Physical and mechanical properties of Indian bamboos (in round form) [14].
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8787",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Bismuth - Fundamentals and Optoelectronic Applications",title:"Bismuth",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Optoelectronic Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Bismuth—a wonder metal with unique features—plays an important role in the bismuth-related optoelectronic materials. The innovative development of bismuth optoelectronic materials will undoubtedly drive the social development and economic growth in the world towards a glorious future.",isbn:"978-1-83968-243-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-242-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-244-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80205",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"bismuth-fundamentals-and-optoelectronic-applications",numberOfPages:164,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"7751170d0b538f61d14a27a56e6567a5",bookSignature:"Yanhua Luo, Jianxiang Wen and Jianzhong Zhang",publishedDate:"December 2nd 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8787.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4546,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:15,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:23,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 19th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 11th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 10th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 29th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 27th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"226148",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanhua",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"yanhua-luo",fullName:"Yanhua Luo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226148/images/system/226148.jpg",biography:"Dr. Yanhua Luo received his B.E. and PhD degrees from the University of Science and Technology of China (UTSC) in 2004 and 2009, respectively. Currently, he works as a deputy director of Photonics & Optical Communications at the University of New South Wales (UNSW) to maintain the National Joint Fibre Facility and develop the next generation specialty optical fibers and their devices. He has made many contributions, i.e. developing 3 modes EDFA for mode multiplexing transmission by NEC America, introducing 3D printing techniques in fiber fabrication, etc. So far he has held 2 China patents and co-authored 220 refereed journal/conference papers, and 7 book chapters on these subjects. His papers have been cited >1500 times in SCI, with an H-index 21.",institutionString:"UNSW Sydney",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"UNSW Sydney",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"240202",title:"Dr.",name:"Jianxiang",middleName:null,surname:"Wen",slug:"jianxiang-wen",fullName:"Jianxiang Wen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240202/images/system/240202.jpg",biography:"Prof. Jianxiang Wen received his M.S. degree in chemical and material engineering from Jiangnan University, Jiangsu, China, in 2006, and received his PhD in communication and information systems from Shanghai University, Shanghai, China in 2011. From 2001 to 2007, he was an R&D Engineer in the Jiangsu Fasten Photonics Company. Now he is a Professor and works at the Key Laboratory of Specialty Fiber Optics and Optical Access Networks, Shanghai University. His research interests include design and fabrication of the specialty fiber fields such as spun optical fibers, polarization-maintaining optical fibers, doping fibers, specialty optical fibers with radiation-hardness, etc. His awards include Jiangsu Province Science and Technology Progress Award (Second Prize) in 2008.",institutionString:"Shanghai University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Shanghai University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"312270",title:"Dr.",name:"Jianzhong",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"jianzhong-zhang",fullName:"Jianzhong Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/312270/images/system/312270.jpg",biography:"Prof. Jianzhong Zhang received his Bachelor degree of condensed-state physics from the Lanzhou University in 2000 and obtained his Master and Doctoral degrees in optical engineering from the Harbin Engineering University in 2004 and 2007, respectively. He then joined the School of Physics at Harbin Engineering University. Currently, he is a full professor of Harbin Engineering University. During 2006 he visited UNSW as a visiting fellow supervised by Professor Gang-Ding Peng. His research interests are in optical fiber laser, optical fiber sensors and wave characteristics in periodical structure. He has published more than 100 articles in international journals and conferences. He is currently the PI for six research projects including two funded by the National Science Foundation of China.",institutionString:"Harbin Engineering University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Harbin Engineering University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"158",title:"Metals and Nonmetals",slug:"metals-and-nonmetals"}],chapters:[{id:"73736",title:"Introductory Chapter: Bismuth-Related Optoelectronic Materials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94237",slug:"introductory-chapter-bismuth-related-optoelectronic-materials",totalDownloads:476,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Yanhua Luo, Jianxiang Wen and Jianzhong Zhang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73736",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73736",authors:[{id:"226148",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanhua",surname:"Luo",slug:"yanhua-luo",fullName:"Yanhua Luo"}],corrections:null},{id:"73314",title:"Development of Bismuth-Doped Fibers (BDFs) in Optical Communication Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93857",slug:"development-of-bismuth-doped-fibers-bdfs-in-optical-communication-systems",totalDownloads:623,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter will provide background information in the development of BDFs and their applications in optical communication systems. Herein, the main focus is briefly described previous studies on BDFs that have attracted much interest over the last two decades. This necessary information and concepts are very much relevant to understanding this book, mainly due to the doping of Bi in the studied bismuth and erbium-doped silicate fibers (BEDFs). The remaining chapter is consisting of the following sections: Sec.2: General introduction about optical fibers. Sec. 3 discusses the general spectral characteristics of BDFs. Sec.4: Including the active centers (namely the bismuth (Bi) active centers (BACs)) responsible for the spectral properties in Bi-doped fibers. Sec.4 Discusses the Bismuth Doped Fiber Amplifier (BDFA).",signatures:"Rifat M. Dakhil Alsingery and Ahmed Mudhafer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73314",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73314",authors:[{id:"316397",title:"Dr.",name:"Rifat M.",surname:"Dakhil Alsingery",slug:"rifat-m.-dakhil-alsingery",fullName:"Rifat M. Dakhil Alsingery"},{id:"316398",title:"Dr.",name:"A.",surname:"Mudhafer",slug:"a.-mudhafer",fullName:"A. Mudhafer"}],corrections:null},{id:"72966",title:"BAC Photobleaching in Bismuth-Doped and Bismuth/Erbium Co-Doped Optical Fibers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93414",slug:"bac-photobleaching-in-bismuth-doped-and-bismuth-erbium-co-doped-optical-fibers",totalDownloads:555,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Bismuth-doped optical fiber (BDF) and bismuth/erbium co-doped optical fiber (BEDF) have attracted much attention due to their ultra-broadband luminescence in the near-infrared (NIR) region. The photobleaching effect on bismuth active centers (BACs) related to the NIR luminescence has been systematically investigated and summarized, in terms of irradiation intensity, irradiation wavelength, and temperature. All these findings not only give the deep insights into the fundamental structure of BACs but also provide an effective way to control the BACs. They play an important role for the development of BDF- and BEDF-based devices with high performance and stability under laser exposure in future.",signatures:"Bowen Zhang, Mingjie Ding, Shuen Wei, Binbin Yan, Gang-Ding Peng, Yanhua Luo and Jianxiang Wen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72966",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72966",authors:[{id:"226148",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanhua",surname:"Luo",slug:"yanhua-luo",fullName:"Yanhua Luo"},{id:"41532",title:"Prof.",name:"Gang-Ding",surname:"Peng",slug:"gang-ding-peng",fullName:"Gang-Ding Peng"},{id:"48448",title:"Dr.",name:"BinBin",surname:"Yan",slug:"binbin-yan",fullName:"BinBin Yan"},{id:"319762",title:"Mr.",name:"Bowen",surname:"Zhang",slug:"bowen-zhang",fullName:"Bowen Zhang"},{id:"319763",title:"Dr.",name:"Mingjie",surname:"Ding",slug:"mingjie-ding",fullName:"Mingjie Ding"},{id:"319765",title:"Mr.",name:"Shuen",surname:"Wei",slug:"shuen-wei",fullName:"Shuen Wei"}],corrections:null},{id:"73056",title:"Radiation Effect on Optical Properties of Bi-Related Materials Co-Doped Silica Optical Fibers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93495",slug:"radiation-effect-on-optical-properties-of-bi-related-materials-co-doped-silica-optical-fibers",totalDownloads:557,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Three kinds of Bi-related materials co-doped silica optical fibers (BRDFs), including Bi/Al, Bi/Pb, and Bi/Er co-doped fibers, were fabricated using atomic layer deposition (ALD) and modified chemical vapor deposition (MCVD). Then, the effect of irradiation on the optical properties of BRDFs was investigated. The experimental results showed that the fluorescence intensity, the fluorescence lifetime of BRDFs at the 1150 nm band, increased significantly with low-dose treatment, whereas it decreased with a further increase in the radiation dose. In addition, the merit Mα values of the BRDFs, a ratio of useful pump absorption to total pump absorption, decreased with an increase of the radiation doses. The Verdet constants of different doped fibers increased up to saturation level with increases in the radiation dose. However, for a Bi-doped fiber, its Verdet constant decreased and the direction of Faraday’s rotation changed under low-dose radiation treatment. In addition, the Verdet constant increase of the Bi-doped silica fiber was much faster than that of other single mode fiber (SMF) and Pb-doped silica fibers treated with high-dose radiation. All of these findings are of great significance for the study of the optical properties of BRDFs.",signatures:"Jianxiang Wen, Ying Wan, Yanhua Dong, Yi Huang, Yanhua Luo, Gang-Ding Peng, Fufei Pang and Tingyun Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73056",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73056",authors:[{id:"240202",title:"Dr.",name:"Jianxiang",surname:"Wen",slug:"jianxiang-wen",fullName:"Jianxiang Wen"},{id:"41532",title:"Prof.",name:"Gang-Ding",surname:"Peng",slug:"gang-ding-peng",fullName:"Gang-Ding Peng"},{id:"319824",title:"Mrs.",name:"Ying",surname:"Wan",slug:"ying-wan",fullName:"Ying Wan"},{id:"319825",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanhua",surname:"Dong",slug:"yanhua-dong",fullName:"Yanhua Dong"},{id:"319826",title:"Dr.",name:"Yi",surname:"Huang",slug:"yi-huang",fullName:"Yi Huang"},{id:"319827",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanhua",surname:"Luo",slug:"yanhua-luo",fullName:"Yanhua Luo"},{id:"319829",title:"Prof.",name:"Fufei",surname:"Pang",slug:"fufei-pang",fullName:"Fufei Pang"},{id:"319831",title:"Prof.",name:"Tingyun",surname:"Wang",slug:"tingyun-wang",fullName:"Tingyun Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"72546",title:"Effects of Electron Irradiation on Optical Properties of Bismuth-Doped Phosphosilicate Fiber",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92797",slug:"effects-of-electron-irradiation-on-optical-properties-of-bismuth-doped-phosphosilicate-fiber",totalDownloads:426,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The basic optical properties of yttrium-phosphosilicate fiber doped with bismuth (Bi) are assessed in both pristine state and that established after bombardment by a beam of high-energy electrons. The fiber has been developed and fabricated with a target to use it for laser applications in visible/near-infrared (VIS/NIR) domain. In this chapter, the main attention is paid to the dramatic changes in absorption spectra of the