles up to 60° (\nFigure 6\n). Pressure distribution visualization demonstrates that under-pressure zones at upper surfaces of wings are situated ahead of center of gravity (\nFigure 7\n). So forward and especially rear wings produce lift ahead of center of gravity that results in negative moment and longitudinal static instability. Of course, center of gravity cannot be moved forward because it would be situated ahead of extreme forward CG limit in unfolded position (zero swept).
\nLongitudinal moment coefficient dependences on angle of attack for different wings’ rotation angles.
Pressure coefficient distribution (rotation angles 30°, angle of attack 16°).
Obviously, longitudinal instability in wings’ rotation angles up to 60° happens not for the given geometry only, but for the different folded tandem-scheme parameters (wingspans ratio, stagger, and height). From the construction point of view, it is rational to fold rear wing ahead and forward wing aft; it is complicated to change design of tube-launches UAV greatly. Telescopic wings may be the solution, but they are associated with design complexity, lower reliability, and airfoil thickness increasing (though bigger profile drag is compensated with high wing aspect ratio and significant induced drag reduction). It is also interesting to rotate forward wings and rear wings differentially (e.g., when forward wings have swept angles of 45°, rear wings have rotation angle of 15°), but obviously rear wing negative pitch moment at rotation angles of 15–30° is higher than positive pitch moment of forward wing (that is also maximal at rotational angles of 15–30°). It may be considered in future research, though the maximal effect of differential wing rotation is the decreasing of instability rotation angles range.
\nSo the most simple practical way is to unfold wings very fast, so the pitch moment does not change the angles of attack significantly.
\nFor high angles of wings’ rotation (low sweep angles), UAV model is stable in a wide range of angles of attack because separation occurs mainly from forward wing and from root sections, so the model has no tendencies to roll or to spin. Protection from spin is the advantage of tandem-scheme compared with traditional aircraft, for which separation beginning on root sections does not guarantee spin security. Indeed, if at high angles of attack, pilot or UAV operator deflects the rudder, then sideslip occurs, separation may be eliminated on one wing (e.g., left) and enlarge on the other (right wing), so the aircraft may get into a spin. Nevertheless, for tandem-scheme separation, zone on forward wings would be still much bigger than on rear wings, so the aircraft’s nose goes down and away from the dangerous regime.
\nAt very high angles of attack, UAV stability is close to neutral (separation occurs on both forward and both rear wings), but the effectiveness of the rear wing ailerons might be reduced due to forward wing tip vortex that increases the angle of attack at tip sections of rear wing that results in small separation areas (\nFigure 8\n). It does not result in controllability loss, and ailerons on the rear wings are more effective than on forward wings due to larger arm of force. To prevent aileron efficiency, reducing dihedral angles of both wings might be used that decrease negative aerodynamic interference and forward wing tip vortex effect on flow over rear wing (it also can improve lift-drag ratio). The other way is a negative twist of rear wing to decrease local angles of attack for aileron sections.
\nFlow separation from both wings including rear wing aileron sections at high angles of attack.
Local aerodynamic defects were found in the area of the rotation units of both wings (\nFigure 9\n). Such defects are inherent to folded UAV and may be eliminated with help of flexible fairings that are pressed to the fuselage and wings and slide on their surfaces. However, such installations worsen UAV exploitability because of its permanent deformation and scratches on surfaces and lift-drag ratio remains lower than for UAV without rotation units. It is natural that such fairings were not found on any analogue.
\nFlow separation after rotation units at low angles of attack.
As the folded left and right wings have common axis, and the right wing is situated higher than the left one, there is asymmetry in flow over wings, and a vortex along fuselage’s left side is generated (\nFigure 10\n). As this vortex is close to symmetry plane, it does not result in a significant roll moment in a wide range of angles of attack (\nFigure 11\n), and there is no preconditions for UAV spin. The only drawback of this vortex is aerodynamic drag increasing due to flow energy loss.
\nVortex along fuselage’s left side.
Roll moment coefficient dependences on the angle of attack.
Also for low wing rotation angles at middle angle of attack, the flow over rear wings is symmetrical, but the flow differs significantly over forward left and right wings (\nFigure 12\n). Vortex from wings’ rotation unit is located over right wing.
\nVortex over forward left wing (rotation angle 15°, angle of attack 24°).
It might be interesting that for low rotation angle wings, the pair of vortices is generated: first one is along leading edge and second one is along trailing edge (\nFigure 13\n). Rear wings vortices go on forward wings, so one complex vortex system is generated by the whole model.
\nVortices from rear wings go on forward wings (rotation angle 15°, angle of attack 24°).
For high angles of attack, separation on rear wings begins at right side because of negative wing-fuselage aerodynamic interference (\nFigure 14\n). Due to the fact that rear left wing is located lower than the right one, its interference with fuselage is weaker, and there is no such separation zone. Forward wings are high-wings, so there is no negative interference with the fuselage.
