Ecotoxicity of glyphosate-based herbicide (GBH) to aquatic plants worldwide.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3055",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Insecticides - Development of Safer and More Effective Technologies",title:"Insecticides",subtitle:"Development of Safer and More Effective Technologies",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book contains 20 chapters about the impact, environmental fate, modes of action, efficacy, and non-target effects of insecticides. 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\r\n\tCloud computing services play a very important role in many applications that involve the provision of machines for computing and storage. Additionally, the cloud infrastructure can also offer data platform services that span the different available databases. With all developments in cloud computing infrastructures and services, it becomes mandatory to use cybersecurity and Artificial Intelligence (AI) to address the needs of end-users of Cloud Computing. Utilizing AI software-based machine learning (ML) algorithms in cloud environments is widely used nowadays to deliver intuitive for users and customers. Alexa and Siri are good examples that use AI to search the cloud to get much information or to play songs to make a purchase. Cybersecurity in cloud computing environments is required for involving best practices in user access and privileges, hardware and software security, virtualization, firewalls, and other processes used to protect data and infrastructure.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will concentrate on all aspects of Cloud Computing. Principally, it will address topics that are core to Cloud Computing, focusing on the Cloud applications, the Cloud systems, utilizing both the AI and cybersecurity to advance Cloud systems for better use in the future.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-708-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-707-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-709-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"d0810b3f0c23214bf7dddeaafcb6c3ef",bookSignature:"Dr. Yasser Ismail",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11925.jpg",keywords:"Cloud Computing, Artificial Intelligence (AI), Private Cloud, Cognitive Cloud Computing, Cybersecurity, Cloud Security, Cloud Infrastructure, Cloud System, Cloud Applications, Cloud Deployment, Types of Cloud Computing, Cloud Computing Features",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 23rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 31st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 30th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 18th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 17th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Yasser Ismail has over twenty years of professional experience in teaching and research in national and international universities, such as Southern University, A&M College, Mansoura University, and the University of Bahrain. He has obtained a Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette. He is awarded the Partnering, Research, Innovation, Development, and Entrepreneurship award by Southern University and A&M College.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"255636",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasser",middleName:null,surname:"Ismail",slug:"yasser-ismail",fullName:"Yasser Ismail",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255636/images/system/255636.png",biography:'Overview\nA highly motivated detail-oriented professional with excellent organizational and results-oriented abilities. My educational background and diverse experiences have provided me with wide knowledge and a strong set of skills that allow me to contribute to many fields of image processing – based Machine Learning (ML) and how it may be used to characterize various materials’ degradations, digital video, and VLSI design (algorithmic and architecture levels), smart traffic system design, cybersecurity based Additive Manufacturing, and Internet of Video Things (IoVT).\nResearch Interest:\n•\tImage Processing – Based Machine Learning (ML): Develop a system that can monitor and determine the effect that long-term exposure to some chemical materials that can be added to plants and soils. This work may be extended to characterize various materials’ degradations,\n•\tSmart traffic-Based Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML): Develop smart systems-based Deep Learning algorithms that can automatically count different objects. Such systems and algorithms are very helpful in designing new smart cities.\n•\tInternet of Video Things (IoVT): Design video surveillance systems, for homeland security applications that match the allowed hardware complexity of the Internet of Video Things (IoVT) infrastructure.\n•\tDigital Video Processing Algorithms/Architectures levels: Develop video processing algorithms and architectures. My research involves Video Compression algorithms and architectures, specifically Motion Estimation and Compensation, DCT transform, and Vector Quantization.\n•\tVLSI and FPGA Design (Low-Power and High-Speed Performance Embedded Systems): Design video systems taking into consideration optimizing the encoding speed and study the effect on both the area and power consumption of the designed systems. Systems are tested and implemented in either FPGA or ASIC flow design.\n•\tWireless and Digital Communication Systems: Design several techniques and systems that help in compressing the transmitted bit-rate of a speech signal over wireless communication channels. \nEducation\t\n•\tPh.D. Computer Engineering. University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA, USA, 2010. Dissertation Title: “Efficient Smart Algorithms and Architectures for Real-time Video Transmission in Pixel and Frequency Domains”.\n•\tM.S. Computer Engineering. University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA, USA, 2007.\n•\tM.S. Electrical Communication Engineering. Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt, 2002. \n•\tB.Sc. Electronics Engineering. Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt, 1999.\nHonors and Awards\n•\tThe 2019 Partnering, Research, Innovation, Development, and Entrepreneurship award (P. R. I. D. E) by Southern University and A&M College – USA.\n•\tListed in Marquis Who’s Who in America 2009 and 2010.\n•\tThird place winner in “the student paper contest” at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette in 2009 and 2008.\n•\tHonored Student, The University of Louisiana at Lafayette Honors Convocation Committee (2006) and (2007).\n•\tFirst Rank Graduate in MS, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt (2003).\n•\tSecond Rank Graduate in BS, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt (1999).\nAppointments and Teaching Experience \n\n•\tMay 2022 to Present: Associate Professor, Southern University and A&M College, Department of Electrical Engineering, Baton Rouge, LA, USA.\n•\tAugust 2017 to May 2022: Assistant Professor, Southern University and A&M College, Department of Electrical Engineering, Baton Rouge, LA, USA.\n•\tJuly 2016 to July 2017: Assistant Professor, Mansoura University, Electronics and Communications Department, Egypt, \n•\tSeptember 2016 to June 2017: Adjunct Assistant Professor, Zewail City of Science and Technology - University of Science and Technology - Zewail City, Egypt.\n•\tSeptember 2012 to June 2016: Assistant Professor, University of Bahrain, Computer Engineering Department, Kingdom of Bahrain.\n•\tOctober 2010 to July 2012: Assistant Professor, Umm Al-Qura University, Computer Science Department, Makkah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.\n•\tJanuary 2005 to May 2010: Teaching Assistant, College of Engineering – Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, University of Louisiana at Lafayette (ULL), Lafayette, LA, USA.\n•\tJanuary 2001 to January 2005.Teaching Assistant, Mansoura University, Electronics and Communications Department, Egypt.\nCourses taught\n•\tMicroprocessors, Computer Design and Implementation \n•\tDigital Logic Design Circuits\n•\tDesign and Analysis of Algorithms\n•\tElectromagnetic Waves\n•\tSignals and Systems\n•\tDigital communication system\n•\tElectrical Circuits I/II\t•\tVLSI design of embedded systems\n•\tComputer Architecture and Organization \n•\tElectronics I/II/III \n•\tDigital Signal Processing\n•\tProgramming Languages\n•\tImage Processing and Computer Vision\n•\tTroubleshooting\n•\tRobotic Design and Implementation\n•\tAn Introduction to Cybersecurity\nPending Grant\n\n•\tSouthern University Partnership for Research and Education in Materials Excellence (SUPREME), National Science Foundation (NSF) (2021 – 2027), (Role: Co-PI) ($3,992,932).\n•\tCAREER: Improving Student Learning in Machine Learning and Internet of Things Applications and Technologies Utilizing Modern Learning, National Science Foundation (NSF) (2022 – 2027), (Role: PI) (738,985).\n\nAwarded Grant\n\n•\tUsing Sensor Networks and Machine Learning to Characterize Agricultural Responses to Stimuli – Funded by US Federal Government (2021 – 2023), BAA ID#: CGR-2020-0001-P1. (Role: Co-PI) ($ 350,000) \n•\tHigh-Fidelity Fatigue, Drowsiness, and Drunk Drivers Detection (FD4) System, - Funded by Louisiana Transportation Research Center (LTRC) (2021 – 2022), (Role: PI) ($ 30,000)\n•\tSupervised Undergraduate Research Experiences (SURE) Competition, BOARD OF REGENTS, Baton Rouge 2020-2021. (Role: Supervise undergraduate student; LaBreya Brumfield). ($5,000) \n•\tSupervised Undergraduate Research Experiences (SURE) Competition, BOARD OF REGENTS, Baton Rouge 2020-2021. (Role: Supervise undergraduate student; Dailynn Thomas). ($5,000)\n•\tEnhancing Computer Engineering and Big Data Education (CEBDE) at Southern University and A&M College, Microsoft Impact2020 (2020 – 2021). (Role: Co-PI) ($ 200,000).\n•\tEnhancing Additive Manufacturing Education with Cybersecurity and Virtual Reality – Funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) (2019 – 2024), Award Id: 1915520. (Role: Senior Investigator) ($ 851,877) \n•\tTargeted Infusion Project: A Computer Engineering Research Lab (CERL) at Southern University and A&M College (SUBR) – Funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) (2019 – 2021), Award Id: 1912397. (Role: PI) ($ 396,190) \n•\tEvaluation of Counting Device for Pedestrians and Bicyclists - Funded by Louisiana Transportation Research Center (LTRC) (2018 – 2019), Award Id: LTRC 19-1SA. (Role: PI) ($ 85,792)\n•\tAutomatic Recognition of Arabic handwriting in Historical Manuscripts - Funded by the King Abdul-Aziz City for Science and Technology (KACST) (2014 - 2015). (Role: Co-PI) ($ 379,337)\n•\tFast and Smart Security Cameras for Video Surveillance systems in Hajj Rites – Funded by The Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques Institute of Hajj researches – KSA (2014-2015). (Role: PI) ($ 35,000)\n•\tASIC Design of a Low Complexity High-Speed H.265/HEVC for Wireless Transmission Video Surveillance System - Funded by University of Bahrain (2014 -2015). (Role: PI) ($ 13,297)\n•\tFast video surveillance system for Hajj rites security - Funded by the Transportation and Crowd Management Center of Research Excellence (2014 - 2015). (Role: PI) ($ 26,595)\n•\tUS-Bahrain Cooperative Research with Central Michigan University: Intelligent Video Surveillance Systems for Hajj — Funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) (2013 – 2014), Award Id: 1341126. (Role: Co-PI) ($ 36,649)\n•\tFast Video Surveillance system for the roadway security monitoring — Funded by University of Bahrain (2012 -2013). (Role: PI) ($ 13,297)\n•\tDesktop and Mobil-phone Secure Backup System hosted on a Storage Cloud — Funded by the Center of Research for Hajj and Omrah – Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) (2011 - 2012). (Role: Co-PI) ($ 132,978)\n\nMaster and Ph.D. Students Supervision\n•\tOpeyemi P. Ojajuni “Fostering 21st-Century Skills and Computational Skills in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Students Using the Internet of Things (IoT) Technology” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, Expecting graduation on (2023).\n•\tSunday Bezaleel Anwansedo “Using Mobile-Based Application for Healthcare Management In Sub-Sahara Africa: A Case Study of Covid-19 Vaccine Distribution” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2021).\n•\tSurya Veera Reddy Sirigireddy “Predicting Material Composition by Analyzing Color in Copper Silver Gold Alloys” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2021).\n•\tAkodu Moruf Olagunju “The application of Machine learning algorithms in healthcare classification: Prostate Cancer as a case study” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2021).\n•\tWillson Junior Meli Ngong “Video-Based Automated Pedestrians Counting Algorithms for Smart Cities” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2020).\n•\tAli H Al Majed “Smart Detection Algorithms Under Different Weather Conditions” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2020).\n•\tRaja Naga Rahul Paramkusam “Synthesis and Analytical Characterization of Graphene Oxide and Reduced Graphene Oxide for Gas Sensing Applications” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2019).\n•\tDe’Shon Swafford “Fabrication of Zinc Oxide Varistor used in Gas Sensing Application” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2019).\n•\tYeshak A. Dabels “Miniaturization of Chemical Identification bY Magnetoelastic Sensing (ChIMES) Technology” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2018).