fiber under electron irradiation. Meanwhile, we reveal its overall resistance to irradiation in terms of emissive potential and bleaching contrast at excitation into the absorption bands of bismuth-related active centers. Besides, we report a new effect of large dose-dependent Stokes shift, experienced by the fiber’s cutoff wavelength, which arises due to refractive index rise in its core area. The laws obeyed by the fiber’s characteristics vs. dose are examined for possible applications in dosimetry.",signatures:"Alexander V. Kir’yanov and Arindam Halder",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72546",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72546",authors:[{id:"316047",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kir'Yanov",slug:"alexander-kir'yanov",fullName:"Alexander Kir'Yanov"},{id:"320307",title:"Dr.",name:"Arindam",surname:"Halder",slug:"arindam-halder",fullName:"Arindam Halder"}],corrections:null},{id:"72146",title:"Bismuth Halide Perovskites for Photovoltaic Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92413",slug:"bismuth-halide-perovskites-for-photovoltaic-applications",totalDownloads:782,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the last decade, energy crisis has become the most important topic for researchers. Energy requirements have increased drastically. To overcome the issue of energy crisis in near future, numerous efforts and sources have been developed. Therefore, solar energy has been considered the most promising energy source compared to other energy sources. There were different kinds of photovoltaic devices developed, but perovskite solar cells have been considered the most efficient and promising solar cell. The perovskite solar cells were invented in 2009 and crossed an excellent power conversion efficiency of 25%. However, it has a few major drawbacks, such as the presence of highly toxic lead (Pb) and poor stability. Hence, numerous efforts were made toward the replacement of Pb and highly stable perovskite solar cells in the last few years. Bismuth halide perovskite solar cell is one type of the replacement introduced to overcome these issues. In this chapter, I have reviewed the role of bismuth halide perovskite structures and their optoelectronic properties toward the development of perovskite solar cells.",signatures:"Khursheed Ahmad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72146",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72146",authors:[{id:"319034",title:"Dr.",name:"Khursheed",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"khursheed-ahmad",fullName:"Khursheed Ahmad"}],corrections:null},{id:"73822",title:"Synthesis and Characterization of Multiferroic BiFeO3 for Data Storage",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94049",slug:"synthesis-and-characterization-of-multiferroic-bifeo-sub-3-sub-for-data-storage",totalDownloads:555,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Multiferroic BiFeO3 deals with spintronic devices involved spin-charge processes and applicable in new non-volatile memory devices to store information for computing performance and the magnetic random access memories storage. Since multiferroic leads to the new generation memory devices for which the data can be written electrically and read magnetically. The main advantage of present study of multiferroic BiFeO3 is that to observe magnetoelectric effects at room temperature. The nanostructural growth (for both size and shape) of BiFeO3 may depend on the selection of appropriate synthesis route, reaction conditions and heating processes. In pure BiFeO3, the ferroelectricity is induced by 6s2 lone-pair electrons of Bi3+ ions and the G-type antiferromagnetic ordering resulting from Fe3+ spins order of cycloidal (62-64 nm wavelength) occurred below Neel temperature, TN = 640 K. The multiferroicity of BiFeO3 is disappeared due to factors such as impurity phases, leakage current and low value of magnetization. Therefore, to overcome such factors to get multiferroic enhancement in BiFeO3, there are different possible ways like changes dopant ions and their concentrations, BiFeO3 composites as well as thin films especially multilayers.",signatures:"Kuldeep Chand Verma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73822",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73822",authors:[{id:"208866",title:"Dr.",name:"Kuldeep Chand",surname:"Verma",slug:"kuldeep-chand-verma",fullName:"Kuldeep Chand Verma"}],corrections:null},{id:"72254",title:"Investigation of Structural, Microstructural, Dielectrical and Magnetic Properties of Bi3+ Doped Manganese Spinel Ferrite Nanoparticles for Photonic Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92430",slug:"investigation-of-structural-microstructural-dielectrical-and-magnetic-properties-of-bi3-doped-mangan",totalDownloads:573,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:13,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The structural, microstructural, and magnetic properties of Mn1-xBixFe2O4 (where x = 0.0, 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, and 0.2) nanoparticles prepared by solution combustion method were investigated. Rietveld-refined X-ray diffraction patterns confirm the single-phase formation with space group Fd3m having spinel cubic structure. The porous nature of the samples was confirmed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Composition values of the theoretical stoichiometry and energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) composition values are well matched for all samples. The dielectric parameters such as real part of dielectric constant, imaginary part of dielectric constant, and dielectric loss tangent decrease with the increase in frequency. The AC conductivity increases with increase in the Bi3+ concentration. The real part of complex impedance decreases with the increase in frequency. Cole-Cole plots reveal that one semicircle was obtained for each of the samples. The real and imaginary parts of electric modulus vary with frequency. The magnetic hysteresis curves of all samples reveal the soft magnetic material nature. We observed S esteems began uniquely from the higher superparamagnetic, we would have watched the monotonic decrease in S with increase in Bi3+ concentration. Furthermore, the magnetic parameters were estimated.",signatures:"V. Jagadeesha Angadi, H.R. Lakshmiprasanna and K. Manjunatha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72254",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72254",authors:[{id:"266255",title:"Dr.",name:"Veerabhadrappa",surname:"Jagadeesha Angadi",slug:"veerabhadrappa-jagadeesha-angadi",fullName:"Veerabhadrappa Jagadeesha Angadi"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6426",title:"Titanium Dioxide",subtitle:"Material for a Sustainable Environment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5626c0fe0b53330717e73094946cfd86",slug:"titanium-dioxide-material-for-a-sustainable-environment",bookSignature:"Dongfang Yang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6426.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"177814",title:"Dr.",name:"Dongfang",surname:"Yang",slug:"dongfang-yang",fullName:"Dongfang Yang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6282",title:"Noble and Precious Metals",subtitle:"Properties, Nanoscale Effects and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e4c28d6be4fd7b5f5b787d4dabbf721b",slug:"noble-and-precious-metals-properties-nanoscale-effects-and-applications",bookSignature:"Mohindar Singh Seehra and Alan D. 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The ability of machines to demonstrate advanced skills in predicting outcomes even when they are not explicitly programmed, taking decisions, adapting to new environments, learning, perceiving, and processing written or spoken languages, along with other skills, makes this discipline of paramount importance in today’s world. As computer-related technologies are more and more widely used, many problems have emerged in areas such as big data, spam detection, image and video processing, and many others. However, when traditional methods are used to solve many of these complicated issues, the degree of finding the solution or an acceptable approach is unsatisfactory in many scenarios. For these reasons, Swarm intelligence (SI) and Bio-inspired computation have been gaining a lot of attention for many years. Swarm intelligence refers to the ability that arises from the interaction of simple units capable of processing information based on collective animal behavior such as school of fish, flocks of birds, etc. There are various models that follow this concept with different logical approaches, although having in common the interaction of their processing units. This book aims to include research on applications, as well as new techniques, challenges, and opportunities in this fascinating area.
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It builds important and diversified habitats with different specificities, according to the nature of the species and the general ecological conditions.
Most bamboo species show a very strong development and colonization ability, determining that in some temperate habitats, they can assume an invasive character.
The nature and characteristics of some bamboo communities can present an important ability to soil and slope protection and stabilization, as one can easily confirm by observing developed bamboo forests in mountainous areas with very steep slopes.
On the other hand, the structural characteristics offered by some woody bamboo species make bamboo a valuable basic construction material in many regions (e.g. India, China and Southeast Asia).
These characteristics determine that these species and communities can be of high interest for soil and slope protection and reinforcement works, particularly in areas where the bamboo is native. They can be used integrated and fostering natural communities, ensuring efficient soil cover and reinforcement functions through their high, lightly dense culms and their dense and resilient root systems.
These functions are also of particular interest for soil bioengineering because bamboo has biological characteristics such as a high vegetative propagation ability (making its reproduction very easy) and a rapid growth (allowing for a quick effect on soil cover and root consolidation). Moreover, the structural and physical characteristics of the stems of certain bamboo species turn them into a very effective construction material for complementary soil bioengineering support structures.
Therefore, bamboo in its different forms and associated communities, and also in terms of particular species, is of high interest for nature and biodiversity protection (and therefore ecosystem restoration) as well as for slope protection and stabilization.
Soil bioengineering comprises a diversified group of techniques and land management systems developed by mankind throughout the millennia to use natural systems and elements in order to ensure the safety and functionality of land uses in a context of restricted availability of materials and, particularly, energy.
Soil bioengineering techniques have been used throughout the world with the available plants and construction systems, many times replicated in different continents due to its efficiency and easy construction.
Only in the first decades of the twentieth century, this set of building and land management techniques has been recognized as an integrated engineering approach to many soil stabilization problems, and they started to be systematized, studied and developed.
This situation led to the development of an engineering discipline where ‘soil bioengineering has set itself the aim of designing our environment in a “living” way by applying construction methods which are close to nature (…) based on materials which are found in nature and which are combined with technical building materials’ [1].
This engineering domain developed from the rediscovery of traditional building and management techniques that use predominantly living plants and vegetation communities as building materials, nowadays, presents a strong evolution with the development of new materials and plant/material combinations, building techniques and innovative domains of application. This domain of engineering combines classical areas of civil engineering (e.g. structures, materials, construction, geological engineering) with biology, integrating a wide diversity of disciplines and specialization domains. The aim is to achieve feasible, efficient durable, self-repairing, resilient, evolving and ecological functional engineering structures that, within strict technical and geotechnical limits, normally fulfil their planed functions with higher efficiency and lower cost [2].