\nFlow separation on root sections of rear right wing (rotation angle 30°, angle of attack 20°).
As for tandem-scheme, distance between center of mass and vertical tail is relatively lower than for traditional aerodynamic scheme, so two fins are often necessary to provide yaw stability. As fins also rotate after launch, there are small separation areas after them (\nFigure 15\n). These aerodynamic defects also may be healed with some flexible fairings as for wing rotation units.
\nFlow separation after fin (rotation angle 30°, angle of attack 0°).
Quantitative results prove that UAV is unstable with wings’ rotation angles up to 60° because rear wings produce lift ahead of center of gravity.
\nFor high angles of wings, rotation (low sweep angles) UAV model is stable in a wide range of angles of attack because separation occurs mainly from forward wing and from root sections, so despite UAV asymmetry, it does not have tendencies to roll or spin.
\nLocal aerodynamic defects were found in the area of the rotation units of both wings. A longitudinal vortex along the left side of fuselage was observed. It is generated due to model asymmetry so that the right wings are higher than the left ones. It was shown that this vortex does not result in significant roll moment.
\nDue to UAV longitudinal instability for small wings rotation angles, low time of wings unfolding is required.
\nFurther research might include UAV dynamics modelling based on calculated aerodynamics characteristics or flight tests.
\nMedicinal plants are getting more demand because of their distinctive features as an abundant source of curative phytochemicals that may be used to develop new medications. Approximately 20% of all known plants have been employed in pharmacological investigations, positively improving the healthcare system by treating cancer and other ailments [1]. Many of these medicinal plants are good sources of phytochemicals like polyphenols, carotenoids, flavonoids, anthocyanins, and vitamins that possess antioxidant activities. Today, medicinal plants are finding diverse use in society from medicine to cosmetics, nutraceuticals, herbal drinks, herbal foods, and other articles in their daily uses. Plant phytoconstituents are created as secondary metabolites, which are produced through a variety of biological routes in secondary metabolism. The choice of solvents for extracting phytoconstituents from plants is critical. A suitable solvent has an appropriate extraction capacity as well as the ability to maintain the chemical structure of the desired molecules stable [2].
Green technologies are increasingly being employed in practically every scientific sector to promote ecologically acceptable activities that do little or no harm to humans. Ionic liquids, aqueous biphasic systems, and pressurized hot water have all become attractive research topics in recent years [3]. Traditional techniques of extracting phytoconstituents require the use of more powerful and toxic solvents (nonenvironmentally friendly), as well as more energy. Each method’s extraction time varies, ranging from minutes to 7 days in the case of maceration [4]. Another problem is that none of the current plant processing methods meets all the economical, safety, and scalability requirements. Other concerns include security hazards, solvent toxicity, and the existence of solvent remnants in the extracts. The high cost of feedstock, the high cost of extracting desirable bioactive compounds, their comparatively low yield, and the resulting substantial concentration of residual waste biomass are the major roadblocks to commercially viable phytochemical production [5]. In many process sectors, microwave-assisted extractions like ultrasound-assisted extraction, pulsed electric field extraction, and molecular distillation have been reported. Green chemistry, as ecological and economic chemistry, could be one of the solutions to humanity’s future [6]. The entire process of green extraction of phytoconstituents from natural sources is concluded in the Figure 1.
Extraction of crude drugs using green solvent, green extraction process, and purification techniques.
A vast diversity of plants, animals, and microorganisms can produce a wide spectrum of chemical compounds with amazing health-care properties in nature. Science is steadily changing our world by finding the possibilities of natural products [7]. Natural product extraction has been practised since civilization. Extraction methods are used in the perfume, cosmetics, pharmaceutical, food, and chemicals sectors. Recent extraction technique advancements have mostly focused on creating solutions that employ lower solvents [8].
Soxhlet extraction, maceration, and hydro distillation (HD) are examples of traditional/conventional extraction processes. The choice of specific solvents has a considerable impact on any extraction rate. The polarity of the target biochemical is the most significant factor to consider, and when choosing a solvent, the solvent’s molecular affinity for the solute, as well as its environmental friendliness, toxicity, and economic efficiency, must all be considered. Simple, safe, repeatable, low-cost, and adaptable to a variety of applications are all desirable characteristics in an extraction procedure. High-temperature extraction (e.g., Soxhlet technique, HD) has been shown to cause changes in the composition due to phytoconstituent degradation [9].
To circumvent the constraints of classic extraction procedures, green extraction techniques can be employed to extract phytoconstituents from plants. The majority of these include less harmful chemical synthesis, nontoxic chemicals, safe solvent aides, energy efficiency patterns, use of sustainable feedstock, fewer derivatives, catalysis, design to avoid deterioration, and time scheduling for pollution avoidance, hazardous air pollutants, and naturally safer chemistry for safety programs. The development of effective and selective technologies for extracting and isolating bioactive phytoconstituent is crucial. This article aims to provide a detailed overview of green solvents employed, as well as the methods for extracting and isolating natural compounds form natural sources. Green solvents can help to improve old procedures significantly, especially when incorporated with new and novel methodologies. Hydrolysis of cellulose from biomass with supercritical water and the extraction of hydrophobic compounds using supercritical CO2 are few examples of green extraction process.