\n•\tMohamed Nabil Hammad “High-Speed On-Chip Motion Estimation Co-Processor for H.265/HEVC Standard,” University of Bahrain, Computer Engineering Department, (2016).\n\nPublications\nJournal Papers\n1.\tMahmoud Darwich, Yasser Ismail, Talal Darwich, and Magdy Bayoumi” Cost Minimization of Cloud Services for On-Demand Video Streaming” Accepted to be published in SN Computer Science Springer Journal, June 2021.\n2.\tYasser Ismail, Mohamed Hammad, Mahmoud Darwichand, and Wael Elmedany “Homeland Security Video Surveillance System Utilizing the Internet of Things (IoT) for Smart Cities” IET Computers & Digital Technique journal, Volume 15, Issue 4, Pages: 241-319, 04 April 2021.\n3.\tWillson Meli, Fred Lacy, and Yasser Ismail “Video-Based Automated Pedestrians Counting Algorithms for Smart Cities” International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems (IJCDS), 2020.\n4.\tAli Al Majed, Fred Lacy, and Yasser Ismail “Smart Detection Under Different Weather Conditions” International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems (IJCDS), 2020.\n5.\tYeshak Dabels, Yasser Ismail, and Fred Lacy “CHIMES: Chemical Identification by Magneto Elastic Sensing” International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems (IJCDS), vol. 9, issue 4, July 2020.\n6.\tOpeyemi Ojajuni, Yasser Ismail and Albertha Lawson, “Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS) Attack Detection and Mitigation for Internet of Things (IoT)” International Journal of Technology Diffusion (IJTD), 2020.\n7.\tChase Richardson, Ali Ghawwas, Yasser Ismail, Raynaud Henton, and Jiecai luo, " Multiple Smart Phones Inductive Charging Station System " International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems (IJCDS), vol. 7, issue. 6, November 2018.\n8.\tSamar Ali, Ashraf Badawi, and Yasser Ismail, “Adaptive Multi-connection Scalable Video Coding for Wireless Area Networks,” International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems (IJCDS), vol. 7, issue. 3, May 2018.\n9.\tYasser Ismail, “6-DOF Robotic Arm Using Haptic Feedback Wired and Wireless Platforms,” International Journal of Computing Network Technology (IJCNT), vol. 4, issue. 2, May 2016.\n10.\tYasser Ismail, “FPGA Implementation of Fast and Efficient CODEC for H.264/AVC Real-Time Video Applications,” International Journal of Technology Diffusion (IJTD) - USA, vol. 7, issue. 1, March 2016.\n11.\tYasser Ismail, “A cost-effective Programmable SoC for H.265/HEVC Full Search Motion Estimation using Xilinx ZYNQ-7 ZC706 FPGA,” International Journal of Computing Network Technology (IJCNT), vol. 4, issue. 1, January 2016.\n12.\tYasser Ismail, Ahmed Abdelgawad, Sherif El-etriby, “High-speed on-chip multiple cosine transform generator,” Journal of Real-Time Image Processing, Springer, ISSN: 1861-8200, DOI 10.1007/s11554-015-0528-0, (print version), and ISSN: 1861-8219 (electronic version), September 2nd, 2015.\n13.\tYasser Ismail, “A complete Verification of a Full Search Motion Estimation Engine,” International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems, 2015. Int. J. Dig. Sys. 4, No. 4, pp. 221-232, Oct. 2015. \n14.\tYasser Ismail, “High-Speed Transform Coding on Chip for Wireless Video Surveillance Systems,” International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems, 2015. Int. J. Dig. Sys. 4, No. 2, pp. 81-89, Apr. – 2015. \n15.\tYasser Ismail, Wael El-Medany, Hessa Al-Junaid, and Ahmed Abdelgawad, “High-Performance Architecture for Real-time HDTV Broadcasting”, Journal of Real-Time Image Processing, Springer, Volume 11, Issue 4, pp 633–644, ISSN: 1861-8200 (print version), and ISSN: 1861-8219 (electronic version), May 27, 2014.\n16.\tYasser Ismail, “A Fast Diamond Motion Estimation Search Algorithm for Real-Time Video Applications”, International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems, Dig. Sys. 3, No. 2, pp. 101-110, May 1st, 2014.\n17.\tYasser Ismail, “A Novel Lattice Architecture for High-Speed Discrete MultiTone (DMT) Modulation”, International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems, Dig. Sys. 2, No. 2, pp. 11-18, April 2013.\n18.\tYasser Ismail, Jason McNeely, Mohsen Shaaban, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, “Fast Motion Estimation Algorithm Using Dynamic Models for H.264 Video Coding,” IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology (TCSVT), Volume 22, Issue 1, pp. 28 – 42, January 2012.\n19.\tSumeer Goel, Yasser Ismail, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, " High-speed Motion Estimation Architecture for Real-time Video Transmission," Oxford Journals - The Computer Journal (2012) 55(1): 35-46 first published online April 29, 2011.\n20.\tYasser Ismail, Mohsen Shaaban, Jason McNeely, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, “An Efficient Adaptive High-Speed Manipulation Architecture for Fast Variable Padding Frequency Domain Motion Estimation,” IEEE Transactions on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) Systems. Volume: PP, Issue: 99, pp. 1 – 10, 2010. \n21.\tYasser Ismail, Mohamed Elgamel, and Magdy Bayoumi, “Fast Variable Padding Motion Estimation Using Smart Zero Motion Prejudgment technique for Pixel and Frequency Domains,” IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology (TCSVT), Volume 19, Issue 5, pp. 609 – 626, May 2009.\nProject Reports\nYasser Ismail “Evaluation of Counting Device for Pedestrians and Bicyclists”, Final report (2019-2020) published by – March 2021. https://www.ltrc.lsu.edu/pubs_annual_reports.html#\n\nBooks\n1.\tYasser Ismail, et al., " Internet of Things (IoT) for Automated and Smart Applications" IntechOpen, ISBN: 978-1-78984-096-4, Website: https://www.intechopen.com/books/internet-of-things-iot-for-automated-and-smart-applications, 2019.\n2.\tYasser Ismail and M. Bayoumi, "Smart Algorithms and Architectures for Real-Time Video Transmission," VDM Verlag, Saarbrucken, ISBN-NR.: 978-3-639-34323-6, Germany, 2011.\nBook Chapter\n1.\tBook title: Smart Algorithms and Architectures for Real-Time Video Transmission\nChapter title: Introductory Chapter: Internet of Things (IoT) Importance and Its Applications\nAuthors: Yasser Ismail\n2.\tBook title: The Future of Television - Convergence of Content and Technology \nChapter title: High-Efficient Video Transmission for HDTV Broadcasting\nAuthors: Yasser Ismail\n3.\tBook title: Search Algorithms (ISBN 980-953-307-672-5)\nChapter title: Fast Motion Estimation System Using Dynamic Models for H.264/AVC Video Coding \nAuthors: Yasser Ismail\n4.\tBook title: Search Algorithms and Applications (ISBN 978-953-307-483-2)\nChapter title: Enhanced Efficient Diamond Search Algorithm for Fast Block Motion Estimation\nAuthors: Yasser Ismail and Magdy A. Bayoumi\nConference papers\n1.\tMahmoud Darwich, Yasser Ismail, Talal Darwich, and Magdy Bayoumi “Improving Hierarchy Storage for Video Streaming in Cloud” IEEE Virtual World Forum on Internet of Things, New Orleans, 2021.\n2.\tM. Hammad, W. Elmedany and Y. Ismail, "Design and Simulation of AES S-Box Towards Data Security in Video Surveillance Using IP Core Generator," 2021 International Conference on Innovation and Intelligence for Informatics, Computing, and Technologies (3ICT), 2021, pp. 469-476, doi: 10.1109/3ICT53449.2021.9581825.\n3.\tM. Hammad, W. El-medany and Y. Ismail, "Intrusion Detection System using Feature Selection With Clustering and Classification Machine Learning Algorithms on the UNSW-NB15 dataset," the 2020 International Conference on Innovation and Intelligence for Informatics, Computing and Technologies (3ICT), 2020, pp. 1-6, doi: 10.1109/3ICT51146.2020.9312002.\n4.\tMahmoud Darwich, Yasser Ismail, Talal Darwich, and Magdy Bayoumi “Cost-Efficient Storage for On-Demand Video Streaming on Cloud” IEEE Virtual World Forum on Internet of Things, New Orleans, 2020.\n5.\tOpeyemi Ojajuni, Yasser Ismail, and Albertha Lawson “Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS) Attack Detection and Mitigation for Internet of Things (IoT),” 76th Joint Meeting of BKX and NIS, Beta Kappa Chi and National Institute of Science, March 28-30, 2019 - Atlanta, GA. \n6.\tY. Ismail, M. Hammad, and W. El-Medany, "Homeland Security Video Surveillance System for Smart Cities," 2018 International Conference on Innovation and Intelligence for Informatics, Computing, and Technologies (3ICT), 2018, pp. 1-4, doi: 10.1109/3ICT.2018.8855732.\n7.\tMd Anam Mahmud, Ahmed Abdelgawad, Kumar Yelamarthi, and Yasser A. Ismail, " Signal Processing Techniques for IoT-based Structural Health Monitoring," 29th International Conference on Microelectronics (ICM), pp: 1-5, Beirut, Lebanon, 10-13 Dec. 2017. \n8.\tA. Abdelgawad, Y. Ismail, K. Yelamarthi, "Moving Target Tracking using a Mobile Robot," IEEE International Symposium on Monitoring & Surveillance Research, June 2015.\n9.\tYasser Ismail, Wael El-Medany, Hessa Al-Junaid, and Ahmed Abdelgawad “Fast Co-Processor for Real-Time Video Transmission,” Proc. of the IEEE International Conference on Electronics, Circuits, and Systems, ICECS, Abu Dhabi, UAE, pp. 945 – 949, December 8-11, 2013.\n10.\tWael El-Medany and Yasser Ismail “Mobile Learning Laboratory for Hardware Courses,” IEEE International Conference on e-Learning "Best Practices in Management, Design and Development of e-Courses: Standards of Excellence and Creativity", pp.51,54, 7-9 May 2013\n11.\tYasser Ismail and Sherif El-etriby “Fast diamond search algorithm for real-time video coding," Proc. of the IEEE Workshop ICNC, Maui, Hawaii, USA, pp. 729 – 733, 30 January 2012.\n12.\tYasser Ismail, Sherif El-etriby, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, " Frequency Domain: Efficient and High-Speed Technology For Video Transmission," Proc. of the IEEE Workshop on Signal Processing Systems (SIPS), Beirut, Lebanon, pp. 278 – 282, October 2011.\n13.\tYasser Ismail and Magdy A. Bayoumi, " Efficient high-speed lattice-CORDIC IFFT architecture for DMT transmitter," Proc. of the IEEE Workshop on Signal Processing Systems (SIPS), San Francisco, CA, USA, pp. 151 - 155, October 6-8, 2010.\n14.\tYasser Ismail, Jason McNeely, Mohsen Shaaban, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, “A Fast-Discrete Transform Architecture for Frequency Domain Motion Estimation,” IEEE Int. Conference on Image Processing (ICIP), San Francisco Bay Area, California, U.S.A, pp. 1249 – 1252, September 26-29, 2010.\n15.\tYasser Ismail, Jason McNeely, Mohsen Shaaban, Mohamed Elgamel, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, " An efficient area manipulation architecture for frequency domain encoding process,” IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS 2010), Paris, France, pp. 2638 – 2641, 2010.\n16.\tYasser Ismail, Mohsen Shaaban, Jason McNeely, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, “An Efficient Manipulation architecture for Real-Time Video Coding in Frequency Domain,” IEEE Int. Conference on Image Processing (ICIP), Cairo, Egypt, PP. 3281 – 3284, November 7-11, 2009.\n17.\tYasser Ismail, Jason McNeely, Mohsen Shaaban, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, “Enhanced Efficient Diamond Search Algorithm for Fast Block Motion Estimation,” IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS 2009), Taipei International Convention Center, Taiwan, pp. 3198 – 3201, 24 - 27 May 2009.\n18.\tJason McNeely, Yasser Ismail, Magdy A. Bayoumi, and Peiyi Zhao, “Power Analysis of The Huffman Decoding Tree,” Proc. of the IEEE Int. Conference on Image Processing (ICIP), San Diego, California, U.S.A, pp. 1416 – 1419, October 12–15, 2008.\n19.\tYasser Ismail, Jason McNeely, Mohsen Shaaban, Magdy Bayoumi, "A Generalized Fast Motion Estimation Algorithm using External and Internal Stop Search Techniques for H.264 Video Coding Standard," IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS 2008), Seattle, Washington, pp. 3574 – 3577, May 18-21, 2008.\n20.\tYasser Ismail, Mohamed Elgamel, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, "An Adaptive Block Size Phase Correlation Motion Estimation Using Smart Multireference Frames Selection in Frequency Domain," Proc. of IEEE Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems, and Computers, Pacific Grove, California, pp. 239 – 242, November 4-7, 2007.\n21.\tYasser Ismail, Mohamed Elgamel, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, "adaptive techniques for a fast Frequency Domain Motion Estimation," Proc. of IEEE Workshop on Signal Processing Systems (SIPS), Shanghai, China, pp. 331-336, October 17-19, 2007.\n22.\tYasser Ismail, Mohamed Elgamel, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, "A Fast Block-Based Motion Estimation Using Early Stop Search Techniques for H.264/AVC Standard," Proc. of the 48th IEEE International Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Montreal, Canada, pp. 397 – 400, Aug 5-8, 2007.\n23.\tYasser Ismail, M. Shaaban, and M. Bayoumi, "An Adaptive Block Size Phase Correlation Motion Estimation Using Adaptive Early Search Termination Technique," IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS), New Orleans, pp.3423–3426, May 2007.\n24.\tJ.Luis Tecpanecatl-Xihuitl, Ruth M. Aguilar-Ponce, Yasser Ismail, and Magdy A. Bayoumi “Efficient Mutliplierless Polyphase FIR Filter based on New Distributed Arithmetic Architecture,” Proc. of IEEE Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems, and Computers, Pacific Grove, California, pp. 958 – 962, November 4-7, 2007.\n25.\tS. Goel, Yasser Ismail, P. Devulapalli, J. McNeely, and M. Bayoumi, “An Efficient Data Reuse Motion Estimation Engine,” Proc. of IEEE Signal Processing Systems Design and Implementation, 2006, SIPS, Banff. Canada, pp.383-386, Oct. 2006.\n26.