The European Federation for Soil Bioengineering (EFIB) defines soil and water bioengineering as:
Soil bioengineering aims, therefore, at ensuring an efficient nature-based solution to the protection of infrastructures. This can be helpful in situations of conflict between opposite needs: the human demand for larger spaces for activities and infrastructures and the natural systems intrinsic need for development space.
Soil bioengineering systems use plants and parts of plants as living building materials as well as introducing and developing functional living communities that are able (
Due to the nature, characteristics and properties of vegetation, it is important to note that bioengineering strategies also have limitations in terms of their effectiveness and application limits. The first one is that only a limited available number of plants from a given habitat have the necessary technical characteristics constraining the potential use of the aimed technical solutions. Secondly, plants, as living organisms, do not behave in a standardized way, limiting the ability to precisely calculate the technical effectiveness of the interventions. Finally, plants have limited ability in terms of root growth, hindering their capacity to stabilize soils to depths larger than 1.5–2 m, depending on the species. It is also important to note that there is a lack of a systematized knowledge on the physical behaviour of plants and particularly of their roots and root systems, when exposed to external forces, despite the promising results of an ever-growing research effort.
These limitations imply the need for the use of complementary structures to help overcome—temporarily or permanently—the local adverse conditions. This situation determined the development of a particular segment of the industry related to complementary materials (e.g. organic geotextiles) aimed at reducing the impact of water and soil erosion in the initial development phases of the construction and interventions and to the conception of construction techniques using classical civil engineering approaches and materials in combination with the advantages brought by vegetation.
The main concerns for soil bioengineering are related to soil support, cover, and consolidation, as well as the regulation of the forces and processes (mainly hydrological, hydraulic, and wind-related) that act as disturbance factors.
The main functions fulfilled by the bioengineering approach are the following:
Support functions, in terms of building or fostering the development of structures able to stabilize slopes affected either by an increase on their slope angle or by an increase of the external or internal acting forces
Cover functions in terms of protection against erosion and trampling
Consolidation functions in terms of soil protection, structuring, and reinforcement
Regulation functions in terms of hydrological processes such as interception, evapotranspiration, infiltration, and runoff control
These functions are performed mainly through the action of plant aerial parts and roots as well as the associated soil biota, through their action in soil anchoring, structuring, aggregating, draining, buttressing, and reinforcement. All of these functions, mainly ensured by living autochthonous vegetation, have the complementary advantages of promoting biodiversity and strongly reducing the CO2 emissions, not only through its capture during construction but also because the techniques and the nature and quantities of the complementary materials used imply a lower production of greenhouse gases and natural resource consumption.
The strength of bamboo culms and roots and their straightness, lightness combined with hardness, range and size of hollowness make them potentially suitable for a variety of both structural and nonstructural applications. With good physical and mechanical properties, low shrinkage and good average density, bamboo is well suited to replace wood/timber in soil bioengineering applications but also to act on its own as a living material providing rapid ground coverage and sediment trapping, increasing surface roughness, increasing soil strength and decreasing pore-water pressures in the soil by evapotranspiration.
The selection of appropriate techniques is based on a specific site assessment and design criteria. Local climate conditions (precipitation regimes, seasonal variation, averages and extremes of temperature and rainfall), topography (slope gradient, terrain shape, elevation, sun exposition), soil (types, permeability, moisture and nutrient conditions), hydrological conditions and the most relevant erosion processes define the set of feasible techniques for a particular site. In a following step, the evaluation of the existing surrounding vegetation is most important for the design, in terms of project limitations, opportunities and potential long-term achievements. Even when bamboo is the main vegetal constructive element, the long-term success of any bioengineering implementation work is based on a wide range of plant species. It is also important to take into account the bioengineering-specific local logistical and economic constraints. Finally, all this gathered and specific site information forms the basis for selection of the appropriate bioengineering technique, plants and materials to use.
The use of bamboo to make retaining structures for soil mass or for stream bank erosion control has been practiced in traditional way in various places around the world for long time. Live bamboo stakes, wattle fence, hedge brush layering techniques and bamboo crib walls are most commonly used bioengineering techniques. Several handbooks describe these techniques and can be used as references [4]. However, an engineering design of bamboo retaining structures, such as bamboo crib wall, has not been detailed so far. For this reason, this section is focused on this bamboo bioengineering technique.
A live bamboo crib wall is a three-dimensional structure created from untreated bamboos, fill material and live cuttings. Morgan and Rickson [5] described the crib wall as ‘a specialized form of gravity-retaining structure using on-site fill material, held within a constructed framework, to provide most of the necessary mass to resist overturning by the weight of both the slope and the materials’.
This crib structure, once filled, acts as a retaining structure and supports the slope. The bamboo and other installed plants provide immediate protection and stability to the structure. However, it has to be taken into account that the structure stability and resistance to failure will be gradually decreasing as its construction materials decompose. As the bamboo elements of a crib wall decompose, the live cuttings of plants or bamboo clumps will grow and proliferate. The resulting root mass will then bind the fill material and the parent soils of the slope into a single continuum, which will have enhanced strength and contribute towards the stability of the slope. Figure 1 shows the construction steps from a practical application of a bamboo crib wall in Nepal [6, 7].
Crib wall construction steps in Thankot (Nepal) 2002 [
Both freshly cut and seasoned bamboos can be used in the construction of crib walls. Additionally, lime-treated or chemically treated bamboo stems can also be used. However, the bamboo treatments can make the crib wall construction very expensive. Therefore, it is suggested either to use freshly cut green bamboo or air-dried bamboo for crib construction.
The twig and large knots need to be trimmed although it is not necessary to make the stem smooth. Based on the size of the bamboo stems available at the site, it can be used as single stem or a bundle of three bamboos to make the header and stretcher elements in the crib construction. If larger diameters are used, the bamboo crib wall will resemble a wooden log crib wall, and the crib construction procedure will be similar to wooden log crib wall. If single bamboo stem is used for the header and stretcher elements, it is recommended to use uniform-sized bamboo stems to ensure a uniform thickness of the crib layer.
To secure the bamboo stems together in a bundle or to make the crib form, suitable binding wires, binding materials or nails should be used so that the bamboo stems will not tear apart or break/bend along their length.
In addition to the bamboo and binding wires, the live cuttings or rooted plants (if possible and according to the nature of the plant, longer than the depth of the crib wall to allow penetration into the soil at the back) and suitable fill materials are also required for the construction of crib walls. Generally, locally available slope or cut material is used as fill material for the crib wall construction. However, if the material contains very coarse gravel where roots cannot develop, a layer of fine, organic-rich material or humus material should be placed around the cuttings to promote the root growth. Large stones and boulders are not recommended as fill materials. The fill material should allow some degree of compaction, so that there will be no large voids within the body of the crib structure.
Before starting the crib wall construction, bamboos, binding wires and cuttings should be stockpiled near the construction site. After setting out the layout of the wall, the foundation for the crib wall construction should be prepared according to the requirement of designed dimensions of the crib wall. The depth of foundation trench shall be between 0.3 and 0.5 m, depending upon the height of the bamboo crib wall. The foundation should be inclined at about 10–15° inwards (in-slope) to increase the stability against sliding. It is recommended to have at least one layer of cribs below the existing ground level to prevent the structure from sliding and the foundation from getting undermined by any seepage water.
First, the header and stretcher elements should be prepared by making bundles of three bamboo stems of uniform size. The header elements are cut according to the designed length, which defines the total width of the crib wall. After the stretcher and header crib elements are prepared, the first two stretcher elements should be laid on the prepared foundation trench, parallel to each other. The spacing of these stretcher elements will be controlled by placing the header elements in a specified interval as per the design drawings and specifications. After laying the header and stretcher elements, they should be firmly bound together to make a crib frame. The first layer of the crib frame should then be secured by bamboo pegs of appropriate sizes and should be bound with a peg.
After the completion of the first layer of the frame, fill materials should be placed inside the crib frame and compacted by using hand rammer. The fill material should be compacted to about 50–70 mm above the crib elements. After placing the fill, cuttings or seedlings of rooted plants should be placed horizontally on the top of the fill material. The spacing of cuttings should vary between 100 and 300 mm depending upon the size of cuttings and species of the plants used. While placing the second crib layer, the second crib frame should be set inwards to maintain the designed front batter. In this way, a stable vegetative bamboo crib wall can be constructed. After the completion of the topmost layer, an additional layer of soil should be added to ensure flush finish with the existing slope of the ground.
After the crib wall construction, in dry weather and low soil moisture, it is recommended to irrigate the cuttings and other plants. After the successful establishment of the cuttings, during the initial growing stages, they should be protected from grazing, so that the young plants can grow undisturbed. If some cuttings do not thrive, additional cuttings should be inserted or planted on the wall to ensure green cover of the front face of the wall and stop the washing out of the structure’s fill material. If the crib wall settles due to consolidation, an additional fill material should be added on the top of the wall. The vegetated crib wall should be well maintained for at least the first 2 years after construction (Figure 2).
View of slide at Badikhel/Lalitpur, Nepal, in May 2003 and August 2003 [
In this bioengineering technique, bamboo and plant materials are used as structural elements to take some load and resist earth pressure. This type of crib wall could be used as an alternative to gabions or masonry retaining walls.
The plants’ biotechnical properties are those plant traits contributing to a good performance and effectiveness of the bioengineering work.
Bamboo belongs to the grass family and has an aerial part characterized by a jointed stem called a culm. The culms are typically hollow with the exception of certain bamboo species which have solid culms. Each culm segment begins and ends with a solid joint called a node. It is in these nodes that the vegetative parts of the culm able to develop the culm vertically, produce branches and develop roots and stems if stacked or laying in the ground can be found. The underground part of the plant is built from rhizomes growing normally at a shallow depth (up to a maximum of 150 mm) from where the roots develop. These roots can grow deep into the soil up to 500 mm. The rhizomes are the main form of spreading of the plant by growing horizontally away from the plant and, because they have a similar structure as the culm with vegetative nodes developing either roots or buds, originate new shoots and new individuals.