Solvents, their vapors, and mists have a variety of health impacts. Many contain narcotic properties, causing lethargy, dizziness, carcinogens, etc. Solvents irritate the eyes and respiratory system, as well as causing skin problems. High doses can cause unconsciousness and death in certain people. Petroleum-based solvents, which are mostly sourced from fossil fuels, are commonly utilized in various stages of the analytical process [10]. Solution preparation, extraction, and enrichment of phytoconstituents, washing of extracts, solvent exchange, sample preservation, dilution, cleaning of glassware, liquid desorption, derivatization, analytical separation, and detection are all activities that involve solvents in phytochemistry. A suitable solvent has an appropriate extraction capacity as well as the ability to maintain the chemical structure of the desired molecules stable.
Water is one such “green” solvent that can have its properties changed by changing the temperature. Water’s polarity allows it to be employed as an extraction solvent for both natural and inorganic substances that are aqueous soluble, like proteins, carbohydrates, and organic acids. Water is an important green solvent for the extraction of phytoconstituents. It has no harmful health or environmental consequences [11]. Furthermore, it is the safest and cheapest solvent. The technology used has an impact on the extractability of biologically active chemicals. Water is used as the only extractant in several ways, including decoction, infusion, and hydro distillation. Water as a solvent can be used in a variety of traditional and modern procedures. Extraction with pressurized hot water is one of the most promising new green extraction techniques and procedures, especially in a dynamic mode [11]. Water, on the other hand, has several drawbacks in terms of the less solubility of nonpolar molecules and energy required to enrich products. This difficulty can be overcome in part by employing supercritical water or a mixture of alcohol and water.
When using hydro distillation, high temperatures and long distillation times might cause volatiles to change and be lost. Supercritical water extraction (SWE) was shown to have a quicker extraction time, cheaper costs, and higher purity than hydro distillation. In terms of oxygenated components, SWE’s products yielded higher valuable essential oil. To boost extraction yields, microwave-assisted extraction with water as a solvent has been proposed.
Alcohols like methanol, ethanol, and isopropyl alcohol have similar solvent properties such as solvent strengths, dielectrics, critical points, and hydrogen donating abilities. However, due to its nontoxic nature, ethanol has ascended to the top [12]. Alkanes (heptane, hexane) and simple alcohols (methanol, ethanol) are healthier for the environment than dioxane, acetonitrile, acids, formaldehyde, and tetrahydrofuran [13]. The main disadvantage of alcohol is that they are flammable and some of them are toxic (i.e., methanol). In addition, extended exposure to their vapors can also lead to health problems.
CO2 as a liquid or supercritical solvent possesses multiple features of an admirable green solvent. They are incombustible, nonpoisonous, nonenvironmentally harmful, plentiful, inexpensive, easy to produce, simple to eliminate from a product, do not add to smog, and do not contribute to global warming [14]. Purified CO2 is produced, pressurized, and cooled to a liquid state at 20 psi and −20°C before being stored or transported in insulated bulk containers for use in a variety of liquid and supercritical CO2 processes. The viscosity of CO2 is extremely low, and supercritical CO2 has negligible surface tension [15]. The strong diffusivity, along with the low viscosity, causes significant improvements in the condensed phases. Supercritical fluid extraction of a crude drug is achieved by passing supercritical CO2 over a column packed drug material. Until the substrate is depleted, supercritical CO2 travels over the column of packed material and dissolves soluble components. The loaded solvent is then transported through a separator, where the soluble components precipitate as pressure and temperature are reduced. The CO2 is recirculated once it has been condensed. It is employed in the removal of caffeine from coffee and tea, the removing fatty material from cacao, the production of hops extracts, sesame seed oil, and pesticide extraction from rice. Under high pressure, SC CO2 is used to extract triglycerides and volatile compounds. Volatile, triglyceride and phenolic chemicals etc. are extricated at high pressure (300–400 bars) with EtOH. Add water or alcohols like ethanol or iso-propyl-alcohol to the SC-CO2 extraction has already been used to modify the polarity [16].
DES is formed when the melting point of a mixture of substances is much lower than the melting points of the two constituents. A hydrogen bond donor (HBD) and a hydrogen bond acceptor (HBA) are required to build a DES system, and when mixed in the right proportions, they generate a novel “mesh” of hydrogen-bond-interconnected molecules with remarkable physicochemical features [17]. Their extraordinary physicochemical features (like ionic liquids) combined with remarkable green properties, low cost, and ease of handling are piquing researchers’ attention in a variety of sectors. The eutectic composition of DESs is formed by heating and stirring two or more solid starting components to generate a transparent, viscous homogenous liquid. Other techniques involve grinding (combining and powdering solid components till clear liquid forms), evaporation (dissolving all starting elements in water and then removing the water via evaporation at reduced pressure), and freeze-drying (dissolving all starting components in water and then draining the water via evaporation at reduced pressure).