\tS. Goel, Yasser Ismail, and M. Bayoumi, "Adaptive search window size algorithm for fast motion estimation in H.264/AVC standard," Proc. of the 48th IEEE Intl. Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Ohio, pp. 1557-1560, Aug. 2005. \nCourses developed at Southern University and A&M College\n•\tELEN 435: Image processing and Computer Vision. (Credit, 3 hours) (Lecture, 3 hours). This course is intended to teach students the concepts of visual information, feature extraction, Image enhancement in the spatial domain, Image enhancement in the frequency domain, Image restoration, Color image processing, Image compression, Morphological image processing, Image segmentation, and image representation.\n•\tELEN 464: Mechatronics. (Credit, 3 hours) (Lecture, 3 Hours) – Covers computer control of electromechanical systems, automatic data acquisition. Computerized instrumentation and testing. The embedded computer might be a combination of microprocessors, microcontrollers, personal computers, and /or programmable controllers. Students are required to test to design, assemble, and test actual systems.\n•\tMEEN 4xx: Additive Manufacturing Security & Security Framework. This course is designed for the purpose of the NSF Award Id: 1912397. It will provide students with the knowledge of Additive Manufacturing applications and how to make them more secure. Virtual Reality simulations will be used to demonstrate possible risks from cyberattacks and their consequences. \nProfessional development\n•\tProposing a Computer Engineering (CE) minor program under the Electrical Engineering (EE) program at Southern University.\n•\tABET accreditation of the Electrical Engineering (EE) program at Southern University (Fall 2021): I participated in many activities and committees to successfully get the EE program accredited.\n•\tABET accreditation of the Computer Engineering (CE) program at University of Bahrain (2016): I participated in many activities and committees to successfully get the CE program accredited.\n•\tSummer Fellow in the ONR sponsored Summer Faculty Research Program at the Naval Surface Warfare Center – Carderock Division, West Bethesda, MD, USA, 20817, June 1 – August 8, 2021.\n•\tNSF Panel Reviewer: Serve as a reviewer for NSF Panels 2019 – present. \n•\tSuccessfully passed eleven (11) weeks Machine Learning online course on Coursera website. https://www.coursera.org/learn/machine-learning/home/welcome, 2021.\n•\tSession chair at the IEEE 7th World Forum on Internet of Things (WF-IoT 2021), 26 – 31 July 2021, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA. \n•\tExternal Assessment Moderator for the CE Department at University of Bahrain (UoB), December 2020.\n•\tSession chair at the IEEE 6th World Forum on Internet of Things, 5-9 April 2020, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA. \n•\tSession chair at the 63rd IEEE International Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems, 2018, 2019, and 2020. \n•\tMember in the Organizing Committee of the Gulf States Math Alliance Conference held at Southern University and A&M College, February 14-16, 2020.\n•\tTrack chair at the IEEE Green Technologies Conference, April 3-6, 2019, Lafayette, Louisiana, USA.\n•\tCertificate from Quality Matters (QM) of Independent Applying the QM Rubric (APPQMR), September 20, 2019. \n•\tSupervisor of the IEEE student chapter group at Southern University and A&M College 2018 – Current.\n•\tEditorial Board Member for Frontiers of Mechatronical Engineering FME, EnPress Publisher Editorial - USA, 2018 – current.\n•\tServe on the technical program committee for MobiApps 2016 (Mobile Applications, Vienna, Austria 2016).\n•\tInvited to serve as a lead guest editor for a special issue in mobile information systems – Hindawi publishing corporation September 2016.\n•\tMember of Bahrain Society of academics 2014 – 2016. \n•\tSession chair at ICECS 2013, Abu Dhabi – UAE.\n•\tAn active member in the IEEE student chapter at the University of Louisiana (2006-2009).\n•\tMember of the Organizing Committee of ISCAS 2007 symposium, New Orleans, LA.\nSynergistic Activities \n\n•\tSchool and College Service:\no\tServe as a commencement Assistant University Marshal for the College of Sciences and Engineering (CSE) 2018 - Current\no\tElectrical Engineering Department committee member (member)\no\tThe Electrical Engineering Department assessment committee (member) Spring-2018\no\tThe IEEE Student Advisory Committee (member) Spring-2018\no\tThe Electrical Engineering Department Recruiting/Outreach Committee (Chair) Spring-2018\no\tThe Engineers Week Committee (Chair) Spring-2018\no\tThe Electrical Engineering Department Arduino Club (Chair) Fall-2018 - Current\n•\tJournal Reviewer:\no\tJournal of Real-Time Image Processing (JRTIP), Springer\no\tIEEE Transaction on Circuit and System for Video Technology (TCSVT)\no\tIEEE Transactions on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) Systems \no\tIEEE Transactions on Image Processing\no\tInternational Journal of Computing and Digital Systems (IJCDS)\no\tInternational Journal of Technology Diffusion (IJTD)\n•\tTechnical Conference Reviewer:\no\tSCS: University of Bahrain "Smart Cities Symposium" 22-23 April 2018\no\tISCAS: IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems\no\tICASSP: IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing\no\tICIP: IEEE International Conference on Image Processing\no\tSIPS: IEEE Workshop on Signal Processing Systems\no\tGCCCE: IEEE-GCC Conference and Exhibition\no\tICECS: IEEE International Conference on Electronics, Circuits, and Systems\no\tMWSCAS: IEEE International Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems\n•\tConference Organizer\no\tThe IEEE 6th World Forum on the Internet of Things (IoT) - WF-IoT 2020, New Orleans, USA, June 2nd – June 16th, Chair of Edge and Fog Computing session.\no\tThe 63rd IEEE International Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems, August 9 -12, 2020, , MA, USA \no\tThe Gulf States Math Alliance Conference held at Southern University and A&M College, February 14-16, 2020\no\t62nd IEEE International Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Dallas, TX, USA, Aug. 4-7, 2019, Chair of Control Systems, Mechatronics, and Robotics session. \no\tThe IEEE Green Technologies Conference, 3-6 April, Lafayette, LA, 2019\no\tThe 9th International Conference on Ambient Systems, Networks and Technologies (ANT 2018), Porto, Portugal May 8-11, 2018\no\tM.Sc./Ph.D. students forum Chair: IEEE International Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Windsor, ON, Canada August 5th-8th, 2018\no\tServe on the technical program committee for DPNoC\'17 (International Workshop on Design and Performance of Networks on Chip 2017). August 15-18, 2016, Montreal, Quebec, Canada\no\tOrganizing Committee for IEEE ICECS 2013, Abu Dhabi, UAE\no\t Organizing Committee for IEEE ISCAS 2007, New Orleans, LA, USA\n•\tCollaborators & Other Affiliations\no\tAshok Srivastava, Louisiana State University, USA\no\tJesmin Khan, Tuskegee University, USA\no\tMagdy Bayoum, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA\no\tAhmed Abdelgawad, Central Michigan University, USA\no\tJason McNeely, University of Alaska Fairbanks, USA\no\tAhmed Khattab, Cairo University, Egypt\no\tWael El-Medany, Bahrain University, Bahrain\no\tMahmoud Darwich, Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania, USA',institutionString:"Southern University and Agricultural and Mechanical College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Southern University and Agricultural and Mechanical College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453624",firstName:"Martina",lastName:"Scerbe",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/453624/images/20399_n.jpg",email:"martina.s@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7602",title:"Internet of Things (IoT) for Automated and Smart Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"55ad7d0965cba5aebe448cb43766c45e",slug:"internet-of-things-iot-for-automated-and-smart-applications",bookSignature:"Yasser Ismail",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7602.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255636",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasser",surname:"Ismail",slug:"yasser-ismail",fullName:"Yasser Ismail"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Aside from data collected by a few individuals and corporate organizations at scattered locations, there is no comprehensive and empirical database on the magnitude of the hazard and its deleterious effects on the ecosystems and people in the region. Also the existing network of meteorological stations is too coarse to provide data covering the whole of the region. The NDA is Nigeria’s most endowed region in terms of oil mineral reserves and one of the most industrialized after Lagos, Nigeria’s former administrative capital. The operations of these industries especially the upstream and downstream petroleum sectors as well as a variety of other anthropogenically related activities including biomass combustion, refuse burning and traffic emissions releases a barrage of substances like volatile organics, oxides of carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, particulate matter, heavy metals and other toxics at levels that most times exceed both the national and international guidelines. Apart from compromising the quality of the atmosphere most of the air pollution in the region is observed to have local and regional effects such as the formation of acid rain, water pollution, soil pollution, impacts on plants and wild life, effects on materials and artifacts and recently contributing to the global warming effects. While most of these claims may be true a great majority has not been substantiated scientifically and is rather based on assumptions or being speculative. There are numerous challenges facing air quality studies in NDA. Like in most developing nations the issues are multifaceted and the most acute have been lack of equipment, inadequate expertise, lack of infrastructure and weak policy frame work. This and many other factors has been the bane to achieving the much desired goals towards preserving the quality of the ecosystems and safeguarding the health of the public in the region. In this chapter a conscious effort has been made to give a brief description of the Niger delta area, the possible sources of air pollution in the region with highlights of a few case scenarios of air pollution from community automobile traffic and industries as well as common related health problems. Again as a way forward to most of the problems and drawbacks hitherto mentioned several models and schemes have been advocated.
The Niger Delta area in Nigeria (Fig 1) is situated in the Gulf of Guinea between longitude 50E to 80E and latitudes 40N to 60N.It is the largest wetland in Africa and the third largest
in the world consisting of flat low lying swampy terrain that is criss-crossed by meandering and anastomosing streams, rivers and creeks. It covers 20,000 km² within wetlands of 70,000 km² formed primarily by sediment deposition. It has an equatorial monsoon climate influenced by the south west monsoonal winds (maritime tropical) MT airmass coming from the South Atlantic Ocean. It is home to 20 million people drawn from nine states namely Abia, Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa, Cross River, Delta, Edo, Imo, Ondo and Rivers states with 40 different ethnic groups. This floodplain makes up 7.5% of Nigeria\'s total land mass. The Delta\'s environment can be broken down into four ecological zones: coastal barrier islands, mangrove swamp forests, freshwater swamps, and lowland rainforests. This incredibly well-endowed ecosystem, contains one of the highest concentrations of biodiversity on the planet, in addition to supporting abundant flora and fauna, arable terrain that can sustain a wide variety of crops, lumber or agricultural trees, and more species of freshwater fish than any ecosystem in West Africa. The vegetation of the Niger Delta consists mainly of forest swamps. The forests are of two types, nearest the sea is a belt of saline/brackish Mangrove swamp separated from the sea by sand beach ridges. Numerous sandy islands occur with fresh water vegetation. Fresh water swamps gradually supersede the mangrove on the landward side. More than 70% of Nigeria\'s crude oil and gas production is from the area. The region produces over 90% of Nigeria’s foreign earnings through oil exploration activities. It plays host to most of the upstream and downstream oil related industries and non oil related industries that release tons of pollutants into the ecosystems. The pollution from the Niger Delta on a scale could be regarded as one of the worst among similar delta areas in the world.
Political Map of the Niger Delta Area
Biomass in form of firewood, coal, bamboo trunks and dead leaves are commonly used sources of cooking fuel in the region. Of all these the most frequently used is firewood. This fuel woods are usually logged from nearby bushes and forests or are collected as dead branches within the residential vicinities by the women and sometimes children and are used to generate energy for cooking (Plate 1). The combustion of firewood releases gaseous pollutants and particulate matter. From literature the gaseous pollutants from cooking emissions are carbon monoxide CO, carbon dioxide CO2, sulphur dioxide SO2, nitrogen dioxide NO2, volatile organic compounds VOCs and particulate matter. The particulate matter generated is in the form of carbon black, sooth and fly ash which are major components of smoke and are most often within the 10µm size range.