Bamboo is the fastest growing perennial, evergreen, arborescent plant with a resulting high productivity: the dry weight yield per hectare could total as much as 32–38 or even 47 tons of biomass per hectare per year but averaging 8–18 tons per ha per year in normal conditions according to the different species and locations [8].
This productivity, expressed both for the aerial and the root parts of the plant, illustrates the ability of bamboo to cover the terrain very rapidly, to develop a dense network of subsuperficial rhizome and root system which would structure and consolidate the upper soil layer. The growth rate of each plant varies, but there are references of a 900 mm culm elongation in 1 day. The growth rate (both of the culm, the rhizome and root system, buds and shots) corresponds to a vegetative cycle that varies with the species and the climatic conditions. The growth factors (like starch reserves on the culm and the rhizome) vary with the evolution of the growth season but are maximal before sprouting, meaning a high resilience to disturbance and regeneration ability. The biomass production is very intensive both above and below ground with values of above ground dry weight varying between 0.8 and 1 tons per ha in some references [9].
The bamboo stands act as an important factor in water and nutrient conservation, as well as soil protection and runoff control. There are references of reduction in nutrient loss higher than 50% and similar values for runoff retention. This shows that bamboo stands, although having little geotechnical ability in terms of slope stabilization (due to the low depth of rooting), could have a very important role in local water cycle regulation and, therefore, soil consolidation and stabilization, preventing erosion and reducing infiltration [10].
The use of native plant species is inherent to the bioengineering work approach and philosophy. Moreover, the use of indigenous species is a compulsory feature of the living material used in these works. Hence, the knowledge of bamboo natural distribution is necessary for its use.
Published literature notes approx. 1400 different species (grouped in one herbaceous and three woody types) identified and designated as bamboo (https://www.eeob.iastate.edu/research/bamboo/index.html).
Bamboo is globally distributed between 51°N and 47°S, particularly in subtropical, tropical and equatorial regions. It also covers a high altitude range, reaching up to 4000 m above sea level and thriving at temperatures as low as −20°C. The main area of occurrence is Asia where the largest number of species can be found.
This wide distribution does not mean that all species or even natural stands thrive without problems. Many forest stands are being intensively exploited, endangering a high number of species, namely, several mammal, bird and even bamboo species all classified as ‘endangered’ by IUCN. Several hundred species of bamboo occupy remaining natural forest stands not bigger than 2500 km2 [11].
Due to its versatility, physical characteristics, rapid growth, and easy establishment, it is intensively exploited, not only in terms of harvesting natural forests but also in growing areas of cultivation, where there is a selection of the economically more attractive species (few dozens). The exploitation is mainly located in China, India and Southeast Asia (but also, with increasing importance, in Central and South America) and predominantly aimed at species with applicability in construction or other industries (e.g. paper pulp or laminated and other composite productions, biomass production) [12].
There is also a growing interest for bamboo as an ornamental plant, which brought the spread of several species to areas outside their natural ecological areas. This also raised some problems such as turning into invasive species and threatening natural habitats [13].
The strength of bamboo culms, their straightness and their lightness combined with hardness, range and size of hollowness make them potentially suitable for a variety of both structural and nonstructural applications. With good physical and mechanical properties, low shrinkage and good average density, bamboo is well suited to replace wood/timber in soil bioengineering applications.
For example, from more than 100 bamboo species native to India, only around 20 have been systematically tested, and 16 have been found to be adequate for use in construction (Table 1, [14]).
Physical and mechanical properties of Indian bamboos (in round form) [14].
The compressive strength of bamboo ranges between 35 and 70 N/mm2 which is twice to four times the value of most timber species. The range can be explained by the different test methods and used samples. Bamboo with low moisture content has a higher compressive strength than bamboo with high moisture content (https://www.bambooimport.com/en/blog/what-are-the-mechanical-properties-of-bamboo).
The average tensile strength of bamboo is approximately 160 N/mm2 which is around three times higher than most conventional construction grade timber materials (https://www.bambooimport.com/en/blog/what-are-the-mechanical-properties-of-bamboo).
Shear stress parallel to grain is 6–12 N/mm2 which is approximately 10 times lower than compressive strength and up to 20 times lower than the tensile strength of the same bamboo species. However, the shear strength of bamboo is often twice the value of popular timber species. (https://www.bambooimport.com/en/blog/what-are-the-mechanical-properties-of-bamboo). The bending strength of most bamboo species varies between 50 and 150 N/mm2 (Table 2) and is, on average, twice the magnitude of most conventional structural timber materials. Interspecies variations can be caused by different test methods, sample quality and moisture content of the tested bamboo. (https://www.bambooimport.com/en/blog/what-are-the-mechanical-properties-of-bamboo).
Material properties of different categories of structural bamboo (adapted from BIS [14]).
When bamboo is used in green condition, the mechanical values that should be used for design are shown in Table 3 (adapted from [14]).
Safe permissible stresses of different categories of green bamboo for structural design (adapted from BIS [14]).
Laboratory testing of material properties [15, 16] showed that the compressive and shear strength parallel to the grain were most significantly affected by moisture content, followed by longitudinal tensile modulus and then bending modulus. Age had little effect on the sensitivity of the tensile modulus and bending modulus to moisture content change, while young bamboo was more sensitive to moisture content change for shear strength and less sensitive for compression strength [17].
The experimental results show that the tensile strength of bamboo roots decreases with the increase in diameter through a power function. The tensile strength of the tested bamboo roots ranges between 18 and 30 N/mm2 at ultimate strains of 14–18% [18].
Bamboo, like most lignocellulosic materials, has very low resistance to biological degrading agents. The culms are liable to attack by insects and termites, and above the fibre saturation point, they can be deteriorated by strain and rotting fungi [19].
Bamboo is more susceptible to decay than timber, due to a lack of natural toxins and its typically thin walls. This means that a small amount of decay can mean a significant percentage change in technical capacity [20].
The high sugar and starch content of the bamboo culm explains its low natural durability. There is not much data available on the natural durability of different bamboo species. The natural durability of raw bamboo is low and varies between 1 and 36 months depending on the species, age of culms and climatic conditions [21]. Bamboo is generally destroyed in about 1–2 years when used in the open and in contact with the ground. According to durability classification [22], bamboo falls in class III (non-durable category) with little variation among species. Data about natural durability of some bamboo species obtained from tests of untreated bamboo poles can be found in [21].
The most popular traditional treatment for enhancing bamboo natural durability is soaking the bamboo in running water for a period of time [19]. This treatment has a significant effect in enhancing durability against decay fungi because it washes off the starch content of the culms [19]. This treatment has little effect on termite attack because these organisms depend merely on cellulose rather than on starch as food source [23]. Traditional techniques for controlling starch content in felled bamboo include [21]:
Felling of bamboo during low-sugar content season
Felling of bamboo at maturity when sugar content is low
Postharvesting transpiration of bamboo culms
Water soaking of bamboo
When bamboo is used as an inert construction material, seasoning (drying) processes are important in order to carefully bring down its moisture content to levels closer to the in service equilibrium moisture content. Seasoning improves bamboo’s resistance to biological attack and limits the amount of drying shrinkage in service [20].
The low natural durability of bamboo material can be perfectly accommodated in the bioengineering approach since, in this type of work, just an initial rigidity is pursued and, hence, only temporary structures are usually included in the work design. Once the introduced living plants become established, the vegetation gradually takes over the structural functions of the wooden supports [24, 25]. As time progresses, the inert bamboo culms will deteriorate, and the live bamboo pegs (or poles) will grow and assume the strengthening effect of the initial structure.
In the bioengineering design approach, the load transfer between the initial structural elements and the evolving structural vegetation elements can be calculated using an eco-engineering design scheme for durability [26]. The rapid growth pattern of bamboo species make them very suitable for this kind of work approaches and strategies.
The reinforcement effect ensured by bamboo roots (Figure 3) can be expressed in engineering terms as an ‘additional cohesion’ added to the strength of the non-rooted soil Eq. (1) [27]. Therefore, the total cohesion of a rooted soil will be the sum of the unrooted soil cohesion plus the cohesion increase due to the presence of roots in the soil [27].
Overall stability check for a bamboo crib wall.
The ‘additional cohesion’ (∆S; Eq. (1)) can be calculated for a known root tensile strength and root area ratio (RAR; the ratio of the surface area of roots crossing the shear plane and shear plane area [28, 27], Eq. (1)) assuming that all the roots cross the shear plane perpendicularly and break during the shearing process. The rooted soil strength value is then used in traditional slope stability analysis methods (e.g. limit equilibrium methods) to determine the overall slope stability:
where ∆S is added cohesion or increase in shear strength due to the presence of roots in the soil [KN/m2], tR is average tensile strength of roots per unit area of soil [KN/m2], and RAR is the ratio of area of roots crossing the shear plane and the shear plane area.
The bamboo capacity to improve overall slope stability is limited by its shallow root system. Important effects can be found within the first 0.3–0.5 m depth. Examples of assessment of soil strength increase by bamboo living culms roots can be found in [29].
At the end of the construction stage, when the bamboo culms roots are not yet developed, the slope must be kept stable exclusively by the action of the inert elements and structures used in the bioengineering work. As time progresses, bamboo roots will increase the overall slope stability, and this process can be assessed by using Eq. (1) and traditional slope stability analysis methods.
The current bamboo construction standards published in 2004 by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) were the first step in the attempt to standardize the use of bamboo in construction [15, 16, 30]. These standards are essentially based on the existing traditional knowledge with an adaptation of the existing ISO timber and timber testing standards for bamboo [31]. These standards cover the basis for design and testing of bamboo and bamboo products and can be used as a basis for further standardization of bamboo as a structural material used in soil bioengineering. ISO 22156: Bamboo, structural design [30], provides basic design guidance for full culm bamboo construction. This standard is supported by ISO 22157-1 Bamboo, determination of physical and mechanical properties, part 1: requirements [15], which specify the test methods necessary for design, and ISO 22157-2 [16], which is essentially a laboratory manual for determining the structural properties of bamboo.