Among them, heating and stirring below the melting points of the individual constituents is possibly the most acceptable method [18]. Because DESs are nonflammable and nonvolatile, they are easier to store. They are also biodegradable, unlike standard organic solvents. Furthermore, DES manufacture is cost-effective, simple to run, and requires no modification, making their use on a broad scale possible. DESs can be made by mixing molecules derived from natural sources (e.g., glycerol and glucose), which makes them environmentally friendly. Within the HBD section, polymerized deep eutectic solvents (PDEs) are a novel category of DESs that can be polymerized [17].
The high viscosity of DES is a key disadvantage that can limit their usage as extraction solvents since it prevents the solvent from penetrating the extraction matrix. Although increasing the temperature of the extraction process helps reduce viscosity, this is not always the best solution because it consumes energy, and some heat-sensitive phytochemicals may not withstand the higher temperature. The addition of a co-solvent to the extraction medium is a straightforward technique to remedy this problem. Most of the time, this co-solvent is water, which keeps the process green; nevertheless, organic solvents like methanol have also been utilized. Alkaloids, phenolic acids, flavonoids, and saponins are all extracted using DES [19].
The DES is called natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES) when amino acids, organic acids, sugars etc. are used to make DES [20]. Due to the natural nature of its ingredients, NADESs are deemed environmentally beneficial and “readily biodegradable,” and the resulting extracts can use in food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetics preparations. Because of their great stability and solubilization properties, NADES is ideal candidates to replace traditional solvents. NADESs combinations have efficiently extracted bioactive compounds including flavonoids, phenolic acids, alkaloids, natural pigments, sugars, peptides, and volatile components from natural matrices [21].
ILs were a type of organic salt that consisted of an organic cation (e.g., imidazolium, pyrrolidinium, pyrrolidinium tetra alkyl ammonium, pyrrolidinium tetra alkyl phosphonium) and an inorganic or organic anion (e.g., tetrafluoroborate, hexafluorophosphate, and bromide) that form of liquid below 100°C [22]. Because of their distinctive and construction dependent features, like low nucleophilicity, mixability with water or organic solvents, and good extractability, ILs have been frequently used [23]. A variety of organic and inorganic substances are perhaps enriched and separated using IL-based methods. As a result, they have been frequently used in food safety, drug testing, environmental monitoring, biological analysis, and other areas. The ability of ILs could be tailor-made for the extraction of alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, phenylpropanoids, quinones, and other phytoconstituents from plants. A vast number of research organizations have also created IL-based silica and polymers that can improve the extraction/separation of target chemicals.
Extraction is an important step in the isolation of bioactive chemicals from plant matter. However, because of the existence of complex cell wall polysaccharides including cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, pectin alginate, and carrageenan, the extraction yield of bioactive chemicals is poor. Researchers are now considering modern methods of extracting these compounds because of the low specific gravity of bioactive compounds, the low productivity of the solvents used to extract these compounds, high energy, high durability, solvent residue in the extracts, and the decline in the quality of the final product, as well as environmental concerns [23]. The use of enzymes to extract bioactive chemicals from plants could be a viable substitute for traditional solvent extraction methods. Enzymes are excellent catalyzers for extracting, modifying, or synthesizing complex bioactive substances from nature. The natural ability of enzymes to accelerate reactions with perfect particularity, regiospecificity, and the ability to employ under gentle processing conditions in an aqueous medium facilitate enzyme-based extraction [24]. The use of enzymes for sugar extraction is a new topic that needs further research. To improve extraction processes, custom enzymes must be developed, either by biodiversity screening, genetic engineering perspective, or a mix of the two. From plant sources, enzyme-aided extraction can be utilized to obtain lipophilic, polyphenolic, and hydrophilic chemicals [25]. Factors including high enzyme production and downstream processing costs, extended incubation times, and an extra stage (de-emulsification) in the process are still preventing aqueous enzyme extraction from becoming commercially viable. Commercial enzyme production has been accelerated, and enzyme synthesis has now become more affordable. The downstream processing expenses could be reduced by using appropriate technology rather than the traditional technique [26].
The predominant element of essential oils derived from citrus fruit peels is d-limonene, which belongs to the terpene family. Since its cleaner and degreaser properties were discovered and considered, d-limonene has sparked a surge of interest. In this sense, this chemical has been classified as a viable alternative to halogenated carbon hydrates or traditional degreasing chemicals commonly used in industry and households. Several authors have attempted to create a commercial application for d-limonene. Sustainable chemistry has generated a lot of study into the processing of renewable fuels due to the demand for environment-friendly techniques and products [27].