Cooking Fuel emissions from biomass combustion
Bush burning is a common phenomenon in the Niger delta communities. Most times the burning of bush is done prior to land cultivation as one of the initial steps of land preparation. This constitutes part of the pre planting preparation. The process of bush burning leads to the release of various types of gaseous pollutants and particulate matter. Very often the gas stream is inundated with volatile organics and oxides of carbon (COx), sulphur(SOx) and nitrogen(NOx) depending on the fuel composition and intensity of the flame. Particulate matter usually within the 10µm size range is also produced in the course of the combustion process.
Refuse disposal is a major environmental problem in the Niger delta communities particularly in the urban areas (Plate 2). The refuse is usually from multiple sources including domestic, municipal, agricultural and industrial sources. One of the environmentally unfriendly methods of managing the waste is by open burning either on nearby lands or open dumps within the residential vicinities. The composition of the refuse, age of the dump and intensity of the flame usually determines the nature of the air pollutants. Often times the air within refuse burning sites is inundated with VOCs, COx, SOx, NOx, total hydrocarbons(THCs), as well as various classes of toxic and hazardous compounds viz polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs), dioxins, PCBs(Polychloro Biphenyls) and heavy metals such as lead, nickel and mercury.
Emissions from open burning of solid waste
Over 600 million people globally are exposed to hazardous level of traffic – generated pollutants UN, (1998). Human exposure to these air pollutants is believed to have posed severe health problems especially in urban areas where pollution levels are on the increase. Pollution due to traffic constitute up to 90 – 95% of the ambient CO levels, 80 – 90% of NOx, hydrocarbon and particulate matter in the world, posing a serious threat to human health Savile, (1993). Research has shown that transportation sources in the USA were responsible for 77% of CO levels, 80 -90% of NOx, 36% of volatile organic compounds and 22% of particulate matter USEPA, (1993). Similarly, in UK the average concentration of NO2 was found to increase by 35% from 1986 to 1991 due to increase in vehicular emission CEC, (1992). On the global scene, Seneca and Tausig, (1994) concluded that transportation is the major culprit of air pollution accounting for over 80% of total air pollutants.
In Nigeria much attention is focused on general industrial pollution and pollution from the oil industries, with little attention on the effects of air pollution from mobile transportation sources (Faboye, 1997; Iyoha, 2000 and Magbabeola, 2001).Increased pollution from mobile
Traffic emissions from busy urban roads
sources is on the increase with per capita increase in vehicle ownership (Plate 3). The consequence of this is the congestion of most Nigeria city roads and a corresponding increase in the burden of air pollutants and their associated effects. Studies conducted by Akpan and Ndoke, (1999) in Northern Nigeria show higher values of CO2 concentration (1780ppm- 1840ppm) in heavily congested areas in Kaduna and (1160ppm-1530ppm) in Abuja. A study of the impacts of urban road transportation on the ambient air was conducted by Koku and Osuntogun, (1999) in three cities in south western Nigeria. Air quality indicators namely CO, SO2, NO2, and total suspended particulates (TSP) were determined. The highest levels obtained for the air pollution indicators were CO- 233ppm, SO2-2.9ppm, NO2-1.5ppm and total particulates 852ppm in Lagos. In Ibadan the highest levels obtained were CO-271ppm, SO2 -1.44 ppm and NO2- 1.0ppm. In Ado-Ekiti the highest levels obtained were CO-317ppm, NO2 -0.6ppm and SO2-0.8ppm. These results were found to be higher than FEPA limits for CO-10ppm, SO2-0.01ppm, NO2-0.04-0.06ppm.
A comparative study of emission levels in Lagos and the Niger Delta area was reported by Jerome, (2000). Two major cities, Port-Harcourt and Warri were considered for the NDA. The results obtained showed that the concentrations of TSP, NOx, SO2, and CO in Lagos and the Niger Delta communities were above the FEPA recommended limits. The CO levels for Lagos 10 – 250ppm were higher than the levels 5.0 – 61.0ppm and 1.0 – 52ppm recorded in the two selected communities in the Niger Delta. The TSP concentrations were also high for both locations when compared to WHO standard. A similar traffic related emission study was carried out in Calabar, a major city in NDA and the results presented in the box indicate that the overall average value(OAV) of each pollutant for the 72 hours experimental duration was found to be in the following range: CO :5.0 – 6.1ppm, NO2 :0 -0.05ppm, PM10: 202 - 230μg/m3.
Ambient air pollutants in Lagos and Niger Delta Area
At the National level, available data on the total number of vehicles registered in Nigeria shows an increase from 38,000 to 1.6 million between 1950 and 1992(Enemari, 2001). Data from the Federal Road Safety Commission (FRSC) of Nigeria however, indicates that between 1999 and 2004 about six million vehicles (6,000,000) were registered in Nigeria (Fig 2) of which 70% of the registered vehicles were cars and 30% busses and trucks. The reason for the large increase of registered vehicles in 1999 was due to the deadline given for the registration of all vehicles in the country by FRSC. The subsequent years indicate vehicles coming in for the first time into the country. The increase recorded in 2002 was the climax due to favourable government policies on importation of fairly used vehicles at the inception of democratic rule in Nigeria. Although there was a decline in 2004, it is obvious that the number of vehicles plying Nigerian roads had continued to increase. In Lagos alone about 223,764 vehicles were registered in 2008 compared to 160,134 vehicles registered in 2007. Also in the first quarter of 2009 more than 58,000 vehicles were registered and a total of 27,587 motorcycles were also registered between July 2006 and July 2009. From the above data it is apparent that the average emission concentration from motor vehicles and motorcycles in the country is in the increase.
Total number of vehicles Registered in Nigeria (1999-2004)
Apart from Lagos which was the former political capital but still regarded as Nigeria’s economic capital, the next most industrialized part of the country is the Niger Delta Area. The region boasts of oil and non oil related industries including refinery, petrochemical, liquefied natural gas, chemical fertilizer, aluminum smelter, paper, cement, flour, wood, battery and textile industries etc which emit various kinds of air pollutants (Box 2). The pollution from these industries adds to the burden of gaseous and particulate pollutants in the air. In this chapter information regarding air pollution from three of these industries namely the chemical fertilizer plant, petroleum refinery plant and the petrochemical complex would be reported.
The chemical fertilizer industry in Nigeria is still in its infant stage. The National Fertilizer Company of Nigeria (NAFCON) described here is located at Onne (4.49° and 4.50 N and 6.59° and 7.00 East of Greenwich Meridian), 30 km away from Port Harcourt in the Niger delta area. It utilizes a variety of raw materials such as natural or synthetic gas (methane), atmospheric nitrogen, steam and sand as filler material in the production of various formulations. The major products (per day) are ammonia (1,000 tonnes), urea (1,500 tonnes), and NPK formulations (1,000 tonnes).The main sections where gaseous and particulate emissions are reported are the ammonia plant, urea plant, NPK plant, bulk blending plant, bulk storage plant, and the bagging area. Potential sources for leaks in the ammonia plant are the refrigeration loop, storage areas, flanges, valve packing, and the pump and compressor seals. The gaseous emissions from the ammonia plant include reformer and boiler flue gases, excess carbon dioxide, condenser stripper vapour and ammonia discharge. The gases coming from the reformer are vented into the atmosphere with a mixture of CO2 (20%) and O2 (3-4%). Most of the CO2 is recovered and recycled in the process. The condensate of the process water contained some CO2, methanol and other dissolved gases, which are usually stripped. In the urea plant there are two possible sources of emissions, viz. the high-pressure scrubber and the granular stack. Some amounts of methane, hydrogen, ammonia and CO2 are released. The wet scrubbers also release some particulate urea through the vent. In the NPK plant the tail gas scrubber is the only source of emission of ammonia, particulates and small quantity of fluoride. In various operations, e.g. granulation, drying, mixing and cooling, some amounts of dust and fumes are generated. In a study carried out by Ana et al,2005 the highest mean levels of ammonia (459.1ppm), was recorded at the Urea synthesis plant and the lowest levels (7.29ppm) recorded at a control point about 5km away from the point. For particulate matter, the highest concentration of 260875.7 μg/m3 and the least concentration of 7.29ug/m3 were recorded.
The quality of air in Nigeria’s largest oil refinery (PHRC) and petrochemical complex (EPCL) was assessed based on key priority pollutants in a study carried out by Ana et al (2009)( Plate 4).Three points each were observed per industrial location At the refinery, the highest PM10 level (130.3μg/m3) was recorded while at the petrochemical complex the highest PM10 level (81.3 μg/m3) was recorded. The study indicated that the average PM10 levels at PHRC were higher than that recorded at EPCL.In terms of the level of heavy metals, the highest Pb and Ni levels of 0.20 mg/m3 and 0.86 mg/m3 respectively was recorded at the PHRC. At the petrochemical complex, the highest Pb and Ni levels of 0.16 mg/m3 and 0.05 mg/m3 respectively was recorded at EPCL. Overall, the average heavy metal concentrations were higher at PHRC.The highest concentration of benzo (a) pyrene (1.63x102ng/m3) was recorded at PHRC compared to (1.61x102 ng/m3) that was recorded at EPCL. However, the total PAH concentration taken as the sum of benzo(a)pyrene and indeno(123)-cd pyrene was found to be higher at EPCL when compared with PHRC(Table 2).
According to Cedigaz (2000), Nigeria holds the highest record (19.79%) of natural gas flaring globally and is responsible for about 46 % of Africa’s total gas flared per tonne of oil produced (Plate 5). Until present there are not less than 123 flaring sites in the region making Nigeria one of the highest emitter of green house gases in Africa (Uyigue and Agho, 2007). Similarly, analytical assessment of the statistical bulletin of the Central Bank of Nigeria, showed that the average rate of gas flaring in Nigeria during the period 1970-1979 stood at 97%, while 97% and 95% were flared between 1980 and 1989, and 1990 to 1999 respectively. Between 2000 and 2004 51% was flared. In the same vein, between 1970 and 2004 Nigeria has flared an average of 76% of the total gas produced. Much of the natural gas extracted in oil wells in the Niger Delta is immediately flared into the environment at a rate that approximates 70 million /m3 per day. This is equivalent to 40% of African natural gas consumption and forms the single largest source of greenhouse gas emissions on the planet (Wikipedia 2007, Moffat and Linden, 1995). Orubu, (2002b), who undertook a comparison of concentrations of ambient air pollutants in the region and Lagos State concludes that
Emissions form a Petrochemical plant
Levels of Priority Air pollutants in Nigeria’s Refinery and Petrochemicals
pollutant concentrations are highest in the Niger Delta and argues that some of the green house gases (such as methane and carbon dioxide) emitted at flare sites contribute to global warming. The largest proportion of these flare sites are located in the Niger Delta.
Gas flaring from an oil exploration process
The explosion of pipelines occurs either accidentally or by sabotage (Plate 6). In the Niger Delta area much of the pipeline explosions are a product of the later and they are usually accompanied most times with fire outbreak. The burning flame and smoke from the oil pipelines releases large concentrations of gaseous substances and particulate matter. The substances in most cases include COx, NOx VOCs, THCs, carbon black, soot and some heavy metal residues.
Within the Niger delta communities there are diverse sources of air pollution. The common air pollution sources are biomass combustion, bush burning, automobile emissions, generator emissions, pipeline explosions, industrial emissions and gas flaring. The measurement of air quality for some specific priority pollutants viz ammonia, particulate matter and Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons at specific locations within the communities has been carried out using standard procedures (Ana et al, 2005, 2009). The mean values of the parameters are presented in Table 3.
The Niger Delta has a humid, semi-hot equatorial climate. Temperature ranges are small and constant throughout the year. It’s hottest month records 28 °C (82.4 °F) and its coolest month 26 °C (78.8 °F) with the temperature range of not more than 2 ºC (5 ºF). Precipitation
Emissions from fire outbreak following pipeline explosion
Levels of Air Quality Parameters in Two Niger Delta Communities
is heavy, between 1824 millimeters to over 4000 millimeters along the coast. Rain falls throughout the year with a short break in August and a longer break from December to January. The heavy rainfall experienced in the area leads to floods in urban areas and communities along the rivers. Also due to the heavy and frequent rainfalls, soils consisting mainly of silt and clay become saturated, reducing infiltration to the barest minimum and encouraging run-off. Rainfall induced run-off is directed mainly to the back swamps in the upper and middle parts of the delta. In the coastal zone, there is an even smaller topographic gradient that makes run-off difficult.