This international standard is based on limit state design and on the structure’s performance; it is only concerned with the requirements for mechanical resistance, serviceability and durability of structures [30]. Execution (work on-site and fabrication of components off site and their erection on-site) is covered to the extent that is necessary to indicate the quality of construction materials and products which should be used and the standard of workmanship on-site needed to comply with the assumptions of the design rules. Bamboo construction design concepts shall be based on calculations, relevant permissible stresses verifying that no relevant limit state or no stress is exceeded. Exclusions are made for design based on previous generations’ experience or design based on evaluation reports on structures that survived natural disasters (e.g. hurricanes, earthquakes, etc.) undamaged. In this standard, the limit state design is based on the characteristic value of a material property (5 percentile property, estimated from test results [15], with 75% confidence that it represents the sampled population). The standard advises that special attention is given to differences between materials originating from different sites to account for natural variability. The standard assumes that bamboo will behave as a linear elastic material with service classes dependent on the local environmental conditions (e.g. temperature, humidity) during the structure lifetime. This means that bamboo material is expected to behave elastically until failure, while the plastic behaviour is considered insignificant. In terms of schematization; the bamboo culms are supposed to be analysed as not perfectly straight, tapered, hollow-tube structures with variable thickness.
Similarly as for timber structures, the design shall be verified if no possible limit state is exceeded when partial safety factors and loads/actions relevant to the location of the structure have been applied. Alternative to this approach, allowable stress approaches can be adopted with suitable modification for differences between laboratory and in situ results (0.5), duration of the load (1.0–1.5) and a default value of the factor of safety of 2.25. In these analyses, the conventional structural analysis methods can be used with the bamboo initial curvature, diameter and wall thickness as inputs. The joints/supports of bamboo structures should be located near the nodes (which, in reality, are not spaced at constant intervals) and should be considered to act as a hinge, unless substantive data exist to justify a spring or a fixed joint.
Reflecting the use of bamboo structural members in bioengineering, this standard prescribes the design of beams (predominantly loaded in bending), columns (predominantly axially loaded), joints and assemblies (trusses). All beam elements should be symmetrically loaded, and the loads should be applied preferably close to or at the nodes. All axially loaded bamboo elements should preferably be constructed using the best available straight bamboo culms to avoid buckling. For both types of elements, standard structural calculation methods apply, taking into account the effects of any combination of stresses that may occur during the structure/element lifetime. The joints between the elements should be rigid and provide structural continuity between them, including force transmission and deflection limitation.
In the section on sound construction practices, this standard advises that the designer is in charge of ensuring that ‘sound construction practices are taken into account’, covering mostly the moisture content change of structural bamboo. It also suggests that special care should be taken to ensure the workmanship (on-site and for products coming from the factory) is according to the assumptions listed in the appendix of the standard. Special provision is made for the use of bamboo elements as soil reinforcement, providing that there is an appropriate evidence (test results) that the bamboo will function as reinforcement during the structure’s expected service lifetime, with special attention to the lifetime of the bamboo in the organic environment. Types of tests and the frequency of testing are not specified in this standard.
The environmental conditions (temperature, humidity, moisture content, soil/water characteristics and composition, surrounding flora/fauna, etc.) must be taken into account at the design stage to assess their effect on the durability of the structure but also to enable the design of material protection techniques. The durability of each structure is expected to vary based on the particular materials and the environmental conditions. The standard does not prescribe methods for assessing the durability but suggests considering a range of factors (e.g. environment, service life, use, performance criteria, workmanship, maintenance, etc.) when making such assessments.
In terms of quality assurance, the design with bamboo structural elements should be carried out by suitably qualified and experienced personnel. Similarly, qualified and experienced personnel should carry out the supervision and quality control during construction. The structures should be used as per the design briefly and adequately maintained. This standard specifies quality control for mainly factory-produced bamboo and products using a quality assurance manual (QAM). For the purposes of eco-engineering works, the standard can be interpreted including material specifications (including incoming material, inspection, and acceptance requirements), quality assurance inspection testing and acceptance procedures, sampling and inspection frequencies and procedures to be followed upon failure to meet specifications or upon out-of-control conditions. The QAM should be supplemented by relevant records, including inspection and test records, test data, corrective actions, etc.
This standard specifies the test methods for evaluating the following characteristic physical and strength properties of bamboo: moisture content, mass per volume (density), shrinkage, compression, bending, shear and tension. This data is needed for establishing characteristic strength functions and determination of allowable stresses, as well as for establishing the relationship between mechanical properties and factors for quality control functions.
The standard prescribes the acceptable precision of testing measurements, the sampling and storage of test samples and reporting requirements. The measurements specified in the standard include determination of moisture content, mass (by volume), shrinkage, strength in compression (including nominal modulus of elasticity), strength in bending (including load-deflection curves and modulus of elasticity), strength in shear and strength in tension. The principles, apparatus, preparation of test specimens, procedure, calculation and expression of results and test report requirements are specified for each test.
The purpose of this standard, originally written as a technical report is to disseminate best practice test methods in order to make these globally available but also to outline the ‘how to’ for the tests specified in ISO 22157-1 [15, 16]. On a number of issues, this standard refers to existing national and supranational standards which should be followed, especially for bamboo application in temperate climates (e.g. W. Europe, Canada). This standard contains a number of examples, templates and backgrounds to the tests specified in [15].
The above ISO standards provide the basis for design with bamboo culms. However, they do not include content relating to living bamboo (design and testing) and the use of a combination of living and inert bamboo in a structure. The existing standards need to be updated and expanded to reflect the growing research on test methods and material characterization of both living and inert bamboo, especially covering the durability and evolution of load transfer mechanisms with time. This update could be partially covered by an attempt to use the existing timber-based test methods for characterization and design [29] which could be beneficial in engaging engineers and architects [31] in the use of bamboo for bioengineering purposes.
The analysed structures can be classified as soft engineering structures [24] with a certain durability and change in stress transfer mechanism over the lifetime of the structure. The durability of the structure will depend on the used bamboo species and the biological activity of local degrading mechanisms but also on air temperature, humidity and soil moisture variability. In the bioengineering design approach, the load transfer between the initial structural elements and the developing structural vegetation elements can be calculated using a bioengineering design scheme for durability [26]:
Determination of the mechanical properties of the wooden elements
Determination of the stress diagrams of the different structural elements
Determination of the decay rate of the wooden element and their design service life
Determination of the plant root system growth and the roots’ mechanical properties
Stability assessment of the structure at different periods of its design lifetime reflecting the progression of decay and development of the live elements in the structure [26]
As with any stabilization structure, soil bioengineering solutions must be checked from a structural point of view to ensure that both external (sliding, overturning, bearing capacity and slope failure; Figure 1) and internal stability conditions are satisfactory. These checks must include both decay and living plant effects, in order to reflect the changes during the lifetime of the bioengineering solution. The external stability checks are usually performed in line with existing geotechnical engineering design standards and the stability is expressed in terms of a factor of safety (FoS; e.g. [32]). In this book chapter, both the FoS expressions for bare and vegetated soil [24] and the use of lumped global FoS for the sliding and overturning checks are proposed. The resistance to sliding (FoSs) will be affected by the evolution of the RAR value with time across the sliding plane [33], while the resistance to overturning (FoSo) will be affected by the pull-out force evolution with time due to root growth (Figure 4). As shown before, the overall slope stability of a bioengineered slope can be assessed using existing slope stability analysis methods [34] taking into account both long-term (drained) and short-term (undrained) conditions.
(A) Sliding check and (B) overturning check. The bamboo root effect (if applicable) is highlighted within the circle (adapted from [
Internal stability analysis consists of checking the mechanical capacity of the bamboo culms which are fulfilling structural functions within the ground bioengineering work.
The characteristic strength values should be obtained according to ISO 22157 [15, 16]. Suggested characteristic strength values for any bamboo species can be found in [35]. These values should be adapted to the bamboo moisture content by using the moisture content correction factor included in [35] which is based on NSR [36] and EN 384 [37]. Bamboo live pole (pegs) strength characteristic values have been shown in preceding epigraphs (see Table 3). The values for the material factor of safety are specified in ISO 22156 [30]. Recommended values for this factor can also be found in [35].
In soil bioengineering works, bamboo culms work under Service Class 3 conditions (relative humidity >85%) and in-ground conditions. This situation can be reflected by means of the service class and load duration factor (Kmod) which can be determined from the existing standards [30, 35].
Other factors making allowance for other conditions (e.g. earthquakes, connection between elements of different rigidity, etc.) can also be found in [35].
Bamboo structures’ internal stability checks follow Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures. This design scheme is detailed in ISO 22156 [30] and in [38]. Because of the specific bamboo culm shape, the cross-sectional area to be used in the design calculation is the following:
where
Accordingly, the elastic section modulus (
By comparing the existing stress values with the element bending capacity, shear, axial tension or axial compression, the internal stability check can be fulfilled.
Additionally, Eqs. (2) and (3) can also be useful for determining the minimum bamboo culm dimeter fulfilling the internal stability condition [29].
The forces exerted on the bamboo culms can be determined by using traditional structural calculation theory (Figure 5). Typically, the moment, shear and axial stress diagrams should be generated and their maximum values used for internal stability checks [29].
Example of stress diagrams for the vertical and horizontal elements in a bamboo palisade [
Given the low natural durability value of bamboo species, an adapted design scheme making allowance for the wooden element deterioration process can be adopted [26]. In order to give answer to cross-sectional losses because of decay processes at the internal stability design level, different strategies can be followed:
Increase of the initial diameter of the bamboo culms used in the work
Reduction of the elements bending span length
Reduction of the height of the retaining structures
In the last two cases, lower forces will be exerted on the bamboo culms, and, therefore, lower diameters will be able to withstand them and ensure the internal stability of the bamboo structure. A complete example of the preceding design approach can be found in [26, 29].
Quality assurance manual (QAM) covering the bamboo application and approved by the overseeing organization should form an integral part of soil bioengineering project documentation [30]. For the purposes of soil bioengineering works, the QAM should record the control of plant material (including incoming material, inspection and acceptance requirements), personnel, design, construction, quality assurance testing and acceptance procedures, sampling and inspection frequencies and procedures to be followed upon failure to meet specifications or upon out-of-control conditions. The QAM should be supplemented by relevant records, including inspection and test records, test data, corrective actions, etc.