Because d-limonene has a higher boiling point (175°C) than n-hexane (69°C), it uses more energy to recover the solvent by evaporation. To minimize the difficulty of solvent recovery caused by high d-limonene’s boiling point, a technique based on steam or hydro-distillation employing Clevenger can be used. Distilled water was added to the extracted oil and d-limonene mixture after Soxhlet extraction with d-limonene. D-limonene and extracted oil were separated using a Clevenger device and azeotropic water distillation at less than 100°C [28]. It is a valuable and practical method for determining the lipids and oils in olive seeds. Waste minimization, rapid operation, and energy saving are all possible with Soxhlet microwave-integrated with limonene and microwave Clevenger distillation [29]. Limonene has a dielectric constant that is very similar to that of hexane and has been used to extract rice bran oil, oil from olive leftovers, carotenoids from tomatoes or algae and, more recently, algal lipids from wet algae [30].
Solvent-free extraction of a variety of important natural products (essential oils, fragrances, edible oils, antioxidants, and other organic compounds) eliminates the price and threats correlated with large amounts of solvent. It minimizes the amount of wastewater after extraction and uses a fraction of the energy that a traditional solvent-solid extraction process does.
In 2008, Chemat et al. developed the MHG method, which uses
Crude drugs can be extracted in fresh or dried form. Grinding and drying of plant materials are examples of pre-preparation. This has an impact on the preservation of phytochemicals in final extracts. Air drying takes anywhere from 3 to 7 days. To optimize extraction operations and save energy, mechanical disruption pre-treatments can be employed alone or in combination. Bead milling, high-pressure homogenization, and hydrodynamic cavitation are all methods for mechanical disruption. The extraction of lipids has been demonstrated to be aided using a bead mill. Powdered samples, on the other hand, have a more homogenized and smaller particle size, developing in substantial surface contact with extraction solvents [31].
Nanotechnologies, including microwave, ultrasound, and pulse electric field, were found to improve operation efficacy as a pre-treatment before drying. After size reduction and before extraction, microwave pre-treatments upgraded the extraction of polyphenols, sugars, and other compounds. Pre-treatments with a pulsed electric field (PEF) improved extraction efficiencies in terms of yield and extract standard. PEF pre-treatment of rapeseed, apple, and sugar beet fruit extracts before mechanical expression resulted in higher yields [26]. Oven-drying is one more pre-extraction method that uses heat energy to eliminate moisture from substances. This procedure for preparing a sample is regarded as particular easiest and most rapid thermal processing method available for phytochemicals.
Costly drugs can be dried by freeze-drying. In freeze-drying before use, the sample is frozen at −80°C to −20°C to lyophilize any liquid (e.g., solvent, moisture) in the body samples. The mouth of the test tube or other container holding the sample is wrapped in needle-poked-parafilm to avoid sample loss during the operation. Freeze-drying resulted in a greater phenolic content compared to air-drying because most phytochemicals are preserved. This strategy is used to keep phytoconstituents safe. Freeze-drying, on the other hand, is a difficult process. Microwave drying is more expensive than traditional air drying. As a result, only fragile, heat-sensitive goods and high-quality materials are permitted [32].
The main goal of green extraction procedures is to obtain a rapid extraction, increased efficient energy usage, higher mass and heat transfer, smaller apparatus, and fewer processing stages [3]. Several novel alternatives to traditional techniques for obtaining target compounds from a variety of crude drugs have been proposed, such as ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), subcritical and supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), and accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) [33]. These extraction methods, which are alternatives to traditional procedures, have piqued the curiosity of academics, who see future applications for recovering bioactive molecules from plants in less time using green solvents. Most of these new methods have already shown promise in extracting high-value chemicals, particularly natural antioxidants, from various sources such as plants or food processing by-products [34].
It is a physical technique in which pressure is employed to extract the oil or juice from a material. A tincture press was used to do this. When essential oils are temperature sensitive, this approach is used. It’s used to extract essential oils from citrus peels like lemons and oranges. Squeezing any plant material at high pressures to extract oils or other liquids is known as expression. In remote rural locations, hand-operated presses or crushes are used, while in industrial hubs, massive mechanical presses are used. However, the products obtained are impure and frequently contain impurities such as water, mucoid particles, and cell tissues, making them murky, and pressing the volatile oil in plants completely is difficult. As a result, the crushed residue is frequently steam distilled to remove all volatile oils. Black soybean oil, for example, is frequently extracted using the low-temperature pressing process [31].
Enfleurage is the method of extracting aroma from flowers by absorbing it through contact with cold lipids. This method is used for fragrant flowers like jasmine and tuberose, which retain their unique aroma even after being plucked. To prevent fat odors from entering, fats should be saturated and odorless. It’s best to use refined lard or beef suet. On both sides of a glass plate mounted on a rectangular hardwood frame or chassis, fat is thinly deposited. On a fat-coated chassis, fresh aromatic flowers are delicately stacked. Enfleurage produces far more floral oil than other processes.