From the release of large concentration of oxides of nitrogen and sulphur in the Niger delta environment it is glaring that some cases of acidified rain occur in the region. Although literature is deplete in this area it is obvious that such phenomenon is experienced. Olobaniyi and Efe (2007) also show elevated levels of lead (0.56 mg/l) and low pH values ranging from 5.10 – 6.35 in rain water collected in Warri and environs. Akpoborie, et al, (2000) also report low pH values from water obtained from shallow hand dug wells in Ughelli, Warri, and Okurekpo all in Delta State.
Most combustion processes lead to the release of oxides of nitrogen and lower fractions of hydrocarbons and in the presence of uv radiation the resultant smog could lead to decrease in visibility. Although not readily reported this is a common phenomenon in a region like the Niger delta that has large hydrocarbon deposits and various episodes of combustion processes.
Some 45.8 billion kilowatts of heat are discharged into the atmosphere of the Niger-Delta from 1.8 billion cubic feet of gas everyday (Aaron, 2006). Ogbuigwe (1998), reports that temperatures produced at flare sites could be as high as 1,600°C. Temperature as high as 400°C at an average distance of 43.8metres from flare sites in Isoko, Delta State have been recorded.
Studies by Alakpodia (1989, 1995) showed that flares have negative effects on vegetation growth, animal life and ecological equilibrium in the Niger Delta area. Heat Production kills vegetation around the heat area. It suppresses the growth of flowering plants and reduces agricultural productivity and wild life biodiversity.
The presence of acidified rain water in the environment increases the corrosion rate of roofing sheets, monuments and other economic structures. In the Niger delta area there is glaring evidence of the impacts of corrosion on several building structures and arts work and these cases have been observed to deteriorate at rather alarming rates.
Awosika and Foluronsho, (2006) documented projected impacts of sea level rise SLR on the Nigerian coastal area and resources to include: large scale inundation, increased coastal erosion, salt water intrusion into coastal aquifers, habitat modification with direct effects on wild life distribution, increased frequency of high intensity rainfall events and associated increased run off, elevated erosion rates, flash floods and increased frequency of ocean storm surges. Other models projected a loss of up to 15,000 km2 by the year 2100 as a result of a 1m (SLR) while Magbagbeola, (2002) projects flooding of over 18,000km2 land area within the delta in an SLR of 1m in the next 100 years.
Oluwole et al.(1996) in a typical air quality assessment of the Niger Delta showed that the levels of volatile oxides of carbon, nitrogen and sulphur and total particulates exceed existing Federal Environmental Protection Agency’s (FEPA,1991) standards. Also Olobaniyi and Efe (2007) showed elevated levels of lead at concentrations of 0.56 mg/l in the atmosphere.
A survey was carried out on the health conditions of populations’ resident and working in the Niger Delta communities (Ana et al, 2009).A summary of the prevalent air pollution-related morbidities is shown in Box 3. Two communities, one with high industrial presence, Eleme and the other, Ahoada East, with low industrial presence were selected. Questionnaire and hospital records were employed for this survey and morbidities that have direct bearing with air pollution were focused on. The questionnaire survey indicated that at Eleme (39, 60.9%) as compared to Ahoada East (10, 4.5%) reported contaminated air as the major reason for ill health among the residents. Also there were more reported cases of skin outgrowths among Eleme residents as compared to Ahoada East. The morbidity conditions from hospital records for respiratory disorders showed 3.85% in males and 4.39% in females (Fig 3a). At Ahoada East respiratory disorder was(3.68% male; 4.18% female) (Fig 3b). In terms of respiratory disease, there was a high significant difference (
In a study carried out by Ana et al (2005) in which 384 plant workers were interviewed in a chemical fertilizer industry at Onne in the Niger Delta, 70.5% spend 8 hours per day at work. 66.1% reported respiratory disorders, 24.4% reported skin disorders and 22.6% reported eye disorders. There were strong associations (p <0.05) between eye and respiratory disorders and the industrial activities carried out by the workers. Also Ana et al (2009) in another survey carried out among refinery (PHRC) and petrochemicals (EPCL) plant workers reported that 70.8% workers at PHRC as compared to 67.2% at EPCL reported various health problems related to poor air quality conditions. In both cases, the major cause was attributed to gas flaring. Symptoms associated with exposure to fumes and sprays such as respiratory disorder were widely reported among 40.8% PHRC and 27.6% EPCL workers. There were reports of respiratory symptoms associated with exposure to dust and smoke, leading to irritation among 65.7% PHRC and 57.1% EPCL workers. Both the eyes and the skin were among other parts of the body also affected by the irritants. Further statistical analysis indicated that the duration of stay of PHRC workers in their residential communities was significantly associated with respiratory health problem (p=0.000), with Cancers (p=0.000). At EPCL, the duration of residence in the community was significantly associated with miscarriages (p=0.000), with deformed children (p=0.000) and with symptoms related to health effects from air contaminants (p= 0.000).
Typical morbidity pattern in a more industrialized NDA community
Typical morbidity pattern in a less industrialized NDA community
The exposure of populations to a barrage of pollutants and pollution episodes in the Niger delta area is believed to cause several health problems, of which etiologies of most cannot be ascertained. Cancer prevalence is believed to be on the increase. Studies by Ana et al(2010) revealed that of the two cancer reference centres Ibadan in the South west and Port Harcourt in the Niger delta the ratio of reporting was 1:4 for UPTH (904) and UCH (3521) respectively. The results indicate that apart from prostate and breast cancers that were higher in Ibadan (79.1%) than in Port Harcourt (75.4%) both the lung and skin cancers were more prevalent in Port Harcourt than in Ibadan(Table 4). This observation is consistent with studies by Ana et al.(2009) which indicated increased lung cancers in the Port Harcourt environment due likely to exposure to atmospheric insults. Similarly, the higher percentage of skin cancer in Port Harcourt above that recorded in Ibadan could be explained though with some degree of uncertainty by the increased environmental risk factors in the more industrialized Port Harcourt area.
Comparison of Cancer cases between two prominent cities in Nigeria
Air quality studies in Nigeria and particularly the Niger Delta area is still in its infant stage and encumbered with several challenges. According to Taiwo (2005) air pollution studies in Nigeria are few and independently carried out. The same author also indicated that government is not involved in systematic and consistent air quality assessment programmes as is being done in other parts of the world such as that carried out by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the United States. There is the problem of insecurity and difficulty in terrain that militates against most community based air sampling initiatives and then the lack of requisite and adequate technical manpower to carry out the multifaceted and complex air quality studies in the region. Other obvious and prominent drawbacks are as follows
Lack of emissions inventory/database due to lack of consistent and systematic measurements
Unavailability of air pollution and GHG monitoring stations in the Niger Delta. This is based on information from World Data Centre for Greenhouse Gases
Few independent and research-based measurement data are not readily available for general public use
Lack of collaboration between key regulatory authorities
Laxity in the enforcement of emission regulations
Air quality assessment and air pollution studies have focused mainly on urban centres (Ajao & Anurigwo, 2002)
Air pollution has been identified as one of the most critical environmental problems confronting the Niger delta Area. Traffic, industry and gas flaring are the major air pollution sources in the region. Impact on socioeconomic, ecosystems health, properties and climate have been linked with the pollution episodes in the area but which requires substantial scientific and empirical evidence. Multiple factors especially lack of equipment, inadequate skilled personnel and poor policy frame work has militated against effective and qualitative air quality studies in the area. To achieve long term goals for the region in this regard that would lead to the overall benefit of the people in the area, there is need therefore to employ a holistic and integrated approach to air pollution management that will involve all the stakeholders.
In order to improve on the current air quality monitoring and assessment programmes in the Niger Delta area there is need to embark on the following:
Develop monitoring mechanisms, regulations and enforcement measures
Institute planning policies to minimize pollution that may be caused by future development.
Government agencies such as the Niger Delta Development Commission(NDDC) should collaborate with other multinationals and stakeholders in air pollution management to come up with a comprehensive AQM scheme for the region.
There should be a focus on the reduction of pollution levels from vehicles, industry, gas flaring and domestic burning of timber, to permissible levels as defined in national and international standards.
The impact of air pollution from industrial and vehicular sources on the health of the communities in the region and its biodiversity needs to be researched in-depth.
Existing air quality monitoring programmes should be re-examined and new ones introduced to determine the most effective means of mainstreaming national programmes with regional projects to improve air quality.
Research on air quality should focus on source apportionment of the pollutants in the region
Indepth epidemiological and toxicological studies using risk and exposure assessment tools need to be carried out to establish causalities between the air pollution exposure factors and the associated health problems.
Motor vehicles annual testing and other regulations must be created or re-introduced and strictly enforced.
Focus should be on air pollution models, real-time monitoring of pollutants and speciation of pollutants from the particulate matter.
There is a need to engage in renewable energy, clean energy and cleaner air initiatives.
Usage of emissions abatement control mechanisms by polluters should be enforced.
Herbicides are chemical compounds used mostly to control weed (i.e., uncultivated) plants in agriculture and forestry and also for algae control [1, 2]. Herbicide formulations are designed to affect mainly plants, affecting specific plant biochemical pathways. However, it is common that this kind of pesticides affects nontarget organisms such animals, including aquatic organisms [3, 4].
The most used herbicide worldwide is glyphosate-based herbicide (GBH), such as Roundup® from Monsanto, and its usage has been increased [5] mainly due to the development of transgenic glyphosate-resistant crops [6]. Glyphosate (N-(phosphonomethyl) glycine (CAS no. 1071-83-6)) is a weak organic acid with a molecular weight of 169.09 M and has a half-life of 7–142 days in water and 76–240 in soil [6, 7]. Glyphosate has high solubility in water (10,000–15,700 mg L−1 at 25°C), and it readily dissolves and disperses in an aquatic environment.
Glyphosate affects a specific plant biochemical pathway, inhibiting the action of the enzyme 3-enolpyruvylshikimic acid 5-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) that is necessary for biosynthesis of amino acids such as phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan [8] (Figure 1). Animals do not have this biochemical pathway, and hypothetically, they would be safe from glyphosate. However, the use of glyphosate requires that some other compounds as surfactants are added to the commercial formulation to increase adhesion to the leaf surface and absorbance by plants, trespassing the waxy cuticle [6]. There are a variety of surfactants, but the most common used on glyphosate-based formulations has been polyethoxylated amine (POEA). This surfactant is known to be more toxic to animals then glyphosate itself [6, 9].
Glyphosate action on the biochemical pathway of plants inhibiting 3-enolpyruvylshikimic acid 5-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) enzyme and production of essential amino acids as phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan, causing plant death.
As mentioned above, glyphosate
In terrestrial animals, glyphosate reaches these organisms through direct application and contaminated food consumption. However, application of GBH in an aquatic environment is not so common when compared to terrestrial environments. Despite this, GBH can reach the aquatic environment through many ways. It can be applied directly on water bodies for algae control, although the opposite effect can be found, with proliferation of some species of algae due to the increase of phosphorus levels [18]. GBH can also reach the aquatic environment through leaching, run-off, and contaminated food source [6].
As mentioned, glyphosate has high solubility in an aquatic environment. Some studies say that 50% of glyphosate in natural waters dissipates by water flow and decomposition in a few days to 2 weeks [19, 20, 21]. Despite that, glyphosate binds to soil particles and solid surfaces [22], which makes its dissipation difficult. The by-products of glyphosate decomposition are sarcosine and aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA). The first one is known to be nontoxic [23] and the second one less or equally toxic for aquatic organisms than glyphosate [24, 25]. This substance has also a great solubility and dissipates in water in 7–14 days. POEA in natural environments degrades by microbial decomposition in 14 weeks and its half-life is estimated in 21–42 days [24].
Considering that glyphosate
One of the first studies that evaluated the effects of glyphosate and GBH in aquatic environments was performed by Folmar et al. [26]. According to Thomson’s ISI WoS (Institute for Scientific Information, Web of Science) database, using keywords as “glyphosate,” and “aquatic environment,” since 1979 to the present day, 233 papers have been published that evaluated the toxicological effects of glyphosate in aquatic environments (Figure 2). These papers addressed the toxic effects of glyphosate on various types of organisms. The invertebrate group was the most studied, with 52 published articles (21.3%), followed by fish with 51 (20.9%), amphibians 40 (16.4%), plant 31 (12.7%), and aquatic environment 30 (12.3%). The other groups were present in 40 published articles (16.4%) (Figure 3). For the investigated period and database, there were no papers which have evaluated the toxicological effects of glyphosate in aquatic mammals and birds. This scarcity of studies demonstrates the lack of knowledge on the risk of exposure of these groups in aquatic environments contaminated by glyphosate.
Number of papers published per year. Black bars represent the number of papers published in each year. Grey bars represent the number of papers accumulated per year. (*) Papers published until August 2018.