There are a large number of species of bamboo native to different world regions, mainly in the warm and moist tropical and warm temperate climates. Current standards recognize that methods of identification of bamboo through anatomical characteristics have not been perfected. To mitigate against the risk of selecting inadequate/untested species, experienced sorters should be employed in identification through morphological characteristics on full standing culm and the results recorded in the QAM.
Quality control must ensure that only matured bamboo of at least 4 years of age shall be used in construction, preferably after at least 6 weeks after felling. Experienced quality assessors should ensure that solid bamboo culms or culms with thicker walls and closely spaced nodes are selected for structural use. Conversely, the quality assurance control must ensure that any broken, damaged or collapsed bamboo shall be rejected while dead/immature/infected bamboos shall be avoided.
If living bamboo is to be used in the structure, the origin/provenance of the bamboo seeds/seedlings/plantings should be recorded in the QAM together with the species name(s), application/planting rate/density, fertilizer, mulching, soil preparation and maintenance requirements. This must be supported by certificates relating to type, origin, quality and validity of seeds/plants and quality of fertilizers.
Knowing that the natural durability of bamboo is relatively low (12–24 months when used in the open and in contact with the soil but depending on the species and environmental conditions), and its strength decreases rapidly with the onset of fungal decay, suitable treatment (traditional treatments if possible) for preserving bamboo must be applied considering the environmental impact and health aspects of labour and all users of the structure. The samples for testing the effect of preservatives must be cut from treated bamboo for chemical analysis (e.g. a weight of approx. 100 g per 100 kg bamboo treated).
Air-dried bamboo should be used whenever possible in order to ensure it deteriorates more slowly. QC should ensure that, if the bamboo delivered to site is wet, there is an opportunity to dry again before it is applied in the soil bioengineering structure.
Bamboo structure should be designed and constructed by personnel having appropriate skills and experience. Similarly, qualified and experienced personnel should carry out the supervision and quality control during construction. The expertise and skills of the personnel involved must be recorded at an early stage as part of the quality management submission of the contractor and then updated periodically throughout the duration of the project.
Design tasks (e.g. load analysis, calculations, specifications, drawings, detailing) and/or modelling should be carried out as per the existing current standards (see Section 6 above) and the design brief. Here it is acknowledged that traditional experience rather than precise calculations may generally govern the detailing but the experience has to be based on evidence in form of reports on the structural damage to similar structures after they have sustained the severity of earthquakes, hurricanes, etc. as criteria for recommendations by the evaluation by competent engineer/builder with adequate experience in the field. Independent design check should be carried out in accordance with the quality management demands and methods of the client and the contractor.
Laboratory and in situ testing of material properties, structural stability and general performance of the structure should be carried out in accordance with the existing current relevant standards (see Section 6) and design brief [15, 16]. The quality control should ensure that due care is taken to maintain and calibrate the testing equipment on a regular basis and minimize the scatter in the test data by the use of appropriate numerical techniques, a representative number of tests is carried out for determination of each property and that the personnel performing the tests and the analysis of results are suitably qualified and skilled. The records covering the above should be kept as part of the QAM and periodically updated throughout the duration of the project.
The quality control should ensure that the workmanship of the labour force is according to the design and testing assumptions. Regular periodic inspections should be carried out by a designated quality assessor or manager who will record any defects stemming from the workmanship and allow the project manager or site supervisor suitable time to correct them before proceeding. The inspection records should be kept as part of the QAM, with a special emphasis of the following defects when using inert bamboo culms:
Damage caused by bamboo Borer/ghoon beetle (
Crookedness of the bamboo culms in terms of a localized deviation from the straightness in a piece of bamboo.
Discoloration of the bamboo demonstrated as a change from the normal colour of the bamboo which does not impair the strength of bamboo or bamboo composite products.
Collapse of the culm occurring on account of excessive shrinkage, particularly in thick-walled immature bamboo, and causing a reduction in structural strength. This defect is demonstrated as a development of a wide split resulting in a depression on the outer surface of the culm.
Splitting at the end of a bamboo as an effect of drying which occurs both from outer and interior wall surfaces of bamboo as well as the end at the open ends.
Surface cracking demonstrated as fine surface cracks not detrimental to strength which can reduce the structural strength if it occurs at the nodes.
Wrinkles and deformation in cross section, during drying, which occurs in immature round bamboos of most species; in thick-walled pieces, besides this deformation the outer surface becomes uneven and wrinkled. Very often the interior wall can develop a crack below these wrinkles, running parallel to the axis and decreasing the structural strength of the culm
If the engineer has identified a
The client should ensure that the structure will be
The existing standards [30] specify that adequate maintenance is required for the structure without providing definition of adequacy and the quality control procedures associated with it. Knowing that one of the main characteristics of soil bioengineering works is that their full efficiency is only reached once the living plants have rooted and active growth has commenced [39], it is critically important that the maintenance is planned and controlled in order to accelerate the establishment process and shorten the time between construction and reaching full operational capacity. In this respect, the quality control should cover maintenance during the plant establishment phase (recording the percentage of ground cover, application of fertilizers and mulches, survival/failure rate of plantings/seedlings, inspection and acceptance/rejection of all live and inert plant materials), aftercare during the plant establishment phase (replacement of inadequate/dead plant material, fertilization, weeding, cultivation, mulching, irrigation, protection/preservation, staking/tying) and aftercare during development stage (periodic inspections during 2–5 years after construction and, if needed, replacement of any inadequate materials, fertilization, irrigation, ground preparation, mulching, mowing, pruning, staking/tying, pest disease control [14, 40], coppicing and pollarding).
As a result of working with materials possessing relatively large natural variability, the soil bioengineering design with bamboo has to account for some uncertainty. To mitigate against the uncertainties and risks, monitoring will be vital throughout the lifetime of the bamboo-based structure. Current standards do not specify or regulate which monitoring should be conducted as a step-by-step engineering process starting with a definition of objectives and end with application of mitigation measures if warranted by the monitoring data [41]. A monitoring programme should be included in the design and periodically updated as part of the QAM in the project file throughout the duration of the project. The programme should detail the specification of instrumentation and methods for monitoring and should be cross-referenced to the risk assessment register of the project.
The monitoring of a soil bioengineering structure can be carried out in accordance with the existing current guidelines (e.g. [42]) with an addition of monitoring of the bamboo-related parameters critical to the stability and resilience of the structure. Depending on the form of bamboo used (live or inert) in the structure, the monitoring of the following parameters should be adopted as a minimum:
Survival rate and/or percentage ground cover
Height above ground or length of culms
Displacements (horizontal, vertical, tilt) of the bamboo elements and the whole structure
Root spread (horizontal and vertical)
Root density
Moisture content (air and soil)
Temperature
Culm diameter range
Tensile strength of the roots
Suction stress due to the presence of roots
Groundwater levels
Changes in soil organic content
Precipitation
Runoff
Soil loss to erosion
Diameter deterioration and rates of deterioration
A sustainability assessment framework can be used to benchmark the sustainability performance of the bamboo-based soil bioengineering applications for the purpose of monitoring their performance. In this context, an attempt to cover the socioeconomic, environmental and engineering performance of the application can be performed, and the framework can be used as part of the existing QA/QM procedures with a number of KPIs already being measured as part of the other QA processes [43]. The advantage of such a framework would be its use to assess the performance of the application after construction. The graphical output of the assessment makes the framework easier to use also throughout each project stage as a planning and decision-making tool.
The following shows a case study conducted under a research project from the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU) and the Tribhuvan University Kathmandu, Nepal [44].
The research work was focused on field investigations to develop technical standards of soil bioengineering systems. Among other research activities, one site in Kusunti in Kathmandu was selected for the implementation of a bamboo crib wall. A vegetated bamboo crib wall was compared with a conventional slope stabilization method (gabion) by means of different parameters.
At Kusunti site, that half portion of the site was treated with the gabion retaining wall, and the other half with the bamboo crib wall to compare two retaining wall systems from a technical as well as an economic point of view. One layer of gabion retaining wall was constructed for the whole stretch as a base. The total designed height of the wall is 3 m.
The actual construction work at this site was started on November 11, 2006 and ended on November 23, 2006. A supervisor was appointed to control the quality of the work. Students from the Pulchowk Campus and one student from Switzerland (University of Applied Sciences Wädenswil (HsW)) were also directly involved in this work. The before and after construction photographs and the work evolution are shown in Figures 6 and 7, respectively.
Before and after construction photographs, Kusunti, Lalitpur (November 2007) [
The vegetated bamboo crib wall just after construction (November 2006) and after 1 year of construction (Kusunti, Lalitpur, November 2007) [
From the various project activities and critical study and monitoring of project sites, the following general conclusions on the use of bamboo crib walls can be made:
Vegetative crib walls are comparatively cheaper than gabion or stone masonry wall (construction costs only ¼ of gabion and 1/5 of masonry wall) but provide the same technical stability.
Although there is more vertical settlement in the case of vegetative crib wall, compared to gabion/masonry walls, vegetative crib walls have better attachment with the slope.
Vegetative crib walls keep minimum soil moisture, avoid cracks in soil and provide better interception during rainfall.
More stability through increased cohesion and soil reinforcement is provided in the case of vegetative crib walls.
The vegetative crib wall made of wood or bamboo is more suitable (also sustainable and environmentally friendly alternative) for solving slope stability problems or for road embankment protection in Nepal.
The existing accumulated experiences of using bamboo in soil and water bioengineering works, together with the existing standards and design guidelines, make specific bamboo species an essential and cost-effective material for erosion control and slope stabilization works where these species are native.
The integration of the bioengineering particularities at the design stage demands the integration of the plant evolution and the deterioration processes into the bioengineering design scheme. The existing design routines can be adapted for making allowance of the preceding features. The analysis of other works, the accumulated experiences of monitoring and field works and tests (e.g. bamboo root depth, root tensile strength, bamboo culm deterioration processes, bamboo culm mechanical testing, etc.) will support the specialization process for this type of interventions in the future.