Ultrasound extractions can now be finished in minutes with high reliability, reducing solvent consumption, clarifying control and work-up, improving final product purity, removing wastewater after treatment, and consuming only a fragment of the fossil energy required for a traditional extraction method [35]. USAE (ultrasound-assisted extraction) has been used to extract polyphenols from vegetable tissues, protein, sugar, and starch from cereals and legumes, oil, and flavor components. Extraction efficiency and rate are improved by sonication. It lowers the required temperature, saves solvents, and promotes the solubilization of the desired chemicals. Solubility is enhanced by a significant increase in the very temperature [36].
To extract phytochemicals from plants, both the cell wall and the cell membrane must be broken. Because of this, ultrasounds are used in ultrasound-assisted extraction for cell disintegration. Ultrasounds are sound waves that are above the human hearing range, with frequencies ranging from 20 kHz to a few gigahertz. Plant materials and liquids absorb the energy emitted by ultrasonic waves and convert it to heat. The frequency, intensity, and duration of ultrasonic therapy affect the amount of heat created in plant materials [37]. This heat energy debases proteins, destroys plant cells, and causes therapeutic substances to be released from plant cells. In most cases, the highest extraction rate is attained in the initial few minutes, which is also the most profitable time [38].
The extraction of thermally labile chemicals is possible because of carbon dioxide’s low critical temperature (304.1 K). It can replicate a variety of organic solvents by adjusting the density of SCF carbon dioxide. Because of its variable solvating strength, this feature allows for selective extraction, purification, and fractionation techniques. SCF carbon dioxide media provide the prime possibility for fractionation of reaction products and solvent separation, which can be performed by simply depressurizing the media. This is because SCF quickly penetrates and leaves solid matrices, compared to the use of organic solvents with a higher viscosity [39]. It has a broad variety of applications, including the extraction of common spices such as black pepper, celery seed, cumin, cinnamon, clove bud, and nutmeg. Extraction of Natural Colors: Paprika Pigments, etc. Dry Ginger, Saw Palmetto, Rosemary, and other botanicals are used to extract active ingredients. Forskolin, Turmerones—from Turmeric,
Nontraditional ways are more prominent when it comes to improving the quality and quantity of desired items. By directly linking microwave energy with the bulk reaction mixture, microwave irradiation creates efficient internal heating. The magnitude of energy transfer is determined by the molecules’ dielectric characteristics. Radiation absorption and heating can be quite selective in this approach (Hoz et al.). The reduction in operating time and solvent use are two major benefits of microwave treatments. However, during microwave processing, acceleration in chemical reactions of target substances such as epimerization, oxidation, and polarization should be considered with dielectric heating.
Microwave-assisted extraction without solvents is a long-term technology for extracting and separating chemicals from natural plant resources. Microwave heating is directed at the moisture content of new material. Under microwave irradiation, plant cell water and charged molecules are stimulated; this internal alteration causes a significant amount of pressure to be imposed on plant cell walls, resulting in cell swelling. Due to the rupturing of plant cells, this swelling causes an increase in the mass transfer of solutes. As a result, phytochemical leaching from the plant cellular matrix into the extractant is facilitated during MAE [40]. The best extraction conditions were a microwave power of 150 W for 90 min. Concerning the efficiency and yield of essential oils, solvent-free microwave extraction was superior. As a result, increased rates of adsorption, diffusion, and separation of phytochemicals from the plant matrix into the extracting solvent are more likely [41].
An MAE can be performed using two different types of equipment. The apparatus runs at atmospheric pressure in the open mode, which is often coupled with a refluxing mechanism. Domestic microwaves are frequently modified to accommodate this model. The closed mode, on the other hand, allows for high-pressure operation. Pumping inert gas into the extraction chamber increases the pressure. During the heating of the extraction mixture, however, vapor pressure may generate a degree of pressure. Since these molecules were stable at microwave heating settings of up to 100°C for 20 min, this approach was confined to small-molecule phenolic compounds like phenolic acids (gallic acid and ellagic acid), quercetin, isoflavones, and trans-resveratrol. Due to compound oxidation, more MAE cycles (e.g., from 2 10 s to 3 10 s) resulted in a considerable reduction in phenolic and flavanone yields. Because tannins and anthocyanins are prone to temperature degradation, they may not be suitable for MAE [32].
Microwave-assisted hydro distillation (MAHD) is like standard hydro distillation, with the exception that the solvent is heated using microwaves. The solvent (typically water) and plant parts are placed inside a microwave oven (normally running at 2.45 GHz), and different output powers and reaction periods can be used to improve the extraction process. Again, using microwaves for the heating process speeds up the extraction of chemicals, requiring shorter timeframes to generate comparable amounts of extracts. Furthermore, the chemical makeup of extracts obtained by standard hydro distillation and MAHD is not comparable.