Number of papers per organism group. Black bars represent the number of papers on toxicological effects of glyphosate published for each aquatic organism groups. Asterisk indicates lack of studies evaluating the toxicological effects of glyphosate in aquatic mammals and birds.
Glyphosate in the aquatic environment causes the death of the macrophyte community, which serves as a microhabitat for zooplanktonic, phytoplanktonic, and periphytic communities, and this leads to top-down control of planktonic organisms, affecting refuge and feeding to fish [27], triggering a chain effect. Studies have evaluated the effects of glyphosate on aquatic lentils (
Species | Group | Chemical | Glyphosate concentration (μg L−1) | Effect | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Catenulaceae | Roundup® | 8456 | Increases mortality | [36] | |
Nostocaceae | Gly. (acid) | 0.1–8.8 mM | Increases growth | [28] | |
Phormidiaceae | Gly. (acid) | 0.005–0.048 mM | Increases growth | [2] | |
Chlorellaceae | Gly. (acid) | 293,000 | Chlorophyll fluorescence/decreases PP | [35] | |
Naviculaceae | Roundup® | 1000–10,000 | Increases mortality | [30] | |
Hydrocharitaceae | DCMU Gly. (acid) | 11,600 | Decreases chlorophyll fluorescence | [31] | |
Roundup® | [30] | ||||
Lemnaceae | Roundup® | 2800 | Increases growth | [2] | |
Gly. (acid) Roundup® | 46,900 | Increases growth | [29] | ||
Leptolyngbyaceae | Gly. (acid) | 0.003–0.02 mM | Increases growth | [2] | |
Onagraceae | Gly. (acid) | 4000 and 108,000 | Bioaccumulation | [2] | |
Microcystaceae | Gly. (acid) | 3–37 | Increases growth and toxin production | [28] | |
[18] | |||||
Gly. (acid) | 15,000 | Increases growth and toxin production | [2] | ||
Haloragaceae | Gly. (acid) Roundup® | 840 | Decreases root | [30] | |
Gly. (n.c.) | 220 | Chlorophyll fluorescence | [33] | ||
Haloragaceae | Rodeo® | 1000 | Increases growth | [34] | |
Nostocaceae | Gly. (acid) | >50 mM | Increases growth | [2] | |
Chlorophyceae | Gly. (acid) | 200,000 | Chlorophyll fluorescence/decreases primary productivity (PP) | [2] | |
Nostocaceae | Gly. (acid) | 0.005–0.02 mM | Increases growth | [2] |
Ecotoxicity of glyphosate-based herbicide (GBH) to aquatic plants worldwide.
Dörr [18] studied the effect of glyphosate on the growth and production of secondary metabolites by toxigenic strains of the cyanobacteria
The effects of herbicides on nontarget aquatic plants are emerging as a major conservation issue in aquatic biodiversity [29].
Another important community in aquatic ecosystems that is also affected by the use of glyphosate is the periphyton. In terms of primary production, the periphyton has a photosynthetic contribution 77% higher than that of phytoplankton [30]. Among the most common and potentially toxic outcrossing cyanobacteria,
The exposure to GBH reduced 78% of the primary productivity of phytoplankton when used at low concentrations (0.125 mg L−1) [33] and at high concentrations (3.8 mg L−1) [34], causing a disturbance in the trophic levels. In freshwater systems, glyphosate at high levels stimulated eutrophication by increasing total phosphorus and favoring the growth of cyanobacteria on the periphyton, which altered the typology of the study ecosystem that was a mesocosm [32].
Species-based differences in sensitivity to GBH exposure may lead to decreased richness and abundance of ecosystem species [34]. Even though herbicides are thought to kill terrestrial plants, it can have an even more devastating effect in water, due to the imbalance that causes mortality of algae and aquatic plants. This causes an increase in decomposing organic matter in the water, which will reduce the concentrations of dissolved oxygen in the system and increase the stress of aquatic communities [35]. Thus, algae and aquatic plants are considered as nontarget organisms that are sensitive to the effects of glyphosate, and the damage to the balance of the aquatic environment is of concern. The damage of glyphosate on the aquatic plant community ranges from the death of the plant itself to the reduction of environmental heterogeneity promoted by the local plants. Consequently, this leads to the death of other aquatic species, causing an imbalance in the ecosystem.
One of the pioneer studies of the effects of GBH on invertebrate organisms was carried out by Tsui and Chu [9] that studied the effects of this chemical on
Species | Chemical | Exposure time (h) | LC50 (μg L−1) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Roundup® | 48 | 1770 (1330–2340) | [38] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 4304 (2121–7902) | [44] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 2842 (2524–3190) | [44] | |
Roundup® | 48 | 5390 (4810–6050) | [38] | |
Eskoba®, Panzer Gold®, Roundup Ultramax®, Sulfosato Touchdown® | 48 | 250–16,770 | [45] | |
Roundup®, POEAE, Glyphosate acid | 96 | 18,000 (9400–32,000) | [46] | |
Rodeo®, X-77 Spreader®, ChemTrol® | 48 | 1,216,000 (996,000–1,566,000) | [47] | |
Eskoba®, Panzer Gold®, Roundup Ultramax®, Sulfosato Touchdown® | 48 | 2670–15,430 | [45] | |
Roundup®, POEAE, Glyphosate acid | 48 | 3000 (2600–3400) | [46] | |
Eskoba®, Sulfosato Touchdown® | 48 | 1620–31,410 | [48] | |
Rodeo®, X-77 Spreader®, ChemTrol® | 48 | 218,000 (150,000–287,000) | [47] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 657 (472–914) | [44] | |
Roundup®, POEAE, Glyphosate acid | 48 | 62,000 (40,000–98,000) | [46] | |
Roundup®, POEAE, Glyphosate acid | 96 | 43,000 (28,000–66,000) | [46] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 340,000 | [49] | |
Rodeo®, X-77 Spreader®, ChemTrol® | 96 | 720,000 (399,000–1,076,000) | [47] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 8199 (6690–9580) | [50] | |
Rodeo®, X-77 Spreader®, ChemTrol® | 96 | 1,177,000 (941,000–1,415,000) | [47] | |
Eskoba®, Sulfosato Touchdown® | 48 | 1220–1,282,000 | [48] | |
Roundup® | 1440 | 2200 | [51] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 12,240 (9454–22,360 | [44] | |
Roundup® | 24 | 18.3 ± 12.9 | [52] |
Ecotoxicity of glyphosate-based herbicide (GBH) to aquatic invertebrates, exposure time, LC50 value (lower-upper values), and reference.
Specifically about microinvertebrates (<35 μm), these organisms persist within resting eggs (or egg banks) in lake sediments [36]. They represent a major source of regenerative potential in lake ecosystems near agricultural areas, and play a key role in influencing the active population and community dynamics, seasonal succession, biogeographic patterns, and the evolution of populations [36, 37]. Despite the widely accepted importance of resting egg banks in the ecology of aquatic micro-invertebrates’ communities, recently, experimental studies have demonstrated that the extensive and inappropriate use of commercial GBH, associated with agricultural activities, may impair the hatching of resting eggs in the sediment of lakes [38, 39]. Gutierrez and collaborators [38] indicated that the GBHs (Sulfosato Touchdown®) affect the hatching dynamics of micro-invertebrates, and selectively alter the species richness and abundance of community hatched from lake sediment. Portinho and associates [39] extended these findings and indicated that commercial herbicides as Roundup® (a.i. glyphosate) separate or in combination with 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) have the potential to suppress emergences of micro-invertebrates from resting egg banks from lake sediments.
The environmental implication of this scenario suggests that changes in micro-invertebrates’ structure and composition induced by herbicides will occur, causing not only negative impacts on the process of recolonization from resting egg banks but also shifts in community composition. Recent attempts to develop guidelines for protecting aquatic organisms have focused on emergence from resting egg banks within the context of an ecological community [40], with potential implications for studies related to environmental risk to, and integrity assessment of, aquatic ecosystems.
Fish species are particularly vulnerable to GBH and their susceptibility depends on the commercial formulation, fish species, fish developmental stages, and exposure conditions, such as concentrations, exposure time, and route of exposure. Furthermore, gender-specific response of fish to GBH has been indicated in guppy
In general, the surfactant and the commercial formulation showed higher toxicity to fish when compared to active ingredient (glyphosate pure) and their metabolite (AMPA). The 50% lethal concentration (i.e., LC50) of GBHs for fish has high variability, ranging from 1000 to 9750 μg L−1 [6, 41]. Chandrasekera and Weeratunga [42] found a LC50 of 976 μg L−1 for 48 h of exposure in fries of
Glyphosate and formulation compounds can be taken by fish via gills and digestive tract through ingestion of contaminated food or water [6, 45]. Once inside the organisms, glyphosate is absorbed and distributed to the whole body through blood circuit, reaching several tissues. GBHs can affect fishes in different ways, affecting many organs and as well molecular levels. In liver, vacuolization process was reported in hepatocytes and nuclear pyknoses; in kidney, studies report Bowman capsule dilatation and accumulation of hyaline drops in tubular cells; and in gills, glyphosate causes hyperplasia, lamellar fusion and aneurism [46, 47, 48, 49, 50]. Besides that, Langiano and Martinez [49] showed activation of the stress axis, with increased blood glucose levels. Souza-Filho and collaborators [44] also showed genotoxic effects in fish cells. Concerning to enzymes, Sandrini and collaborators [17] showed that glyphosate impairs acetylcholinesterase activity in synapses, preventing detaching of acetylcholine from receptors, impairing electric transmission by neurons. This can impair muscle contraction and information transmittance. GBH in sub-lethal levels can also impair fish feeding behavior as shown by Giaquinto and collaborators [51]. Also, a recent
OMIC technologies, such as proteomics, transcriptomics, and metabolomics, have been applied to investigate the molecular mechanisms and toxicity of GBHs on fish. For example, proteomics-based methods (two-dimensional gel electrophoresis associated with mass spectrometry and bioinformatics) were used to complement the knowledge about the ecotoxicity of GBH on
The herpetofauna is composed of reptiles and amphibians, and due to the low mobility, physiological requirements, and habitat specificity, this group has become ideal models for environmental conservation studies [55]. Amphibians are sensitive to exposure to contaminants and are considered good bioindicators in monitoring water quality [56]. Characteristics such as permeable skin, reproduction, and larval stages dependent on the aquatic environment make anuran amphibians highly vulnerable to pesticide contamination [57]. Evidence suggests that anuran species decline is related to the intensive use of pesticides [58, 59, 60].
The decline of amphibian populations is related to the increase of environmental pollutants, the influence of climate change, habitat fragmentation, exposure to ultraviolet radiation, and human-induced environmental changes [61, 62]. Contamination of water bodies next to agricultural areas generally increases during the rainy season, that is, widely used to breed by most species of amphibians, and many species use temporary ponds and small streams adjacent to agricultural areas as part of their life cycle, harming the reproductive period and larval development [57, 58, 63]. During the rainy season, the agrochemical present in the soil are susceptible to be transported down the soil profiles and/or surfaces/underground water bodies and consequently affect the amphibian population [58] and other environmental (a) biotic elements [6, 64].
Herbicides may delay or inhibit the metamorphosis of amphibians directly impacting their reproduction [57]. According to Walker and collaborators [65], the main routes of herbicide absorption in anuran amphibians are through contaminated food ingestion and skin absorption of pollutants dissolved or suspended in water. After absorption, the substance is transported to different compartments of the body through blood. The effect of herbicides on tadpoles is less known when compared to adult amphibians, since the larvae of the anurans are less visible, and unlike adults, they do not have vocalization. Tadpoles of various species have not yet been described, which makes it even more difficult to study these organisms in depth [66].
The reduction in larval survival due to exposure to glyphosate was observed by Simioni and collaborators [67], Figueiredo and Rodrigues [68], and Costa and collaborators [69] in larvae of
Species | Chemical | Exposure time (h) | LC50 mg a.i./L | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Roundup® | 384 | 0.55–2.52 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 0.8–2.0 | [80] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 0.8–2.0 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 48 | 2.9–11.6 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 0.28 | [85] | |
Roundup® | 48 | 2.9–11.6 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 384 | 0.55–2.52 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 0.8–2.0 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 48 | 2.9–11.6 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 384 | 0.55–2.52 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 0.8–2.0 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 384 | 0.55–2.52 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 0.8–2.0 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 384 | 0.55–2.52 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 0.8–2.0 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 384 | 0.55–2.52 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 0.8–2.0 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 48 | 2.9–11.6 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 0.8–2.0 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 0.8–2.0 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 48 | 2.42 | [83] | |
Roundup® | 48 | 1.74 | [82] |
Ecotoxicity of glyphosate-based herbicide (GBH) to herpetofauna, exposure time, and LC50 value.