Signal propagation underground and in soil medium constitute the backbone of the Internet of underground things (IoUT), which power many applications such as precision agriculture, border monitoring for intrusion detection, pipeline monitoring, etc. [1, 2, 3]. In the recent past, the study of signal propagation in soil medium for underground wireless communication has focused mainly on empirical techniques [4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. The most commonly used modeling techniques for implementing IoUT include electromagnetic waves, magnetic induction, and acoustic waves [9, 10]. Electromagnetic field analysis is performed in this chapter using numerical modeling with the finite element method to examine the signal strength in the soil medium.
The process of numerical modeling of how electromagnetic fields propagate and interact with physical objects and the environment is usually referred to as computational electromagnetics (CEM), numerical electromagnetics. The primary motivation of this process is to develop efficient approximations to Maxwell’s equations through numerical schemes for cases where closed-form analytical solutions of Maxwell’s equation cannot be obtained due to the complexity of geometries, material parameters, and boundary conditions. Therefore, several real-life problems that are not analytically computable, such as electromagnetic scattering, antenna radiation, electromagnetic wave propagation, electromagnetic compatibility, etc., can effectively be solved by numerical techniques. The mathematical model of the electromagnetic problem is usually obtained in terms of partial differential equations, integral equations, or integro-differential equations derived from Maxwell’s equations and a set of a priori constraints of the problem such as boundary and initial conditions material parameters and geometry. The problem is ideally defined on an infinite-dimensional function space. Numerical methods apply a discretization to the continuum to reduce infinite degrees of freedom to a finite degree of freedom. In other words, the solution of an infinite dimension-dimensional problem is projected into a finite-dimensional space. Hence, the solution to the problem becomes amenable on a digital computer. The main philosophy in most of the numerical methods is to apply the divide-and-conquer strategy. The idea is to divide an intractable continuous problem into smaller pieces (divide), express the solution over each small piece (conquer), and then combine the piecewise solutions to obtain a global solution. In this chapter, FEM will be applied to the two-dimensional boundary value problem in EM wave propagation through the soil to evaluate the signal strength of the wave propagation in soil. This evaluation will be based on the incidence angle of the transmitted wave. The radar cross-section of the scatterer will be used to evaluate the direction of the wave.
When deriving the wave equation for electromagnetic wave propagation through a vacuum or a dielectric medium such as soil or pure water, the free charge density
Apply the curl to (iii) and (iv), and we obtain modified wave equations for the electric field
where
where
where
The weak form is used to provide the finite element solution. The weak form is written as [12, 13, 14].
where
The weak form is applied in each element domain, and element matrices are formed by expressing the unknown function as a weighted sum of nodal shape functions. The sum of line integrals of two neighboring elements cancels out while combining the element matrices. Therefore, the line integral can be omitted for interior elements and should be considered only for elements adjacent to the boundary. Due to its special form, the line integral makes easier the imposition of mixed types of BCs. The mesh generation will be discussed first, and the shape functions will be given, and then the finite element solution of the time-harmonic problem of electromagnetic scattering in a dielectric medium (soil) will be presented.
In 2-D, the geometry and boundary conditions do not vary along an axis (say the z-axis). Hence fields can be represented as a superposition of fields of two orthogonal polarizations using the linearity property. Any field can be decomposed into transverse magnetic (TM) and transverse electric (TE) parts for the z-variable. In the TM case (horizontal polarization), only the z-component of the electric field
The material tensors in this case are defined as
The generalized homogeneous Helmholtz equation in TM and TE case can be written, respectively, in the following forms [15].
Where
Where the superscript T indicates the transpose and
Or
The same way Eq. (11) becomes
Or
In [16], a new wave number model is proposed with the combination of the Peplinski principle and multiple scattering from particles in the soil medium. The new wave number is used in the computation of the path loss. In another recent work, sensitivity analysis of the Ku-band scattering coefficient to soil moisture was performed under single-polarized, dual-polarized, and dual-angular combinations [17]. Similarly, a model of parabolic equations for reflection and refraction in an environment with an obstacle where the area is decomposed into two different domains. The discrete mixed Fourier transformation is used to compute the field strength in the upper subdomain, and the finite difference method is used to calculate the field strength in the lower subdomain [18].
In our case, an infinitely large dielectric object of an arbitrary cross-section is considered and illuminated by an incident wave that is not a function of z. An illustration of the scattering problem for TM mode is shown in Figure 1 where a general FEM is depicted. The problem is defined in TE mode by replacing the electric field with a magnetic field.
Electromagnetic scattering in soil: FEM modeling with PML.
Since the domain extends to infinity, an artificial boundary or layer is used to truncate the computational domain. That is an absorbing boundary condition (ABC) or perfectly matched layer (PML) [15].
Locally-Conformal PML (LC-PML) is a powerful PML method whose implementation is straightforward. It is implemented by replacing the real coordinates
Mesh generation is the process of representing the domain of interest as a collection of elements. The two most commonly used elements in 2-D problems are triangular and quadrilateral. Figure 2 shows the mesh that is formed by triangular elements for a rectangular domain of the boundary value problem (BVP). The figure was generated in MATLAB.
Mesh formed by triangular elements for the rectangular domain of the BVP.
For a computational domain with such curved boundaries, discretization errors will occur due to the inability to capture the exact geometry of the domain. Triangular elements are preferred due to their simplicity and the possibility of developing algorithms for automatic triangulation for a computational domain such as Delaunay triangulation [19, 20]. Although fewer elements are needed when quadrilateral elements are used, Triangular elements are well-suited for complex geometries and cause fewer numerical dispersion errors. Furthermore, the calculation of element matrices is easier in triangular elements. Discretization error might inevitably occur unless sufficient mesh density is used. This happens regardless of whether triangular or quadrilateral elements are used for meshing. One way to overcome this problem is to refine the mesh. Mesh refinement might be needed especially if the geometry has a curved boundary or some corners, sharp edges, small features, or discontinuities. This might be important especially if linear interpolation functions are used. Another approach that increases accuracy is to use high-order elements at the expense of increased computational load. To achieve this, we use extra nodes within an element and use high-order interpolation functions. Figure 3 shows a simple mesh with six linear triangular elements having eight nodes. Local node numbers must follow the anticlockwise orientation in all elements to guarantee that the area of each element is obtained as a positive quantity. During the mesh generation, certain data arrays must be created [19].
Mesh of a 2-D domain using linear triangular elements.
An element connectivity matrix of size Mx3, where M is the number of elements vectors of node coordinates (
Element ( | Node 1 | Node 2 | Node 3 |
---|---|---|---|
1 | 1 | 2 | 8 |
2 | 2 | 3 | 8 |
3 | 3 | 7 | 8 |
4 | 3 | 4 | 7 |
5 | 4 | 6 | 7 |
6 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
Structure of element connectivity for triangular mesh.
The Delaunay function is used to create the connectivity matrix and automatically enumerates the nodes. The triangular mesh is generated for a rectangular domain. The element size (els) =
Triangular mesh generated with
Fields in the presence of the scatterer can be decomposed into two parts:
The first one is the incident field which is produced without the scatterer and
The second one is the scattered field produced by an equal amount of current induced on the scatterer or the surface enclosing the scatterer.
We first assume the TM polarization case, where the incident field
Where the source term is given by
This differential equation is a special form of Eq. (4a), where
The incident field can be arbitrary and usually chosen as a uniform plane wave since the incident field sources are sufficiently far away from the object. The incident field with the unit magnitude is given by
where
Similar calculations can be performed in TE polarization mode by replacing the electric field with the magnetic field and permittivity with permeability. Hence, the differential equation in terms of the scattered magnetic field is given by
Where the source term is given by
This differential equation is a special form of Eq. (4a), where
For dielectric objects, the right-hand side of the matrix equation can be obtained by using the source term
The radar cross-section (RCS) of the scatterer is perhaps the most critical parameter that must be evaluated in the post-processing phase of FEM for the electromagnetic scattering problem [9]. RCS is the reflection of the scattering electromagnetic ware at an incident angle in a particular direction. In other words, it is the area capturing that amount of scattered power produced at the receiver in an isotropic medium. This is a density that is equal to that scattered by the actual target. It is a function of several parameters, such as operation frequency, polarization, illumination angle, observation angle, geometry, and material properties of the object. In 2-D, it is mathematically defined as
Where
If the incident and observation directions are the same, the RCS is called monostatic or backscatter RCS; otherwise, it is referred to as bistatic RCS. In 2-D, RCS is usually normalized for
For each such element, the far-zone field is computed and then superposed over all elements, as follows:
where
Since FEM is formulated in terms of the scattered electric field, computation of the derivatives of the scattered field requires additional effort. This can simply be achieved by using the weighted sum of derivatives of shape functions in terms of nodal scattered fields.
For the dielectric object, the TM case, the interior part of the object should be included. Since the magnetic current density becomes nonzero, the integral containing the magnetic current density should be evaluated. The magnetic current density has
Finally, the scattered electric field can be obtained as follows:
Here,
For dielectric object, TE case: The magnetic current density is nonzero and has only
The operating frequency used in the simulation is 300 MHz, and the free-space wavelength is
Figure 5 shows scattering from a dielectric medium for TE mode, with sandy soil characteristics. In (a) and (b), the scattered and total fields are shown respectively. We observe a minimal electric field scattering and an intense total electric field inside the dielectric medium of sandy soil. This is because this medium is porous and allows for better signal propagation.
Scattering from a dielectric medium (Sandy soil): (a) scattered field (TE) (b) Total field (TE).
Figure 6 shows scattering from a dielectric medium for TM mode, with sandy soil characteristics. In this case, we observe a minimal magnetic field scattering in (a) and an intense total magnetic field in (b) inside the dielectric medium of sandy soil.
Scattering from a dielectric medium (Sandy soil): (a) scattered field (TM) (b) Total field (TM).
Figure 7 shows scattering from a dielectric medium for TE mode, with loamy soil characteristics. In (a) and (b), the scattered and total fields are shown respectively. We observe an intense electric field scattering and a minimal total electric field inside the dielectric medium of loamy soil. This is because this medium is less porous and presents some challenges in signal propagation.