In batch mode, the electric field strength (EFS) ranges from 100 to 300 V/cm, while in continuous mode, the EFS ranges from 20 to 80 kV/cm. An external electrical force is used in electro-permeabilization or electroporation to increase the permeability of cell membranes. The cell membrane is perforated by the formation of hydrophilic holes, which result in the opening of protein channels. When high-voltage electrical pulses are applied across the electrodes, the sample experiences a force per unit charge termed the electric field. The plant material is removed once the membrane loses its structural functioning [41]. Anthocyanin, carotenoids, lycopene, lutein, polyphenols, alkaloids, lactase, protein, polysaccharides, fat, oil, and other bioactive compounds are extracted using PEF. PEF-assisted extraction provides more bioactive component extracts, uses less energy, and takes less time to process, according to the study, resulting in the optimal process parameters [42].
The extracts, which contain numerous phytoconstituents, must be separated and purified further to obtain the fraction or pure phytoconstituents. The techniques utilized for isolation and purification from the extract are determined by the physical and chemical properties of the component to be separated. The physical approaches employed for this goal are as follows.
The point of supersaturation in the solvent in which phytopharmaceuticals are soluble causes them to crystallize. The processes involved in the crystallization of phytoconstituents are slow concentration, slow evaporation, and chilling. Crystallization is an ideal purification procedure. It is operationally easy, very inexpensive, and may be done in quantities ranging from a few micrograms to hundreds of kilograms. The results are normally highly pure (unlike the mixes that can sometimes be obtained with distillation). Using chromatography to purify that much material is a nightmare. Another key point to remember about crystallization is that X-ray crystallography can be used to discover the structure of unknown molecules. With very few exceptions, X-ray crystallography is the gold standard for structure determination: if you can get a substance to crystallize, you can determine its structure. The only issue is that not all compounds crystallize, and finding circumstances that can preferentially recrystallize one chemical can take a long time [43].
This is a process of purifying phytoconstituents from a mixture. It’s commonly used to separate hydrocarbons like crude oil, citral, and eucalyptol. Purification is accomplished by comparing the boiling points of the different substances. When heat is applied, the fractional distillation equipment is built in such a way that each chemical evaporates and separates at its boiling point. As a result, each fractionated chemical will condense and be collected separately via numerous syphons coupled to fractional distillation apparatus [44].
The fractional distillation method is based on differences in compound volatility and is affected by physicochemical properties of the components, as well as the pressure and temperature of the distillation process. The mass and energy transition between the fluid and vapor stages of the mixture has an impact on separation efficiency. Most terpenes are thermally unstable, dissolving, or oxidizing when exposed to high temperatures, light, or oxygen. As a result, the distillation technique is typically used at vacuum pressures to lower the vaporization temperature of the volatile mixture. Due to the boiling temperature reduction, the vacuum also slows processes such as thermal deterioration in temperature-sensitive chemicals. In the chemical industry, vacuum fractional distillation is used to separate compounds with extremely high boiling points that would need a lot of energy to separate under atmospheric pressure [45].
Fractional liberation separates some components from a mixture. The weakest base in the free salt is liberated first when an aqueous solution of alkaloid salts is treated with aliquots of alkali, followed by base liberation in ascending order of basicity. After each addition, shake the mixture with an organic solvent to get a fractionated sequence of bases. Organic acids that are soluble in water-immiscible solvents take a similar route. It is feasible to fractionally liberate acids in this case by adding mineral acids to a mixture of acid salts.
Chromatography on a column separates and purifies phytochemicals on a laboratory and industrial scale without the use of complicated technology. The “eluent” is the liquid employed as the mobile phase, and the stationary phase is usually a solid or a liquid. The sample solution is supplied to a porous stationary phase, and the mobile phase is delivered at a greater pressure via the column, causing separation depending on the solute’s affinity for the stationary phase. The development of HPLC (High-Performance Liquid Chromatography) was aided by the need for a higher degree of separation and faster analysis, which was met by refining the stationary phase packing material to a size of 3–10 m and eluent delivery via a high-pressure pump. Despite its extensive and time-consuming nature, commercial use of column chromatography is comparable to that of other techniques. The advantages of column chromatography include efficient sample handling regardless of the number or nature of the samples, the availability of a wide range of adsorbents, the selection and recyclization of a large solvent system, improved purity of the product, and minimal space requirements. Column chromatography has a few disadvantages, including the use of a large amount of mobile phase, compared to other techniques it is a complicated technique, time consumption, the requirement for an expert, and a greater cost of identifying the separated product.
The fundamental disadvantage of column chromatography is that it is a time-consuming technique; however, vacuum liquid chromatography can solve this problem. In vacuum chromatography, rather than using pressure, vacuum is employed to improve the flow rate and hence speed up the fractionation process. The stationary phase is usually 40–60 mesh particle size silica or reversed-phase silica, and the crude extracts are separated by gradient elution. TLC is a typical method for examining eluted fractions [43].