Reptiles are extremely sensitive to herbicide formulations and may exhibit changes in their behavior after exposure of these xenobiotics [74]. This group is fairly uniform and exposure to GBHs may affect its energy storage process [75, 76]. Schaumburg and collaborators [77] found that exposure to sublethal concentrations of glyphosate during the embryonic phase of
Currently in the Neotropical region, about 40 studies relate the indiscriminate use of herbicides based on glyphosate with the risk to biodiversity of herpetofauna. Schiesari and collaborators [80] reported that some species of amphibians, including tadpoles and adults and some reptiles are sensitive to exposure to formulations based on glyphosate. Exposure to sublethal concentrations of glyphosate is sufficient to cause irreversible damage to the DNA of amphibians and reptiles, so the use of GBH should be controlled in arable areas avoiding the decline of species that make up the herpetofauna group.
Glyphosate when used in recommended rates is considered not bioaccumulative and of low toxicity in birds [81]. However, the present acquaintance is not enough to make affirmation about low toxicity risk and low exposure of birds to herbicide considering the possible complex process behind the movement and accumulation of glyphosate, additives, and waste in the environment. Moreover, even the few available studies [82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96] have found direct and indirect effects of glyphosate on bird species (Figure 4). Among those, only five studies along years 1994 and 2017 on Google Scholar database have analyzed effects on aquatic bird species. Direct effects have been analyzed on male ducks (
Ecotoxicity of glyphosate-based herbicide (GBH) to aquatic birds. Direct (continuous arrows) and indirect (dashed arrows) effects of GBH on birds.
Indirect effects have been found in wetlands where the glyphosate is used to control the increase of
The direct effect of glyphosate on aquatic plants and macroalgae [87] can also affect aquatic birds once they make up the varied and plentiful diet of many of those birds. Changes in physiological, histological, and behavioral levels and lethal cases have been documented in fishes due to use of glyphosate [87, 88]. In this way, piscivorous birds can also be suffering indirect effects. In fact, all aquatic birds’ food chain can be affected by glyphosate once effects on invertebrates [81, 87, 88], amphibians [89], and reptiles [90] have already been confirmed.
Birds are very similar in their physiology and anatomy. Then, studies that have tested direct and indirect effects of glyphosate on nonaquatic birds can be also considered here. In Japanese quails (
Therefore, the controlled and scaled use of glyphosate in large areas is necessary to contribute to conservation of environmental heterogeneity and biological diversity avoiding the plausible effects on bird communities [83, 84, 85, 94]. To know what plants are important to bird diet and to promote techniques that do not eliminate all of those plants from the place are important activities before glyphosate application [91]. More studies that aim to analyze the bird contamination by herbicides are also necessary [97]. Long-term studies that encourage collaborative work between ecologist, toxicologist, and chemist are more pertinent [98].
For the best of our knowledge, GBH or glyphosate only was not tested in aquatic mammals. Searching on Web of Science website for the terms “Glyphosate AND mammal AND aquatic,” there is no study reported to date. Despite that, mammals in general are considered less sensible to GBH damages than other groups due to reduced contact with the environment of mammals when compared to other groups as fishes, amphibians, or aquatic invertebrates [99]. The main way that GBH or the active ingredient glyphosate reaches mammals’ bodies is through the digestive tract. However, it seems to be poorly absorbed and is excreted essentially nonmetabolized [100]. Essentially, mammals that were tested were rats, mice, and dogs [101], tested through injection or ingestion. Some studies report glyphosate in humans in medical case studies. Reported direct effects of GBH on mammals are described as a “wide range of clinical manifestations” such as skin and throat irritation, hypotension, or death [102] and include heart arrhythmias and atrioventricular block, cardiac electrophysiological changes and conduction blocks [103], pregnancy problems [104], disrupt transcriptional expression of the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein in testicle [105] and aromatase activity, alter mRNA levels, and interact with enzymes [106]. Indirect effects on mammals can be due to reduction of vegetation and animals that are a source of food such as invertebrates [101] and fishes. Although these mentioned studies were conducted in nonaquatic mammals, it is expected that aquatic mammals have similar or even more accentuated effect, since they have intense contact with water, and if it is contaminated, the exposure will be higher.
Despite the fact that GBHs were developed to control weeds, acting specifically in a restrict plan biochemical pathway, several studies demonstrated that there are many side effects on nontarget organisms in all great groups as reported extensively here. Looking to control these side effects, governments for many countries around the world established limits for usage and concentrations in water bodies. The USA, for example, allows 700 μg L−1 in water bodies, while Canada allows 280 μg L−1 in drink water. The Brazilian law is a little more restrictive, allowing 65 μg L−1 in water bodies class 2 that is used for crop and recreation of first degree (direct contact) [107]. However, we could check here that these maximum concentrations allowed are not safe for biodiversity conservation. Considering the Brazilian law, the more restrictive in American countries, populations of yellowtail tetra fish (
However, even with all those regulations, it is not being obeyed, since there is a large range of glyphosate and its metabolite (e.g., AMPA) concentrations in hydroresources [6, 64]. Therefore, another way of action for environment safety is preserving marginal forests of rivers, surveillance, and environment education. Another sustainable way to achieve this goal is changing the crop production matrix from large scale, that is, conventional-based production model to a smaller integrative-/organic-based production system, with controlled or restrictive usage of pesticides and other agrochemicals.
We are thankful to FAPEG (#201710267001261) for financial support.
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
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Achilias",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10855.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"95620",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitris S.",middleName:null,surname:"Achilias",slug:"dimitris-s.-achilias",fullName:"Dimitris S. Achilias"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10843",title:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)",subtitle:"Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f5b1589f0a990b6114fef2dadc735dd9",slug:"persistent-organic-pollutants-pops-monitoring-impact-and-treatment",bookSignature:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10843.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:218,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"29369",doi:"10.5772/32373",title:"Textile Organic Dyes – Characteristics, Polluting Effects and Separation/Elimination Procedures from Industrial Effluents – A Critical Overview",slug:"textile-organic-dyes-characteristics-polluting-effects-and-separation-elimination-procedures-from-in",totalDownloads:29487,totalCrossrefCites:128,totalDimensionsCites:321,abstract:null,book:{id:"872",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",fullTitle:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention - Environmental and Analytical Update"},signatures:"Zaharia Carmen and Suteu Daniela",authors:[{id:"91196",title:"Prof.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Zaharia",slug:"carmen-zaharia",fullName:"Carmen Zaharia"},{id:"92084",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Suteu",slug:"daniela-suteu",fullName:"Daniela Suteu"}]},{id:"42059",doi:"10.5772/54048",title:"Adsorption Technique for the Removal of Organic Pollutants from Water and Wastewater",slug:"adsorption-technique-for-the-removal-of-organic-pollutants-from-water-and-wastewater",totalDownloads:30043,totalCrossrefCites:51,totalDimensionsCites:221,abstract:null,book:{id:"3426",slug:"organic-pollutants-monitoring-risk-and-treatment",title:"Organic Pollutants",fullTitle:"Organic Pollutants - Monitoring, Risk and Treatment"},signatures:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",authors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed"}]},{id:"27305",doi:"10.5772/39363",title:"Water Stress in Plants: Causes, Effects and Responses",slug:"water-stress-in-plants-causes-effects-and-responses",totalDownloads:28496,totalCrossrefCites:72,totalDimensionsCites:172,abstract:null,book:{id:"911",slug:"water-stress",title:"Water Stress",fullTitle:"Water Stress"},signatures:"Seyed Y. S. Lisar, Rouhollah Motafakkerazad, Mosharraf M. Hossain and Ismail M. M. Rahman",authors:[{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman"}]},{id:"62247",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77315",title:"Application of Biosorption for Removal of Heavy Metals from Wastewater",slug:"application-of-biosorption-for-removal-of-heavy-metals-from-wastewater",totalDownloads:7645,totalCrossrefCites:75,totalDimensionsCites:152,abstract:"Fresh water accounts for 3% of water resources on the Earth. Human and industrial activities produce and discharge wastes containing heavy metals into the water resources making them unavailable and threatening human health and the ecosystem. Conventional methods for the removal of metal ions such as chemical precipitation and membrane filtration are extremely expensive when treating large amounts of water, inefficient at low concentrations of metal (incomplete metal removal) and generate large quantities of sludge and other toxic products that require careful disposal. Biosorption and bioaccumulation are ecofriendly alternatives. These alternative methods have advantages over conventional methods. Abundant natural materials like microbial biomass, agro-wastes, and industrial byproducts have been suggested as potential biosorbents for heavy metal removal due to the presence of metal-binding functional groups. Biosorption is influenced by various process parameters such as pH, temperature, initial concentration of the metal ions, biosorbent dose, and speed of agitation. Also, the biomass can be modified by physical and chemical treatment before use. The process can be made economical by regenerating and reusing the biosorbent after removing the heavy metals. Various bioreactors can be used in biosorption for the removal of metal ions from large volumes of water or effluents. The recent developments and the future scope for biosorption as a wastewater treatment option are discussed.",book:{id:"6137",slug:"biosorption",title:"Biosorption",fullTitle:"Biosorption"},signatures:"Sri Lakshmi Ramya Krishna Kanamarlapudi, Vinay Kumar\nChintalpudi and Sudhamani Muddada",authors:[{id:"238433",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sudhamani",middleName:null,surname:"Muddada",slug:"sudhamani-muddada",fullName:"Sudhamani Muddada"},{id:"244937",title:"Mrs.",name:"S L Ramyakrishna",middleName:null,surname:"Kanamarlapudi",slug:"s-l-ramyakrishna-kanamarlapudi",fullName:"S L Ramyakrishna Kanamarlapudi"},{id:"244938",title:"Mr.",name:"Vinay Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Chintalpudi",slug:"vinay-kumar-chintalpudi",fullName:"Vinay Kumar Chintalpudi"}]},{id:"53211",doi:"10.5772/66416",title:"Biofloc Technology (BFT): A Tool for Water Quality Management in Aquaculture",slug:"biofloc-technology-bft-a-tool-for-water-quality-management-in-aquaculture",totalDownloads:16966,totalCrossrefCites:65,totalDimensionsCites:148,abstract:"Biofloc technology (BFT) is considered the new “blue revolution” in aquaculture. Such technique is based on in situ microorganism production which plays three major roles: (i) maintenance of water quality, by the uptake of nitrogen compounds generating in situ microbial protein; (ii) nutrition, increasing culture feasibility by reducing feed conversion ratio (FCR) and a decrease of feed costs; and (iii) competition with pathogens. The aggregates (bioflocs) are a rich protein-lipid natural source of food available in situ 24 hours per day due to a complex interaction between organic matter, physical substrate, and large range of microorganisms. This natural productivity plays an important role recycling nutrients and maintaining the water quality. The present chapter will discuss some insights of the role of microorganisms in BFT, main water quality parameters, the importance of the correct carbon-to-nitrogen ratio in the culture media, its calculations, and different types, as well as metagenomics of microorganisms and future perspectives.",book:{id:"5355",slug:"water-quality",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality"},signatures:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho Emerenciano, Luis Rafael Martínez-\nCórdova, Marcel Martínez-Porchas and Anselmo Miranda-Baeza",authors:[{id:"146126",title:"Dr.",name:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho",middleName:null,surname:"Emerenciano",slug:"mauricio-gustavo-coelho-emerenciano",fullName:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho Emerenciano"},{id:"186970",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Porchas",slug:"marcel-martinez-porchas",fullName:"Marcel Martínez-Porchas"},{id:"186971",title:"Prof.",name:"Anselmo",middleName:null,surname:"Miranda-Baeza",slug:"anselmo-miranda-baeza",fullName:"Anselmo Miranda-Baeza"},{id:"195101",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Córdoba",slug:"luis-rafael-martinez-cordoba",fullName:"Luis Rafael Martínez-Córdoba"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"69568",title:"Water Quality Parameters",slug:"water-quality-parameters",totalDownloads:10165,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:36,abstract:"Since the industrial revolution in the late eighteenth century, the world has discovered new sources of pollution nearly every day. So, air and water can potentially become polluted everywhere. Little is known about changes in pollution rates. The increase in water-related diseases provides a real assessment of the degree of pollution in the environment. This chapter summarizes water quality parameters from an ecological perspective not only for humans but also for other living things. According to its quality, water can be classified into four types. Those four water quality types are discussed through an extensive review of their important common attributes including physical, chemical, and biological parameters. These water quality parameters are reviewed in terms of definition, sources, impacts, effects, and