Scattering from a dielectric medium (loamy soil): (a) scattered field (TE) (b) Total field (TE).
Similarly, Figure 8 shows scattering from a dielectric medium for TM mode, with loamy soil characteristics. In this case, we observe a high magnetic field scattering in (a) and a low total magnetic field in (b) inside the dielectric medium of loamy soil.
Scattering from a dielectric medium (loamy soil): (a) scattered field (TM) (b) Total field (TM).
Figure 9 shows scattering from a dielectric medium for TE mode, with clay soil characteristics. In (a) and (b), the scattered and total fields are shown respectively. We observe very high electric field scattering and a low total electric field inside the dielectric medium of clay soil. This is because this medium is non-porous and presents a very poor signal propagation.
Scattering from a dielectric medium (clay soil): (a) scattered field (TE) (b) Total field (TE).
Similarly, Figure 10 shows scattering from a dielectric medium for TM mode, with clay soil characteristics. In this case, we observe a very high magnetic field scattering in (a) and a low total magnetic field in (b) inside the dielectric medium of clay soil.
Scattering from a dielectric medium (clay soil): (a) scattered field (TM) (b) Total field (TM).
Figures 11–13 show the bistatic RCS profiles to describe how scatterers reflect the incident electromagnetic wave in a given direction. This is the area intercepting that amount of power which, when scattered in the soil medium, produces at the receiver a density which is equal to that scattered by the actual target. The RCS is a function of several parameters, such as operation frequency, polarization, illumination angle, observation angle, geometry, and properties of the soil medium. It is shown in the TE modes (a) and TM modes (b) for sandy soil, loamy soil, and clay soil, respectively.
Radar cross section in Sandy soil for (a) TE mode and (b) TM mode.
Radar cross section in loam soil for (a) TE mode and (b) TM mode.
Radar cross section in clay soil for (a) TE mode and (b) TM mode.
In a two-Dimensional Finite Element Analysis of EM wave Propagation through the soil, a boundary value problem (BVP) used to solve the time-harmonic electromagnetic problem in 2-D, has been expressed in its generic form. In TM and TE cases, the Helmholtz model has considered an infinitely large dielectric object of an arbitrary cross-section for scattering from a dielectric medium and illuminated by an incident wave. Since the domain extends to infinity, an artificial boundary, an absorbing boundary condition (ABC), or a perfectly matched layer (PML), has been used to truncate the computational domain. The incident field, the scattered field, and the total field in terms of the z-component are expressed for the TM and TE modes. The radar cross-section (RCS), a function of several parameters, such as operation frequency, polarization, illumination angle, observation angle, geometry, and material properties of the medium, has been computed to describe how a scatterer reflects an incident electromagnetic wave in a given direction. Simulation results for the scattered field, the total field, have been presented for soil types, and the radar cross-section for different element refinements have also been presented.
IntechOpen publishes different types of publications
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\n\nREVIEW CHAPTER – A review chapter analyzes or examines research previously published by other scientists, rather than reporting new findings thus summarizing the current state of understanding on a topic.
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A smart city is one of the burning topics of research. Although there is no particular definition of a smart city, it means smart grid, e-health, e-environmental monitoring, smart home, smart water quality, smart air quality, etc. integrated into a single application. Human civilization can’t be sustained and prosper with shortage of usable water. Hence, water has a vital share in human life even for those living in smart cities. This chapter describes about the smart water quality issues in a smart city and some of the research advances in handling those issues. 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Although the profile of world fairs is reduced and does not have the international impacts that they used to have, Shanghai Expo 2010, the first Expo ever held in a developing country is pinned hope on as the “Turn to Save the World Expo” and is unusually ambitious to bring opportunities in urban transformation. While much attention has been paid to how mega-events can be used in tourism development in previous literature, this research links mega-event to urban development. Specifically, it reviews planning history before Expo 2010, addresses how a mega-event is integrated into city’s overall transformation strategy and what possible challenges a mega-event strategy may encounter related to the ultimate goal of urban transformation. 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Transportation networks have attracted particular attention in recent years, due to efforts to incorporate “green” options, enabling positive lifestyle choices such as walking or cycling commutes. In this chapter we explore the pedestrian viewpoint, aids to familiarity with and ease of navigation in the urban environment, and the impact of novel modes of individual transport (as options such as smart urban bicycles and electric scooters increasingly become the norm). We discuss principal factors influencing rapid transit to daily and leisure destinations, such as schools, offices, parks, and entertainment venues, but also those which facilitate rapid evacuation and movement of large crowds from these locations, characterized by high occupation density or throughput. 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The province itself includes the Johannesburg metropolitan city, Ekurhuleni metropolitan city as well as Tshwane municipality—key urban growth regions of Gauteng province, South Africa, and by extension Southern Africa. The region exhibits the rapid urbanisation challenges typical in any developing country city. Rural–urban migration, pressure on infrastructure demand, supply and capacity constraints and mismatches in urban governance structures with respect to service delivery have remained stubborn challenges. Initiatives and strategies to resolve urban traffic congestion such as through road construction and highway expansion (physical instrument), e-tolling of roads (financial instrument), innovative housing and waste management technology deployment (technology instruments) as well as presenting advanced spatial planning and development and management systems (planning and regulatory instruments) have been employed with mixed fortunes in attempts to (re)solve the urban problems in the study area. Making use of a thematic approach and technique, the major urbanisation issues are explored and solutions proffered. Recommendations revolve around the need to implement robust and progressive rafts of projects, programmes, activities, measures and actions to reverse spatial fragmentation and spatially inefficient transport induced and perpetuated disadvantages.",book:{id:"7470",slug:"an-overview-of-urban-and-regional-planning",title:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning",fullTitle:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning"},signatures:"James Chakwizira, Peter Bikam and Thompson A. Adeboyejo",authors:[{id:"250792",title:"Dr.",name:"James",middleName:null,surname:"Chakwizira",slug:"james-chakwizira",fullName:"James Chakwizira"},{id:"265387",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Bikam",slug:"peter-bikam",fullName:"Peter Bikam"},{id:"265388",title:"Prof.",name:"Thompson A",middleName:null,surname:"Adeboyejo",slug:"thompson-a-adeboyejo",fullName:"Thompson A Adeboyejo"}]},{id:"62114",title:"Urban Noise as an Environmental Impact Factor in the Urban Planning Process",slug:"urban-noise-as-an-environmental-impact-factor-in-the-urban-planning-process",totalDownloads:1431,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This research focuses on an analysis of the perception of urban noise in the daily lives of the residents of two different areas: (1) a residential neighborhood and (2) a city center, respectively, considering (1) an acoustically ideal urban environment and (2) an acoustically polluted urban environment. To this end, a random sample of individuals from both areas was asked to fill out a questionnaire. Sound pressure levels were also measured in each of the evaluated areas. The World Health Organization (WHO) considers a quiet area as one in which the measured sound pressure level is up to 55 dB(A). The average measured sound pressure levels were 53.5 and 72.9 dB(A), respectively, in the quiet area and in the area considered acoustically polluted. Data were subjected to a multivariate factor analysis. The main complaints reported by the interviewees were as follows: headache, irritability, poor concentration and insomnia. Interviewees in the city center stated that street traffic noise was the main source of annoyance, while the residents of the residential area stated that the main source of discomfort was air traffic noise.",book:{id:"7470",slug:"an-overview-of-urban-and-regional-planning",title:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning",fullTitle:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning"},signatures:"Elaine Carvalho da Paz, Thomas Jeferson Vieira and Paulo Henrique Trombetta Zannin",authors:[{id:"66572",title:"Prof.",name:"Paulo Henrique Trombetta",middleName:null,surname:"Zannin",slug:"paulo-henrique-trombetta-zannin",fullName:"Paulo Henrique Trombetta Zannin"},{id:"257807",title:"MSc.",name:"Elaine Carvalho",middleName:null,surname:"Da Paz",slug:"elaine-carvalho-da-paz",fullName:"Elaine Carvalho Da Paz"},{id:"257814",title:"Mrs.",name:"Thomas Jeferson",middleName:null,surname:"Vieira",slug:"thomas-jeferson-vieira",fullName:"Thomas Jeferson Vieira"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"477",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. 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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. 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Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. 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His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"81644",title:"Perspective Chapter: Ethics of Using Placebo Controlled Trials for Covid-19 Vaccine Development in Vulnerable Populations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104776",signatures:"Lesley Burgess, Jurie Jordaan and Matthew Wilson",slug:"perspective-chapter-ethics-of-using-placebo-controlled-trials-for-covid-19-vaccine-development-in-vu",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"SARS-CoV-2 Variants - Two Years After",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11573.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"80546",title:"Streptococcal Skin and Skin-Structure Infections",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102894",signatures:"Alwyn Rapose",slug:"streptococcal-skin-and-skin-structure-infections",totalDownloads:48,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6667",title:"Influenza",subtitle:"Therapeutics and Challenges",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6667.jpg",slug:"influenza-therapeutics-and-challenges",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. 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Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. 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He obtained a Master’s degree in Public Health and PhD in Public Health and Epidemiology. He has a background in Clinical Medicine and has taken courses at higher diploma levels in public health from University of Transkei, Republic of South Africa, and African Medical and Research Foundation (AMREF) in Nairobi, Kenya. Dr. Kasenga worked in different places in and outside Malawi, and has held various positions, such as Licensed Medical Officer, HIV/AIDS Programme Officer, HIV/AIDS resource person in the International Department of Diakonhjemet College, Oslo, Norway. He also managed an Integrated HIV/AIDS Prevention programme for over 5 years. He is currently working as a Director for the Health Ministries Department of Malawi Union of the Seventh Day Adventist Church. Dr. Kasenga has published over 5 articles on HIV/AIDS issues focusing on Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT), including a book chapter on HIV testing counseling (currently in press). 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His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"26",type:"subseries",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. 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Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. 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It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 15th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/118155",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"118155"},fullPath:"/profiles/118155",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()