In the pharmaceutical sector, simulated moving bed (SMB) technology is an economical and eco-friendly process for purifying crude extracts and fractions [46]. It has a higher purity and yield than other techniques. A traditional Simulated Moving Bed system has 4–24 columns divided into four zones. In general, a four-column SMB should be sufficient for testing and optimizing purification conditions. Purification of sugars, proteins, monoclonal antibodies, separation of organic solvents, optical isomers, charged molecules, and desalting are all common applications. For the separation of crude medicines, the SMB technique utilizes extremely less solvent. The SMB technique is simple to adapt to a continuous process and can be integrated with other equipment such as evaporation. SMB, on the other hand, necessitates meticulous process control and is less adaptable than traditional elution chromatography.
CE provides several advantages, including a smaller sample, high efficiency leads to shorter analysis time, cheap, environmental friendliness, reduced solvent usage, and a powerful tool appropriate for drug discovery [47]. CE is a new method for analyzing different phytochemical groups. Variations in mass to charge ratios are used to separate phytochemicals in capillary electrophoresis. Because borate can form compounds with the flavonoid nucleus’ ortho dihydroxyl groups and the sugar’s vicinal cis-dihydroxyl groups, borate buffers with a pH of 8–11 and a concentration of 25–200 mM are generally used [48].
Capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) is the most basic characteristic, and it’s been utilized to isolate a variety of target molecules, especially polyphenolic compounds like epicatechin, catechin, quercetin, gentistic acid, caffeic acid, gallic acid, trans-resveratrol, myricetin, and rutin from wine and grape samples. A CZE technique was also used to isolate antioxidants in Ginkgo leaf extracts. For the separation of anthocyanins in wine, a new CZE approach was developed recently [49]. Food analysis, environmental monitoring, clinical diagnostics, and pharmaceutical analysis have mostly used capillary electrophoresis. Since it allows the use of chirality selectors with limited aqueous solubility, nonaqueous capillary electrophoresis can be utilized to separate enantiomeric drugs. Furthermore, the low dielectric constant of organic solvents can let chiral counter-ions that have less selectivity in aqueous environments form ion pairs and therefore increase their selectivity. CE-MS is one of many multidimensional techniques used in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries, particularly for drug development. Because high resolution and structural and/or molecular weight information of an analyte may be collected along with using a mass spectrometer as a detector for CE splitting, could be useful. CE has various advantages (for example, high speed, efficiency, and low price); yet, combining CE with MS produces several problems. CE solvents, for example, are not accepted by MS.
Molecular imprinting knowledge has been a prominent isolation method in the last years because of its distinctive qualities, such as high selectiveness, economical, and ease of preparation. Many correlative cavities with the memory of the template molecules’ size, shape, and functional groups are produced when the template molecules are removed from the molecular imprinted polymer (MIP). As a result, the template molecule and its analogues will be able to recognize the MIP and adsorb it selectively. MIPs have been extensively used in the isolation of phytoconstituents and as sorbents for solid-phase extraction of herbal materials to enrich phytoconstituent components. MIP was made with methyl methacrylate as the monomer, solanesol as the template molecule, and ethylene glycol as the crosslinker by a suspension polymerization method. This technique is used for the purification of enriching in water extract of
Plant materials go through several processes to acquire the necessary secondary metabolites and/or extract, including drying, extraction, separation, and purification. To produce better eco-friendly processes, the current investigation of the use of green solvents in the field of extraction needs more awareness for a greater perception of different factors such as innate solvent properties (polarity, viscosity, solubility, and pH), external factors (temperature, time, and solid-liquid ratio), and cytotoxicity. However, more study is needed on green or smart solvents that have high specificity for phytochemical compounds, as well as improved stability, recovery, and reduced operational costs. Until now, the framework has only been used to evaluate organic solvents. To expand the currently established techniques to new solvents, more study is required. This entails looking into novel waste-solvent treatment technologies as well as alternative solvent production techniques. Will the eventual transfer of DES/NADES-based extraction technologies to industrial sectors need further investments? Would their use result in a shorter lifespan for the extractors and the analytical tools required for their identification and quantification in the long run? All the questions are still open, and there are a lot of options for answers in the future.
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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. 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Dr. Şentürk currently works as an professor of Biochemistry in the Department of Basic Pharmacy Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ağri Ibrahim Cecen University, Turkey. \nDr. Şentürk published over 120 scientific papers, reviews, and book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists. \nHis research interests span enzyme inhibitor or activator, protein expression, purification and characterization, drug design and synthesis, toxicology, and pharmacology. \nHis research work has focused on neurodegenerative diseases and cancer treatment. Dr. Şentürk serves as the editorial board member of several international journals.",institutionString:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}],selectedSeries:{title:"Infectious Diseases",id:"6"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/150137",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"150137"},fullPath:"/profiles/150137",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()