measuring methods.",book:{id:"7718",slug:"water-quality-science-assessments-and-policy",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality - Science, Assessments and Policy"},signatures:"Nayla Hassan Omer",authors:null},{id:"58138",title:"Water Pollution: Effects, Prevention, and Climatic Impact",slug:"water-pollution-effects-prevention-and-climatic-impact",totalDownloads:21554,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:38,abstract:"The stress on our water environment as a result of increased industrialization, which aids urbanization, is becoming very high thus reducing the availability of clean water. Polluted water is of great concern to the aquatic organism, plants, humans, and climate and indeed alters the ecosystem. The preservation of our water environment, which is embedded in sustainable development, must be well driven by all sectors. While effective wastewater treatment has the tendency of salvaging the water environment, integration of environmental policies into the actor firms core objectives coupled with continuous periodical enlightenment on the present and future consequences of environmental/water pollution will greatly assist in conserving the water environment.",book:{id:"6157",slug:"water-challenges-of-an-urbanizing-world",title:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World",fullTitle:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World"},signatures:"Inyinbor Adejumoke A., Adebesin Babatunde O., Oluyori Abimbola\nP., Adelani-Akande Tabitha A., Dada Adewumi O. and Oreofe Toyin\nA.",authors:[{id:"101570",title:"MSc.",name:"Babatunde Olufemi",middleName:null,surname:"Adebesin",slug:"babatunde-olufemi-adebesin",fullName:"Babatunde Olufemi Adebesin"},{id:"187738",title:"Dr.",name:"Adejumoke",middleName:"Abosede",surname:"Inyinbor",slug:"adejumoke-inyinbor",fullName:"Adejumoke Inyinbor"},{id:"188818",title:"Dr.",name:"Abimbola",middleName:null,surname:"Oluyori",slug:"abimbola-oluyori",fullName:"Abimbola Oluyori"},{id:"188819",title:"Mrs.",name:"Tabitha",middleName:null,surname:"Adelani-Akande",slug:"tabitha-adelani-akande",fullName:"Tabitha Adelani-Akande"},{id:"208501",title:"Dr.",name:"Adewumi",middleName:null,surname:"Dada",slug:"adewumi-dada",fullName:"Adewumi Dada"},{id:"208502",title:"Ms.",name:"Toyin",middleName:null,surname:"Oreofe",slug:"toyin-oreofe",fullName:"Toyin Oreofe"}]},{id:"45422",title:"Urban Waterfront Regenerations",slug:"urban-waterfront-regenerations",totalDownloads:14203,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"3560",slug:"advances-in-landscape-architecture",title:"Advances in Landscape Architecture",fullTitle:"Advances in Landscape Architecture"},signatures:"Umut Pekin Timur",authors:[{id:"165480",title:"Dr.",name:"Umut",middleName:null,surname:"Pekin Timur",slug:"umut-pekin-timur",fullName:"Umut Pekin Timur"}]},{id:"24941",title:"Tsunami in Makran Region and Its Effect on the Persian Gulf",slug:"tsunami-in-makran-region-and-its-effect-on-the-persian-gulf",totalDownloads:7575,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"406",slug:"tsunami-a-growing-disaster",title:"Tsunami",fullTitle:"Tsunami - A Growing Disaster"},signatures:"Mohammad Mokhtari",authors:[{id:"52451",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mokhtari",slug:"mohammad-mokhtari",fullName:"Mohammad Mokhtari"}]},{id:"66307",title:"Bio-hydrogen and Methane Production from Lignocellulosic Materials",slug:"bio-hydrogen-and-methane-production-from-lignocellulosic-materials",totalDownloads:2953,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"This chapter covers the information on bio-hydrogen and methane production from lignocellulosic materials. Pretreatment methods of lignocellulosic materials and the factors affecting bio-hydrogen production, both dark- and photo-fermentation, and methane production are addressed. Last but not least, the processes for bio-hydrogen and methane production from lignocellulosic materials are discussed.",book:{id:"7608",slug:"biomass-for-bioenergy-recent-trends-and-future-challenges",title:"Biomass for Bioenergy",fullTitle:"Biomass for Bioenergy - Recent Trends and Future Challenges"},signatures:"Apilak Salakkam, Pensri Plangklang, Sureewan Sittijunda, Mallika Boonmee Kongkeitkajorn, Siriporn Lunprom and Alissara Reungsang",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"12",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82465",title:"Agroforestry: An Approach for Sustainability and Climate Mitigation",slug:"agroforestry-an-approach-for-sustainability-and-climate-mitigation",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105406",abstract:"Agroforestry Systems (AFS), or the association of trees with crops (or animals), is a strategy for land management and use that allows production within the sustainable development: (a) environmentally (production environmentally harmonic); (b) technically (integrating existing resources on the farm); (c) economically (increase in production), and (d) socially (equality of duties and opportunities, quality of life of the family group). As an intentional integration of trees or shrubs with crop and animal production, this practice makes environmental, economic, and social benefits to farmers. Given that there is a set of definitions, rather than a single definition of Agroforestry (AF) and AFS, it is justified to explore the historical evolution and the minimum coincidences of criteria to define them and apply them in the recovery of degraded areas. Knowing how to classify AFS allows us to indicate which type or group of AFS is suitable for a particular area with its characteristics. The greatest benefit that AFS can bring to degraded or sloping areas lies in their ability to combine soil conservation with productive functions. In other words, AF is arborizing agriculture and animal production to obtain more benefits including climate change adaptation and mitigation by ecosystem services.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Ricardo O. Russo"},{id:"82754",title:"Impact of Revegetation on Ecological Restoration of a Constructed Soil in a Coal Mining in Southern Brazil",slug:"impact-of-revegetation-on-ecological-restoration-of-a-constructed-soil-in-a-coal-mining-in-southern-",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105895",abstract:"The main problems in the constructed soils are the generation of acid mine drainage promoted by the presence of coal debris in the overburden layer and the compaction of the topsoil promoted by the machine traffic when the material used in the overburden cover is more clayey. This book chapter aimed to show an overview of the impact of more than a decade of revegetation with different perennial grasses on the chemical, physical, and biological quality of constructed soil after coal mining. The study was carried out in a coal mining area, located in southern Brazil. The soil was constructed in early 2003 and the perennial grasses, Hemarthria altissima; Paspalum notatum cv. Pensacola; Cynodon dactylon cv Tifton; and Urochloa brizantha; were implanted in November/December 2003. In 11.5, 17.6 and 18 years of revegetation soil samples were collected and the chemical, physical, and biological attributes were determined. Our results show that liming is an important practice in the restoration of these strongly anthropized soils because this positively impacts the plants’ development, facilitating the roots system expansion. Biological attributes such as soil fauna and the microorganism’s population are the attributes that possibly takes longer to establish itself in these areas.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Lizete Stumpf, Maria Bertaso De Garcia Fernandez, Pablo Miguel, Luiz Fernando Spinelli Pinto, Ryan Noremberg Schubert, Luís Carlos Iuñes de Oliveira Filho, Tania Hipolito Montiel, Lucas Da Silva Barbosa, Jeferson Diego Leidemer and Thábata Barbosa Duarte"},{id:"82936",title:"Soil Degradation Processes Linked to Long-Term Forest-Type Damage",slug:"soil-degradation-processes-linked-to-long-term-forest-type-damage",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106390",abstract:"Forest degradation impairs ability of the whole landscape adaptation to environmental change. The impacts of forest degradation on landscape are caused by a self-organization decline. At the present time, the self-organization decline was largely due to nitrogen deposition and deforestation which exacerbated impacts of climate change. Nevertheless, forest degradation processes are either reversible or irreversible. Irreversible forest degradation begins with soil damage. In this paper, we present processes of forest soil degradation in relation to vulnerability of regulation adaptability on global environmental change. The regulatory forest capabilities were indicated through soil organic matter sequestration dynamics. We devided the degradation processes into quantitative and qualitative damages of physical or chemical soil properties. Quantitative soil degradation includes irreversible loss of an earth’s body after claim, erosion or desertification, while qualitative degradation consists of predominantly reversible consequences after soil disintegration, leaching, acidification, salinization and intoxication. As a result of deforestation, the forest soil vulnerability is spreading through quantitative degradation replacing hitherto predominantly qualitative changes under continuous vegetation cover. Increasing needs to natural resources using and accompanying waste pollution destroy soil self-organization through biodiversity loss, simplification in functional links among living forms and substance losses from ecosystem. We concluded that subsequent irreversible changes in ecosystem self-organization cause a change of biome potential natural vegetation and the land usability decrease.",book:{id:"11457",title:"Forest Degradation Under Global Change",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11457.jpg"},signatures:"Pavel Samec, Aleš Kučera and Gabriela Tomášová"},{id:"82828",title:"Vegetation and Avifauna Distribution in the Serengeti National Park",slug:"vegetation-and-avifauna-distribution-in-the-serengeti-national-park",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106165",abstract:"In order to examine the bird species changes within different vegetation structures, the variations were compared between Commiphora-dominated vegetations with those of Vachellia tortilis and Vachellia robusta-dominated vegetations, and also compared the birds of grassland with those of Vachellia drepanolobium and Vachellia seyal-dominated vegetations. This study was conducted between February 2010 and April 2012. A total of 40 plots of 100 m × 100 m were established. Nonparametric Mann-Whitney U-test was used to examine differences in bird species between vegetations. Species richness estimates were obtained using the Species Diversity and Richness. A total of 171 bird species representing 103 genera, 12 orders, and 54 families were recorded. We found differences in bird species distribution whereby V. tortilis has higher bird species richness (102 species), abundance, and diversity when compared with Commiphora with 66 species and V. robusta with 59 species. These results suggest that variations in bird species abundance, diversity, and distribution could be attributed to differences in the structural diversity of vegetation. Therefore it is important to maintain different types of vegetation by keeping the frequency of fire to a minimum and prescribed fire should be employed and encouraged to control wildfire and so maintain a diversity of vegetation and birds community.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Ally K. Nkwabi and Pius Y. Kavana"},{id:"82808",title:"Climate Change and Anthropogenic Impacts on the Ecosystem of the Transgressive Mud Coastal Region of Bight of Benin, Nigeria",slug:"climate-change-and-anthropogenic-impacts-on-the-ecosystem-of-the-transgressive-mud-coastal-region-of",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105760",abstract:"The transgressive mud coastal area of Bight of Benin is a muddy coastal complex that lies east of the Barrier/lagoon coast and stretches to the Benin River in the northwestern flank of the Niger Delta Nigeria. It constitutes a fragile buffer zone between the tranquil waters of the swamps and the menacing waves of the Atlantic Ocean. Extensive breaching of this narrow coastal plain results in massive incursion of the sea into the inland swamps with serious implications for national security and the economy. Climate change impacts from the results of meteorological information of the regions shows a gradual degradation in the past 30 years. Temperature, rainfall and humidity increase annually depict climate change, resulting from uncontrolled exploitation of natural resources is rapidly pushing the region towards ecological disasters. The ecosystem is very unique being the only transgressive mud coastal area of the Gulf of Guinea. The chapter describes the geomorphology, tidal hydrology, relief/drainage, topography, climate/meteorology, vegetation, economic characteristics, anthropogenic activities and their impacts on the ecosystem.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Patrick O. Ayeku"},{id:"82697",title:"Analyzing the Evolution of Land-Use Changes Related to Vegetation, in the Galicia Region, Spain: From 1990 to 2018",slug:"analyzing-the-evolution-of-land-use-changes-related-to-vegetation-in-the-galicia-region-spain-from-1",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106015",abstract:"Considering the complex dynamics, patterns, and particularities that the Galicia region present—e.g., the fragility, shown to achieve sustainable development and growth—a study that analyzes the Land-Use related to the vegetation of this region is seen as pivotal to identifying barriers and opportunities for long-term sustainable development. Using GIS (Geographic Information Systems), the present chapter enables us to identify the dynamics and patterns of the evolution of the Land-Use Changes related to vegetation in the Galicia Region from 1990 to 2018 (years 1990, 2000, 2012, and 2018 using CORINE (Coordination of Information on the Environment) data). This study permits us to reinforce that the Land-Use Changes related to vegetation in the Galicia Region have undergone multiple changes—marked by increasing and decreasing periods. Also, can be considered a surveying baseline for the comparative analysis of similar works for different Land-Use Changes related to vegetation trends in Europe or worldwide. Land-Use Changes related to vegetation studies are reliable tools to evaluate the human activities and footprint of proposed strategies and policies in a territory. 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The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. Osma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDv7QAG/Profile_Picture_1626602531691",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",middleName:null,surname:"Valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/132161",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"132161"},fullPath:"/profiles/132161",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()